CHEMISTRY

Chapter 1 - States of Matter - Notes -1

Solids, Liquids and Gases
Matter – Anything that has mass and takes up space. There are three physical
states : solid, liquid and gas.
Solids : Strong forces of attraction between particles, particles are packed very
closely together in a fixed and regular pattern.

 Atoms vibrate in position but can’t change position or move.

 Solids have a fixed volume, shape and high density.

Liquids : Weaker attractive forces in liquids than in solids, particles are close
together in an irregular, unfixed pattern.

 Particles can move and slide past each other which is why liquids adopt the
shape of the container they’re in and also why they are able to flow.
 Liquids have a fixed volume but not a fixed shape and have a moderate to
high density.

Gases : No intermolecular forces and, since particles are in random movement,

there is no defined pattern.

 Particles are far apart and move quickly (around 500 m/s) in all directions,
they collide with each other and with the sides of the container (this is how
pressure is created inside a can of gas).
 No fixed volume, since there is a lot of space between the particles, gases
can be compressed into a much smaller volume. Gases have low density.
 `CHEMISTRY
Chapter 1 - States of Matter - Notes -2
Changes in state
Melting

 Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid.

 Requires heat energy which transforms into kinetic energy, allowing the
particles to move.
 Occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point (m.p.) which
is unique to each pure solid.
 The metal gallium has a melting point just above the room temperature.

Boiling

 Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas.

 Requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the surface of a
liquid, allowing for liquid particles to escape from the surface and within
the liquid.
 Occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point (b.p.) which
is unique to each pure liquid.

Freezing

 Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid.

 This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly
the same temperature as melting, hence the melting point and freezing
point of a pure substance are the same. Water for example freezes and
melts at 0ºC.
 Requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal energy)
and occurs at a specific temperature which is unique for each pure
substance.

Evaporation

 When a liquid changes into a gas. Evaporation occurs only at the surface of
liquids where high energy particles can escape from the liquid’s surface
at low temperatures, below the b.p. of the liquid.
  The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid/surface, the more
quickly a liquid can evaporate
 For most liquids evaporation occurs readily over a range of temperatures
and without the need for heating as the particles at the surface absorb heat
from the surroundings. The addition of heat will accelerate the process and
boiling occurs if the temperature exceeds the boiling point of the liquid.

Condensation

 When a gas changes into a liquid, usually on cooling. When a gas is cooled
its particles lose energy and when they bump into each other, they lack
energy to bounce away again, instead grouping together to form a liquid.
 No energy is required for condensation to occur and it takes place over
a range of temperatures.

Sublimation

 When a solid changes directly into a gas.

 This happens to only a few solids such as iodine or solid carbon dioxide.
 The reverse reaction also happens and is also called sublimation
(sometimes called deposition or desublimation).
 Sublimation occurs at a specific temperature which is unique for a pure
substance.
 Interconversion of solids, liquids and gases

Note : A volatile liquid is one which evaporates easily and has a relatively low
boiling point.

Gaseous Particles

 Gaseous particles are in constant and random motion.

 An increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of each particle, as
the thermal energy is transformed to kinetic energy, so they move faster.
 Decreasing the temperature has the opposite effect.
 The pressure that a gas creates inside a closed container is produced by the
gaseous particles hitting the inside walls of the container. As the
temperature increases, the particles in the gas move faster, impacting the
container’s walls more frequently.
 Therefore an increase in temperature causes an increase in pressure.
 CHEMISTRY

Chapter 1 - States of Matter - Notes - 3

Pure Substance vs Mixture

Pure substance:
 Contains only one substance, with no other substances mixed together
 Has fixed melting and boiling point as they consist of only one substance so
all molecules will have the same melting and boiling points
 E.g. Water has a boiling point of 100°C and a melting point of 0°C
Mixture:

 A combination of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds)

that are not chemically joined together
 Has a range of melting and boiling points as they consist of different
substances that melt or boil at different temperatures

Testing purity:

 The physical property of boiling/melting point can therefore be used to test

if a substance is pure or not.
 For example, if a sample of water melts at exactly 0°C and boils at exactly
100°C then the water is pure.
 If the melting and boiling points of the water aren’t these exact values then
the water must be impure and contain other substances i.e. it must be a
mixture.
 The presence of an impurity in a substance :

Lowers the melting point and raises the boiling point of the substance.
 Changes in State and the Kinetic theory EXTENDED

 When substances are heated, the particles absorb thermal energy which is
converted into kinetic energy. This is the basis of the kinetic theory of
matter.
 Heating a solid causes its particles to vibrate more and as the temperature
increases, they vibrate so much that the solid expands until the structure
breaks and the solid melts.
 On further heating, the now liquid substance expands more and some
particles at the surface gain sufficient energy to overcome the
intermolecular forces and evaporate.
 When the b.p. temperature is reached, all the particles gain enough energy
to escape and the liquids boils.
 These changes in state can be shown on a graph which is called a heating
curve.
 Cooling down a gas has the reverse effect and this would be called
a cooling curve.
 These curves are used to show how changes in temperature affect changes
of state.

Heating curve of water

 During the change of state, temperature remains constant
because the heat given to the matter is used in overcoming the
intermolecular forces of attraction between the particles,
thereby changing the state of matter.

Cooling curve of water

 CHEMISTRY

Chapter 1 - States of Matter - Notes – 4

Kinetic theory

Lattice: The highly structured, ordered microscopic arrangement in solids that

produce the regular crystal structure is called lattice.
Intermolecular space: The space between the particles is called
intermolecular space.
Chemical reaction: is a chemical change in which:
 New substances are formed
 Usually the process is not easily reversed
 Energy change is there.
 Brownian Motion and Diffusion
Brownian Motion

 Brownian motion is defined as the random movement of particles in a

liquid or a gas produced by large numbers of collisions with smaller, often
invisible particles.
 The observation of Brownian motion proves the correctness of the kinetic
particle theory.

Large particles show jerky and erratic movement caused by many collisions
with smaller particles

Diffusion

 This is the process by which different gases or different liquids mix and is
due to the random motion of their particles.
 Diffusing particles move from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration.
 Eventually the concentration of particles is even as they spread out to
occupy all of the available space.
 Diffusion happens on its own and no energy input is required although it
occurs faster at higher temperatures.
 It does not take place in solids.
 Diffusion in liquids is much slower than in gases.
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Chapter 1 - States of Matter - Notes - 5

Diffusion

Diffusion and Molecular Mass

 Diffusion occurs much faster in gases than in liquids as gaseous particles

move much quicker than liquid particles.
 At the same temperature, different gases do not diffuse at the same rate.
 This is due to the difference in their relative molecular masses.
 Lighter gas particles can travel faster and hence further, therefore: the
lower its relative mass, the faster a gas will diffuse.

NH3 molecules have less mass than the HCl molecule, so diffuse faster,
hence the product (a white cloud of NH4Cl) forms closer to the end
where the HCl is

Solutions & Solubility Basics

Understand how the results of experiments involving the dilution of coloured

solutions and diffusion of gases can be explained

Diffusion and dilution experiments support a theory that all matter (solids,
liquids and gases) is made up of tiny, moving particles.
 Diffusion 1: Bromine Gas

Description:

 Here, we see the diffusion of bromine gas from one flask to another.
 After 5 minutes the bromine gas has diffused from the bottom flask to the
top flask.

Explanation:

 The air and bromine particles are moving randomly and there are large
gaps between particles.
 The particles can therefore easily mix together.

Dissolving:
Description:

 When potassium manganate (VII) crystals are dissolved in water, a purple

solution is formed.
 A small number of crystals produce a highly intense colour.

Explanation:

 The water and potassium manganate (VII) particles are moving randomly
and the particles can slide over each other.
 The particles can therefore easily mix together.

Diffusion in liquids is slower than in gases because the particles in a liquid are
closely packed together and are able to move around past each other.
 CHEMISTRY
Chapter 1 - States of Matter - Notes - 6

Term Meaning Example

The water in
Solvent The liquid in which a solute dissolves
seawater

The substance which dissolves in a liquid to form a The salt in

Solute
solution seawater

The mixture formed when a solute is dissolved in a

Solution Seawater
solvent

Saturated A solution with the maximum concentration of solute Seawater in the

solution dissolved in the solvent Dead Sea

Salt is soluble in
Soluble Describes a substance that will dissolve
water

Sand is insoluble
Insoluble Describes a substance that won’t dissolve
in water

Solution: A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

Note: Alloys are mixtures of metals which are made by mixing the liquid metals
together (dissolving one metal in the other) before solidifying the alloy.
Miscible liquids: The solution of one liquid in another which do not separate out
into layers. Alcohol and water are completely miscible: they make a solution.
Immiscible liquids: Liquids that do not mix together are called immiscible
liquids.