A PROJECT REPORT

ON
Pre-cast Construction Elements Erection
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF
DIPLOMA IN
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED TO
MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, MUMBAI

SUBMITTED BY

 KIRAN SHIVAJI SANNAKI (23112490135)

 MAYUR SUDHAKAR DHIVARE (23112490144)
 ADITYA SUHAS SALI (2116290018)
 NEELAVENI KARIYAPPA CHALWADI (23112490168)

GUIDED BY
Prof. VANVE DEVIDAS

Alamuri Ratnamala Institute of Engineering and Technology

2024 – 25

i|Page
 Alamuri Ratnamala Institute of Engineering and Technology

CERTIFICATE
This is to Certify that the project report entitled
“Pre-cast Construction Elements Erection”
Was successfully completed by Student of sixth semester Diploma in (civil
engineering).

1. KIRAN SHIVAJI SANNAKI 23112490135

2. MAYUR SUDHAKAR DHIVARE 23112490144
3. ADITYA SUHAS SALI 2116290018
4. NEELAVENI KARIYAPPA CHALWADI 23112490168

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Diploma in civil
engineering and submitted to the Department of diploma in civil engineering of
Alamuri Ratnamala Institute of Engineering and Technology. work carried out
during a period for the academic year 2024 - 25 as per curriculum .

Prof . Devidas Vanve Prof . Devidas Vanve

Guide HOD

Prof . Kshitij Pandey

External Examiner Principal

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my project

guide Prof . Devidas Vanve as well as our principal prof. kshitij pandey
who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the
topic
‘Study and demonstration of water shed management structures and
techniques , which also helped me in doing a lot of research and i came to
know about so many new things I am really thankful to them.
Secondly I would also like to thank my parents and friends who
helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.

Date : KIRAN SHIVAJI SANNAKI (23112490135)

Place : MAYUR SUDHAKAR DHIVARE (23112490144)

ADITYA SUHAS SALI (2116290018)

NEELAVENI KARIYAPPA CHALWADI (23112490168)

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 DECLARATION

We, declare that this written submission represents our ideas in our own
words and where others' ideas or words have been included, I have
adequately cited and referenced the original sources. We also declare that
we have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and
have not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any
idea/data/fact/source in our submission. We understand that any violation
of the above will be cause for disciplinary action by the Institute and can
also evoke penal action from the sources which have thus not been
properly cited or from whom proper permission has not been taken when
needed.

Name of student Signature

1. KIRAN SHIVAJI SANNAKI ______________________

2. MAYUR SUDHAKAR DHIVARE ______________________

3. ADITYA SUHAS SALI ______________________

4. NEELAVENI KARIYAPPA CHALWADI ______________________

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 ABSTRACT

The prefabricated building technology is a dry construction

process that provides a fast, safer and greener way to build. The
aim of this research work is to study joints primarily considering
precast concrete elements which are used in buildings which
may be referred to for handling, jointing and erection where
appropriate that can allow year-round construction, could lead to
less wastage of materials than in site construction. It can also
ensure higher worker safety and comfort level in site-built
construction.

logical unit but also

socio-political-ecological
entity which plays
crucial role in

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determining food,
social, and economical
security and provides
life support services to
rural people. The criteria
for selecting
watershed size also
depend on the
objectives of the
development and terrain
slope.
A large watershed can
be managed in plain
valley areas or where
forest or pasture
development is the
main objective. In hilly

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areas or where
intensive agriculture
development is planned,
the size of watershed
relatively preferred

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter No CONTENTS Page No

ABSTRACT v

LIST OF FIGURES vii

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Delineation of Watershed 2

1.2 Objective of the project 4

Chapter 2 LITERATURE SURVEY 5

2.1 History of Watershed Development Program in India 5

2.2 Impact Assessment 6

2.3 Different aspects of watershed managemen 8

Chapter 3 SCOPE OF PROJECT 10

Chapter 4 METHODOLOGY 11

4.1 Type of watershed 11

4.1.1 Conture bund 11

4.1.2 Bench terranch 12

4.1.3 Chack dam 13

4.1.4 Gabion structure 14

Chapter 5 DETAILS OF DESIGNS, WORKING AND PROCESSES 16

5.1 Steps in Watershed planning 16

5.2 Land capability classification 17

Chapter 6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 19

Chapter 7 APPENDIX 21

7.1 Principal of watershed management 21

7.2 Factors that determine the geomorphologic characteristics of a 22

watershed

7.3 Scale delineating the watershed 23

Chapter 8 REFERENCES 24

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Chapter 9 PHOTO 25

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title Page No.

Figure 1.1 Water stream network 2
Figure 2.3 Different aspects of watershed management 7
Figure 4.1.1 Conture bund 10
Figure 4.1.2 Bench terrench 11
Figure 4.1.3 Chach dam 12
Figure 4.1.4 Gabion structure 13
Figure 9.1 Chach dam 25
Figure 9.2 Gabion structure 25
Figure 9.3 Bench terrench 26
Figure 9.4 Conture bund 26
Figure 9.5 Making Gabion structure 27

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 1. INTRODUCTION

Water is an essential to our existance or the breathing air. We can survive without food
for several weeks, but without water we would die in a few days. Watershed is a
geohydrological unit or piece of land that drain at a common point. It is defined as the
“any spatial area from which rain or irrigation water is collected and drained through
a common point”. It is a geographic region which hydrological conditions are such
that water becomes concentrated within a particular location, eg: a river or reservoir,
by which the watershed is drained. The watershed is important sources of drinking
water.

Watershed management is a form meant to capture the sum of the action taken to
preserve and maintain watersheds. The watersheds the land area draining to a point on
a stream or river, is nature’s production unit for water supplies. It is the process of
guiding and co-ordinating use of land and water resources in a watershed. The
management of watershed includes all measurements that can be taken to protect,
manage, and conserve water and related land resources.

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Delineation of
Watershed
Hydrologically,
watershed is an area
from which the runo
ows to a common
point on the drainage
system. Every stream,
tributary, or river has
an associated
watershed, and small
watersheds aggregate
together to become
larger watersheds.
Water travels from
headwater to the
ii
downward location and
meets with similar
strength of stream, then
it forms one order higher
stream as shown in
Figure-2.
The stream order is a
measure of the degree
of stream branching
within a watershed.
Each length of stream
is indicated by its order
(for example, rst-
order, second-
order, etc.). The start or
headwaters of a
stream, with no other
streams owing
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into it, is called the rst-
order stream. First-
order streams ow
together to form a
second-order stream.
Second-order streams
ow into a third-order
stream and
so on. Stream order
describes the relative
location of the reach in
the watershed.
Identifying stream order
is useful to understand
amount of water
availability in
reach and its quality;
and also used as criteria
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to divide larger
watershed into smaller
unit. Moreover, criteria
for selecting watershed
size also depend on the
objectives
of the development and
terrain slope. A large
watershed can be
managed in plain
valley areas or where
forest or pasture
development is the main
objective (Singh,
2000). In hilly areas or
where intensive
agriculture development
is planned, the size
v
of watershed relatively
preferred is smal
1.1 Delineation of Watershed

Hydrologically, watershed is an area from which the runoff flows to a

common
point on the drainage system. Every stream, tributary, or river has an
associated
watershed, and small watersheds aggregate together to become larger
watersheds.
Water travels from headwater to the downward location and meets with
similar
strength of stream, then it forms one order higher stream as shown in Figure-2.
The stream order is a measure of the degree of stream branching within a
watershed.
Each length of stream is indicated by its order (for example, first-order,
second-
order, etc.). The start or headwaters of a stream, with no other streams
flowing
into it, is called the first-order stream. First-order streams flow together to
form a
second-order stream. Second-order streams flow into a third-order stream
and
so on. Stream order describes the relative location of the reach in the
watershed.
Identifying stream order is useful to understand amount of water
availability in
reach and its quality; and also used as criteria to divide larger watershed into
smaller
unit. Moreover, criteria for selecting watershed size also depend on the
objectives
of the development and terrain slope. A large watershed can be managed in
vi
plain
valley areas or where forest or pasture development is the main objective
(Singh,
2000). In hilly areas or where intensive agriculture development is planned,
the size
of watershed relatively preferred is smal

Fig – 1.1 – Water stream network

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1.2 Objective of the project

1. To control damaging runoff and degradation and thereby conservation of

soil and water.
2. To manage and utilize the runoff water for useful purpose.
3. To protect, conserve and improve the land of watershed for more efficient
and sustained production.
4. To protect and enhance the water resource originating in the watershed.
5. To check soil erosion and to reduce the effect of sediment yield on the
watershed. •
6. To rehabilitate the deteriorating lands.
7. To moderate the floods peaks at down stream areas.
8. To increase infiltration of rainwater.
9. To improve and increase the production of timbers, fodder and wild life
resource.
10. To enhance the ground water recharge, wherever applicable.

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 2. LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 History of Watershed Development Program in India

About 60 per cent of total arable land (142 million ha) in India is rain-fed,
characterized
by low productivity, low income, low employment with high incidence of poverty
and a bulk of fragile and marginal land (Joshi et al. 2008). Rainfall pattern in
these areas are highly variable both in terms of total amount and its distribution,
which lead to moisture stress during critical stages of crop production and makes
agriculture production vulnerable to pre and post production risk. Watershed
development projects in the country has been sponsored and implemented by
Government of India from early 1970s onwards. The journey through the evolution
of watershed approach evolved in India is shown in Figure-1 (Wani et al. 2005 and
2006). Various watershed development programs like Drought Prone Area Program
(DPAP), Desert Development Program (DDP), River Valley Project (RVP),
National
Watershed Development Project for Rain-fed Areas (NWDPRA) and Integrated
Wasteland Development Program (IWDP) were launched subsequently in various
hydro-ecological regions, those were consistently being affected by water stress
and draught like situations. Entire watershed development program was primarily
focused on structural-driven compartmental approach of soil conservation
and rainwater harvesting during 1980s and before. In spite of putting efforts for
maintaining soil conservation practices (example, contour bunding, pits excavations
etc.), farmers used to plow out these practices from their fields. It was felt that a
straightjacket top-down approach can not make desired impact in watersheds and
mix up of individual and community based interventions are essential.

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2.2 Impact Assessment

2.2.1 Increase in ground water level

Increase in ground water table in watershed areas is one of the important measurable
indicators of successful watershed programme. Various factors are accountable for
increase in ground water. The water harvesting structures play a key role by storing
water and allow sufficient time for water to percolate into the ground. Land
development activities such as contour bunding, land levelling and cultivation
practices also contribute towards accumulation of ground water. The increased water
levels also render some respite in the drinking water situation in the project villages

.2.2.2 Increase in surface water and stream flow

Increase in surface water or stream flow is another indicator that can help
establishing positive impact of watershed development programmes on physical
factors. Both surface water and stream flow has increased during the post watershed
development programmes in many states

.2.2.3 Soil erosion reduction

The best performing watersheds are those where soil erosion was reduced by more
than 50 percent and the worst performing are the ones where there is 19 an increase in
soil erosion or the implementation failed in arresting soil erosion. Uttar Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu feature in best performing states. This could be attributed to the fact that
there is a linkage in quality and status of water harvesting structures. In other states as
well there is reduction in soil erosion but with certain degree of variations.

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2.2.4 Runoff reduction

With regards to runoff reduction it was observed that the programme is successful in
achieving this goal. Runoff is indicating a positive impact in most of the project areas.
According to the beneficiaries this has been possible because of the contour bunding
or field bunding which has also helped in checking the runoff of rainwater resulting in
soil moisture retention.

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2.3 Different aspects of watershed managemen

The all activities related to watershed management in a geo-hydrologic area

can be
concentrated into a few aspects. If some of stakeholder group wants, they can manage
a
watershed by applying more irrigation and water management techniques, or
applying
soil conservation and land management techniques or applying ecological and
forest
management techniques or applying institutional and socio-economic techniques.

Most probably, selected aspects can be used by a recognized institutional body. As

an
example Agricultural ministry of a country may use soil conservation and land
management techniques for managing a selected watershed. Then we call that
the
watershed management programme launched through soil conservation and land
management aspect. However, if somebody or institutional body is going to
mange a
watershed through all these four aspects, it becomes an integrated aspect or
holistic
approach (Figure 2.3). Generally most suitable way is concentrating all these aspects
for
a watershed management project.

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 Fig -2.3- Different aspects of watershed management

3. SCOPE OF PROJECT

Present Scenario Future Scenario

1. Treating the symptoms of watershed Identifying and treating the underlying causes of
degradation watershed degradation

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2. Priority focus on off-site/downstream costs At minimum, equal priority to on-site costs and
and benefits of watershed management; benefits of watershed management;

3. Inadequate project designs that often Project design that provides for adequate
overestimate government capacity and assume government capacity and assurance of policy
policy changes will occur; changes;
4. Top down research and development and Emphasis on stakeholder participatory learning
transfer of technology; and technology development process;

5. Diffuse focus of watershed management that Sustainable multiple-use management of

often maximizes production of watersheds that combines water resources
resources/commodities other than water and development with compatible economic land
soil; based production systems;
6. Encroachment of integrated rural Multiple use management of natural resources
development approach with multi-sectoral (renewable and non-renewable) with emphasis
steering committees and line agencies [which on water and soil resources in upland
for the most part has been a failure] into the watersheds with development responsibility
integrated watershed management concept. given to the relevant line agency.

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 4. METHODOLOGY

4.1 TYPES OF WATERSHED

Watersheds is classified depending upon the size,drainage, shape and land use
pattern.
1. Macro watershed (> 50,000 Hect)
2. Sub-watershed (10,000 to 50,000 Hect)
3. Milli-watershed (1000 to10000 Hect)
4. Micro watershed (100 to 1000 Hect)
5. Mini watershed (1-100 Hect)

4.1.1 CONTOUR BUND

a.FUNCTION
To intercept the run off flowing down the slope by an
embankment.

b. GENERAL INFORMATION
It helps to control run off velocity. The embankment may be
closed or open, surplus arrangements are provided wherever
necessary.

c. COST
Approximate cost of laying contour bund is Rs.1400 / ha.

d. SALIENT FEATURES
i. It can be adopted on all soils

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ii. It can be laid upto 6% slopes.

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 Fig – 4.1.1 – Contour bund

4.1.2 BENCH TERRACING

a. FUNCTION
• It helps to bring sloping land into different level strips to enable cultivation.

b. GENERAL INFORMATION
• It consists of construction of step like fields along contours by half cutting
and half filling. Original slope is converted into level fields. The vertical &
horizontal intervals are decided based on level slope.

c. COST
Approximate cost for laying the terrace is Rs.5000 / ha.

d. SALIENT FEATURES
i. Suitable for hilly regions.
ii. The benches may be inward sloping to drain off excess water.
iii. The outward sloping benches will help to reduce the existing steep slope
to mild one.

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 Fig –
4.1.2 - Bench terracing

4.1.3 CHACK DAM

a.FUNCTION
Check dams are temporary structures designed across drainage systems,
ditches and swales to control stormwater runoff, prevent erosion, traps
sediment, and prevent it from passing through the dam. Check dams are
mostly constructed using rocks, sediment retention fiber rolls, stones, sand and
gravel bags.

b. GENERAL INFORMATION
A check dam is a small, sometimes temporary, dam constructed across a
swale, drainage ditch, or waterway to counteract erosion by reducing water
flow velocity

c. COST
Cost varies from Rs. 40000/- to Rs. 100000/- per unit

d. SALIENT FEATURES
i. A low weir normally constructed across the gullies
ii. Constructed on small streams and long gullies formed by erosive

xviii
 activity of flood water
iii. It cuts the velocity and reduces erosive activity
iv. The stored water improves soil moisture of the adjoining area and
allows percolation to recharge the aquifers
v. Spacing between the check dams water spread of one should be
beyond the water spread of the other
vi. Height depends on the bank height, varies from a metre to 3 metre and
length varies from less than 3m to 10m
vii. Cost varies from Rs. 40000/- to Rs. 100000/- per unit

Fig – 4.1.3- Chack dam

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4.1.4 GABION STRUCTURE

a.FUNCTION
The original purpose of gabions was to retain earth. But that's not always the
case. Gabions can be used to block out sounds and noises. They can be used to
direct the flow of water, reduce water velocity, and prevent erosion.

b. GENERAL INFORMATION
A gabion is a mechanism made of wire that cages in sizeable debris. This
word is actually a derivative of another that means large cage. The contents
most often seen underneath the wires are types of terrain such as rocks and
boulders, dirt, soil, or logs

c. COST
Gabion Retaining Walls, Thickness: Standard at Rs 650/cubic meter

d. SALIENT FEATURES

Fig - 4.1.4 - gabion structure

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 5. DETAILS OF DESIGN, WORKING AND PROCESSES

5.1 Steps in Watershed planning

 Preparation of base maps for carrying out surveys.

 Reconnaissance survey of the watershed for overall development.
 Assessing rainfall characteristics.
 Preparation of soil maps and classification of lands for different uses
according to capability classification for agriculture, forestry, pasture,
horticulture, etc.
 Preparation of inventory of existing land uses and farm sizes.
 Appraisal of agricultural production patterns and potentials, present
and potential markets and possible group action arrangements.
 Carrying out topographic and hydrologic surveys for engineering
works.
 Geo-hydrological survey to delineate areas suitable for groundwater
development.
 Formulation of an integrated time-bound plan for land and moisture
conservation, ground water. recharge, development of productive
afforestation, agriculture production, grasslands and horticulture.
 Assigning of priorities for implementation of the project.
 Assessing social costs and benefits.

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5.2 Land capability classification

Class I:
This type of land is nearly level, with minimum erosion, the soils are deep, well
drained, with adequate water holding capacity. These soils need ordinary management
practices to maintain productivity. Such practices may include the use of one or more
of the following fertilisers, lime cover and green manure crops, conservation of crop
residues aAd crop rotation. They are fit for agriculture, pasture, forests, etc.
Class II:
These soils have some limitations. They are subject to slight erosion, as they are
slightly sloping lands, with less soil depth, occasional drainage problems that can be
easily corrected, and they are sometimes saline. They may need one or more of the
following practices terracing, strip-cropping, contour cultivation, excess water
drainage, crop rotation, use of green manure crops, stubble mulching, the use of
fertilisers, manure and lime.
These soils may be used for growing cultivated crops, raising pastures, forests, etc.
Class III:
The factors that limit plant growth are more severe than in class II. These factors
could be moderately sloping land, land susceptible to water or wind erosion, land
more susceptible to drainage problems, land with water-logging, shallow soil depth,
low moisture holding capacity and moderate salinity.
Class IV:
The limitations to plant growth is more severe here than in Class III soils. Very
careful management is required and the conservation practices are more difficult to
apply and maintain. Some of the factors affecting these lands are steep slopes, severe
susceptibility to water and wind erosion, shallow soils, low moisture holding capacity,
severe water-logging and severe salinity. These soils can be used for crops, pastures,
forests and wildlife food, etc.

xxii
Class V:
Cultivation is not feasible because of one or more limitations, such as over flow,
stoniness, wetness or severe climatic conditions. Examples of this class are soils of
low lands subject to frequent over flows which prevent the normal production of
cultivated crops, or rocky or stony terrain. These soils are suitable for raising
cultivated crops but are not suitable for perennial vegetation.
Class VI:
These soils have very severe limitations that make them generally unsuitable for
cultivation and limit their use largely to pastures or forests or wildlife food and cover.
Some of the limitations which cannot be corrected are: steep slope, very severe
erosion hazard, shallow rooting zone, excessive wetness, low moisture capacity and
severe salinity.
Class VII:
The physical condition of the soil is such that it is not practical to adopt pasture
improvements and water control practices.
Class VIII:
Bad lands, rocky out crops, sandy beaches, marshes, deserts, mine tailings and other
nearly barren lands may be included in this class. It may be necessary to give
protection and management for plant growth to soils and land forms in class VIII in
order to protect other more valuable soils, to control water, or for wildlife or for
aesthetic reasons.

xxiii
 6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

Although watershed management activities have contributed significantly to reducing

land degradation and improving the quality of life and livelihood opportunities for
many people throughout the world, the real potential of watershed management has
yet to be realised. Factors such as outdated approaches, poor project design,
inadequate and/or unsustained financial resources, very short time frames for project
interventions and a lack of adequate understanding of the linkages between upland
and lowland areas have contributed to under-achievement of watershed interventions.
However, during the last decade in particular, new and innovative approaches to
watershed management have been developed which have demonstrated better results
and show promise of bringing about long term and sustained positive change with
respect to environmental, social and economic conditions Unfortunately, little effort
has been made to take stock of these new and promising approaches and to
consolidate lessons learned for the future design of watershed interventions.

In view of the issues mentioned above, an assessment and review of achieved results
and lessons learned in watershed management are considered as a prerequisite not
only to provide answers and clarifications on the emerging issues but mainly as an
important preparatory stage for the next generation of watershed management projects
and development programmes. Based on an in-depth analysis of watershed
management activities carried out over the last few decades, with emphasis on the last
decade (1990-2000), and taking advantage of opportunities provided by the
International Year of Mountains 2002 and the International Year of Freshwater 2003,
guidelines for future watershed management programmes are being developed taking
into account achieved results and existing gaps in watershed management.

By systematically reviewing both successes and failures in watershed management

interventions in recent years, an important opportunity exists to develop a new
generation of watershed management programmes which will be more effective at
reducing environmental degradation and improving the lives of the rural poor in a
long term context. Additionally, through better design and fuller and more integrated
consideration of both upstream and downstream concerns, future interventions should

xxiv
be able to have greater overall benefit through a more balanced approach which
includes a major focus on the sustainable use and conservation of water resources.
Through improved partnership and innovation, the new generation of watershed
management programmes has the potential to make a very significant contribution to
sustainable development in mountain and lowland areas throughout the world.

xxv
 7. APPENDIX

7.1 Principles of watershed management

Based on resource conservation, generation and utilisation are:

1) Land utilisation based on land capability

2) Top soil protection
3) Reducing the silting of water resources
4) Keep vegetative cover whole the year
5) Rain water conservation
6) Proper drainage facility for excess water
7) Practicing the soil conservation measures like grassed waterways etc.
8) Construction of check dams
9) Increasing ground water storage
10) Inter and sequence cropping
11) Efficient use of marginal lands
12) Water harvesting for life-saving irrigation
13) Maintaining sustainability of ecosystem
14) Increasing farm income through integrated farming system
15) Increase in basic fundamental facilities like transport and agricultural
16) marketing
17) Practicing alternate land use systems
18) Establishment of small agro-industries
19) Improving farmers status through socio-economic change

xxvi
 7.2 Factors that determine the geomorphologic characteristics of a
watershed:

7.2.1 Precipitation: The greatest factor controlling stream flow is the amount of
precipitation that is in the form of rain or snow. This fed the river and the streams
down flow along the path, serving as the main source. Thus the change in the amount
of precipitation will affect the characteristics of watershed.

7.2.2 Infiltration: The amount of water that soaks or seeps inside the soil also
determines the watershed. When rain water soaks in (other than surface run off) and
infiltrates the soil it remain in the shallow soil layer, where it will gradually move
downhill, through the soil, and eventually enters the stream by seepage into the stream
bank. Water that infiltrate enters much deeper, recharging groundwater aquifers.
Water may travel long distances or remain in storage for long periods before returning
to the surface

7.2.3 Soil characteristics: The type of soil characteristics also determines the
watershed as clayey and rocky soils absorb less water at a slower rate than sandy
soils. Soil saturation happens where like wet sponge, soil already saturated from
previous rainfall cannot absorb water and result in surface runoff.

7.2.4 Land cover: Land covers have a great impact on infiltration and rainfall
runoff affecting the watershed where impervious surfaces leads to flooding of areas.

7.2.5 Slope of the land: The angle of the surface determines the amount of run off
where water falling on steeply-sloped land runs off more quickly than water falling on
flat land.

7.2.6 Evaporation: The watershed also depends on the amount of evaporation

determined by temperature, solar radiation, wind, atmospheric pressure, and other
factors.

xxvii
 7.2.7 Water use by people: Anthropogenic factor plays an important role as water
resource is usage varies from one place to the other. This greatly have an impact on
the characteristic of watershed that varies accordingly from upper stream and lower
stream river flow.

7.3 Scale delineating the watershed:

A watershed is a basin where water flows across or through on its way to a

common stream, river, or lake. A watershed can be very large (e.g. draining thousands
of square miles to a major river or lake or the ocean), or very small, such as a 20-acre
watershed that drains to a pond and sometimes a small watershed nests inside of a
larger watershed which is sometimes referred to as a sub watershed. Thus
identification of watershed largely depends on the area it covers depending on the
numbers of channels. A larger stream would create a larger basin in corresponding to
the smaller stream with a smaller basin. Fig. 5 & 6 shows the demarcation of larger
watershed and smaller or sub watershed looking at the numbers of streams flowing in
an area. The topography is greatly influenced by the river flowing on the particular
area. Thus maintaining a healthy watershed requires a systematic approach for
sustainable development. Application of Remote Sensing and GIS (Geographic
Information System) becomes a very important tool in delineating stream flow and
demarcation of watershed and sub watershed. It helps in analyzing the various
techniques that could be implemented in carrying research for maintaining watershed
management.

xxviii
8. REFERENCES

https://www.soppecom.org/pdf/Report1.pdf

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
266351616_Watershed_Management_Concept_and_Principles

https://dolr.gov.in/sites/default/files/Impact%20and
%20Effectiveness%20of%20WDP%20by%20LBS

https://bbsbec.edu.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/watershed-
management-8AG-PPT.pdf

https://www.fao.org/3/XII/0981-B3.htm

xxix
9. PHOTO

Fig.9.1. chack dam

xxx
 Fig.9.2 gabion structure

Fig.9.3 Bench terrench

Fig .9.4 conture bund

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Fig.9.5 making gabion structure

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