Module 1 Drying lectures
Module 1 Drying lectures
Mass Transfer II
Prepared by
Dr. Krushna Prasad Shadangi
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla, Odisha. India
Course
• Objective
• To study the principles and applications of drying of
solids in chemical industries
• To study the principles and applications of adsorption
techniques
• To study the fundamental principles and application of
liquid-liquid extraction techniques
• To study the fundamental principles and application of
Solid-liquid extraction techniques
• To study the working principles of various mass
transfer equipment
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Syllabus
• Module – I: Drying
Drying Equilibria, Drying rate curve, Batch and continuous drying.
Time of drying and calculations, mechanism of batch drying.
• Module – II: Adsorption
Theory of adsorption, Industrial absorbents, adsorption equilibria,
freundlich equation, single and multistage operations, Ion - Exchange.
• Module – III: Liquid - liquid Extraction
Introduction, liquid - liquid equilibria, analytical and graphical
solutions for single and multistage operations, continuous, counter current
operation without reflux, fractional extraction.
• Module – IV: Solid-Liquid Extraction
Operation of solid, steady and unsteady state operation, analytical
methods for single and multistage operations.
• Module – V: Mass Transfer Equipments
Drying equipment: Equipment for batch and continuous drying
operations. Adsorption equipment: Liquid-liquid extraction equipment: single
stage, multistage and continuous contacting equipment. Solid liquid
extraction equipment
Text Books:
• 1. R. E. Treybal, Mass Transfer Operations,
McGraw and Hills, 1980.
• 2. B. K. Dutta,Principles of Mass Transfer and
Separation Processes, PrenticeHall, 2005
• Reference Books:
• 1. W. L. McCabe &J. C. Smith, Unit
Operationof Chemical Engineering, McGraw&
Hills, 2005.
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Course Outcomes:
• Students will learn the mechanism of drying
operations
• Understanding of fundamentals and
applications of adsorption and
chromatographic separation process
• Understanding of fundamentals of separation
of components by liquid-liquid extraction
• Understanding the principle of leaching
• Student will understand about working
principle of various mass transfer equipment
Module 1
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Introduction
• Drying is an operation in which a liquid usually water is
removed from a wet solid in a equipment is termed as dryer.
• Drying does not mean only removal of the moisture but
during the process, physical structure as well as the
appearance
• Governed by the principles of transport of heat and mass
• The hot gases supplies the energy for drying
• Drying doesn’t ensure the complete removal of moisture
• The final product is solid from this process
Physical mechanism
• Drying is a diffusional process in which the transfer of moisture to the
surrounding medium takes place by the evaporation of surface moisture, as
soon as some of the surface moisture vaporizes, more moisture is
transported from interior of the solid to its surface.
• This transport of moisture within a solid takes place by a variety of
mechanisms depending upon the nature and type of the solid and its state of
aggregation.
• Mechanism of moisture transport
transport by capillary force
Vapour diffusion
pressure induced transport
• Depends on the nature of the solid, its pore structure and the rate of drying.
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• If the drying rate is high outer layer dries up first and contract
and there by generate a compressive force to squeeze out the
moisture from the interior
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Vapour diffusion
• The water concentration near the surface decreases as drying
proceeds.
• This creates a driving force for water diffusion from the
medium to the exposed surface
• At low moisture content, drying generates pores and
vaporization occurs below the surface.
• The vapour produced is diffused out from the solid and the
process is known as. ..
Resistance in drying
• Due to
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Fundamental terms
• Moisture content in dry basis: X
Weight of moisture per unit weight of bone dry substance = × 100 { }
• Moisture content in wet basis: x
Weight of moisture per unit weight of wet substance = × 100 { }
• Equilibrium moisture content: X*
At a particular temperature the moisture content of a solid that can remain in
equilibrium with the drying medium of a given relative humidity.
• Bound moisture content:
Moisture content of a substance which exerts as equilibrium vapor pressure less than
of the pure liquid at the same temperature is referred to as bound moisture.
• Unbound moisture content:
Moisture content of the solid which exerts an equilibrium vapor pressure equal to
that of pure liquid at the given temperature is the unbound moisture.
• Free moisture:
The moisture content of solid in excess of the equilibrium moisture content.
• Critical moisture content: at which the constant rate drying period ends and
the falling rate drying period starts
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Analytical method
when N varies linearly with X, then the drying rate N = m (Xc – X*)
∗
- = 𝑚 (𝑋𝑐 − 𝑋 ) N= -
∗
- = ∗ 𝑋𝑐 − 𝑋
( )
×
∗ = dt
∗
∗ ∗
× 𝑿𝒄 𝑿 𝑾𝒔(𝑿𝒄 𝑿 )
=∫ ∗ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 => tf = 𝐥𝐧
∗ 𝑿𝟐 𝑿∗ 𝑵× 𝒂
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• t = tc + tf
∗ ∗
𝑾𝒔 𝑾𝒔(𝑿𝒄 𝑿 ) 𝑿𝒄 𝑿
• t=- (Xi - Xc) + 𝐥𝐧
𝒂 𝑵× 𝒂 𝑿𝟐 𝑿∗
•
Numericals
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Classification of dryer
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Spray dryer
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Spray dryer
• Spray drying is a method of producing a dry powder from a liquid or slurry
by rapidly drying with a hot gas.
• Spray drying is a one-step continuous unit operation that employs liquid
atomization to produce droplets that are dried to individual particles when
moved in a hot gaseous drying medium.
• A spray dryer consists of
– a feed pump, atomizer, air heater, air dispenser, drying chamber and systems
for exhaust air cleaning and powder recovery/separator.
• The three stages that occurs in a spray dryer before drying is accomplished
includes.
– Atomization
– Spray-air mixing and moisture evaporation.
– Dry product separation from the exit air.
• The nature of the final product obtained after drying in a spray dryer
depends on;
– The design and operation of the spray dryer.
– The physicochemical properties of the feed.
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Uses
• Chemical industries e.g. phenol-formaldehyde resin, catalysts, PVC emulsion type,
amino acids etc.
• Ceramic industries e.g. aluminium oxide, carbides, iron oxides, kaoline etc.
• Dye stuffs and pigments e.g. chrome yellow, food colour, titanium dioxide, paint
pigments etc.
• Fertilizer production e.g. nitrates, ammonium salts, phosphates etc.
• Detergent and surface active agents e.g. detergent enzymes, bleach powders,
emulsifying agents
• Food industries e.g. milk, whey, egg, soya protein etc.
• Fruits and vegetables e.g. banana, tomatoes, coconut milk etc.
• Beverage e.g. coffee, tea etc.
• Biochemical industries e.g. algea, fodder antibiotics, yeast extracts, enzymes etc.
• Environmental pollution control e.g. flue gas desulfurization, black liquor from
paper-making etc.
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• Spray dryer produces dry powder particle of controllable particle size, shape, form,
moisture content and other specific properties irrespective of dryer capacity and
heat sensitivity.
• Spray dryer handles a wide range of production rate and provides extensive
flexibility in its design that is product specification are readily met through the
selection of appropriate spray dryer design and its operation from a wide range of
available design.
• It is an energy intensive equipment because;
– Specific heat of evaporation can be supplied in a short time.
– The temperature difference across the drying chamber is relatively small and
– An appreciable amount of heat is lost with exhaust air.
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Rotary Dryer
• The rotary dryer also known as tumbling dryer is an equipment
employed to minimize the moisture content of a feed material by
bringing it in direct contact with a heated gas.
• It consists of an inclined long drum or cylinderical shell often fitted
with internal flights or lifters; rotated slowly upon bearings through
which the material to be dried flow with a tumbling/cascading
action in concurrent (for heat sensitive materials) or counter-
current flow with the heating air or gases.
• The movement of the material is due to combined effect of
inclination of the shell to the horizontal and the internal tumbling
action or mechanical turn over thus the name tumbling dryer.
• The nature of the feed determines the directions of gas flow
through the cylinder and it is relative to the solid. This drying
equipment can also perform batch or continuous processing of the
wet feed.
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Uses
• They have also found use in the drying of
suspension, slurries, solutions, dilute paste or
sludges.
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Parameters to be controlled in
fluidized bed dryers (system)
• In order to improve operation, efficiency and reproducibility
of a fluidized bed dryer, some parameters need to be
controlled.
Apparatus/Equipment Parameter
• Position of the air distribution plate:
– This parameter influences the pattern.
• Shape of the instrument:
– The annular based design gives better product.
• Nozzle height:
– Nozzle height plays a vital role when fluidized bed
dryer is used as a coating machine. The atomized
coating solution should not get dried before
reaching the tablet surface.
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Process/Operating Parameter
• Temperature:
– Increased temperature leads to increased moisture
diffusivity and hence increased drying rate and decreased
drying time. The nature of the material plays an important
role in the choosing operating temperature.
• Humidity:
– Faster drying is achieved when the moisture content of the
inlet air is maintained at its minimum.
• Air flow rate/gas velocity:
– Increasing gas velocity increases drying rate but should be
maintained at optimized rate (not to fast or too slow). Gas
velocity has no effect on particles with high internal
resistance to moisture transfer
Product Parameters
• Moisture content of the feed material.
• Feed rate/batch size.
• Product moisture content.
• Particle size, shape and diameter.
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Tray Dryer
• operate in batch mode
• use racks to hold product
• circulate air over the material
• It consists of a rectangular chamber of sheet metal
containing trucks that support racks.
• Each rack carries a number of trays that are loaded with the
material to be dried.
• Hot air flows through the tunnel over the racks.
• Sometimes fans are used to on the tunnel wall to blow hot
air across the trays.
• Even baffles are used to distribute the air uniformly over
the stack of trays.
• Some moist air is continuously vented through exhaust
duct; makeup fresh air enters through the inlet.
• The racks with the dried product are taken to a tray-
dumping station.
Tray Dryer
• Uniform flow rate is required for uniform drying
• Controlling parameter is gas flow rate
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Uses
• useful when the production rate is small.
• Drying of filter cake, fine chemicals, fragile
materials and pasty substances
• Disadvantages
– have high labor requirement for loading and
unloading the materials, and are expensive to
operate
– Non-uniform drying due to stagnant air pockets
Advantages
• Low cost
• Less space requirements
• Ease of cleaning
• Good control of drying conditions
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Drum Dryer
• liquid containing dissolved solids or slurry
carrying suspended solids forms a thin layer
on the outside surface of a large rotating
drum.
• For a single drum unit thickness of the film
can be controlled by an adjustable scraping
blade.
• For double drum unit thickness can be
controlled by the gap between the drums
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Flash Dryer
• Operating principle to spray dryer.
• The materials that are to be dried (i.e. solid or semisolid) are dispersed in finely
divided form in an upward flowing stream of heated air.
• The wet materials that are to dried can be passed into a high-temperature air
stream that carries it to a hammer mill or high-speed agitator where the exposed
surface is increased.
• The drying rate is very high for these dryers (hence the term flash dryers), but the
solid temperature does not rise much because of the short residence time.
• The fine particles leave the mill through a small duct to maintain the carrying
velocities (drying gas) and reach a cyclone separator.
• A solid particle takes few seconds to pass from the point of entry into the air
stream to the collector. The inlet gas temperature is high and varies from 650oC to
315oC, for example, in 2 seconds, or from 650oC to 175oC in 4 seconds.
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• Microwave Drying
• Microwave heating is a direct drying method.
• High-frequency radio waves are utilized in microwave drying.
• A high-frequency generates the waves and wave channel guides them in
to an oven that is designed to prevent the waves from leaving the
chamber.
• In microwave drying, heat is generated by directly transforming the
electromagnetic energy in to kinetic molecular energy, thus the heat is
generated deep within the material to be dried.
• In case of microwave drying the waves bounce from wall to wall, until the
product absorbs eventually all of the energy, generating heat within the
material, resulting in dehydration.
• Vapour from the liquid evaporating inside the product is emitted through
the pore structure of the solid material‟s macro-capillary system, resulting
in a high drying rate.
• This type of dryer is highly efficient and power utilization efficiencies are
generally greater than 70 %.
Microwave Drying
• Selection of proper wavelength is necessary to ensure thorough
penetration into the material.
• Material type and depth of material being exposed also affect the
penetration.
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Advantages
• This type of heating is instantaneous, uniform
and penetrating throughout the material,
which is a great advantage for the processing
of pharmaceutical compounds.
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SCFED
• An application of SCF extraction that has seemingly gone unexplored is to the
drying of food products.
• A complication associated with drying of food products is that they may undergo
changes that alter the physical or chemical structure, thus changing the integrity of
the product.
• SCF extraction avoids this problem because it allows the food product to be
dehydrated without undergoing a phase change from liquid water to water vapour.
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