Power Distribution

Power System Planning

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Power Distribution

• Major components of an electric power system are generation, transmission, and distribution.

• Distribution, including primary and secondary distribution, is that portion of a power system that runs from
distribution substations to customer’s service entrance equipment.

• Power plants convert energy from fuel (coal, gas, nuclear, oil, etc.) and from water, wind, or other forms into
electric energy.

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Power Distribution

• Power plant generators, with typical ratings varying from 50 to 1300 MVA, are of three-phase construction,
with three-phase armature windings embedded in the slots of stationary armatures.

• Generator terminal voltages, which are limited by material and insulation capabilities, range from a few kV
for older and smaller units up to 20 kV for newer and larger units.

• To reduce transmission energy losses, generator step-up (GSU) transformers at power plant substations
increase voltage and decrease current.

• Both the GSU transformers and the busses in these substations are protected by circuit breakers, surge
arresters, and other protection equipment.

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Power Distribution

The transmission system serves three basic functions:

1. It delivers energy from generators to the system.
2. It provides for energy interchange among utilities.
3. It supplies energy to the subtransmission and distribution system.

• Typical transmission voltages range from 230 up to 765 kV.

• Single-circuit three-phase ratings vary from 400 MVA at 230 kV up to 4000 MVA at 765 kV.
• In some cases, HVDC lines with solid-state converters are embedded in the transmission system
as well as back-to-back ac-dc links.

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 Power Distribution

• The subtransmission system consists of step-

down transformers, substations, and
subtransmission lines that connect bulk power
substations to distribution substations.

• In some cases, a subtransmission line may be

tapped, usually through a circuit breaker, to
supply a single-customer distribution load such
as a large industrial plant.

• Typical subtransmission voltages range from 69

to 138 kV.

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Power Distribution

• Distribution substations include step-down transformers (distribution Substation transformers) that

decrease subtransmission voltages to primary distribution voltages in the 2.2- to 46-kV range for local
distribution.

• These transformers connect through associated circuit breaker and surge arrester protection to substation
buses, which in turn connect through circuit breakers to three-phase primary distribution lines called
distribution circuits or feeders.

• Typical distribution substation ratings vary from 15 MVA for older substations to 200 MVA or higher for
newer installations.

• Distribution substations may also include equipment for regulating the primary voltage, such as load tap
changers (LTCs) on the distribution substation transformers or separate voltage regulators.

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 Power Distribution

• Typical primary distribution feeder ratings include

4 MVA for 4.16 kV 12 MVA for 13.8 kV 20 MVA
for 22.9 kV 30 MVA for 34.5-kV feeders.
• Feeders are usually segregated into several three-phase
sections connected through sectionalizing fuses or
switches.
• Each feeder section may have several single-phase laterals
connected to it through fuses.
• Three-phase laterals may also be connected to the
feeders through fuses or reclosers.
• Separate, dedicated primary feeders supply industrial or
large commercial loads.

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 Power Distribution

• Feeders and laterals run along streets, as either overhead lines or

underground cables, and supply distribution transformers that step
the voltage down to the secondary distribution level (120 to 480 V).
• Distribution transformers, typically rated 5 to 5000 kVA, are installed
on utility poles for overhead lines, and on pads at ground level or in
vaults for underground cables.
• Distribution transformers are protected from overloads and faults by
fuses or circuit breakers on the primary and/or the secondary side.
• From these transformers, energy flows through secondary mains and
service conductors to supply single- or three-phase power directly to
customer loads (residential, commercial, and light industrial).

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Power Distribution

• Service conductors connect through meters, which determine kilowatthour consumption for customer
billing purpose.
• Customers’ service panels contain circuit breakers or fuses that connect to wiring that in turn supplies
energy for utilization devices (lighting, appliances, motors, heating-ventilation-air conditioning, etc.).

• Distribution of electric energy from distribution substations to meters at customers’ premises has two parts:
1. Primary distribution, which distributes energy in the 2.2- to 46-kV range from distribution substations to
distribution transformers, where the voltage is stepped down to customer utilization levels.
2. Secondary distribution, which distributes energy at customer utilization voltages of 120 to 480 V to meters
at customers’ premises.

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Primary Distribution

• Primary voltages in the ‘‘15-kV class’’ predominate among U.S. utilities.

• The 2.5- and 5-kV classes are older primary voltages that are gradually being replaced by 15-kV class
primaries.
• In some cases, higher 25- to 50-kV classes are used in new high-density load areas as well as in rural areas
that have long feeders.

Typical Primary Distribution

Voltages in the United States

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Primary Distribution

• The three-phase, four-wire multigrounded primary system is the most widely used.
• Under balanced operating conditions, the voltage of each phase is equal in magnitude and 120 out of
phase with each of the other two phases.
• The fourth wire in these Y-connected systems is used as a neutral for the primaries, or as a common
neutral when both primaries and secondaries are present.
• Usually the windings of distribution substation transformers are Y-connected on the primary
distribution side, with the neutral point grounded and connected to the common neutral wire.
• The neutral is also grounded at frequent intervals along the primary, at distribution transformers, and
at customers’ service entrances.
• Sometimes distribution substation transformers are grounded through an impedance (approximately
one ohm) to limit short circuit currents and improve coordination of protective devices.

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 Primary Distribution

• The three-wire delta primary system is also popular, although not as widely used as the four-wire
multigrounded primary system.
• Three-wire delta primary systems are not being actively expanded. They are generally older and lower in
voltage than the four-wire multigrounded type. They are also popular in industrial systems.

• Rural areas with low-density loads are usually served by overhead primary lines with distribution transformers,
fuses, switches, and other equipment mounted on poles.

• Urban areas with high-density loads are served by underground cable systems with distribution transformers
and switchgear installed in underground vaults or in ground-level cabinets.

• There is also an increasing trend towards underground residential distribution (URD), particularly single-phase
primaries serving residential areas.

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Primary Distribution

Primary distribution includes three basic systems:

1. Radial
2. Loop
3. Primary network systems
PRIMARY RADIAL SYSTEMS
• The primary radial system, is widely used.
• It consists of separate three-phase feeder mains (or feeders)
emanating from a distribution substation in a radial fashion,
with each feeder serving a given geographical area.
• A three-phase feeder main can be as short as a kilometer or
two or as long as 30 km.

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 Primary Distribution

• Single-phase laterals (or branches) are usually connected to feeders

through fuses, so that a fault on a branch can be cleared without
interrupting the feeder.
• Single-phase laterals are connected to different phases of the feeder, so
as to balance the loading on the three phases.
• To reduce the duration of interruptions, overhead feeders can be
protected by automatic reclosing devices located at the distribution
substation.
• Studies have shown that the large majority of faults on overhead
primaries are temporary, caused by:
1- lightning flashover of line insulators, 2- momentary contact of two
conductors, 3- momentary bird or animal contact, or 4- momentary tree
limb contact.

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 Primary Distribution

• The recloser or circuit breaker with reclosing relays opens the

circuit either ‘‘instantaneously’’ or with intentional time delay
when a fault occurs, and then recloses after a short period of
time.

• The recloser can repeat this open and reclose operation if the
fault is still on the feeder.

• A popular reclosing sequence is two instantaneous openings (to

clear temporary faults), followed by two delayed openings
(allowing time for fuses to clear persistent downstream faults),
followed by opening and lockout for persistent faults between
the recloser and fuses. Pole-mount recloser for a three-phase 22.9-kV circuit. This
recloser has an 800-A continuous current rating and a 16-kA
interrupting rating. The 22.9-kV feeder is located near the top
• Reclosing is not used on circuits that are primarily underground. of the pole. There are two threephase 4.16-kV circuits below
the recloser. An ntenna located below the 4.16-kV circuits is for
remote control of the recloser from the dispatch center. A
normally open bypass switch located on the top crossarm can
be manually operated if the recloser fails to reclose

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Primary Distribution

normally open radio-controlled

sectionalizing switch on a 22.9-kV
circuit.
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Primary Distribution

• Shunt capacitor banks including fixed and switched banks

are used on primary feeders to reduce voltage drop, reduce
power losses, and improve power factor.

• Capacitors are typically switched off during the night for

light loads and switched on during the day for heavy loads.

• Computer programs are available to determine the number,

size and location of capacitor banks that optimize voltage
profile, power factor, and installation and operating costs.

• In some cases, voltage regulators are used on primary

feeders.

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 Primary Distribution

• One or more additional, independent feeders along separate

routes may be provided for critical loads, such as hospitals
that cannot tolerate long interruptions.

• Switching from the normal feeder to an alternate feeder can

be done manually or automatically with circuit breakers and
electrical interlocks to prevent the connection of a good
feeder to a faulted feeder.

• There are two primary feeders with automatic switching in

front (upstream) of the distribution transformer.

• In case of feeder loss, automatic transfer to the other feeder

is rapid and does not require fault locating before transfer.

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 Primary Distribution

PRIMARY LOOP SYSTEMS

• The primary loop system for overhead is used where high service
reliability is important.

• The feeder loops around a load area and returns to the distribution
substation, especially providing two-way feed from the substation.

• The size of the feeder conductors, which are kept the same
throughout the loop, is usually selected to carry the entire load
connected to the loop, including future load growth.

• Reclosers and tie switches are used to reduce customer

interruptions and isolate faulted sections of the loop.

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 Primary Distribution

• The loop is normally operated with the tie switch (or tie recloser)
open.

• Power to a customer at any one time is supplied through a single path

from the distribution substation, depending on the open/close status
of the reclosers/sectionalizers.

• Each of the circuit breakers at the distribution substation can be

connected to separate bus sections and fed from separate distribution
substation transformers.

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Primary Distribution

• Following figure shows a typical primary loop for underground

residential distribution (URD).

• The size of the cable, which is kept the same throughout the loop, is
selected to carry the entire load, including future load growth.

• Underground primary feeder faults occur far less frequently than in

overhead primaries, but are generally permanent.

• The duration of outages caused by primary feeder faults is the time to

locate the fault and perform switching to isolate the fault and restore
service.

• Fault locators at each distribution substation transformer help to

reduce fault locating times.

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 Primary Distribution

PRIMARY NETWORK SYSTEMS

• Although the primary network system, provides higher

service reliability and quality than a radial or loop system,
only a few primary networks remain in operation in the
United States today

• They are typically found in downtown areas of large cities

with high load densities.

• The primary network consists of a grid of interconnected

feeders supplied from a number of substations.

• Conventional distribution substations can be replaced by

smaller, self-contained unit substations at selected
network locations.

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 Primary Distribution

• Adequate voltage is maintained at utilization points by voltage

regulators at distribution substations and by locating
distribution transformers close to major load centers on the
grid.

• However, it is difficult to maintain adequate voltage

everywhere on the primary grid under various operating
conditions.

• Faults on interconnected grid feeders are cleared by circuit

breakers at distribution substations, and in some cases, by
fuses on the primary grid.

• Radial primary feeders protected by circuit breakers or fuses

can be tapped off the primary grid or connected directly at
distribution substations.

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 Secondary Distribution

• Secondary distribution distributes energy at customer utilization voltages from distribution transformers up to
meters at customers’ premises.
• The following table shows typical secondary voltages and applications in the United States:

• In residential areas, 120/240-V, single-phase, three-wire service is the most common, where lighting loads and
outlets are supplied by 120-V, single-phase connections, and large household appliances such as electric ranges,
clothes dryers, water heaters, and electric space heating are supplied by 240-V, single-phase connections.

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Secondary Distribution

• In urban areas serving high-density residential and commercial loads, 108Y/120-V, three-phase, four-wire
service is common, where lighting, outlets, and small motor loads are supplied by 120-V, single-phase
connections, and larger motor loads are supplied by 208-V, three-phase connections.

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Secondary Distribution

Applications
• Residential
• Commercial
• Industrial

• Electricity powers almost every system in all three primary applications, therefore secondary distribution
is very, very important.

• Secondary voltages occur after the distribution transformer.

• Three main secondary voltages used for most residential/ commercial/industrial applications.

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Secondary Distribution

Substation normally use 4 wire, multi-ground Y configurations to distribute power

(feeders) to the secondary systems.

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Secondary Distribution

• Less common but still used is the delta configuration for secondary distribution.
• Delta configurations were more widely used when the power grid was first being deployed but are
in the long process of being converted to Y.

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Secondary Distribution

How phases are tapped from branches (4 wire Y configuration)

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Secondary Distribution

Single phase distribution transformers (240/120 V)

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Secondary Distribution

Three phase distribution transformer bank (208Y/120 V).

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Secondary Distribution

Three phase distribution transformer bank (480Y/277V).

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Secondary Distribution

Residential
• 120/240V single-phase, three wire service is most common in residential distribution systems
(suburban and rural areas)
1. 120V is general use – lighting, entertainment and computer systems, etc.
2. 240V is for large household appliances such as electric ranges, dyers, heaters, etc.

High Density Residential and Commercial

• 208Y/120V three phase, four wire service
1. 120V used for lighting and light motor loads
2. 208V used for large loads like large motors and commercial/residential high power systems

Very High Density and Industrial

• 480Y/277V three phase, four wire service
1. 277V used for large fluorescent lighting
2. 480V used for motor loads and other high power systems
18

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Secondary Distribution

Typical residential customer voltage profile.

• In accordance with ANSI standards, the first customer’s voltage must never exceed 126V (+5%) during
light loads.
• Similarly, the last customer’s voltage must never drop below 114V (-5%) during heavy loads.

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Secondary Distribution

Secondary distribution covers energy distribution from substations to customers’ meter.

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Secondary Distribution

There are four general types of secondary systems:

1. Individual distribution transformer per customer
2. Common secondary main
3. Secondary network
4. Spot network

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Secondary Distribution

Individual distribution transformer per customer

• Used when supplying one customer
• Common in rural areas where distanced between customers are large and long secondary mains are impractical.
• Used for customers with large loads.
• Used for customers who would otherwise have low voltage problems.

• Advantages
1. Simple
2. Reliable
3. Heavy loads
• Disadvantages
1. Expensive

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Secondary Distribution

Common Secondary Main

• Takes advantage of diversity between customers
• Good for large transient loads (i.e. motors starting)
• Separated into sections by insulators. Sometimes fuses are installed along
secondary main which results in banking of distribution transformers

• Advantages
1. Cheap
2. Easy to deploy
3. Good for transient loads

• Disadvantages
1. Not incredibly reliable on individual customer basis

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 Secondary Distribution

Secondary Network
• Primarily used for high density, high demand areas such as cities.
• Normally deployed only where high degree of reliability is
required and revenues justify grid costs.
• In the U.S. secondary networks operate at either 480Y/277V or
208Y/120V three phase services

• Advantages
1. Reliable
2. Can handle very heavy loads
3. Good for high density areas
• Disadvantages
1. Very expensive (only used when cost effective)
2. Large infrastructure

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Secondary Distribution

Spot Network
• Supplies single, high density loads
• Network bus is simultaneously supplied by two or more primary feeders
• Most run on 480Y/277V in the U.S.
• Offer high reliability

• Advantages
1. Very high reliability
2. Flexible operation
3. Secondary is continuously energized by two or more
distribution transformers
4. Great for large office buildings, shopping centers,
Hospitals, etc.
• Disadvantages
1. Very expensive

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Transformers In Distribution Systems

Transformers in distribution systems include:

1. distribution substation transformers
2. distribution transformers.

Distribution Substation Transformers

Distribution substation transformers come in a wide variety of ratings.

These transformers have multiple MVA ratings that include the following:
1. OA rating (passive convection with oil circulating pumps and fans off).
2. FA rating (with fans on but oil circulating pumps off ).
3. FOA rating (with both fans and oil circulating pumps on). 41
Secondary Distribution

Typical kVA ratings of distribution transformers

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Secondary Distribution

Many distribution substation transformers have load tap changers (LTCs) that automatically regulate voltage
levels based on loading conditions.

Three-phase 22.9 kV/ 4.16 kVY

distribution substation transformer
rated 12 MVA .
The transformer has fixed taps on the
high-voltage side and an LTC on the
low-voltage side.

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Secondary Distribution

A voltage regulator is basically an autotransformer with taps that automatically raise or lower voltage,
operating in a similar way as LTCs on distribution substation transformers.

Voltage regulators at the 69/13.8 kV

Lunenburg distribution substation.
The regulators are General Electric 7.96 kV
(line to neutral), 437 A

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Secondary Distribution

In addition to voltage regulators for distribution substations, there are also pole-mount voltage
regulators that can be placed on feeders.

Some outdoor distribution substation transformers are equipped with a tank on the top of the
transformer called a ‘‘conservator,’’ in which expansion and contraction of the oil takes place.

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 Secondary Distribution

Distribution Transformers

• Distribution transformers connect the primary system (2.4 to 46

kV) to the secondary system (480 V and lower).

• Distribution transformers may be installed outdoors on

overhead poles (pole-mount), outdoors at ground level on pads
(padmount transformers), indoors within buildings, or
underground in manholes and vaults.

• Pole-mount transformers for overhead distribution are liquid-

filled transformers that can be either single-phase or three-
phase, depending on the load requirements and the primary
supply configuration..

Three conventional single-phase polemount 25-kVA

transformers. The transformers are wired to form a three-
phase bank rated 75 kVA, 4160V–208/120 V grounded Y,
which supplies secondary service for commercial customers.

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Secondary Distribution

• For conventional pole-mount transformers, the protective devices are mounted external to the
transformer.
• Typically a fuse cutout, which is a combination of a fuse and a switch,
• A surge arrester is installed adjacent to the conventional transformer primary to protect it against
transient over-voltages due to switching and lightning surges.

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 Secondary Distribution

• Padmount transformers for underground distribution are liquid-filled or dry-type transformers that can be
either single-phase or three-phase, outdoors or indoors.

• Single-phase padmount distribution transformers are typically designed for underground residential and
commercial distribution systems where safety, reliability and aesthetics are especially important.

• Three-phase padmount distribution transformers are compact power centers usually for large commercial or
industrial applications

Three-phase oil-filled padmount transformer shown with doors closed

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 Secondary Distribution

Network transformers are designed to be connected through network protectors that are integrally
mounted on the transformer.

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Secondary Distribution

• typical kVA ratings of distribution transformers is shown in the following table

• short-time loadings can be as high as 89% above the nameplate kVA rating for short durations.

Permissible Daily Short-Time Loading of Liquid-Filled Distribution Transformers Based on

Normal Life Expectancy

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 Shunt Capacitors In Distribution Systems

• Loads in electric power systems consume real power (MW) and reactive power (Mvar).

• At power plants, many of which are located at long distances from load centers, real power is generated
and reactive power may either be generated, such as during heavy load periods, or absorbed as during
light load periods.

• Unlike real power (MW), the generation of reactive power (Mvar) at power plants and transmission of the
reactive power over long distances to loads is not economically feasible.

• Shunt capacitors, however, are widely used in primary distribution to supply reactive power to loads.

• They draw leading currents that offset the lagging component of currents in inductive loads.

• Shunt capacitors provide an economical supply of reactive power to meet reactive power requirements of
loads as well as transmission and distribution lines operating at lagging power factor.

• They can also reduce line losses and improve voltage regulation.

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 Shunt Capacitors In Distribution Systems

• The location of a shunt capacitor bank along a primary feeder is important.

• If there were only one load on the feeder, the best location for the capacitor bank would be directly at
the load, so as to minimize I*I*R losses and voltage drops on the feeder.

• Shunt capacitors at distribution substations, however, can be effective in reducing I*I*R losses and
voltage drops on the transmission or subtransmission lines that feed the distribution substations.

• For other load distributions, computer software is available for optimal placement of shunt capacitor
banks.

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Shunt Capacitors In Distribution Systems

• During the daily load cycle, reactive power requirements change as a function of time.

• To meet the changing reactive power requirements, many utilities use a combination of fixed and switched
capacitor banks.

• The goal is to obtain a close-to-unity power factor throughout the day by switching capacitor banks on when
needed and off when not needed.

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Shunt Capacitors In Distribution Systems

Example
A single-line diagram of a 13.8-kV primary feeder supplying power to a load at the end of the feeder.
A shunt capacitor bank is located at the load bus.
Assume that the voltage at the sending end of the feeder is 5% above rated and that the load is Y-
connected with RLoad = 20/phase in parallel with load jXLoad =j 40 /phase.

(a) With the shunt capacitor bank out of service, calculate the following:
(1) line current;
(2) voltage drop across the line;
(3) load voltage;
(4) real and reactive power delivered to the load;
(5) load power factor;
(6) real and reactive line losses; and
(7) real power, reactive power, and apparent power delivered by the distribution substation.

(b) The capacitor bank is Y connected with a reactance XC = 40/phase.

With the shunt capacitor bank in service, redo the calculations. Also calculate the reactive power
supplied by the capacitor bank.

(c) Compare the results of (a) and (b).

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Shunt Capacitors In Distribution Systems

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Shunt Capacitors In Distribution Systems

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Shunt Capacitors In Distribution Systems

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Shunt Capacitors In Distribution Systems

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Secondary Distribution System Construction

Goals
• Understand construction requirements and concerned with deploying overhead and
underground secondary distribution systems

• Understand engineering challenges associated with deploying secondary distribution

systems

• There are many factors that need to be taken into account when constructing overhead secondary
distribution networks
1. Sag
2. Clearance
3. Traffic
4. Span
5. Obstacles
6. Other power lines
7. Pole installation and anchoring

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Secondary Distribution System Construction

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Secondary Distribution System Construction

Minimum wire clearance according to National Electric Safety Code (NESC)

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Secondary Distribution System Construction

• Most overhead wires are unshielded, therefore, it is necessary to have minimum

clearances between transmission lines.

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Secondary Distribution System Construction

Sag
• When a conductor is strung between two poles, it sags.
• Special care needs to be take to make sure that on the coldest days, the conductor is
not stressing poles and on the warmest days the conductor is not violating minimum
clearances.

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Secondary Distribution System Construction

Guying Poles
• Guys are used to provide extra support to poles when needed.
• Guys are need because of abnormal loads such as ice, sleet, snow, and wind as well as broke lines,
uneven spans, corners, dead-ends, and hills.

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Secondary Distribution System Construction

Underground construction
Used for:
• General appearance
• Congestion
• Maintenance conditions
• High density cities where overhead wires are infeasible

Underground cables require more initial infrastructure such as:

• Underground conduits
• Ducts
• Manholes for access to system

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 Secondary Distribution System Construction
Two general patterns have developed, economics being the deciding factor.

Primary supplies a distribution transformer which may feed two or more customers
• Used in residential developments which house are located close together

Primary supplies individual transformers for individual customers

• Used in residential developments were houses are generally farther apart

Area Transformer Individual Transformers

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 Distribution Reliability

• Reliability ( IEEE Standard Terms (IEEE 100) ), is the probability that a device will function without failure over a
specified time period or amount of usage.

• In the case of electric power distribution, reliability concerns have come from customers who want uninterrupted
continuous power supplied to their facilities at minimum cost.

• A typical goal for an electric utility is to have an overall average of one interruption of no more than two hours’
duration per customer year.

• Given 8760 hours in a non-leap year, this goal corresponds to an Average Service Availability Index (ASAI) greater
than or equal to 8758 service hours/8760

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Shunt Capacitors In Distribution Systems

IEEE Standard 1366–2003 entitled, IEEE Guide for Electric Power Distribution Reliability Indices, defines the
following distribution reliability indices

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Renewable Integration

• Local power generation has become more and more common as energy prices have continued
to rise and solar and wind technologies have become more inexpensive

• Its important to have a basic understanding of how these energy generation technologies are
integrated back into the grid, more specifically secondary distribution grids

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Smart Grids

• Over the last several years, the term ‘‘smart grid’’ has taken the electric power
industry by storm.

• A smart grid uses digital technology to improve reliability, security and efficiency
(both economic and energy) of the electric system from large generation, through
the delivery system to electricity consumers and a growing number of distributed-
generation and storage resources.

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Smart Grids

• Probably the best definition of the attributes of the smart grid is listing of six key characteristics:
1. Enables informed participation by customers;
2. Accommodates all generation and storage options;
3. Enables new products services, and markets;
4. Provides the power quality for the range of needs;
5. Optimizes asset utilization and operating efficiency;
6. Operates resiliently to disturbances, attacks and natural disasters.

• Rather than just being a passive, radial conduit for power to flow from the networked transmission
system, smart grids will be the means for supporting a bi-directional flow of information and energy
to customers who are no longer content to just receive a monthly electric bill.

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Smart Grids

• The large, new load potential of electric vehicles requires that the home electric meter and
the distribution system become smarter, since the grid cannot reasonably accommodate
charging a large number of car batteries as people return to their garages in the early evening
when the remainder of the electric load is at peak demand.

• As more smart grid technologies are deployed, the result will be a power grid increasingly
dependent on communication and computing.

• Disruptions in this cyber infrastructure, either due to accidents, bugs, or deliberate attacks
could result in wide scale blackouts.

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