1.

WELL HYDRAULICS
1.1 General
Water well is a hole or shaft usually, vertical excavated in the earth, or sunk in to the
ground intercepting one or more water bearing strata, for bringing ground water to the
surface. (Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering n.d.)
The objective of water well is: -

 To provide water with good quality

 To provide sufficient quantity of water
 To provide water for long time
 To provide water at low cost

Figure 5: well along with reservoir and raising main (internet n.d.)
1.2 Classification of water wells
Wells can be classified as their methods of construction (dug wells and tube wells), them
depth (shallow and deep wells) and whether they are vertical or horizontal.

1.2.1 Tube wells

Depending up on mode of water contribution to the borehole from subsoil, the wells are
grouped in to three categories.
 Strainer type tube well
 Cavity type tube well
 Slotted type tube well
Strainer type tube well: - It is a tube well in which the metal pipe driven in the ground
with perforated to allow only clear water to enter the hole. The perforated pipe extends
only for aquifer portions of the formations while for another portion the pipe kept plain
and the bottom of tube well is plugged.
Cavity type tube well: - In this type of tube the water enters the boreholes through the
bottom layer only. It drives the water from the pervious layer under laying the hard
impervious layer, therefore, the tube well taken down until it penetrates the impervious
layer and reaches the water bearing strata.
Slotted type tube well: - When the nature of subsoil is not adaptable for strainer type
tube well, slotted type used as a good alternative. In other words, if the geological
formation does not contain sufficient number of waters bearing stratum and contain very
thin grain size, it will be advantageous to construct slotted type rather than strainer type.
(Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering n.d.)
1.2.2 The overall advantages of tube wells
 Do not require much space
 Can be constructed quickly
 Fairly sustained yield of water can be obtained even in years of scarcity rain fall.
 economical when deep – seated aquifer is encountered
 Flowing artesian wells can sometimes be struck
 Generally good quality of water is tapped

1.2.3 Disadvantages of tube wells

 Requires costly and complicated drilling equipment and machinery
 Requires skilled workers and great care to drill & complete the tube wells.
 Installation of costly submersible pumps is required
 Possibility of missing fractures, fissures and joints in hard rock areas resulting in
many dry holes. (Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering n.d.)
1.3 The development of well
Well development is the process of removing fine material from the formations
surrounding the strainers or the screened sections of the well pipe. It is aimed at:
I. increasing the specific capacity of the well
II. preventing the sand flowing into the well
III. obtaining maximum economic well life.
The actual yield of a well can be known only after the well development. (Water Supply
and Sanitary Engineering n.d.)
1.4 The importance of well development
When well development is completed, we are for sure that for all the following
beneficial. These are: -
 Remove the filter cake or drill in fluid film that coats the borehole, and remove
much or all of the drilling fluid and natural formation solid that have invaded the
formation.
 Reduce the compaction and intermixing of grain size during drilling by removing
fine material from the pore space.
 Increase the natural porosity and permeability of previously undisturbed
formation near the well by selectively removing the finer fractional of an aquifer.
 Create a graded zone of sediment around the screen in a naturally development
well, there by establishing the formation so that the well will yield sand.
1.5 Methods of well development
In case of rocks the capacity of well can be increased by explosions in the wells which
will increase the cracks and passage through which water in the wells. In the case of
sandy stratum, the yield can be increased by packing gravel around the well. In the
beginning when new well is constructed the water which is drawn contains large quantity
of sand. These sand particles will stick on the mesh of strainer pipe and will decrease the
capacity of the well. Different well development methods have evolved in different areas,
because of the difference of the physical characteristics of aquifer and the type of drilling
methods used.
1. Back washing or back blowing: - In this method water is forced in the reverse
direction by means of compressed air pressure. All the sand, clay material which
is stickled around the strainer pipe and chocked it is agitated and removed. These
are then removed by means of pumping and bailing.
2. Surging: -it is used to loosen sand and fine materials in the screen and filter zone.
The surging action is created by lifting the water near to the surface by injecting
air in to the well and then shut off the air to allow the water to flow back through
the
 well and formation. Pumping water with air lift can be used for cleaning a well
from sand and fine materials. Using the air lift means no water, as would be the
case if a submersible or turbine pump is used to clean the well.
3. by pumping: - loose sand materials are removed by pumping the well at a higher
rate than the well will be pumped when put in to service. It has advantage that
much of the fine material brought into the borehole is pumped out immediately.
4. By compressed air. In this method an air compressor is used which is connected
to an air tank. The air tank has an outlet provided with a quick opening valve
which is connected to an air pipe. Around the air pipe a discharge pipe is fitted.
The air pipe and discharge pipe assembly are introduced into the well. The
discharge pipe is of diameter smaller than that of the well pipe such that there is
clearance of at least 20 mm all around between the discharge pipe and the well
pipe. The air pipe as well as the discharge pipe can be shifted vertically by
clamps. (Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering n.d.)
Well development work must be done in a manner that does not cause under settlement
and disturbance of the strata above the water bearing formation, not disturb the seal
affected around the well casing and thereby reducing the sanitary protection otherwise
afforded by such a seal.
1.6 Water well design
Well design is the process of specifying the physical material and dimension for a well.
This includes the selection of a suitable material diameter and thickness of pipe. The size
of the well should be properly chosen since it is significantly affecting the cost of well
construction. It must be large enough to accommodate the pump that is expected to be
required for the head and discharge (yield) with proper clearance. The diameter must also
be chosen to give the desired percentage of open area in the screen so that the entrance
velocities near the screen do not exceed certain values so as to reduce the well losses and
hence the draw down. Good water well design aim is ensuring an optimum combination
of performance and long service life at reasonable cost. The use of correct sizes of well
casing and well screen, choice of good quality materials, and strength and proper
development of the well, will reduce long term power costs due to higher costs of
pumping and maintenance costs and increases the useful life of the well.
The principal objective of good design should ensure

 The highest yield with minimum draw down consistent and aquifer capability.

 Durability of the well so as to coincide with design period.

 Reduction of operation and maintenances cost to a certain extent.

 Good quality of water with proper protection

1.6.1 well depth
The depth of a tube well depends up on the locations of water bearing formations, desired
yields of the well and economic considerations. It is determined from the lithological log
of the area and confirmed from the electrical resistively and drilling time lags.
The well is usually drilled up to the bottom of the aquifer so that aquifer thickness is
available, permitting greater well yield.
In most cases well should be completed to the bottom of the aquifer because: -
 More of the aquifer thickness can be utilized as the intake portion of well
resulting in higher specific capacity.
 Sufficient space for draw down is available to maintain well yield during dry
seasons or over pumping.
Pre-conditions which contradict the above design procedures
These comprise the conditions: -
 When the well screen is centered b/n the top and bottom aquifer especially for the
case of confined aquifer.
 When it is a case of extremely thick aquifer and may not be economical to drill it.
 When poor quality of water in part of the aquifer.

According to the given geological information Gorey the static water level in the aquifer
very b/n 10m and 65m below the ground level, therefore, it is advisable to drill the wall
more than depth of 65m so as to have a continuous yield of water. Assume depth 90m in
the case of rock aquifer, even if the site selected is basalt i.e., only slotted casing to a
caring length may be sufficient. But in some formations the various operations like
during may disturb the original formation and fine particle may join water in the well.
1.6.2 well screen length
The optimum length of well screen is based on the thickness of the aquifer, available
draw down and nature of stratification of the aquifer. In virtually every aquifer, certain
zones will transmit more water than others. Thus, the intake part of the well must be
placed in those zones having the highest hydraulic conductivity.
The basic requirements of well screen are: -
1. It should be resistant to corrosion and deterioration
2. It should be strong enough to prevent collapse of a hole
3. It should offer minimum resistance to the flow of water etc.
The well screen is generally designed so that it fits the aquifer however, generally, the
screen length may be selected by the following criteria. (Driscoll and edition n.d.)
I. When the formation being screened is homogenous and unconfined aquifer.
Theoretically considered and experience have shown that screaming the bottom one third
to one – half of the aquifer less than 45.7 m thick provides the optimum design for
homogenous unconfirmed aquifers.
II. Non – homogenous unconfined aquifer: - The basic principle of well design for
homogenous unconfined aquifer also applies to this type of aquifer. The only difference
is that the screen or screen sections are positioned in the most permeable layer of the
lower portions of the aquifer so that maximum draw down is available.
III. Homogenous confined Aquifer: - In this type of aquifer, 80 to 90% of the thickness
of water bearing sediment should be screened assuming that the pumping water level is
not expected to be below the top of the aquifer. Best results are obtained by centering the
screen section in the aquifer
IV. Non – homogenous confined Aquifer: - In this type of aquifer 80 – 90% of the most
permeable layers should be screened
The selected site for the development of well, fafen river valley, which the upper most
pyroclastic deposit is already eroded and left with underlying fracture basalt due to the
geographical location.
From the above four standard classification of aquifer the geology of fafen river grouped
under is assumed to be Homogenous confined aquifer because it contains only fractured
basalt through the whole depth with ground water, therefore, the design procedure is as
follows.
As there is no information regarding thickness of aquifer strata, it is assumed that the
thickness of the aquifer would be in the order of 1.2 times the variation in depth of
ground water i.e.
Thickness of aquifer = 1.2 (65 – 3) = 74.4m = 80m = T
Depth of screen = 1/3* T
h = 1/3*80 = 26.67 m so take 27m This lies under the restriction (which is less than 45.
7m).
The minimum length of the screen is the one that is required to keep the entrance velocity
through the opening less than the permissible value (0.03m /sec). So, the height of the
screen and the depth of the well may be changed depending on the specification entrance
velocity during the design of the screen diameter. (Driscoll and edition n.d.)
1.6.3 well screen slot openings
Screen slot opening for the same formation can differ depending on whether the well is
naturally developed or gravel packed. Either design is satisfactory or the choice for a
particular well would depend primarily on the nature of the given size distribution curve
for the aquifer materials. Coarse grained non – homogenous material can be developed
naturally, while fine grained homogenous material is best developed using gravel
(Driscoll and edition n.d.). In our case, though the fafen river valley aquifer is rock
aquifer (formed with basalt) the drilling operation may disturb the original formation and
may load to erosion of particles. By taking in to consideration about this fact filter
packing is supposed in the well development. Filter pack material should consist of clean
well-rounded grains of uniform size. This will increase the permeability and porosity of
the pack materials.
1.6.4 gravel pack material
Careful selection of gravel for packing is very important for the life of the well. The
following conditions must be satisfied before a gravel pack material can be used in water
well.
1. The filter pack should consist of clean, well-rounded grains that are smooth and
uniform.
 2. The gravel pack should be siliceous (quartz) with a limit of 5% by weight of
calcareous material
3. It should not contain things adversely affect the water quality. (Driscoll and
edition n.d.)
1.6.4.1 design criteria for gravel pack
Installation of properly designed filter pack extends well life and reduces maintenance
costs of wells, pumps, and meters. The basic principle in the design of the gravel pack is
that the grading of the gravel pack must be correctly chosen in relation to the particle size
distribution of the water bearing formation.
If gravel-pack ration (GPR) = d50 of gravel pack / d50 of aquifer = 4 to 5 generally have
high efficiency
GPR = 7-10 wells are less efficient
> 10 considerably sand is pumped
> 20 failures of well
The choice of gravel particle size

D10 gravel pack particle size

1. Minimum gravel particle size

= 6
D10 of aquifer particle size
2. Maximum gravel pack particle size

= 10
D50 gravelpack particlesi ze
D50 ofequiferp articlesiz

6.4.4.2 thickness of gravel pack

From a practical view point filter pack are usually about 10 to 20 cm thick. Generally, the
thinner the filter, the better it is. However, the thickness of gravel pack should not
ordinarily be less than 7.5 cm. The length of the gravel packing should be provided in the
screened portion of the well for safety, 25% of the length of the screen is additionally
used. (Driscoll and edition n.d.)

Length of gravel packing = length of screen + (1/4) length of screen

(Lg) length of gravel pack = 27 +(1/4) (27) = 33.75m

Lg = 33.75 m
There are two types gravel packing, which are uniform gravel size and graded grain size
pack, the former is widely accepted because the size of opening of screen can be
controlled. The practice in EWWCA is packing of wells with uniform grain size gravel.
To find the thickness of the gravel pack, it is better to follow the following procedure
Table 17:. Recommended minimum diameters of surface casing are given in table below (after
USBR)

Well yield Nominal pump Well Neutral Grovel Nominal

m3/d chamber closing developed packed wells
screen die
dial (cm)
(cm)
< 270 15 25 45 5
270 – 680 20.3 30.5 50 10
680 - 1900 25 35 45 15
1900 - 4400 30 40 60 20
4400 – 7600 35 45 65 25
7600 – 1400 40 50 70 30
1400 – 1900 50 60 90 35

Table 18: Volume of filter pack require (m3 /m)

Bore hole Outside diameter of well screen (mm)

(mm)
102 152 203 254 305 406 457 508
203 0.03 0.01 -
254 0.04 0.01 0.02
305 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.02
406 0.12 0.01 0.1 0.08 0.06
508 0.20 0.19 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.07 0.04
610 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.16 0.13 0.09
762 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.33 0.29 0.26

In the development site, the yield of the well is 11L/s.

That is
 Q = 11L/s * 86400 s/d
= 950,400 L/day
= 950.4 m3/day

From table 16. (According the recommended diameters) the yield of the well is lie b/n
680 – 1900 m3/d. so the diameter of the well is 350 mm and the nominal screen diameter
is 150 mm
Taking these values, we find that 0.06m3/m volume of filter packed.
Db= Diameter of bore hole
Ds = Diameter of screen
DG = diameter of gravel packed surface
Thickness = 7.25 cm < 7.5 cm (the minimum recommended thickness of gravel)
𝑣 =
λ(D G2− D b^2 )
4

where v = volume of thickness per meter

λ(D G2− 0.3502 )
4
0.06 =

2
0.24 = (D -0.350^2)
2
D = 0.1175

0.400−0⋅350 0.145
DG = 342 mm – so let us take 400 mm
Therefore, the gravel thickness = =

2 2
= 0.025 m

Thickness = 2.5 cm < 7.5 cm (the minimum recommended thickness of gravel) therefore,
the gravel thickness is taken to be 7.5 cm.
1.7 slot size of water well screen
Screen openings depend upon the gradation of the sediment and the size of the filter pack.
The slot size of the water well screen has to be precise and accurate. Too large slot size
allows sand to flow into the well and too small slot size prevent, water from entering the
well impeding smooth water flow. In order to obtain a larger volume of water without
sand, the exact slot size should be determined as follows for the homogenous formation
of fafen valley.
1. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is greater than 6 and the aquifer is
overlain by essentially non – caving formation, the slot size should be that which
retains 30% of the aquifer sample.
 2. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is greater than 6 and the aquifer is
over lain by unstable formation.
3. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is 3 or lower and the aquifer is
overlain by a caving formation, the aperture size shall be that which retains 60%
of the aquifer sample whereas for non – caving formation the slot size is that
retains 40% of the aquifer sample. In case of present site, an effective grain size
of 0.25 mm is assumed since it is gravel packed homogenous unconfined aquifer.
Table 19: open area of screen for corresponding slot size and screen

Screen dia (mm) Slot size Continuous size %

0.5 2.5
101.6
1.5 52

203 0.76 25
1.5 41
2.4 51

(urban water supply design manual, 2006 n.d.)

1.8 well screen diameter
Screen diameter is selected to satisfy a basic principle: enough open area must be
provided so that the entrance velocity of the water generally not exceed the design
standard of 3cm/sec. screen diameter can be adjusted with in rather narrow limits after the
length of the screen and size of screen opening (slot size) have been selected. Well yields
are affected by screen diameter, although increasing the screen diameter has much less in
pelt on well yield than increasing the screen length.
Table 20: Recommended value of screen diameter

Discharge l/min Screen diameter

(cm)
0 – 475 10
475 – 1125 15
1125 – 3000 25
(urban water supply design manual, 2006 n.d.) The design
discharge is Q = 111/s
= 11*60 L/min
= 660 L/min
Therefore, the recommended screen diameter is 15cm.
6.8 casing the diameter
The size of casing diameter should be properly chosen since it significantly affects the
cost of the construction. The diameter of the casing is chosen to satisfy three
requirements: -
1. The diameter of the casing must be sufficient to accommodate the required
discharge form the well
2. The casing must be large enough for installation and efficient operation of the
pump with enough clearance.
3. The diameter of the casing must be sufficient to assure that the up-hole velocity is
1.5m3/s or less.
Table 21: Recommended well diameter with various yields

Anticipated well Nominal size of Size well casing (cm)

yield L/min pump bowl (cm)
Minimum Optimum
< 400 10 12.5 15
400 – 600 12.5 15 20
600 - 1400 15 20 25
1400 - 2200 20 25 30
2200 - 3000 25 30 35
3000 – 4500 30 35 40
4500 – 6000 35 40 50
6000 - 10000 40 50 60
(urban water supply design manual, 2006 n.d.)
From the given test data, the proposed site for development of well is 11L/s which are
660 L/min. From the given well yield and casing diameter relationship (table 20) the
recommended optimum size of casing hill be 25cm. From the previous calculation it is
fixed that the screen diameter is 150 mm. casing diameter should exceed the screen
diameter.
6.10 selection of materials
Selection of casing material is based on water quality well depth, cost, borehole diameter,
drilling procedure etc. The types of casing used in water well construction is steel,
thermoplastic, fiber glass, concrete, etc. In our case stainless steel is selected because it
had high tensile strength, simple for installation and has zero water absorption. The
choice of screen material may be dictated by the strength requirement. It should stand for
the three loads imposed on. -
1. Vertical compression (column load)
2. Tensile load (extending load)
3. Collapse load (horizon pressure force)
Experience has shown that the extended screen life afforded by stainless steel and bronze
makes them the most economical in the long run.
6.11 grouting and sealing of well casing
Well grouting involves filling the space around the pipe or casing (usually between the
casing and the wall of the well) with a suitable an impervious material. It is obvious that
the drilled hole is usually greater than the well casing. This creates an irregularity shaped
annular around the well casing. So, it is essential to fill this space so that the entry of
contaminated surface water is stopped. Whenever the martial overlying the aquifer is of
non – cave – in type, such as clay, the annular space should be grouted with clay or
cement slurry to a depth of 3 to 5 m below the surface.
6.11.1 advantage of grouting
1. Protect an aquifer form entry of contaminating fluids
2. Protect the well against the entry of unwanted water from the surface or
subsurface zone.
3. Protect the casing against exterior corrosive and also assure integrity of casing
against external pressure.
6.12 well spacing
Well must be developed in such a manner that the spacing of wells should not be
interfered each other. Mutual interference of wells has the following adverse effects: -
 The drawdown is increased and this leads to increment of pumping lift.
 The efficiency of well is decreased
 The total ground water output is less than the sum of the discharging capacity
of individual wells
To avoid the above adverse effects due to interference, the spacing of wells is
generally kept in b/n 75m- 175m. For the present site, we haven’t full data to predict
the spacing. But from the existing well having boreholes space of 174m shows a
decline of discharge due to interference. From this experience in order to reduce this
effect the spacing of wells is assumed as 200 to 300m a part. Bearing in mind in some
areas max spacing could be 500.