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CHAPTER 3

Chapter 3 covers DC circuit theory, explaining the differences between direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC), and introduces basic electrical measuring instruments like ammeters and voltmeters. It discusses Ohm's law, series and parallel circuits, and the potential divider rule, along with Kirchhoff's laws for current and voltage in circuits. The chapter emphasizes the importance of understanding loading effects and internal resistance in practical applications.

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4 views

CHAPTER 3

Chapter 3 covers DC circuit theory, explaining the differences between direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC), and introduces basic electrical measuring instruments like ammeters and voltmeters. It discusses Ohm's law, series and parallel circuits, and the potential divider rule, along with Kirchhoff's laws for current and voltage in circuits. The chapter emphasizes the importance of understanding loading effects and internal resistance in practical applications.

Uploaded by

waynebuleni7
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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CHAPTER 3: DC CIRCUIT THEORY

DC Circuit Theory

There are 2 types of current, Direct current (dc) and Alternating current
(ac).
DC is a unidirectional and constant current/voltage whilst AC is bi-
directional ie it changes both magnitude and polarity.

For DC, there are 2 types of current flow ie:


1. Conventional current where current flows from the positive terminal
to the negative terminal
2. Electron flow where current flows from the negative terminal to the
positive terminal

Basic Electrical measuring instruments


An ammeter is an instrument used to measure current and must be
connected in series with the circuit. Figure 1 shows an ammeter
connected in series with the lamp to measure the current flowing through
it. Since all the current in the circuit passes through the ammeter it must
have a very low resistance.

A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure p.d. and must be


connected in parallel with the part of the circuit whose p.d. is required.
In Figure 1, a voltmeter is connected in parallel with the lamp to measure
the p.d. across it. To avoid a significant current flowing through it a
voltmeter must have a very high resistance.

Fig 1
OHM’S LAW

Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly


proportional to the applied voltage V and inversely proportional to the
resistance R, provided the temperature remains constant. Thus,

Note also that the current enters the positive terminal and leaves the
negative terminal for the load resistor R.
For any resistor, in any network, the direction of current through a resistor
will define the polarity of the voltage drop across the resistor as shown in
Fig 2for two directions of current.

Fig 2

Questions

Series and Parallel Networks


A circuit is any combination of elements that will result in a
continuous flow of charge, or current, through the configuration.

There are two ways in which components may be connected together in


an electric circuit. One way is ‘in
series’ where components are connected ‘end-to-end’; another way is ‘in
parallel’ where components are
connected ‘across each other’. When a circuit is more complicated than
two or three elements, it is very
likely to be a network of individual series and parallel circuits

Series Circuit

Fig 3

Figure 3 shows three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected end to end, i.e., in
series, with a battery source of V volts. Since the circuit is closed a current
I will flow and the p.d. across each resistor may be determined from the
voltmeter readings V1, V2 and V3.
Questions
Voltage/ Potential Divider Rule

The circuit shown in Figure 3 (b) is often referred to as a potential


divider circuit. Such a circuit can consist of a number of similar elements
in series connected across a voltage source, voltages being taken from
connections between the elements. Frequently the divider consists of two
resistors, as shown in Figure 3 (b), where
Fig 3

A potential divider is the simplest way of producing a source of lower


e.m.f. from a source of higher e.m.f., and is the basic operating
mechanism of the potentiometer, a measuring device for accurately
measuring potential differences.

The voltage distribution for the circuit shown in Figure 3 (a) is given by:

Fig 3

Questions
Parallel Circuit

This is where components are connected ‘across each other’.


In a parallel circuit:
(a) The sum of the currents I1, I2 and I3 is equal to the total circuit current,
I, i.e. I=I1+I2+I3
(b) The source p.d., V volts, is the same across each of the resistors.

From Ohm’s law:


Example:

For the circuit shown in Figure determine


(a) The reading on the ammeter
(b) The value of resistor R2

Solution:

Current divider rule

This is only applicable to resistors connected in parallel


It is important to note that current division can only be applied to two
parallel resistors. If there are more than two parallel resistors, then
current division cannot be determined using the above formulae.

Example:
For the series-parallel arrangement shown in the diagram
Find;
(a) The supply current,
(b) The current flowing through each resistor and
(c) The p.d. across each resistor.
Solution:
Loading effect

Loading effect: is the terminology used when a measuring instrument


such as an oscilloscope or voltmeter is connected across a component
and the current drawn by the instrument upsets the circuit under test. The
best way of demonstrating loading effect is by a numerical example.
In the simple circuit of diagram below, the voltage across each of the
resistors can be calculated using voltage division, or by inspection. In this
case, the voltage shown as V should be 20 V.

Using a voltmeter having a resistance of, say, 600 kΩ places 600 kΩ in


parallel with the 1MΩ resistor, as shown in the diagram

Using a Fluke (or multimeter) which has a set internal resistance of, say,
10MΩ, as shown in the diag, produces a much better result and the
loading effect is minimal, as shown below.
When taking measurements, it is vital that the loading effect is
understood and kept in mind at all times. An incorrect voltage reading
may be due to this loading effect rather than the equipment under
investigation being defective. Ideally, the resistance of a voltmeter
should be infinite.

A voltage source is a two-terminal device which can maintain a


fixed voltage. An ideal voltage source can maintain the
fixed voltage independent of the load resistance or the output current.
However, a real-world voltage source cannot supply unlimited current.
A voltage source is the dual of a current source.
Open-circuit voltage (abbreviated as OCV or VOC ) is the difference of
electrical potential between two terminals of a device when disconnected
from any circuit. There is no external load connected. No external electric
current flows between the terminals.

Terminal voltage is the voltage output of a device is measured across


its terminals. Terminal voltage is calculated by V = emf - Ir.

Internal resistance usually means the electrical resistance inside


batteries and power supplies that can limit the potential difference that
can be supplied to an external load. With an external resistance of 0.001
Ohms, you have basically a short circuit.

Example: 1 The potential difference across the cell when no current flows
through the circuit is 3 V. When the current I = 0.37 Ampere is flowing,
the terminal potential difference falls to 2.8 Volts. Determine the internal
resistance (r) of the cell?
Solution:
e = V + Ir
Or, e – V = Ir
Or, (e – V)/I = r
Therefore, r = (3.0 – 2.8)/0.37 = 0.54 Ohm.
Due to the Internal Resistance of the cell, the electrons moving through
the cell turns some of the electrical energy to heat energy. Therefore, the
potential difference available to the rest of the circuit is:
V = E (EMF of cell) – Ir (the p.d. across the internal resistor)

Electrical energy defines the energy generated due


to the movement of charge carriers in a conductor. While electrical
power specifies the rate of consumption of electrical energy by a
device. The SI unit of electrical energy is Joules. But electrical power is
measured in Watts (or KWh).

A Joule is a Watt per Seconds. Watts are units of Power,


whereas Joules are units of Energy. Power is Energy in accordance to time:
P = E/t . So One Watt of Power is equal to one Joule per second.

Kirchhoff’s laws state:

(a) Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)

At any junction in an electric circuit the total current flowing

the junction, i.e. ⅀I =0


towards that junction is equal to the total current flowing away from

(current entering a junction is equal to current leaving the junction)


Illustration of KCL

(b)Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

In any closed loop in a network, the algebraic sum of the voltage


drops (i.e. products of current and resistance) taken around the loop
is equal to the resultant e.m.f. acting in that loop.
Thus, referring to the diagram: E1−E2=IR1+ IR2+IR3
(Note that if current flows away from the positive terminal of a
source, that source is considered by convention to be positive. Thus
moving anticlockwise around the loop of the diagram, E1 is positive
and E2 is negative.)

Problem 1. (a) Find the unknown currents marked in the diagram (a) and
(b) below. Determine the value of e.m.f. E
Detailed Example on KVL and KCL

Problem

Use Kirchhoff’s laws to determine the currents flowing in each branch of


the network shown in Figure 13.4
Fig 13.4

Procedure
Fig 13.5
Fig 13.6

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