Bas ese hi mehnat karte rho

💙
hero PREPOMETER ko
honestly follow kro, message
me kitna pdha din bhar mai🌱
9198151228...Study hard,
💪
Maximum revision.
Success is waiting for you
brother.
 CARBON AND ITS
COMPOUNDS
Atmosphere has 0.03% of carbon dioxide.

Low melting & boiling points as compared to

ionic compounds.

Forces of attraction between the molecules are not very strong.

Earth’s crust has 0.02% carbon in form of minerals (like carbonates,
hydrogen carbonates, coal and petroleum).
Most carbon compounds are poor conductors of electricity because
they lack free electrons and bonding in these compounds does not
give rise to any ions.

CARBON VALENCY
The atomic number of carbon is 6 and its valency is 4.
Carbon has 4 electrons in its outermost shell, needs to gain or lose 4
electrons to attain noble gas configuration.
If a carbon atom gained 4 electrons (forming C4– anion), it would have
6 protons and 10 electrons, which would make it to highly unstable.
If a carbon atom loses four electrons ( forming C4+ cation), it
would require a large amount of energy to remove them.
Carbon's bonds with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine
most other elements are very strong( exceptionally stable).
Carbon's small size allows its nucleus to hold on to the shared pairs of
electrons strongly.
 COVALENT BONDING
Bonds formed by sharing an electron pair between two atoms are known
as covalent bonds.
Covalently bonded molecules have strong bonds, but weak intermolecular
forces.
Each atom contributes one electron from their outer shell, but some
atoms can react to make multiple covalent bonds.
The atoms of other elements like hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, chlorine
also form bonds by sharing of electrons.

SINGLE COVALENT DOUBLE COVALENT TRIPLE COVALENT

BOND BOND BOND
When a single pair of When two pairs of When three pairs of
electrons are shared electrons are shared electrons are shared
between two atoms in between two atoms in between two atoms in
a molecule. a molecule. a molecule.
H – H single bond O = O double bond N ≡ N triple bond
between hydrogen between oxygen between nitrogen
atoms (H2) atoms (O2) atoms

H H O O N N
 ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
Allotropes are different physical forms of an element that have
different structures and properties.

GRAPHITE
Carbon atom is
bonded to three other
carbon atoms, in the
same plane giving a
hexagonal array.
DIAMOND Smooth and slippery,
BUCKMINSTER
Carbon atom is good conductor of FULLERENE
bonded to four other electricity It is an allotrope of
atoms of carbon carbon-containing
forming a rigid 3- cluster of 60 carbon
dimensional atoms joined together
structures. to form spherical
Hardest substance & molecules.
poor conductor of It is dark solid at
electricity. room temperature.

VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

Tetravalency : Carbon has four valence electrons, which means it can
form up to four covalent bonds with other atoms.
Catenation: Carbon atoms can bond together to form long chains,
branched chains, and rings.
Carbon-carbon bond is very strong and hence stable.
Polymerization : Chemical reaction that joins monomer molecules to
form larger molecules, called polymers. Ex : Polyethylene, Polyesters.
Isomerism : Carbon compounds having the same molecular formula but
different structural formulae are called isomers. Ex : C 4 H6
 POLYMERIZATION PROCESSES
Small molecules called monomers chemically bond to form
large, chain-like structures known as polymers.
This process is fundamental in creating materials like
plastics, rubber, and fibers.
Monomers are simple molecules that can join together to
form polymers.
Example: Ethylene monomers can polymerize to form
polyethylene, a common plastic.

THERMOPLASTICS THERMOSETTING
Soften on Heating (moldable) & Highly durable, heat-resistant, &
Harden on Cooling (solidify). rigid.

This process is reversible, They are resistant to deformation

material can be re-heated, even at higher temperatures.
reshaped, and cooled repeatedly Once hardened they cannot be
without any chemical change. remelted or reshaped.

Weak intermolecular force of Strong intermolecular force of

attraction. attraction.
H
Ex: Polyethylene (PE), Teflon, Ex: Electric switches, Epoxy,
H H
Polypropylene (PP), Polyvinyl Bakelite, Melamine, and Phenolic.
chloride
H H(PVC), Polystyrene (PS).
 SATURATED HYDROCARBON UNSATURATED HYDROCARBON
BOND BOND
Single bonds b/w carbon atoms. Double or triple carbon-carbon
bonds.
Maximum number of hydrogen
atoms bonded to each carbon Fewer hydrogen atoms bonded
atom. to carbon atoms.
Produce a yellow flame with black
Produces a blue flame when it
soot when burned in air because
burns because it undergoes
of incomplete combustion.
complete combustion.
Ex: ALKENES & ALKYNES - Ethene
Ex: ALKANES - Ethane
& Ethyne.
H H

H H

H H Ethene C 2H4

HYDROCARBONS Contain only single bonds

between carbon atoms.(ethane)

AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS Alkanes are the simplest type of

hydrocarbon.
Contain at least one aromatic ALKANES
ring.
Ethene C 2H4
Ex: Benzene ring C 6 H 6
Toluene C 6 H 5 CH 3
Xylene C6 H 4 (CH3)2
ALKENES
Contain one or more double
bonds between carbon atoms.
The simplest alkene is ethene.
Ethene C 2H2
ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS ALKYNES
Do not contain benzene rings Contain one or more triple
bonds between carbon atoms.
and are usually flammable.
The simplest alkyne is
Ex: alkanes, alkenes, alkynes.
acetylene, aka ethyne.
 Structural Octane Rating
Melting
Melting point
point Boiling
Boiling point
point Isomers of
Hydrocarbons

-182°C
-182°C -164°C
-164°C 1
Heptane - 0

-183°C
-183°C -89°C
-89°C 1
Hexane - 25

-190°C
-190°C -42°C
-42°C 1

Pentane - 62

-138°C
-138°C -1°C
-1°C 2

Butane - 91

-130°C
-130°C 36°C
36°C 3

Cyclohexane-97

-95°C 69°C 5
-95°C 69°C

Isooctane - 100
-- -- 9

Benzene - 101
-57°C
-57°C 125°C
125°C 18

Xylene - 117
-- -- 35

-30°C
-30°C 174°C
174°C 75 Toluene - 118

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

An organic compound where one or more
HALO (CHLORO
hydrogen atoms in an alkane are replaced by a
BROMO) ALKANE halogen atom.
The suffix ”ol” is used to form names of organic
ALCOHOL compounds containing the hydroxyl (–OH) group,
mainly alcohols.
The suffix for aldehydes is "al", an carbonyl
ALDEHYDE (-CHO) group, which is a carbon atom double-
bonded to an oxygen atom.

The suffix for ketone is "one", an carbonyl (-CO)

KETONE group, attached to two carbon atoms in an
organic compound.

The suffix for carboxylic acid is "oic acid", an

CARBOXYLIC
carboxyl (-COOH) group, made up of a carbon
ACID atom, two oxygen atoms, and a hydrogen atom.

The suffix for alkyl group is “yl”, part made up of

ALKYL carbon and hydrogen atoms and is the derivative
of alkanes.
 CYCLOHEXANE'S BENZENE'S
STRUCTURE STRUCTURE
A ring of six carbon atoms that A six-carbon ring which is
are covalently bonded together. represented by a hexagon and it
Each carbon atom in the ring is includes 3-double bonds.
bonded to two hydrogen atoms Each carbon atom is also
and two adjacent carbon atoms. attached to a hydrogen atom.
The structure can be represented Alternating single and double
by drawing a hexagon, where each bonds, also known as conjugated
point in the hexagon represents a double bonds.
carbon atom. Colorless liquid, aromatic odor,
Cyclohexane is a non-polar, boiling point of 80.1°C, melting
flammable, colorless liquid with point of 5.5°C, immiscible in
a detergent-like odor. water, soluble in organic
solvents.
EX : C 6 H 12

EX : C 6 H 6

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
A homologous series is a collection of compounds with the same general
formula that differ in the carbon chain length.
Same functional group, a general method of preparation, and nearly identical
chemical properties.
Each successive compound in a homologous series Alkanes: C nH2n+2
differs from the others by a CH2 unit.
Alkenes: C nH2n
For example :
The difference between CH4 and C2H6 is -CH2 unit. Alkynes: C nH2n-2
The difference between C2H6 and C3H8 is also -CH2 unit.
 NOMENCLATURE OF CARBON COMPOUNDS
The nomenclature of carbon compounds is based on the number of
carbon atoms in the compound, the type of bonds between the carbon
atoms, and the presence of functional groups.
The prefix of the compound's name indicates the number of carbon
atoms. Ex: Alkane with seven carbon atoms (heptane).
The suffix of the compound's name indicates the type of bonds between
the carbon atoms. Ex: Alkane - ane, Alkenes - ene, etc.
HALO (CHLORO) HALO (BROMO) ALCOHOL
ALKANE ALKANE

CHLOROPROPANE BROMOPROPANE PROPANOL

ALDEHYDE KETONE CARBOXYLIC ACID

PROPANAL PROPANONE PROPANOIC ACID

ALKENES ALKYNES ESTER

PROPAENE PROPAYNE ETHYL ETHANOATE

CETANE NUMBER OCTANE NUMBER

Measures the ignition quality of Measures resistance quality of
diesel fuel. gasoline & petrol to pre- ignition.
Higher cetane no. indicates faster
High octane no. shows the
and smooth ignition.
ability to avoid pre- ignition.
Higher cetane no. reduce engine
High octane fuel improves engine
noise & essential for cold weather.
performance & prevents engine
"n-cetane" aka "n-hexadecane" damage.

Relation b/w cetane Octane & Cetane no. are inversely

no. & octane no.- proportional to each other
 CHEMICAL
CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES OF
OF
CARBON
CARBON
COMPOUND
COMPOUND
COMBUSTION OXIDATION
OXIDTION
Carbon in allotropic form, burns in Carbon compounds can be easily
oxygen to give carbon dioxide along oxidized on combustion.
with the release of heat & light. In addition to this complete oxidation,
C + O2 → CO 2 + HEAT + LIGHT we have reactions in which alcohols
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H 2 O + HEAT + LIGHT are converted to carboxylic acids.
ALKALINE
CH3 CH2 OH + O2 → CO2 + H 2 O + HEAT + LIGHT KMnO 4 + Heat
CH3 -CH 2 OH CH3 C0OH
K2CR2O7 + Heat
Saturated hydrocarbons : a blue ACIDIFIED

clean flame, Ex : gas/kerosene stove. Ex : Oxidising agents include

Unsaturated carbon : a yellow flame alkaline potassium permanganate
with black smoke. and potassium dichromate.
EX : Fuels such as coal & petroleum
have some amount of nitrogen and
Sulphur in them. ADDITION REACTION
Burn copper wire: Heat up quickly, will Unsaturated hydrocarbons add
glow and give a bluish-green flame. hydrogen in the presence of
catalysts such as palladium or
SUBSTITUTION REACTION nickel to give saturated
hydrocarbons.
Saturated hydrocarbons are
Catalysts are substances that
fairly unreactive and are inert in
cause a reaction to occur or
the presence of most reagents.
proceed at a different rate without
Presence of sunlight, chlorine is the reaction itself being affected.
added to hydrocarbons in a very H H
R R NICKEL
fast reaction. C C CATALYST
R C C R
H2
R R
Chlorine can replace the H H
hydrogen atoms one by one, Ex : hydrogenation of vegetable
because one type of atom or a oils using a nickel catalyst.
group of atoms takes the place Vegetable oils : long unsaturated
of another. carbon chains.
CH 4 + C l 2 → CH 3 C l + HC l Animal fats : saturated carbon
(IN THE PRESENCE OF SUNLIGHT) chains
 IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS
ETHANOIC ACID
Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and belongs to a group of acids called
carboxylic acids.
5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a
2
preservative in pickles.
The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often freezes during
winter in cold climates, aka glacial acetic acid.
Carboxylic acids are characterized by a special acidity, unlike mineral acids like
HCl, which are completely ionized, carboxylic acids are weak acids.

REACTIONS OF ETHANOIC ACID : ESTERIFICATION REACTION

Esters formed by reaction of an acid and an alcohol.
( ACID )
CH 3 -COOH + CH 3 -CH 2 OH CH 3 -O-C-CH2 -CH3 + H 2 O
( ETHANOIC ACID ) ( ETHANOL ) ( ESTER )
O
Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol in the presence of an acid catalyst to give an ester.
Esters are sweet-smelling substances. Ex : perfumes & flavouring agents.
REACTIONS OF ETHANOIC ACID : SAPONIFICATION
( N a OH )
CH3COOC2 H5 C 2 H5 OH + CH 3 COON a
Esters reacts with a base to give back the alcohol & carboxylic acid. Ex: Soap.

REACTIONS OF ETHANOIC ACID : REACTION WITH A BASE

N a OH + CH 3 COOH CH 3 COONa + H 2 O
Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid reacts with a base such as sodium hydroxide
to give a salt (sodium ethanoate or commonly called sodium acetate) and water.

REACTIONS OF ETHANOIC ACID : CARBONATES & HYDROGEN CARBONATES

2CH 3 COOH + Na 2 CO 3 2CH 3 COONa + H 2O + CO 2

CH 3 COOH + N a HCO 3 CH3 COONa + H 2O + CO2

Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to give rise to a salt,
carbon dioxide and water.
The salt produced is commonly called sodium acetate.
 ETHANOL
Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature and it is a good solvent.
Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and is the active ingredient of all
alcoholic drinks.
It is also used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups, and
many tonics.
Ethanol is also soluble in water in all proportions.
Consumption of small quantities of dilute ethanol causes drunkenness.

REACTIONS OF ETHANOL : REACTION WITH SODIUM

2Na + 2CH3 CH2 OH → 2CH3 CH2 O N a + H 2
- +

( SODIUM ETHOXIDE )

Alcohols react with sodium leading to production of hydrogen and sodium

ethoxide.
REACTIONS OF ETHANOL : UNSATURATD HYROCARBON
( HOT CONC. )
CH 3 -CH2 OH CH 2 = CH 2 + H 2O
( H 2 SO4 )

Unsaturated hydrocarbon: Heating ethanol at 443 K with excess concentrated

sulphuric acid results in the dehydration of ethanol to give ethene.

Ethanol is a type of

OU KNOW
alcohol commonly
Y !
DO
found in beverages.
D

Methanol is another type of

alcohol that is toxic to Methanol is oxidised to
humans. Methanal in the liver.
Ethanol that has been mixed Coagulates Protoplasm.
with a substance like
Damage optic nerve.
methanol to make it
poisonous and undrinkable
"denatured alcohol".
 (Hydrophilic)
(Hydrophobic)

Hydrocarbon
(Ionic bond - Hydrophilic)
(Covalent bond - Hydrophobic)

Benzene

SOAP DETERGENTS
The molecules of soap are sodium or Detergents are generally sodium
potassium salts of long-chain salts of sulphonic acids or
carboxylic acids. ammonium salts with chlorides or
The ionic-end of soap dissolves in bromides ions, etc.
water while the carbon chain The charged ends of these
dissolves in oil. compounds do not form insoluble
The soap molecules, thus form precipitates with the calcium and
structures called micelles. magnesium ions in hard water.

One end of the molecules is towards Detergents are usually used to

the oil droplet (hydrophobic tail) make shampoos and products for
while the ionic-end faces outside cleaning clothes.
(hydrophilic head).
This forms an emulsion in water.
Soap micelle thus helps in
dissolving the dirt in water and we
(Hydrophilic head)
can wash our clothes clean.
Ex: C17 H25 COONa (Hydrophobic tail)
Soap is a salt of fatty acid.

Soap scum on clothes is

caused by hard water.
This time I want your roll no. in PDF

For CDS & NDA (1) 2025

1640 SELECTIONS IN NDA & CDS (2) 2024

2119 SELECTIONS IN AFCAT (2) 2024
सर नीचे, बस अपनी मेहनत।