1.

1 MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also
define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. Dictionary definition
of research is a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts
in any branch of knowledge. Some people consider research as a movement from
the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the
vital instinct of inguisitiveness. When the unknown confronts us. more and more our
inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain understanding of the unknown. This
inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which one employs for
obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown can be termed as research.

Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical
sense.
According to Clifford Woody, research comprises defining and redefining problems.
Formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions: collecting, organising and evaluating
data: making deductions and reaching conclusions: and at last, carefully testing the
conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger
and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research as "the
manipulation of things. concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to
extend. correct or verify knowledge. whether that knowledge aids in construction of
theory or in the practice of an art." Research is, thus, an original contribution to the
existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with
the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for
knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem
research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the formulation of
a theory is also research. As such the term 'research' refers to the systematic method
consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts
or data, analysing the fact and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of
solution(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalisations for some
theoretical formulation.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth
which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research
study has its own specific purpose, we mention some general objectives of research
below:
（i) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies
with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies):
（ii) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies):
（iii) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies):
（iv) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
1.3 TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
（i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and
business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive
research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no
control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is
happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in
which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of
shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include
attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the
variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey
methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. In analytical
research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
（ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation. whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the
formulation of a theory. Gathering knowledge for knowledge's sake is termed
fundamental research. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to
pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies,
concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about
human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research.
However, research aimed at certain conclusions facing a concrete social or business
problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or
political trends that may affect a particular institution, marketing research, evaluation
research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research
is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problems, whereas basic
research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications
and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the quantitative
measurements of some characteristics. It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantities. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is
concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for
human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of
'Motivation Research'. an important type of qualitative research. This type of research
aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires using in depth interviews for
the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence
completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion research í.e., research designed to find out how people feel or
what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim
is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we
can analyse the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular
manner or which make people like or dislike i particular thing. It may be stated,
however, that to apply for qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job
and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from
experimental psychologist.
（iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract
idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies
on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory.
It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of
research. In such a research, it is necessary to get facts at firsthand, at their source,
and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired
information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a
working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough
facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental
designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as
to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterized by the
experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation
of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is
sought that experimenter's control over the variables under study and his deliberate
manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate
when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way.
Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies are considered to be the
most powerful support possible for testing a given hypothesis.

(v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of
one or more of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of
research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which
research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factors. Form the point of view
of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal research.
In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the
latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be
field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon
the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood
as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-study methods or
indepth approaches to reach the basic casual relations. Such studies usually go deep
into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and
very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or it may
be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of
hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those
with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical
research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to
study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at
any remote point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and
decision-oriented. While doing conclusion-oriented research, a researcher is free to
pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to
conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a
decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research
according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision
oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments.
of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive
departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their
control.

1.4 RESEARCH APPROACHES

The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are
two basic approaches to research, viz ., quantitative approach and the qualitative
approach. The former involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can
be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This
approach can be further sub-classified into inferential, experimental and simulation
approaches to research. The purpose of inferential approach is to form a data base
to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey
research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to
determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same
characteristics. Experimental approach is characterised by much greater control over
the research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to
observe their effect on other variables. Simulation approach involves the construction
of an artificial environment within which relevant information and data can be
generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its
sub-system) under controlled conditions. The term 'simulation' in the context of
business and social sciences applications refers to "the operation of a numerical
model that represents the structure of a dynamic process. Given the values of initial
conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the
behaviour of the process over time."5 Simulation approach can also be useful in
building models for understanding future conditions.

Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of

attitudes, opinions and behaviour. Research in such a situation is a function of
researcher's insights and impressions. Such an approach to research generates
results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which is not subjected to rigorous
quantitative and analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews,
projective techniques and depth interviews are used. All these are explained at length
in chapters that follow.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

"All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads
to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention" is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of
which the significance of research can well be understood. Increased amounts of
research make progress possible. Research inculcates scientific and inductive
thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and
organisation.

The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to

business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The
increasingly complex nature of business and governance has focused attention on
the use of research in solving operational problems. Research, as an aid to economic
policy, has gained added importance, both for governance and business.

Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic
system. For instance, government's budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs
and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet those needs.
The cost of needs has to be equated to probable revenues and this is a field where
research is most needed. Through research, we can device alternative devise
alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these
alternatives. Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly
facilitates the decisions of the policy maker. Government has to chalk out
programmes for dealing with all facets of the country's various operations and most of
these are related directly or indirectly to economic conditions. The plight of
cultivators, the problems of big and small business and industry, working conditions,
trade union activities, the problems of distribution, even the size and nature of
defense services are matters requiring research. Thus, research is considered
necessary with regard to the allocation of nation's resources. Another area in
government, where research is necessary, is collecting information on the economic
and social structure of the nation. Such information indicates what is happening in the
economy and what changes are taking place. Collecting such statistical information is
by no means a routine task, but it involves a variety of research problems. These
days nearly all governments maintain large staff of research technicians or experts to
carry on this work. Thus, in the context of government, research as a tool to
economic policy has three distinct phases of operation, viz ., (i) investigation of
economic structure through continual compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events that
are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying them; and (iii) the
prognosis, i.e ., the prediction of future developments.

Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry. Operations research and market research, along
with motivational research, are considered crucial and their results assist, in more
than one way, in taking business decisions. Market research is the investigation of
the structure and development of a market for the purpose of formulating efficient
policies for purchasing, production and sales. Operations research refers to the
application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution of
business problems of cost minimisation or of profit maximisation or what can be
termed as optimisation problems. Motivational research of determining why people
behave as they do is mainly concerned with market characteristics.
In other words, it is concerned with the determination of motivations underlying the
consumer (market) behaviour. All these are of great help to people in business and
industry who are responsible for taking business decisions. Research with regard to
demand and market factors has great utility in business. Given knowledge of future
demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm, or for an industry to adjust its supply
schedule within the limits of its projected capacity. Market analysis has become an
integral tool of business policy these days. Business budgeting, which ultimately
results in a projected profit and loss account, is based mainly on sales estimates
which in turn depends on business research. Once sales forecasting is done, efficient
production and investment programmes can be set up around which are grouped as
the purchasing and financing plans. Research, thus, replaces intuitive business
decisions by more logical and scientific decisions.

Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and
in seeking answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction
of knowing a few things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility
for the social scientist to know for the sake of being able to do something better or in
a more efficient manner. Research in social sciences is concerned with
(i) the development of a body of principles that helps in understanding the whole
range of human interactions, and
(ii) (ii) the practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human relations.

In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can
also be understood keeping in view the following points:

(a) To those students who are to write a master's or Ph.D. thesis, research
may mean careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of
livelihood;
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas
and insights;
(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new
styles and creative work; and
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the development of new
theories.

Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and
an important source of providing guidelines for solving different business,
governmental and social problems. It is a sort of formal training which
enables one to understand the new developments in one's field in a better
way.

1.6 RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS METHODOLOGY

It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between

research methods and research methodology. Research methods may be
understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of
research. Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the methods the
researchers use in performing research operations. In other words, all
those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of
studying his research problem are termed as research methods. Since the
object of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a solution
for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the
problem have to be related to each other to make a solution possible.
Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three
groups:

1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with
the collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already
available is not sufficient to arrive at the required solution;

The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used
for establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;

The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the
accuracy of the results obtained.

Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally
taken as the analytical tools of research.

At times, a distinction is also made between research techniques and

research methods. Research techniques refer to the behaviour and
instruments we use in performing research operations such as making
 observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the like.
Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used in selecting
and constructing research technique. For instance, the difference between
methods and techniques of data collection can better be understood from
the details given in the following chart:

Type Methods Techniques

1. Library (i) Analysis of historical Research records Recording of notes, Content analysis, Tape and
Research Film listening and analysis.

Statistical compilations and manipulations,

(ii) Analysis of documents reference and abstract guides, contents analysis.

Observational behavioural scales, use of score

2. Field (i) Non-participant direct cards, etc.
Research
Interactional recording, possible use of tape
(ii) Participant observation recorders, photographic techniques.

Recording mass behaviour, interview using

(iii) Mass observation independent observers in public places.

Identification of social and economic background of

(iv) Mail questionnaire respondents.

Use of attitude scales, projective techniques, use of

(v) Opinionnaire socio-metric scales.

Interviewer uses a detailed schedule with open and

(vi) Personal interview closed questions.

Interviewer focuses attention upon a given

(vii) Focused interview experience and its effects.

Small groups of respondents are interviewed

(viii) Group interview simultaneously.

Used as a survey technique for information and for

(ix) Telephone survey discerning opinion; may also be used as a follow
up of questionnaire.

Cross-sectional collection of data for intensive

(x) Case study and life history analysis, longitudinal collection of data of intensive
character.

Use of audio-visual recording devices, use of

3. Laboratory Small group study of random behavior, play and role observers, etc.
Research analysis
From what has been stated above, we can say that methods are more
general. It is the method that generate techniques. However, in practice, the
two terms are taken as interchangeable and when we talk of research
methods we do, by implication, include research techniques within their
compass.

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.

It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done
scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a
researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them.
It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research
methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to
know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the
mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply
particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these
methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they
mean and indicate. Researchers also need to
 Republic of the Philippines
PRESIDENT RAMON MAGSAYSAY STATE UNIVERSITY
Naulo, Sta. Cruz, Zambales

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Guidelines in Thesis Writing

RESEARCH PROCESS
PROCESS 1. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION, DEFINITION

WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM

Anything which gives a person a feeling of discomfort. A

state of affairs that needs to be changed.
Conditions that need to improve.
Difficulties that need to eliminate.
Questions for which they want answers.
Information gaps they wish to fill.
Theories they wish to validate.
Issues that should be settled.

⚫ CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PROBLEM

1. A research problem must be relevant

2. A research problem must be feasible
3. A research problem must be clear
 4. A research problem must be ethical
5. Possess the acronym:
S – Specific
M-Measurable
A- Achievable or Attainable R-
Realistic
T – Time Bound E
– Enjoyable R –
Rewarding

IDENTIFYING RESEARCH PROBLEM

In doing research, first identify and clearly define the problem to be studied. Initially, a research
problem is stated in a form of question, which serves as the focus of the investigation.

EXAMPLES OF POSSIBLE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What problems do children of separated parents encounter and how to the children cope with
these problems?

2. Does the students’ use of the internet affect their academic performance?

3. Do mothers who have attended education classes have better health care management than those
who have not?
CONDITIONS FOR A RESEARCHABLE PROBLEM

1. There is a perceived discrepancy between what is and what should be.

2. There are two or more plausible reasons for the discrepancy.

Situational Analysis:

Despite of free tuition, many high school students in the public school in Maguindanao
Province have dropped out. Records shows that more than 30% have already dropped out
before the middle of the school year.

⚫ What is? What should be?

30% student have dropped out for school

Students are expected to finish high school because of free tuition fees.

⚫ Discrepancy

On the contrary, big numbers of student have dropped out from school.

⚫ Research Question:

⚫ Why do students drop out? What factors contribute to their high dropout rate?

⚫ Possible Answers:

⚫ If because of financial, distance of houses from school lack of interest, poor health, family
problems

⚫ Comments

⚫ Since there are number of possible reasons, the problem is researchable. Research can
determine the existence and extent of relationship between the identified possible factors and
the students’ decision to drop out of school or to stay. Furthermore, research can determine the
relative contribution of each factor in the student decision to drop out.

Case # 2.

* There are many management styles noted to be effective in leadership and supervision. Yet, many
resulted to organizational chaos and dissensions among members.

What is? The organizational members should live and work harmoniously. Discrepancy: Many

resulted to stress, death, early work separation, filing of legal cases. Formulate Research

Questions:

1. What kind of management styles is to be effective within the organization?

Possible Answers:

1. Democratic
2. Autocratic
3. Management by Libro or by the Book
4. Management by Ear or Oido
5. Management by Ugnayan or Relationship

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6. Management by Takutan or Force/Intimidation
7. Management by Hardwork or Kayod

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 2. How is the perception towards work satisfaction in relation to the management style be
describe?

⚫ Problem Definition

It explains the existence and seriousness of the problem. The definition shows evidence
that proves the problem really exists, that it is serious, and or widespread. It identifies the
elements of a broader problem that are to be the focus of the research activities.

⚫ In defining a research problem, the following questions are usually answered

⚫ 1. Does the problem really exist? What are the evidences of the problems' existence?

⚫ Is the problem serious? Who and how many are affected by it?

⚫ What places are affected? How widespread is it?

⚫ How often does the problem occur?

Problem Definition

⚫ In defining a research problem. It is important to present a valid justification for the conduct of
the study. The problem definition must show that answers to the research question are not yet
clear or available. To do so, the definition should present relevant data from service statistics
and related literature.

The things to remember can help investigator determine the problem

⚫ 1. What answers or solution have been found/tried in the past to solve the problem and how
successful they were; and

⚫ 2. What questions still remain unanswered and what aspects of the problem need to be studied
further.

PROCESS 2. PLANNING THE RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design is the master plan specifying the methods and procedure for collecting and
analyzing the needed information. It is a framework of the research plan of action based form the
objectives of the study. It must also determine the source of information, design techniques (survey or
experiment), the sampling methodology, and the schedule and cost of the research.

PROCESS 3. SAMPLING

Although the sampling plan is included in the research design, the actual sampling is a separate
stage of the research process. Sampling involves procedures that use a small number of items or that
use parts of the population to make conclusions regarding the whole population. Sample is a subset
from a large population. If certain statistical procedures are followed, it is unnecessary to select every
item in a population because the results of a good sample should have the same characteristics as the
population of the whole.

There are 2 (two) basic sampling techniques: (1) probability sample is defined as a sample in
which every members of the population has known, non-zero probability of selection,
(2) if sample units are selected on the basis of personal judgment, this is called sample method of a
non-probability sample. Simple random, stratified, quota, cluster and judgmental samples are some of
the many types of sample may be drawn.

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PROCESS 4. DATA COLLECTION

Once the research design has been formulated, the process of gathering information from the
respondents may begin.

Techniques:

1. Survey method
2. Unobtrusive method.

Two (2) phases

1. Pre-testing (Validation of the Instrument). Tabulation of the data from the pre-tests
provides the researcher with a format of knowledge that may be gained from actual study. If
the tabulation of the data and statistical tests do not answer the researcher’s questions,
this may lead the investigator to redesign the study.

2. Final Distribution.

PROCESS 5. DATA PROCESSING AND DATA ANALYSIS

After the field work has been completed, the data must be converted into a format that will
answer the decision maker’s questions. Data processing generally beings with the editing and coding of
the data. Editing involves checking the data collection forms of omission, legibility, and consistency in
classification. The editing process, corrects problems like interviewer questioned errors, e.g. and
answers recorded on the wrong portion of a questionnaire before the data are transferred to a
computer or readied for tabulation.

Analysis is the application of logic to understand and interpret the data that have been collected
about a subject. The appropriate analytical techniques for data will be determined by the researcher’s
information requirements, the characteristics of the research design, and the nature of the data
collected. Statistical analysis may range from portraying a simple frequency distribution to very complex
multivariate analysis, such as multiple regressions.

PROCESS 6. CONCLUSIONS AND REPORT PRESENTATION

The final stage in the research process is to interpret the information and make conclusion for
the decisions.

ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. Aim , objectives, targets, or purposes of the problem for investigation. This answers the
question “WHY? Why is there an investigation, inquiry or study?
2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. This answers the questions “What ? What
is to be investigated or studied?
3. The place or locale where the research is to be conducted. This answers the
questions “WHERE?” Where is to be investigated?
4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered. This
answers the questions “WHEN?” When is the study to be carried out?
5. Population or universe form whom the data are to be collected. This answers the
questions “WHO?” or From Whom? Who are the respondents?

SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

1. Actual problems encountered.

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2. Technological changes and curricular developments
3. The graduate academic experience
4. Consultation

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 5. Analysis of an area of knowledge
6. Consideration of existing practices and needs
7. Repetition or extension of investigation.
8. Off-shoots of studies underway.

Variable – It is a quantity or a characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values or
properties of objects or people that can be classified, measured or labelled in different ways.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIABLES

1. It is an observable characteristic of a person or objects being studied

2. It is capable of assuming several values representing a certain category
3. There are raw data or figures gathered by a researcher for statistical purposes
4. They are values that may arise form counting and or from measurement.
5. They are the predicted values of one variable on the basis of another.

TYPES OF VARIABLES

1. DISCRETE VARIABLE. It is one that can take on only a finite or potentially

countable set of values.
Ex. Number of students in the college, school

Number of people living in the city, barangay or province

Number of children in the family.
Number of automobiles registered.

2. CONTINOUS VARIABLES. It is one that can take on an infinite set of values between
any two levels of the variables. They are the result of measurement.

1. Age
2. Psychological variables. (Anxiety, intelligence, emotional quotient)
3. Performance

3. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE. This is the stimulus variable which is chosen by the researcher to
determine the relationship to an observed phenomena. This is called the cause, object and
variate of the investigation. This may be an observed event, factor that is expected to affect
another variable.

4. DEPENDENT VARIABLE. This is the responses variable , which is observed an measured to

determine the effect of the independent variable. This is sometimes called the effect,
results, criterion in the study. It is the observed event, factor that is expected to be affected
by the independent variable.

5. MODERATE VARIABLE. This is secondary or special type of independent variable chosen by

the researcher to ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationship between the IV and DV.

A researcher wants to determine the effects of the IV(F) on the DV(M), but
suspects that a third factor (O), alters or modifies the relationship between F and M;
then O is considered the moderate variable.

6. CONTROL VARIABLE. This is a variable controlled by the researcher in which the effect can
be neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable.

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Example: A researcher wished to determine the effects of X (IV) on Y (DV). He may control Z
(control variable) because he cannot do many variables simultaneously. In

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 other words, he may remove or eliminate Z to neutralize the effects. Control Variable will
guarantee that he will not have a moderately effect on the relationship between X and Y.

7. INTERVENING VARIABLE. This is a variable which interferes with the IV and DV, but its
effects can either strengthen or weaken the IV and DV . This is an observed event or factor
that is expected to affect possibly the relation between the IV and DV variable.

Example: The effect of NEAT percentile rank on achievement. NEAT % rank is IV and
Achievement is the DV, but it is possible that age, gender, socio economic, values and
attitudes towards the study be an intervening variable that might have an effect on
achievement.

IV Intervening DV
Age, Gender, Civil
Educational Status, Experience Performance
Qualification Socio-Economic

IV Intervening DV
Age, Gender, Civil Status,
Experience Socio-
NEAT % RANK Economic Attitude Achievement
towards Study

Independent Dependent
Variable Variable

Factors
A. Education-Related
Number of Subject
Grades in English Extent PERFORMANCE IN THE
of Advance CLASSROOM
Studies

B. Personal
Age, Intelligence Quotient
Disposition

Independent Dependent
Variable Variable

Salmon type, Spanish

Style, Acceptability of Canned
French style
Japanese Style
Filipino Style

Page 9 of 19
Determining the Variables

1. Look for the causes and effects

a. Is there a cause-and effect relationship between the variables? Specify which
variables you think are the causes and the effects
2. Analyze the relations of one observations with another observations
a. Is there a relationship between two variables, but not
b. Necessarily cause-and-effect? State the variables in such a way as to find how
one affects the other.
3. Describe the characteristics that are not the same from all situations
a. What is the nature of the variable under different conditions? Describe the
target variables.

MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES

Is the process of assigning numbers to variables following asset of rules.

LEVEL OR SCALE OF MEASUREMENTS OF VARIABLES

1. NOMINAL MEASUREMENT – is a classification of the measured variables into different

categories. It is the simplest scale. The number or letters are assigned to objects as labels for
identification or classification. Classes or categories may be denoted by numbers as in grouping
by sex where 0 corresponds to make and 1 to female. Other variables under this measurement
are race, religion, origin, marital status, dichotomous responses or preferences.

a. Real Nominal. Refers to variables which are classified based on a naturally occurring
attributes like nationality, sex distribution and ethnic origin.

b. Artificial Nominal measurement- variables which are classified, based on man-

made attributes following certain rules like failing or passing a test; being introvert
or extrovert; being a mild smoker or a heavy smoker.

2. ORDINAL MEASUREMENT - Is the amount of variable place in the order to magnitude along a
dimension. A scale that arranges objects or alternatives according to their magnitude in an
ordered relationship.

Example: Hardness of materials, high, average

Intelligent Quotient
Ranking in a certain contest

3. INTERVAL MEASUREMENT - Is the amount of variable and ordered along a dimension and he
difference between the assigned numbers represent equal amounts in the magnitude of the
variable measured. The Zero (0) point of an interval scale in an arbitrary point, a scale that not
only arranges objects according to the magnitudes, but also distinguishes the ordered
arrangement in units of equal intervals.

Example :Fahrenheit and Celsius scale in measuring temperature and the grading system
in a course.

4. RATIO MEASUREMENT- It is the amount of a variable along a dimension where the differences
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between the assigned numbers represent equal amounts in the magnitude of the variable
measured. A scale of having absolute zero where there is an absence of a

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 given attribute. It also refers to a variable where equality of ratio or proportion has meaning.

Example: If a person has Php200.00 while another has only Php 100.00, we can say that the
former has a twice as much money as the latter. If a third person has no money, then we say
that he has zero pesos.

Force, Temperature, heights, weights ages

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES

1. QUANTITATIVE DATA. Data that are obtained from ordinal interval or ratio
measurement indicating how much of a variable exists. It also refers to the
numerical information gathered about the samples. Numerical data gathered about
the samples are either discrete or continuous.

2. QUALITATIVE DATA. These are the data obtained from nominal measurement,
indicating that variables differ in quality. It refers to the attributes or characteristics
of the samples. It also indicates information such as sex (male and female), attitude
(favorable or not favorable), emotional condition (happy or sad) .
GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE TITLE

1. The title should be clear and specifically stated.

2. The main concept should be included like the subject matter, the place, the
population involved, the period when the data were gathered.
3. The variables being investigated should always e written as part of the title. In case
where many variables, there must be some ways to choose terms that will
summarize the variables.
4. The number of words should not exceed twenty substantive words, function words
not be included in the counting (Baker and Shutz, 1999).
5. Certain forms of title phrasing such as “Study of…..” “an Analysis…”, “a Scientific
study of….” , “an Experimental Investigation….” And “A preliminary Study of…” are
to be avoided. They are vague and not acceptable for inclusion in a research title.
6. If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an inverted pyramid,
all words in capital letters.

Example:

Subject Matter: Teaching of Chemistry

Locale of the Study: High Schools of the Province of Zambales

Population Involved: Chemistry Teachers and Students

Period of the Study: School 2011-2012

Complete Title:

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TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS OF THE PROVICE OF ZAMBALES AS
PERCEIVED BY CHEMISTRY
TEACHERS AND STUDENTS DURING SCHOOL YEAR
2011-2012

Page 13 of 19
Brief and concise form of the title:

TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS OF THE PROVINCE OF

ZAMBALES.

Note:

The population, the science teachers, as well as the period of study was omitted, but they
have to be mentioned in the scope and limitation of the study.

PARTS OF CHAPTER 1

A. Introduction
B. Background of the Study
C. Significance of the Study
D. Statement of the Problem
E. Scope and Limitation of the Study

A. INTRODUCTION

This is not a title of a chapter. It is actually a paragraph side head which begins Chapter 1. Statement in this
chapter should not only signify the importance of the topic but should also cause an impact on the reader.

Guide in Writing Introduction

⚫ 1. the intention of the 1 st paragraph is to provide reader a mental warm-up. It should introduce the study
and justify the problem

⚫ 2. The 2nd paragraph carries the bulk of the introduction. The statement of the problem can be best used
as frame of reference. It is simply telling the scope and coverage of the study

⚫ 3. The 3rd or last paragraph is a sort of closing portion that is intriguing and challenging the readers to
become interested in knowing the results of the study. It is one or two sentences to link between the
introduction and the statement of the problem. paragraph the intention of the

B. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The background of the study is a 2-3 pages discussion. It usually discusses on the problem definition. It
explains the problem existence, how widespread is it? Does the problem really exist? What are the evidences
of the problems' existence?; Is the problem serious? Who and how many are affected by it? And How often
does the problem occur?

Significance of the Study

Provides discussion on the benefits, and advantages of the research. It also includes the beneficiaries or
group of entities that will be benefited of the research.

C. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

⚫ 1. The problem should be state both in general and specific terms. The general statement is usually

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 a reiteration of the title of the study.

⚫ 2. The problem is always in an interrogatory form, hence it must ask a question and sub-problems must
follow the main problem.

⚫ 3. The problem should be stated in the infinitive to (action words) such as examine, analyze, determine,
measure, assess, evaluate, recommend, find out, among others; setting 4 -5 research objectives is ideal.

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 ⚫ 4. Specific questions should be stated using the following guide questions words: “How,” “will”
“What,” “Is there”…

⚫ EXAMPLE

⚫ This study will be conducted to investigate the factors affecting academic performance among
BSHRM students of RMTU Iba Campus.

⚫ Specifically, the study will attempt to answer the following questions:

1. How do the respondents’ profile be described in terms of:

1.1. Age;

1.2. Sex; and

1.3. year level?

2. What is the academic performance of the BSHRM students?

3. How are the factors affecting academic performance be describe as to:

3.1. Student Personal Factor

3.2. Teacher Factor

3.3. Family Factor

3.4. Environmental Factor

4. Is there a significant difference on the level of academic performance when grouped according to the
respondents’ profile variables?

5. Is there a significant difference on the perceptions towards factors affecting academic performance?

6. Is there a significant relationship between level of academic performance and the related factors
affecting academic performance

Scope and Limitation of the Study

Deals the discussion on the parameter or the variables used in the study. What is the general
objectives, specific objectives, the proposed number or target respondents, the research design to be used,
the instrument and its composition.

Example:

The study is aim to determine the study habits and learning styles relation to academic performance of
Grade 11 students in the Ramon Magsaysay Technological University, Iba, Zambales during SY 2016-2017.

The study will make use of descriptive research design with survey questionnaire and documentary
analysis as primary tools in gathering data and information from the Two Hundred (200) Grade 11 students who
were chosen using Stratified Random Sampling.

The questionnaire is a researcher made instrument formulated as the need and demanded in the study. It
will be validated from students in Botolan Community College who are not the direct respondents for validity and
reliability of the instrument. The instrument has 3 main parts. Part 1 deals to determine the age, sex, family
income and religion of the student-respondents. Part 2 deals to assess the study habit as to the number of hours
spent for study, mode of study and time preferences and Part 3 deals with the learning style as to kinaesthetic,
auditory, visual and spatial learning styles.

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 Chapter 2 - Framework of the Study

A. Related Literature and Studies

B. Conceptual or theoretical Framework
C. The Paradigm of the Study
D. Definition of Terms

CONCEPTUAL OR THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Provides clear explanations regarding the relationship of the variables. The theoretical
framework shapes the justification of the research problem objectives in order to provide the basis on
its parameters. It is desirable for a researcher to identify the key concepts that are used in the study for
better understanding of the rule of theory in research. It is a symbolic construction, which uses abstract,
concepts, facts or laws, variables and their relations that explain and predict how an observed
phenomenon exists and operates. An investigation is required to formulate existing theories which link
the study because theories are useful devices for interpreting, criticizing, and unifying established
scientific laws and facts that guide in discovering new generalizations.

FORMULATION OF RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

⚫ A problem exists because of certain reasons. Even if the causes of a problem can not be
pinpointed, its existence may be discussed by examining certain patterns that relate to the
problem situation. In explaining the existence of a problem, a researcher may base the
explanation on a theory. The connection between a theory and the problem is explained in the
theoretical framework. The theoretical framework may be further explained and illustrated in
concrete terms using a conceptual framework.

⚫ The Role of theory in Research

A theory is a set of concepts which explains the occurrence of a certain phenomena. It is

a statement of relationship between 2 variables, one acting as IV and the other as DV

Since one can never be sure whether a given theory provide the best explanation for a
set of observation, it is possible to use 2 or more competing theories and test which theory best
explains the problem. A competing theory may be used to explain the possible confounding
influence of other variables on the assume relationship between the major variables of the
study.

TYPES OF THEORIES

1. SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHICAL THEORY – analyzes data and prescribed norms

2. EMPIRICAL THEORIES- which derives conclusions of cause-effect and relationship of
variables.

EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIORAL THEORIES

⚫ DISSONANCE THEORY- According to Festinger (Wicklund&Brehm, 1976) “feeling of tension arises

when one becomes aware of 2 conflicting conditions. A person is motivated to justify his
behavior in order to reduce tension when acting contrary to his attitude.

Comment: A religious man who committed adultery may justify his action with “an
experience of a moment of weakness,” or by explaining that “being human, he can succumb to
temptation.

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 ⚫ SELF-PERCEPTIONS THEORY - (Bem, 1972 & Myers (1983) “when one is unsure of his/her
attitude, she/he infers it back by look at a behavior and the circumstances under which it
occurs. When a person’s attitude is weak, he/she simply observes behavior and its
circumstances and simply infers what his attitude will be.

Comment: The theory suggests that man’s attitude is influence by his actions. A chide
abuser may tend to have an indifferent attitude towards children

⚫ ATTRIBUTION THEORY. HIEDER (1980) theorizes that “people tend to attribute someone’s
behavior either internal cause (person’s disposition or feelings) or external causes (person’s
situation or environment)

Comment: A teacher may attribute the poor performance of the student to his lack of
interest (a dispositional attribution) or to some social or economic circumstance like financial,
malnutrition or family problem (situational attribution)

FUNCTION OF A THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

1. It provides the general framework which can guide on data analysis

2. It identifies the variables to be measured

3. It explains why one variable can possibly affect or influence another

4. It limits the scope of data relevant to the framework by focusing on specific variables

5. It stipulates the specific frame of mind or viewpoint that the researcher will take in
analyzing and interpreting the data.

NOTE:

⚫ Not all research studies need a theoretical framework, but relational and casual studies do.
Studies which do not intend to examine relationship between or among other variables or the
effect of one variable on another do not require a theoretical framework.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The conceptual framework is an elaboration of the theoretical framework in concrete

terms. It is an anchored on the theoretical framework. It needs to be consistent with and related
to the theoretical framework. It specifies the variables of the study ad the expected flow of
relationship among them.

Based on the theory used and or related literature, the predicted association between
variables or the assume effect of one variable is explained. Arguments on how and why factors
influenced another are presented. Findings may be used to support argument.

The conceptual framework explains in more detail the:

1. Variables to be observed

2. Assumed connection between IV & DV.

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 The conceptual framework is summarized in a paradigm or schematic diagram identifying
the hypothesized link between the IV & DV and Intervening variables if any.

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 Schematic Diagram

1. IPO Model
2. Circular Model

3. IV – DV Model

⚫ Example:

⚫ To determine whether imposing curfew can significantly affect the students’ attitude towards their
studies and academic performance

Theoretical Framework

⚫ “People value their sense of freedom and like to protect an image of efficacy (Baer el, 1980).
When social pressure threatens their sense of freedom, they tend to rebel.” According to the
theory of psychological reactance, people act to defend their freedom. Experiments have show
that attempts to restrict a persons’ freedom often results in a reactive “boomerang effect.”
Restricting someone’s movement is also reducing or taking away one’s freedom. Most people
use restrictions as a preventive measures. For some it may work, for other, it may not. It may
produce good result for others and for some it may harm than good.

Conceptual Framework

⚫ Imposing curfew can be viewed as a form of freedom restriction. When student are
preventive from staying out late & are expected to be home not later than specified curfew, the
young students may view this as a curtailment of freedom. While the parents’ intention are
good, they may perceived by their children as unjust and unfair and they may harbor ill feelings
against their parents and rebel. Instead of coming home early, they may even come home very
ate or drunk to spite their parents. This rebellion can possibly result to irregular attendance in
class, indifference towards their studies and consequently poor grades.

In this study , exposure or non-exposure to curfew serves as the IV, while school
performance is the DV. If the effect of curfew is positive, those who will be subjected to curfew
is expected to have better grades than those who were not subjected to curfew. On the other
hand, a negative effect will be evidence by poor grades. The diagram below shows the
relationship

STYLES OF PRESENTING THEORETICAL /CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

1. The theoretical or conceptual framework is integrated with the problem in Chapter 1 of the
research. There is no review of related literature as a separate chapter but it is incorporated
in Chapter 1. The term theoretical or conceptual framework is labeled or not in this chapter.
This design is also known as the JOURNALISTIC STYLE.
2. The theoretical or conceptual framework in Chapter 1 and labeled as such but there is still a
separate chapter for the Review of related Literature.
3. In this style, the usual content of Chapter 1 are presented. Chapter 2 consists of the related
literature and theoretical framework is labeled at the end of Chapter 2.

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D. PARADIGM OF THE STUDY

PARADIGM is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framework. It depicts in a more vivid

way what the conceptual framework wants to convey.

1. THE CONTEXT INPUT PROCESS PRODUCT MODEL (CIPP)

INPUT

Local Government Unit

Funding
Curriculum
Administration
Student
Physical Plant & Facilities
Equipment Laboratories

PROCESS

Qualitative Components
Students Services Research

Community Extension
Alumni Affairs Linkages
& Networks

PRODUCT

Strengths
Weaknesses
Policy Reformulation
Structuring
Retrenchment

1. THE INPUT PROCESS /THROUGHPUTS-OUTPUTS (IPO)

INPUT

Pupil- distance of home from school, parental

occupation

Teachers – Years of Teaching, highest

educational attainment
Facilities- Size of land, age of school Organization-
teachers workload, presence of
modern curricula.
PROCESS

Pupil- pupilinterest, aspiration.

Teachers – Years of Teaching, highest
educational attainment

Facilities- Size of land, age of school Organization-

teachers workload, presence of

PRODUCT
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Page 22 of 19
⚫ HYPOTHESIS

⚫ A statement of what one expects to find;

⚫ A tentative statement to be proven;

⚫ An initial answer to the research questions;

⚫ A common sense statement

⚫ An expected relationship between variables

⚫ An explanation of the phenomena

⚫ A statement of patterns of behavior.

⚫ KINDS OF HYPOTHESIS

⚫ NULL (HO)-This says “there is no difference,” meaning the IV does not affect the DV. If the data
reject Null hypothesis, then the alternative should be true.

⚫ ALTERNATIVE (H1) This says “there is a difference,” meaning that IV affects the DV. The
alternative serves as the real concern of the research. It is definite statement and this is what
the research hopes to determine.

⚫ DIRECTIONAL VS. NON-DIRECTIONAL

⚫ Directional – states whether the relationship between 2 variables is direct positive or

negative.

⚫ Ex: The higher the level of exposure of farmers to mass media the more favorable their attitude
towards land reform (Positive)

⚫ The more time employees spend in meetings, the less productive they are (Negative)

⚫ Non –directional - Does not specify the direction of relationship between variables. It merely
states the presence or absence of a relationship between 2 variables.

⚫ Example:

⚫ The women’s educational attainment is significantly associated with their extent of

participation in decision making at home.

⚫ There is significant difference between the proportion of women and the proportion of men
who are engaged in dry good business.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF VARIABLES

⚫ VARIABLE is a concept that stands for a variation within a class of objects or person (Fraenkel
& Wallen, 1996)

⚫ Is a characteristics ort property that can take different values or attributes (Schutt,
1999).

⚫ Are the basic elements which are measured in a study. They are observable and
measurable.

⚫ Example

⚫ Age Degree of malnutrition

⚫ Sex Level of Fertilizer

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⚫ Marital Status Type of Crop

Page 24 of 19
 ⚫ Income Size of Land

⚫ Location of Business

⚫ Revenues

⚫ Type of Work

⚫ Number of Meetings

⚫ Types of Variables

⚫ 1. Dependent Variable – is the assumed “Effect” or another variable. It is the change that
occurs in the study population when one or more factors are changed or when an
intervention is introduced. Usually dependent variable is the problem itself.

⚫ Types of Variables

⚫ 2. Independent Variables – is the assumed “cause” of a problem. It is an assumed reason for

ay “change” or variation n a dependent variable. An IV is sometime treated as “antecedent”
variable (the variable before).

⚫ Type of Variables

⚫ 3. Intervening Variable – is factor that works “between the IV and DV . It can weaken (decrease)
or strengthen (increase) the effect of IV on the DV. It is also called a “facilitating variables”,
“moderator” or a “control variable”.

⚫ OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF VARIABLES

⚫ Terms should be define operationally according to how it is used in the study

⚫ Example:

⚫ Age – This refers to the length of time a person has lived since he/she was born. In thisstudy this
refers to the age of a respondents as of last birthday.

⚫ Terms

⚫ Educational Attainment – this refers to the highest grade or year completed by the
respondents.

⚫ Knowledge about smoking – This is represented by the total number of correct answers I a 10 item
questionnaire on smoking and its dangers.

DEFINITION

1. SYSTEMATIC

1. 2. CONTROLLED

2. 3. EMPIRICAL

3. 4. INQUIRY

4. 5. SUBJECT/TOPIC

5. 6. PROBLEM SOLVING

6. 7. METHOD

Page 25 of 19
 Purposes of Research

1. Discover new facts of known phenomena

2. Find solutions to problems that are only partially solved

3. Improved or develop new products.

4. Validate generalization into systematic order.

5. Provide basis for decision making.

6. Satisfy the researcher’s curiosity

Purposes of Research

7. Verify existing knowledge.

8. Improved educational practices

9. Promote health

10. Enhance man’s basic life

11. Acquire better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon to another.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1. Empirical. The research is based on direct experienced or observation. The collection of data relies
on practical experience without benefit of the scientific knowledge or theory.

2. LOGICAL. The research is based on valid procedures and principles. Scientific investigation
is done in an orderly manner so as to draw a valid conclusions.

3. CYCLICAL. The research starts with a problem and ends with a problem.

4. ANALYTICAL .Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering data, whether

historical, descriptive, and experimental or any alternative research methods.

⚫ CHARACTERISTICS

⚫ Replicability = the research design and procedures are replicated to enable the researchers
to arrive at valid and conclusive results.

⚫ Critical – Research exhibits careful and precise judgment. A higher level of confidence must
be established. i.e. 1.00 % or 5.0% level of confidence to be used in accepting or rejecting the
Null Hypothesis.

KINDS OF RESEARCH

⚫ According to the level of investigation

⚫ A. EXPLORATORY – The researcher studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation.

⚫ B. DESCRIPTIVE – The researcher studies the relationship of the variables.

⚫ C. EXPERIMETNAL – the researcher studies the effects of the variables one each other.

⚫ KINDS OF RESEARCH

⚫ According to Statistical Content

Page 26 of 19
⚫ A. Quantitative or Statistical Research . Inferential statistics are utilized to determine the
results . Usually includes comparison studies, and cause-and-effect relationships

⚫ B. NON-QUANTITATIVE- this is used for quantify or statistics which is practically nil (nothing or
zero)

⚫ KINDS OF RESEARCH

According to Time Allotment

⚫ 1. Historical- Research that describes what was.

⚫ 2. Descriptive – Research that described what is.

⚫ 3. Experimental- Research that describes what will be.

KINDS OF RESEARCH

⚫ According to Purpose

⚫ A. Predictive or Prognostic . Determine the future operation of the variables under

investigation with the aim of controlling for the better.

⚫ B. Directive . Determine what should be done based on the findings. This is to remedy an
unsatisfactory conditions.

⚫ C. Illuminative . Interaction of the components of the educational system and aims to show the
connection among student characteristics, organizational patterns and policies and
educational consequences.

⚫ KINDS OF RESEARCH

⚫ As to Goal

⚫ 1. Basic or Pure. It is done for the development of theories and principles as used in
psychology and sociology.

⚫ 2. Applied. This is testing the efficiency of theories and principles. Ex.

Praise reinforces learning.

⚫ RESEARCH DESIGN/METHODS

⚫ METHODOLOGY refer to the overall process of formulating the theoretical and conceptual
framework, the operationalization of variables, methods of data collection and data analysis
and interpretation.

⚫ DESIGN – is the specific format and procedures for data collection and data analysis and
interpretation, the blueprint of the research, the scheme for obtaining interpretation and
formulating generalizations that can be applied to other situations.

⚫ DETERMINING RESEARCH DESIGN

⚫ 1. Compare the objectives, expected outcomes and procedures of the different types of
research designs

⚫ 2. Look into the problem statement, hypotheses and objectives of the research and available
resources of time, money and access to information

⚫ Evaluate the research concerns on the type of research.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

⚫ Seeks to provide information about one or more variables. It is used to answer the question
”what exists?” this question can be answered on one or two ways: using quantitative or
qualitative methods.
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 ⚫ the study focuses at the present condition. The purpose is to find new truth, new generalizations, new
law.

⚫ TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH METHOD

⚫ A. CASE STUDY = This captures the information about human behavior through distinctive in-depths collection
and analysis of data.

⚫ 2. SURVEY RESEARCH = This investigates a universe of phenomena-population by selecting samples to discover

the relative incidence, distribution and interrelation of variables. It uses questionnaires and interview as
the key instrument of data collection.

⚫ CLASSES OF DESCRIPTIVE METHOD

⚫ 1. Descriptive Survey

⚫ 2. Descriptive-normative survey

⚫ 3. Descriptive-Status

⚫ 4. Descriptive-Analysis

⚫ 5. Descriptive-Classification

⚫ 6. Descriptive-Evaluative

⚫ 7. Descriptive-Comparative

⚫ 8. Correlational-Survey

⚫ 9. Longitudinal –Survey

CHAPTER 1
Meaning of Research

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as a scientific and
systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. The
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or
inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”1 Redman and Mory define research as a
“systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”2 Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the
known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when
the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding
of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining
the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research. Research is an academic activity and as such the
term should be used in a technical sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define research as “the
 manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge,
whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”3 Research is, thus, an original
contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of
study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic
method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the
formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of
enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalisations for some
theoretical formulation.

Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main
aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each
research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following
broad groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed
as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view
are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (studies
with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research
studies).

Types of Research
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The
major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and
business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main
characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has
happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the
researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data.
Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the
variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including
comparative and correlational methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure)
research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business
organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a
theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”4 Research concerning some
natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies,
concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples
of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business
problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and
understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of
applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed
towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body
of scientific knowledge.

(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is
concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we
are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite
often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering
the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are
word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular
subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural sciences
where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the
various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular
thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore,
while doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.

(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used
by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical
research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based
research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call
it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts first-hand, at their source, and
actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the
researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get
enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will
manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus
characterised by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of
them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other
variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

(v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated
approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment
in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of
research either as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single
time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-
setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be
carried out. Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such researches follow case-study
methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of
things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research
may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses
rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific
 hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to
study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented
research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to
conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher
in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of
decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis
for decisions regarding operations under their control.

CHAPTER 2
Research Process

Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to present a brief
overview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry
out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The chart shown in Figure 1.1 well illustrates a research
process.

The chart indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely related activities, as shown through I to
VII. But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence. At times, the first step
determines the nature of the last step to be undertaken. If subsequent procedures have not been taken into account in
the early stages, serious difficulties may arise which may even prevent the completion of the study. One should
remember that the various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive; nor are they separate and
distinct. They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the researcher has to be constantly
anticipating at each step in the research process the requirements of the subsequent steps. However, the following
order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research process: (1) formulating
the research problem; (2) extensive literature survey; (3) developing the hypothesis; (4) preparing the research
design;
(5) determining sample design; (6) collecting the data; (7) execution of the project; (8) analysis of data; (9) hypothesis
testing; (10) generalisations and interpretation, and (11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e.,
formal write-up of conclusions reached. A brief description of the above stated steps will be helpful.
 CHAPTER 3
Selecting the Problem & Research Title Proposal

The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a difficult one, although it may not
appear to be so. Help may be taken from a research guide in this connection. Nevertheless, every researcher must find
out his own salvation for research problems cannot be borrowed. A problem must spring from the researcher’s mind
like a plant springing from its own seed. If our eyes need glasses, it is not the optician alone who decides about the
number of the lens we require. We have to see ourselves and enable him to prescribe for us the right number by
cooperating with him. Thus, a research guide can at the most only help a researcher choose a subject. However, the
following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject for research:
(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a
case.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research material or sources of
research are within one’s reach. Even then it is quite difficult to supply definitive ideas concerning how a researcher
should obtain ideas for his research. For this purpose, a researcher should contact an expert or a professor in the
University who is already engaged in research. He may as well read articles published in current literature available on
the subject and may think how the techniques and ideas discussed therein might be applied to the solution of other
problems. He may discuss with others what he has in mind concerning a problem. In this way he should make all
possible efforts in selecting a problem.
(v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs involved, the time factor
are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a
problem is done, a researcher must ask himself the following questions:
(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?
(b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
(c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate in research as subjects?
If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative, one may become sure so far as the practicability of the
study is concerned.
(vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not be necessary when the problem
requires the conduct of a research closely similar to one that has already been done. But when the field of inquiry is
relatively new and does not have available a set of well-developed techniques, a brief feasibility study must always be
undertaken.
If the subject for research is selected properly by observing the above mentioned points, the research will not be a
boring drudgery, rather it will be love’s labour. In fact, zest for work is a must. The subject or the problem selected
must involve the researcher and must have an upper most place in his mind so that he may undertake all pains needed
for the study.

GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE TITLE

1. The title should be clear and specifically stated.

2. The main concept should be included like the subject matter, the place, the population involved, the period
when the data were gathered.
3. The variables being investigated should always be written as part of the title. In case where many variables,
there must be some ways to choose terms that will summarize the variables.
4. The number of words should not exceed twenty substantive words, function words not be included in the
counting (Baker and Shutz, 1999).
5. Certain forms of title phrasing such as “Study of…..” “an Analysis…”, “a Scientific study of….” , “an Experimental
Investigation….” And “A preliminary Study of…” are to be avoided. They are vague and not acceptable for inclusion in a
research title.
6. If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an inverted pyramid, all words in capital letters.
 Example:
Subject Matter: The Teaching of Chemistry
Locale of the Study: High Schools of the
Province of Zambales Population Involved:
Chemistry Teachers and Students Period of
the Study: School 2011-2012

Complete Title:
THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS OF THE PROVICE OF ZAMBALES AS
PERCEIVED BY CHEMISTRY TEACHERS AND STUDENTS DURING
SCHOOL YEAR 2011-2012

Brief and concise form of the title:

THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY IN THE HIGH

SCHOOLS OF THE PROVINCE OF ZAMBALES.

Note:

The population, the science teachers, as well as the period of study was omitted, but they have to
be mentioned in the scope and limitation of the study.

CHAPTER 4
Literature Review, Conceptual Framework, & Research Design

A. Related Literature and Studies

1. Contents are connected to the main topic
2. With Recent to old literature and

studies Example:

Language Acquisition and Vocabulary

The study of vocabulary is at the heart of language teaching (Routledge, 2013). The

process of Second Language Acquisition consists of 5 stages. Haynes (2007) suggests the

following stages: Preproduction, Early Production, Speech Emergence, Intermediate Fluency and

Advanced Fluency. The Preproduction stage is also called “the silent stage” and the learner’s

vocabulary is up to 500 words at this period. At the Early Production stage the learner’s
vocabulary grows up to 1000 words and he/she is already able to build up simple phrases and use

short language forms. At the stage of Speech Emergency the vocabulary is about 3000 words and

the learner builds simple phrases and sentences here. The stage of Intermediate Fluency

presumes the vocabulary of about 6000 words and at this stage the learner is able to make more

complex sentences and his/her comprehension of the second language is great. The last stage

called Advanced Fluency can be compared with almost native speaker’s language abilities;

however, it takes time to achieve it – around 5-10 years in average (Haynes, 2007).

Reference:

Haynes, J. (2007). Getting started with English language learners: How educators can meet the
challenge. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Routledge, (2013). Applied Linguistics and Language Study

FORMULATION OF RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
A problem exists because of certain reasons. Even if the causes of a problem cannot be
pinpointed, its existence may be discussed by examining certain patterns that relate to the problem
situation. In explaining the existence of a problem, a researcher may base the explanation on a theory.
The connection between a theory and the problem is explained in the theoretical framework. The
theoretical framework may be further explained and illustrated in concrete terms using a conceptual
framework.

B. Conceptual Framework
It provides clear explanations regarding the relationship of the variables. The theoretical framework
shapes the justification of the research problem objectives in order to provide the basis on its
parameters. It is desirable for a researcher to identify the key concepts that are used in the study for
better understanding of the rule of theory in research. It is a symbolic construction, which uses abstract,
concepts, facts or laws, variables and their relations that explain and predict how an observed
phenomenon exists and operates. An investigation is required to formulate existing theories which link
the study because theories are useful devices for interpreting, criticizing, and unifying established
scientific laws and facts that guide in discovering new generalizations.

The Role of theory in Research

A theory is a set of concepts which explains the occurrence of a certain phenomenon. It is a statement
of relationship between 2 variables, one acting as IV and the other as DV
Since one can never be sure whether a given theory provide the best explanation for a set of
observation, it is possible to use 2 or more competing theories and test which theory best explains the
problem. A competing theory may be used to explain the possible confounding influence of other
variables on the assume relationship between the major variables of the study.

TYPES OF THEORIES
1. SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHICAL THEORY – analyses data and prescribed norms
2. EMPIRICAL THEORIES- which derives conclusions of cause-effect and relationship of variables.

EXAMPLES OF BEHAVIORAL THEORIES

1. DISSONANCE THEORY- According to Festinger (Wicklund & Brehm, 1976) “feeling of tension arises
when one becomes aware of 2 conflicting conditions. A person is motivated to justify his behaviour in
order to reduce tension when acting contrary to his attitude.
Comment: A religious man who committed adultery may justify his action with “an experience of a
moment of weakness,” or by explaining that “being human, he can succumb to temptation.

2. SELF-PERCEPTIONS THEORY - (Bem, 1972 & Myers (1983) “when one is unsure of his/her attitude,
she/he infers it back by look at a behaviour and the circumstances under which it occurs. When a
person’s attitude is weak, he/she simply observes behaviour and its circumstances and simply infers
what his attitude will be.
Comment: The theory suggests that man’s attitude is influence by his actions. A chide abuser may tend
to have an indifferent attitude towards children
3. ATTRIBUTION THEORY - HIEDER (1980) theorizes that “people tend to attribute someone’s behavior
either internal cause (person’s disposition or feelings) or external causes (person’s situation or
environment)
Comment: A teacher may attribute the poor performance of the student to his lack of interest (a
dispositional attribution) or to some social or economic circumstance like financial, malnutrition or
family problem (situational attribution)

FUNCTION OF A THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

1. It provides the general framework which can guide on data analysis
2. It identifies the variables to be measured
3. It explains why one variable can possibly affect or influence another
4. It limits the scope of data relevant to the framework by focusing on specific variables
5. It stipulates the specific frame of mind or viewpoint that the researcher will take in analysing and
interpreting the data.
NOTE:
Not all research studies need a theoretical framework, but relational and casual studies do. Studies
which do not intend to examine relationship between or among other variables or the effect of one
variable on another do not require a theoretical framework.

Theoretical Framework
“People value their sense of freedom and like to protect an image of efficacy (Baer el, 1980). When
social pressure threatens their sense of freedom, they tend to rebel.” According to the theory of
psychological reactance, people act to defend their freedom. Experiments have shown that attempts to
restrict a persons’ freedom often results in a reactive “boomerang effect.” Restricting someone’s
movement is also reducing or taking away one’s freedom. Most people use restrictions as preventive
measures. For some it may work, for other, it may not. It may produce good result for others and for
some it may harm than good.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The conceptual framework is an elaboration of the theoretical framework in concrete terms. It is an
anchored on the theoretical framework. It needs to be consistent with and related to the theoretical
framework. It specifies the variables of the study and the expected flow of relationship among them.
Based on the theory used and or related literature, the predicted association between variables or the
assume effect of one variable is explained. Arguments on how and why factors influenced another are
presented. Findings may be used to support argument.

Example: Imposing curfew can be viewed as a form of freedom restriction. When student are
preventive from staying out late & are expected to be home not later than specified curfew, the young
students may view this as a curtailment of freedom. While the parents’ intention are good, they may
perceived by their children as unjust and unfair and they may harbour ill feelings against their parents
and rebel. Instead of coming home early, they may even come home very ate or drunk to spite their
parents. This rebellion can possibly result to irregular attendance in class, indifference towards their
studies and consequently poor grades.
In this study, exposure or non-exposure to curfew serves as the IV, while school performance is the DV.
If the effect of curfew is positive, those who will be subjected to curfew is expected to have better
grades than those who were not subjected to curfew. On the other hand, a negative effect will be
evidence by poor grades. The diagram below shows the relationship
 The conceptual framework explains in more detail the:
1. Variables to be observed
2. Assumed connection between IV & DV.
The conceptual framework is summarized in a paradigm or schematic diagram identifying the
hypothesized link between the IV & DV and Intervening variables if any.

Schematic Diagram
1. IPO Model
2. Circular Model
3. IV – DV Model
Example:
To determine whether imposing curfew can significantly affect the students’ attitude towards their
studies and academic performance

PARADIGM OF THE STUDY

PARADIGM is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framework. It depicts in a more vivid way
what the conceptual framework wants to convey.

Independent Dependent
Variable Variable

Factors
A. Education-Related
Number of Subject
Grades in English PERFORMANCE IN THE
Extent of Advance CLASSROOM
Studies

B. Personal
Age, Intelligence Quotient
Disposition

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Profile Variables Administration of Test Assessment of the
 Age Questions Vocabulary Level in
 Sex  Vocabulary Sambal of Students in
 Course  Reading RMTU-Sta. Cruz Campus
 Address Comprehension
 Language Spoken Assessment of the
Statistical Tools Reading Comprehension
 Frequency Count and Level in Sambal of
Percentage Students in RMTU-Sta.
 Analysis of Variance Cruz Campus
C. RESEARCH DESIGNS
MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the preparation of the
design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”. Decisions regarding what,
where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research
design. “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”1 In fact,
the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design includes an outline of
what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final
analysis of data. More explicitly, the desing decisions happen to be in respect of:
(i) What is the study about? (vii) What will be the sample design?
(ii) Why is the study being made? (viii) What techniques of data collection will be
(iii) Where will the study be carried out? used?
(iv) What type of data is required? (ix) How will the data be analysed?
(v) Where can the required data be found? (x) In what style will the report be prepared?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?

Keeping in view the above stated design decisions; one may split the overall research design into the
following parts:
(a) the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the given
study;
(b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be
made;
(c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed and
how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and (d) the operational design which deals
with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational
designs can be carried out.
From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research design as under:
(i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem.
(ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing the data.
(iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two constraints.

In brief, research design must, at least, contain—(a) a clear statement of the research problem; (b)
procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; (c) the population to be studied; and
(d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

Variable – It is a quantity or a characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values or
properties of objects or people that can be classified, measured or labeled in different ways.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIABLES
1. It is an observable characteristic of a person or objects being studied
2. It is capable of assuming several values representing a certain category
3. There are raw data or figures gathered by a researcher for statistical purposes
4. They are values that may arise form counting and or from measurement.
5. They are the predicted values of one variable on the basis of another.
 TYPES OF VARIABLES
1. DISCRETE VARIABLE. It is one that can take on only a finite or potentially countable set of
values.
Ex. Number of students in the college, school
Number of people living in the city, barangay or province
Number of children in the family
Number of automobiles registered.

2. CONTINOUS VARIABLES. It is one that can take on an infinite set of values between any two level of
the variables. They are the result of measurement.
a. Measurement of weights
b. Psychological variables. (Anxiety, intelligence, emotional quotient)
c. Measurement of Heights

3. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE. This is the stimulus variable which is chosen by the researcher to
determine the relationship to observed phenomena. This is called the cause, object and variate of the
investigation. This may be an observed event, factor that is expected to affect another variable.

4. DEPENDENT VARIABLE. This is the responses variable , which is observed an measured to determine
the effect of the independent variable. This is sometimes called the effect, results, criterion in the
study. It is the observed event, factor that is expected to be affected by the independent variable.

5. MODERATE VARIABLE. This is secondary or special type of independent variable chosen by the
researcher to ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationship between the IV and DV.

A researcher wants to determine the effects of the IV (F) on the DV (M), but suspects that a third factor
(O), alters or modifies the relationship between F and M; then O is considered the moderate variable.

6. CONTROL VARIABLE. This is a variable controlled by the researcher in which the effect can be
neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable.

Example: A researcher wished to determine the effects of X (IV) on Y (DV). He may control Z (control
variable) because he cannot do many variables simultaneously. In other words, he may remove or
eliminate Z to neutralize the effects. Control Variable will guarantee that he will not have a moderately
effect on the relationship between X and Y.

7. INTERVENING VARIABLE. This is a variable which interferes with the IV and DV, but its effects can
either strengthen or weaken the IV and DV . This is an observed event or factor that is expected to
affect possibly the relation between the IV and DV variable.
Example: The effect of NEAT percentile rank on achievement. NEAT % rank is IV and Achievement is the
DV, but it is possible that age, gender, socio economic, values and attitudes towards the study be an
intervening variable that might have an effect on achievement.

IV Intervening DV

Age, Gender, Civil Status,

Experience
NEAT % RANK Socio-Economic Achievement
Attitude towards Study
 CHAPTER 5
Library
Research Research
Methods & Techniques

At times, a distinction is also made between research techniques and

research methods. Research techniques refer to the behaviour and
instruments we use in performing research operations such as making
observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the like.
Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used in selecting
and constructing research technique. For instance, the difference between
methods and techniques of data collection can better be understood from the
details given in the following chart:

Ethnography, Observational Research, and

Narrative Inquiry
Qualitative observational research describes and classifies various cultural,
racial and/or sociological groups by employing interpretive and naturalistic
approaches. It is both observational and narrative in nature and relies less on
the experimental elements normally associated with scientific research
(reliability, validity and generalizability). Connelly and Clandinin (1990)
suggest that qualitative inquiry relies more on apparency, verisimilitude and
transferability. On the other hand, Lincoln and Guba (1985) emphasize the
importance of credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability in
qualitative studies. Because the field of qualitative research is still evolving,
the criteria and terminology for its evaluation are not yet agreed upon.

What is agreed upon is that qualitative observational research is a systematic

inquiry into the nature or qualities of observable group behaviors in order to
learn what it means to be a member of that group. The researcher's job, rather
than to describe a stable entity, is to give continually updated accounts of
observations on multiple levels of group interactions that occur on both a
temporal and continuous basis simultaneously.

Thus, this type of research attempts to identify and explain complex social
structures within the study group. Typically, qualitative research
methodologies are combined with each other in order to provide comparative
results. A triangulation of methods (also called multiple methods), where three
or more methodologies are used and the results compared against each
other, is common and can provide a more complete understanding of the
behavior of the study group.

Qualitative study lends itself to thick narrative description, and it may be

intensive given the complexity of group interactions. It takes place on site, in
the group's natural environment, and attempts to be non-manipulative of
group behaviors. The purpose is to aim for objectivity, while it must take into
account the views of the participants.

This illustration attempts to acknowledge the broad categories of qualitative

observational research. First, qualitative observational research is broken
down into its most common approaches, including types of this research
method, themes that guide researchers' study designs and other, secondary
approaches. Next, a Methods section introduces steps and methods used in
qualitative observational research, employing multiple methods and computer
software for this field of research. Then, a Commentary section includes some
of the advantages and disadvantages to qualitative observational research, a
look at the ongoing qualitative vs. quantitative discussion and some of the
ethical considerations of this form of research.

Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions

and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.
Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this
is not always the case. The questionnaire was invented by the Statistical
Society of London in 1838. A copy of the instrument is published in the
Journal of the Statistical Society, Volume 1, Issue 1, 1838, pages 5-13.

Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that

they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or
telephone surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple
to compile data. However, such standardized answers may frustrate users.
Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be
able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic
groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be concrete.

As a type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems

relating to question construction and wording that exist in other types of
opinion polls.

Types
A distinction can be made between questionnaires with questions that
measure separate variables, and questionnaires with questions that are
aggregated into either a scale or index. Questionnaires within the former
category are commonly part of surveys, whereas questionnaires in the latter
category are commonly part of tests.

Questionnaires with questions that measure separate variables, could for

instance include questions on:

● preferences (e.g. political party)

●behaviors (e.g. food consumption)
●facts (e.g. gender)

Questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a scale or index,
include for instance questions that measure:

●latent traits (e.g. personality traits such as extroversion)

●attitudes (e.g. towards immigration)
●an index (e.g. Social Economic Status)

Examples

A food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) is a questionnaire the type of diet

consumed in people, and may be used as a research instrument. Examples of
usages include assessment of intake of vitamins or toxins such as acrylamide.

Questionnaire Construction

Question Types

Usually, a questionnaire consists of a number of questions that the

respondent has to answer in a set format. A distinction is made between
open-ended and closed-ended questions. An open-ended question asks the
respondent to formulate his own answer, whereas a closed-ended question
has the respondent pick an answer froma given number of options. The
response options for aclosed-ended question should be exhaustive and
mutually exclusive. Four types of response scales for closed-ended questions
are distinguished:

●Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options

● Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered
options

● Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered

options

● (Bounded) Continuous, where the respondent is presented with a

continuous scale

A respondent's answer to an open-ended question is coded into a response

scale afterwards. An example of an open-ended question is a question where
the testie has to complete a sentence (sentence completion item).

Question Sequence

In general, questions should flow logically from one to the next. To achieve the
best response rates, questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most
sensitive, from the factual and behavioural to the attitudinal, and from the
more general to the more specific.

There typically is a flow that should be followed when constructing a

questionnaire in regards to the order that the questions are asked. The order
is as follows:

1. Screens

2. Warm-ups

3. Transitions

4. Skips

5. Difficult

6. Changing Formula

Screens are used as a screening method to find out early whether or not
someone should complete the questionnaire. Warm-ups are simple to answer,
help capture interest in the survey, and may not even pertain to research
objectives. Transition questions are used to make different areas flow answer
well question together. Skips include questions similar to "If yes, then question
3. If no, then continue to question 5." Difficult questions are towards the end
because the respondent is in "response mode." Also, when completing an
online questionnaire, the progress bars lets the respondent know that they
areal most done so they are more willing to answer more difficult questions.
Classification, or demographic question should be at the end because typically
they can feel like personal questions which will make respondents
uncomfortable and not willing to finish survey.
Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction

︎Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of

different subpopulations of the population of interest.

Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give
different answers.

Think of having an "open" answer category after a list of possible answers.

Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item.

Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.

Do not make assumptions about the respondent.

Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all

educational levels.

Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.

Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like
strawberries and potatoes?).

Question should not be biased or even leading the participant towards an

answer.

Questionnaire Administration Modes

Main modes of questionnaire administration are:

 Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer
presents the items orally.
 Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are
presented on paper.
 Computerized questionnaire administration, where the items are
presented on the computer.
 Adaptive computerized questionnaire administration, where a selection
of items is presented on the computer, and based on the answers on
those items, the computer selects following items optimized for the
testee's estimated ability or trait.
Concerns with Questionnaires

While questionnaires are inexpensive, quick, and easy to analyze, often

the questionnaire can have more problems than benefits. For example,
unlike interviews, the people conducting the research may never know if
the respondent understood the question that was being asked. Also,
because the questions are so specific to what the researchers are
asking, the information gained can be minimal. Often, questionnaires
such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, give too few options to
answer; respondents can answer either option but must choose only
one response. Questionnaires also produce very low return rates,
whether they are mail or online questionnaires. The other problem
associated with return rates is that often the people that do return the
questionnaire are those that have a really positive or a really negative
viewpoint and want their opinion heard. The people that are most likely
unbiased either way typically don't respond because it is not worth their
time.

Some questionnaires have questions addressing the participants’

gender. Seeing someone as male or female is something we all do
unconsciously, we don't give much important to one's sex or gender as
most people use the terms 'sex' and 'gender' interchangeably, unaware
that they are not synonyms. Gender is a term to exemplify the attributes
that a society or culture constitutes as masculine or feminine. Although
your sex as male or female stands at a biological fact that is identical in
any culture, what that specific sex means in reference to your gender
role as a 'woman' or 'man' in society varies cross culturally according to
what things are considered to be masculine or feminine. The survey
question should really be what is your sex. Sex is traditionally split into
two categories, which we typically don't have control over, you were
either born a girl or born a boy and that's decided by nature. There's
also the intersex population which is disregarded in the North American
society as a sex. Not many questionnaires have a box for people that
fall under Intersex. These are some small things that can be
misinterpreted or ignored in questionnaires.

Further, if the questionnaires are not collected using sound sampling

techniques, often the results can be non-representative of the
population - as such a good sample is critical to getting representative
results based on questionnaires.
Mission Statement

A mission statement is a statement which is used as a way of

communicating the purpose of the organization. Although most of the
time it will remain the same for a long period of time, it is not uncommon
for organizations to update their mission statement and generally
happens when an organization evolves. Mission statements are
normally short and simple statements which outline what the
organization's purpose is and are related to the specific sector an
organization operates in.

Properly crafted mission statements (1) serve as filters to separate what

is important from what is not, (2) clearly state which markets will be
served and how, and (3) communicate a sense of intended direction to
the entire organization. A mission is different from a vision in that the
former is the cause and the latter is the effect; a mission is something to
be accomplished whereas a vision is something to be pursued for that
accomplishment. Also called company mission, corporate mission, or
corporate purpose.

The mission statement should guide the actions of the organization,

spell out its overall goal, provide a path, and guide decision-making. It
provides are "the framework or context within which the company's
strategies are formulated." It is like a goal for what the company wants
to do for the world.

According to Dr. Christopher Bart, the commercial mission statement

consists of three essential components:

1. Key market: Who is your target client or customer (generalize if

needed)?

2. Contribution: What product or service do you provide to that client?

3. Distinction: What makes your product or service unique, so that the

client would choose you?

A personal mission statement is developed in much the same way that

an organizational mission statement is created. A personal mission
statement is a brief description of what an individual wants to focus on,
wants to accomplish and wants to become. It is a way to focus energy,
actions, behaviors and decisions towards the things that are most
important to the individual.
Purpose of a Mission Statement

The sole purpose of a mission statement is to serve as your company's

goal/agenda, it outlines clearly what the goal of the company is. Some
generic examples of mission statements would be, "To provide the best
service possible within the banking sector for our customers." or "To
provide the best experience for all of our customers." The reason why
businesses make use of mission statements is to make it clear what
they look to achieve as an organisation, not only to themselves and
their employees but to the customers and other people who are a part
of the business, such as shareholders. As a company evolves, so will
their mission statement, this is to make sure that the company remains
on track and to ensure that the mission statement does not lose its
touch and become boring or stale.

An article which can be found here explains the purpose of a mission

statement as the following:

"The mission statement reflects every facet of your business: the range
and nature of the products you offer, pricing, quality, service,
marketplace position, growth potential, use of technology, and your
relationships with your customers, employees, suppliers, competitors
and the community."

It is important that a mission statement is not confused with a vision

statement. As discussed earlier, the main purpose of a mission
statement is to get across the ambitions of an organisation in a short
and simple fashion, it is not necessary to go into detail for the mission
statement which is evident in examples given. The reason why it is
important that a mission statement and vision statement are not
confused is because they both serve different purposes. Vision
statements tend to be more related to strategic planning and lean more
towards discussing where a company aims to be in the future.

Mission Statement vs Vision Statement

The definition of a vision statement according to Business Dictionary is

"An aspirational description of what an organisation would like to
achieve or accomplish in the mid-term or long-term future. It is intended
to serve as a clear guide for choosing current and future courses of
action."

It is not hard to see why a lot of people confuse a mission statement

and a vision statement, although both statements serve a different
purpose for a company.

A mission statement is all about how an organisation will get to where

they want to be and makes the purposes and objectives clear, whereas
a vision statement is outlining where the organisation wants to be in the
future. Mission statements are more concerned about the current times
and tend to answer questions about what the business does or what
makes them stand out compared to the competition, whilst vision
statements are solely focused on where the organisation sees
themselves in the future and where they aim to be. Both statements
may be adapted later into the organisation's life, however it is important
to keep the core of the statement there such as core values, customer
needs and vision.

Although it may not seem very important to know the difference

between the two types of statements, it is very important to businesses.
This is because it is common for businesses to ground their strategic
plans in clear vision and mission statements. Both statements play a big
factor in the strategic planning of a business. A study carried out by
Bain & Company showed that companies which had clearly outlined
vision and mission statements outperformed other businesses that did
not have clear vision and mission statements.

Advantages of a Mission Statement

Provides direction: Mission statements are a great way to direct a

business into the right path, it plays a part in helping the business make
better decisions which can be beneficial to them. Without the mission
statement providing direction, businesses may struggle when it comes
to making decisions and planning for the future, this is why providing
direction could be considered one of the most advantageous points of a
mission statement.

Clear purpose: Having a clear purpose can remove any potential

ambiguities that can surround the existence of a business. People who
are interested in the progression of the business, such as stakeholders,
will want to know that the business is making the right choices and
progressing more towards achieving their goals, which will help to
remove any doubt the stakeholders may have in the business.

The benefit of having a simple and clear mission statement is that it can
be beneficial in many different ways. A mission statement can help to
play as a motivational tool within an organisation, it can allow
employees to all work towards one common goal that benefits both the
organisation and themselves. This can help with factors such as
employee satisfaction and productivity. It is important that employees
feel a sense of purpose, by giving them this sense of purpose it will
allow them to focus more on their daily tasks and help them to realise
the goals of the organisation and their role.

Disadvantages of a Mission Statement

Although it is mostly beneficial for a business to craft a good mission

statement, there are some situations where a mission statement can be
considered pointless or not useful to a business.

Unrealistic: In most cases, mission statements turn out to be unrealistic

and far too optimistic. An unrealistic mission statement can also affect
the performance and morale of the employees within the workplace.
This is because an unrealistic mission statement would reduce the
likelihood of employees being able to meet this standard which could
demotivate employees in the long term. Unrealistic mission statements
also serve no purpose and can be considered a waste of management's
time. Another issue which could arise from an unrealistic mission
statement is that poor decisions could be made in an attempt to achieve
this goal which has the potential to harm the business and be seen as a
waste of both time and resources.

Waste of time and resources: Mission statements require planning,

this takes time and effort for those who are responsible for creating the
mission statement. If the mission statement is not achieved, then the
process of creating the mission statement could be seen as a waste of
time for all of the people involved. A lot of thought and time is spent in
designing a good mission statement, and to have all of that time wasted
is not what businesses can afford to be doing. The wasted time could
have been spent on much more important tasks within the organisation
such as decision-making for the business.

Designing a Mission Statement

According to Forbes, the following questions must be answered in th

emission statement. "What do we do?" The mission statement should
clearly outline the main purpose of the organisation, and what they do.
"How do we do it?" It should also mention how you plan on achieving
the mission statement. "Whom do we do it for?" The audience of the
mission statement should be clearly stated within the mission
statement. "What value are we bringing?" The benefits and values of
the mission statement should be clearly outlined. When designing your
mission statement, it should be very clear to the audience what the
purpose of it is. It is ideal for a business to be able to communicate their
mission, goals and objectives to the reader without including any
unnecessary information through the mission statement. "Your mission
is the soul of your brand.".

Richard Branson has commented on ways of crafting a good mission

statement; he explains the importance of having a mission statement
that is clear and straight to the point and does not contain unnecessary
baffling. He went on to analyse a mission statement, using Yahoo's
mission statement at the time (2013) as an example, in his evaluation of
the mission statement he seemed to suggest that while the statement
sounded interesting most people will not be able to understand the
message it is putting across, in other words the message of the mission
statement potentially meant nothing to the audience. This further backs
up the idea that a good mission statement is one that is clear and
answers the right questions in a simple manner, and does not over
complicate things. An example of a good mission statement would be
Google's, which is "to organise the world's information and make it
universally accessible and useful."

Purpose Statement

The purpose statement serves as a specific communication for what the

study is to explore and/or accomplish. Purpose statements are made for
both quantitative and qualitative research studies. One example of each
are as follows

Quantitative Example(s):

1. "The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of an

animated agent using Socratic-like questioning approach on student
performance duringa setof disassembly tasks performed in a CBI
simulation program" (Perez & Solomon, 2005, p. 49).

2. Star Wars: It has been witnessed on numerous occasions that

Wookies may have a predisposed aggressive temperament towards
droids (e.g ., C3PO, R2D2). This study investigates whether or not
Wookies have an elevated level of aggression towards droids.

Qualitative Example(s):
1. "The purpose of this study is to explore parent stories regarding
Internet communications with teachers about their students in one
Midwestern school district" (Creswell, 2008, p. 121).

2. Star Wars: "This study investigates the way in which wookies

communicate with droids."

Research Questions

Research questions should narrow the focus of the purpose statement.

They restate the purpose in more specific terms. It may be necessary to
formulate several research questions.

Hypotheses

Hypotheses are similar to quantitative research questions in that they

narrow the focus of the purpose statement. They are different, however,
in that they are predictive. Hypotheses explain the end result of a
particular treatment, trial, and/or experiment. Hypotheses will be
reported as Null and as Alternative. The Null hypothesis is stated to
reflect that a dependent variable does not respond to an independent
variable. OR, that there is no difference between the control group and
experimental group following a given "treatment".

TABLEEEEE

Writing a Literature Review

The aim of a literature review is to show your reader (your tutor) that
you have read, and have a good grasp of, the main published work
concerning a particular topic or question in your field. This work may be
in any format, including online sources. It may be a separate
assignment, or one of the introductory sections of a report, dissertation
or thesis. In the latter cases in particular, the review will be guided by
your research objective or by the issue or thesis you are arguing and
will provide the framework for your further work.

It is very important to note that your review should not be simply a

description of what others have published in the form of a set of
summaries, but should take the form of a critical discussion,
showing insight and an awareness of differing arguments, theories and
 approaches. It should be a synthesis and analysis of the relevant
published work, linked at all times to your own purpose and rationale.

According to Caulley (1992) of La Trobe University, the literature review

should:
 compare and contrast different authors' views on an issue
 group authors who draw similar conclusions
 criticise aspects of methodology
 note areas in which authors are in disagreement
 highlight exemplary studies highlight gaps in research
 show how your study relates to previous studies
 show how your study relates to the literature in general
 conclude by summarizing what the literature says

The purposes of the review are:

 to define and limit the problem you are working on
 to place your study in an historical perspective
 to avoid unnecessary duplication
 to evaluate promising research methods
 to relate your findings to previous knowledge and suggest further
research

A good literature review, therefore, is critical of what has been written,

identifies areas of controversy, raises questions and identifies areas
which need further research.

Structure of the Literature Review

The overall structure of your review will depend largely on your own
thesis or research area. What you will need to do is to group together
and compare and contrast the varying opinions of different writers on
certain topics. What you must not do is just describe what one writer
says, and then go on to give a general overview of another writer, and
then another, and so on. Your structure should be dictated instead by
topic areas, controversial issues or by questions to which there are
varying approaches and theories. Within each of these sections, you
would then discuss what the different literature argues, remembering to
link this to your own purpose.

Linking words are important. If you are grouping together writers with
similar opinions, you would use words or phrases such as:

● similarly, in addition, also, again

 More importantly, if there is disagreement, you need to indicate clearly
that you are aware of this by the use of linkers such as:

● however, on the other hand, conversely, nevertheless

At the end of the review you should include a summary of what the literature
implies, which again links to your hypothesis or main question.

Writing the Review

You first need to decide what you need to read. In many cases you will be
given a booklist or directed towards areas of useful published work. Make sure
you use this help. With dissertations, and particularly theses, it will be more
down to you to decide. It is important, therefore, to try and decide on the
parameters of your research. What exactly are your objectives and what do
you need to find out? In your review, are you looking at issues of theory,
methodology, policy, quantitative research, or what? Before you start reading
it may be useful to compile a list of the main areas and questions involved,
and then read with the purpose of finding out about or answering these.
Unless something comes up which is particularly important, stick to this list, as
it is very easy to get sidetracked, particularly on the internet.

A good literature review needs a clear line of argument. You therefore need to
use the critical notes and comments you made whilst doing your reading to
express an academic opinion. Make sure that:
 you include a clear, short introduction which gives an outline of the
review, including the main topics covered and the order of the
arguments, with a brief rationale for this.
 there is always a clear link between your own arguments and the
evidence uncovered in your reading. Include a short summary at the
end of each section. Use quotations if appropriate.
 you always acknowledge opinions which do not agree with your thesis.
If you ignore opposing viewpoints, your argument will in fact be weaker.

Your review must be written in a formal, academic style. Keep your

writing clear and concise, avoiding colloquialisms and personal
language. You should always aim to be objective and respectful of
others' opinions; this is not the place for emotive language or strong
personal opinions. If you thought something was rubbish, use words
such as "inconsistent", "lacking in certain areas" or "based on false
 assumptions"! (See Guide 1.21)

When introducing someone's opinion, don't use "says", but instead an

appropriate verb which more accurately reflects this viewpoint, such as
"argues", "claims" or "states". Use the present tense for general
opinions and theories, or the past when referring to specific research or
experiments:

Although Trescothick (2001) argues that attack is the best form of

defence, Boycott (1969) claims that ...

In a field study carried out amongst the homeless of Sydney, Warne

(1999) found that ...

Use of Secondary Data

Secondary data refers to data that was collected by someone other than
the user. Common sources of secondary data for social science include
censuses, information collected by government departments,
organizational records and data that was originally collected for other
research purposes. Primary data, by contrast, are collected by the
investigator conducting the research.

Secondary data analysis can save time that would otherwise be spent
collecting data and, particularly in the case of quantitative data, can
provide larger and higher-quality databases that would be unfeasible for
any individual researcher to collect on their own. In addition, analysts of
social and economic change consider secondary data essential, since
itis impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture
past change and/or developments. However, secondary data analysis
can be less useful in marketing research, as data may be outdated or
inaccurate.

Sources of Secondary Data

Secondary data can be obtained from different sources:

 information collected through censuses or government departments like
housing, social security, electoral statistics, tax records
 internet searches or libraries
 progress reports
 Administrative Data and Census

Government departments and agencies routinely collect information

when registering people or carrying out transactions, or for record
keeping - usually when delivering a service. This information is called
administrative data.

It can include:
 personal information such as names, dates of birth, addresses
 information about schools and educational achievements
 information about health
 information about criminal convictions or prison sentences
 tax records, such as income

A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording

information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly
occurring and official count of a particular population. It is a type of
administrative data, but it is collected for the purpose of research at
specific intervals. Most administrative data is collected continuously and
for the purpose of delivering a service to the people.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data

Secondary data is available from other sources and may already have been
used in previous research, making it easier to carry out further research. It is
time-saving and cost-efficient: the data was collected by someone other than
the researcher. Administrative data and census data may cover both larger
and much smaller samples of the population in detail. Information collected by
the government will also cover parts of the population that may be less likely
to respond to the census (in countries where this is optional).

A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background work
needed has already been carried out, such as literature reviews or case
studies. The data may have been used in published texts and statistics
elsewhere, and the data could already be promoted in the media or bring in
useful personal contacts. Secondary data generally have a pre-established
degree of validity and reliability which need not be re-examined by the
researcher who is re-using such data.

Secondary data can provide a baseline for primary research to compare the
collected primary data results to and it can also be helpful in research design.
However, secondary data can present problems, too. The data may be out of
date or inaccurate. If using data collected for different research purposes, it
may not cover those samples detail of the population researchers want to
examine, or not in sufficient detail. Administrative data, which is not originally
collected for research, may not be available in the usual research formats or
may be difficult to get access to.

Secondary Analysis or Re-Use of Qualitative Data

Qualitative data re-use provides a unique opportunity to study the raw

materials of the recent or more distant past to gain insights for both
methodological and theoretical purposes.

In the secondary analysis of qualitative data, good documentation cannot be

underestimated as it provides necessary background and much needed
context both of which make re-use a more worthwhile and systematic
endeavor. Actually, one could go as far as claim that qualitative secondary
data analysis "can be understood, not so much as the analysis of pre-existing
data; rather as involving a process of re-contextualizing, and re-constructing,
data."

Data Collection Methods

The choice of method is influenced by the data collection strategy, the type of
variable, the accuracy required, the collection point and the skill of the
enumerator. Links between a variable, its source and practical methods for its
collection can help in choosing appropriate methods. The main data collection
methods are:

● Registration: registers and licences are particularly valuable for complete

enumeration, but are limited to variables that change slowly, such as numbers
of fishing vessels and their characteristics.

● Questionnaires: forms which are completed and returned by respondents.

An inexpensive method that is useful where literacy rates are high and
respondents are co-operative.

● Interviews: forms which are completed through an interview with the

respondent. More expensive than questionnaires, but they are better for more
complex questions, low literacy or less co-operation.
● Direct observations: making direct measurements is the most accurate
method for many variables, such as catch, but is often expensive. Many
methods, such as observer programmes, are limited to industrial fisheries.

● Reporting: the main alternative to making direct measurements is to require

fishers and others to report their activities. Reporting requires literacy and co-
operation, but can be backed up by a legal requirement and direct
measurements.

Transaction Modes

There are different modes in which read consistency is performed.

Using Discrete Transactions

You can improve the performance of short, non-distributed transactions by

using the BEGIN_DISCRETE_TRANSACTION procedure. This procedure
streamlines transaction processing so that short transactions can execute
faster.

Deciding When to Use Discrete Transactions

Discrete transaction processing is useful for transactions that:

︎Modify only a few database blocks.

︎Never change an individual database block more than once per

transaction.

︎Do not modify data likely to be requested by long-running queries.

︎Do not need to see the new value of data after modifying the data.

︎Do not modify tables containing any LONG values.

In deciding to use discrete transactions, you should consider the following

factors:

︎Can the transaction be designed to work within the constraints placed on

discrete transactions, as described in "Using Discrete Transactions".

︎Does using discrete transactions result in a significant performance

improvement under normal usage conditions?

Discrete transactions can be used concurrently with standard transactions.

Choosing whether to use discrete transactions should be a part of your normal
tuning procedure. Discrete transactions can be used only for a subset of all
transactions, for sophisticated users with advanced application requirements.
However, where speed is the most critical factor, the performance
improvements can justify the design constraints.

How Discrete Transactions Work

During a discrete transaction, all changes made to any data are deferred until
the transaction commits. Redo information is generated, but it is stored in a
separate location in memory.

When the transaction issues a commit request, the redo information is written
to the redo log file (along with other group commits), and the changes to the
database block are applied directly to the block. The block is written to the
database file in the usual manner. Control is returned to the application after
the commit completes. Oracle does not need to generate undo information,
because the block is not actually modified until the transaction is committed,
and the redo information is stored in the redo log buffers.

As with other transactions, the uncommitted changes of a discrete transaction

are not visible to concurrent transactions. For regular transactions, undo
information is used to re-create old versions of data for queries that require a
consistent view of the data. Because no undo information is generated for
discrete transactions, a discrete transaction that starts and completes during
any query can cause the query to receive the "snapshot too old" error if the
query requests data changed by the discrete transaction. For this reason, you
might avoid performing queries that access a large subset of a table that is
modified by frequent discrete transactions.

Errors During Discrete Transactions

Any errors encountered during processing of a discrete transaction cause the

predefined exception DISCRETE_TRANSACTION_FAILED to be raised.
These errors include the failure of a discrete transaction to comply with the
usage notes outlined below. (For example, calling BEGIN DISCRETE
TRANSACTION after a transaction has begun, or attempting to modify the
same database block more than once during a transaction, raises the
exception.)

Using Discrete Transactions

The BEGIN DISCRETE TRANSACTION procedure must be called before the

first statement in a transaction. This call to the procedure is effective only for
the duration of the transaction (that is, after the transaction is committed or
rolled back, the next transaction is processed as a standard transaction).

Transactions that use this procedure cannot participate in distributed

transactions.

Although discrete transactions cannot see their own changes, you can obtain
the old value and lock the row, using the FOR UPDATE clause of the SELECT
statement, before updating the value.

Because discrete transactions cannot see their own changes, a discrete

transaction cannot perform inserts or updates on both tables involved in a
referential integrity constraint.

For example, assume that the emp table has a FOREIGN KEY constraint on
the deptno column that refers to the dept table. A discrete transaction cannot
attempt to add a department into the dept table and then add an employee
belonging to that department, because the department is not added to the
table until the transaction commits, and the integrity constraint requires that
the department exist before an insert into the emp table can occur. These two
operations must be performed in separate discrete transactions.

Because discrete transactions can change each database block only once,
some combinations of data manipulation statements on the same table are
better suited for discrete transactions than others. One INSERT statement and
one UPDATE statement used together are the least likely to affect the same
block. Multiple UPDATE statements are also unlikely to affect the same block,
depending on the size of the affected tables. Multiple INSERT statements (or
INSERT statements that use queries to specify values), however, are likely to
affect the same database block. Multiple DML operations performed on
separate tables only affect the same database blocks if the tables are
clustered.