GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Chemistry – study of matter. • Solution (True solution) – homogenous

Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass. mixture, composed of solute and solvent (where
• Mass – amount of matter present in the solute is soluble) Eg. 70% IPA
material • Suspension (Coarse Mixture) – heterogenous
• Weight – Mass x gravity of earth (9.8m/s2) mixture where a finely or coarsely divided solid
materials distributed in a liquid (where solute is
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT insoluble) Eg. ABC in water for reconsitution
METRIC SYSTEM • Colloid – particles of solute are not broken
• International system of units (SI) down to the size of the molecules but are small
• There are two types of units: enough to remain suspended and evenly
– Fundamental (or base) units (7 base dispersed throughout the medium Eg.
units) Mayonnaise, Gel
– Derived units
• Based on the decimal system CLASSIFICATION OF COLLOIDS
• Recognized internationally Dispersed Dispersion Colloidal
Example
Phase Medium System
Whipped
FUNDAMENTAL Liquid Gas Liq. aerosol
SI UNIT ABBREVIATION cream
QUANTITY Pumice,
MASS Kilogram kg Solid Gas Solid aerosol
Marshmallow
LENGTH Meter m Liquid Cloud, mists,
Gas Liquid
TEMPERATURE Kelvin K aerols/foam fog
TIME Second s Milk,
Liquid Liquid Emulsion
AMOUNT OF Mayonnaise
Mole mol
SUBSTANCE Solid Cheese,
Solid Liquid
LUMINOUS emulsion butter
Candela cd
INTENSITY Gas Solid Solid Foam Smoke, Dust
ELECTRIC Liquid Solid Sol, Gel Jelly, Paint
Ampere A
CURRENT Pearls,
Solid Solid Soild sol Pigmented
TEMPERATURE plastics
1. Kelvin Scale (K)
• Lowest temperature possible (absolute zero) is PROCESS OF SEPARATING COMPONENTS OF
zero K. MIXTURE
1. DECANTATION – difference in specific gravity
• Absolute zero: 0 K = -273.15oC
or density
2. Celsius Scale (oC)
2. DISTILLATION – evaporation and then
• Pure water freezes at 0oC and boils at 100oC.
condensation
• To convert: K= oC + 273.15
3. EVAPORATION
3. Fahrenheit Scale (oF)
4. MAGNETIC SEPARATION
• Pure water freezes at 32oF and boils at 212oC.
5. FILTRATION
• Commonly used in Western countries
6. SORTING
7. CENTRIFUGATION – speeding up of settling
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER process of a precipitate
• ELEMENT – simplest form of matter, 1 kind of
8. FRACTIONAL CRYSTALLIZATION – Lowering
material or atom
of temperature so that more insoluble
• COMPOUND – composed of 2 or more elements
component crystallizes out first
united chemically in definite proportion
9. CHROMATOGRAPHY – Difference in solvent
• MIXTURE – composed of 2 or more substances
affinity
that are not chemically combined

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
CLASSIFICATION OF MIXTURE 1. INTRINSIC/INTENSIVE – properties of matter
• ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF PARTICLES
INDEPENDENT of mass or amount
– Homogenous Mixture (1 phase)
eg. Density, Specific Gravity, Melting Point,
– Heterogenous Mixture (2 or more
Temperature, Refractive Index, Hardness
phases)
2. EXTRINSIC/EXTENSIVE - properties of matter
which are DEPENDENT of mass or amount
Property Solution Colloid Suspension
Particle Size <1nm 1-100nm >100nm eg. Weight, Volume, Pressure, Heat Content
Visibility Invisible Cloudy Cloudy
Separation
Does not Does not Separates/ CHANGES THAT MATTER UNDERGOES
separate separate Settles 1. PHYSICAL CHANGE – change in phase of
Passes Passes Does not pass
Filterability
through through through matter
Light can Scatter Light cannot 2. CHEMICAL CHANGE – change in both intrinsic
Effect on light
pass light pass and extrinsic properties
Example NSS Protein Antibiotic Evidences of chemical change
ACCORDING TO THE SIZE OF PARTICLES
a. Evolution of gas
b. Formation of precipitate
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY
c. Emission of light • “Electron cloud”
d. Generation of Electricity • “Orbitals” – region in space where the probability of
e. Production of Mechanical Energy finding an electron is greatest
f. Absorption/liberation of heat QUANTUM NUMBERS
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION A. PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER
1. DIRECT UNION/SYNTHESIS • Main Energy Level
• Symbol: (n)
2. DECOMPOSITION • Values: 1, 2, 3 (positive integer)
• Function: determine the size of the particle
3. SINGLE REPLACEMENT B. AZIMUTHAL/ANGULAR MOMENTUM
• Symbol: (l)
4. DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT • Values: 0 to (n-1)
• Function: subshell or sublevel, determines the
PROCESSES INVOLVED IN CHEMICAL CHANGE shape
1. OXIDATION – chemical union of O2 with another C. MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER
substance • Symbol: ml
• Values: -l to +l
2. REDUCTION – O2 is removed from a compound • Function: orbitals; determine the orientation
or H is added D. SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER
• Symbol: s or ms
3. NEUTRALIZATION – acid reacts with base to • Values: -½ or +½
form salt and water • Function: direction of the spin or rotation

4. HYDROLYSIS – reaction of water on a salt PRINCIPLES

AUFBAU “BUILDING UP” PRINCIPLE
forming acid and base
• “The lowest-energy orbitals filled up first”
PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
5. SAPONIFICATION – reaction between alkali
• “No 2 electrons can have the same set of 4
and fatty acids forming soap and glycerol
quantum numbers”
6. FERMENTATION – action of bacteria on organic
• Only two electrons can occupy an orbital and
substances resulting to production of alcohol
must be in opposite spin eg. 1s2
HUND’S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
ATOMIC STRUCTURE • “Orbitals are filled up singly before pairing up.“
A. Democritus
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
• Matter is made up of small indivisible particles
• “It is impossible to determine simultaneously
which is called “atomos”
the momentum and position of an electron”
NUCLEAR CHANGE – change in the structure,
properties, composition of the nucleus of an atom
resulting in the transmutation of element into another
PERIODIC TABLE
• Antoine-Laurent Lavoiser
element
• First true periodic table
• NUCLEAR FISSION – splitting of a heavy atom
• Johann Dobereiner
• NUCLEAR FUSION – union of 2 light atoms to
• Triads
form a bigger molecule
• Li, Na, K;
B. John Dalton
• Ba Ca Sr;
• Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• Fe Co Ni
• Matter is made up of atoms
• Newlands
• All atoms of a given element are alike
• Octaves
• Atoms enter into combination with other
• Meyer and Mendeleev
atoms to form compounds but remain
• Physical and chemical properties are
unchanged during ordinary chemical
periodic functions of their atomic weight
reaction
• Henri Moseley
• Atom can combine into simple numerical
• Elements are arranged based on atomic
ratios eg. CaCl2
number
• “Billiard ball model” that atom is a hard-
indestructible sphere
Family A
C. J.J. Thomson
• Representative elements
• Model of: “raisin bread” model or ”Plum pudding”’
• Occupy:
• “atom contains (+) & (-) negative particle
 S block
D. Rutherford Gold Film Experiment
 Group IA: Alkali metals
• “Atom is an empty space (99% a-particle passed)
 Group IIA Alkaline Earth metals
• Mass are conc. in nucleus (<1% deflected)
 P block
E. Niel Bohr “Planetary Model”
 Group IIIA to VIIIA
• “Electron Shell”
F. Erwin Schrodinger
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Family B • Henry’s Law – the solubility of a gas increases
• Transition elements as pressure increases
• Occupy: 4. PARTICLE SIZE/ SURFACE AREA
 D block: Transition metals • Decrease particle size, increase surface area,
 P block: Rare earth metals increase solubility
(Lanthanides/Lanthanoids)
PERIODIC TRENDS
Atomic Radius
• ½ the distance between 2 nuclei
• Right to left increases
• Top to bottom increases
Electronegativity
• Ability to attract electron
• Left to right increases
• Bottom to top increases
Ionization Energy or Potential
• Ability to remove an electron from a positively
charged attom
• Left to right increases
• Bottom to top increases
Electron affinity
• Property to accept an electron
• Left to right increases
• Bottom to top increases
Metallic Property
• Ability to conduct heat and electricity
• Right to left increases
• Top to bottom increases

KINEMATIC MOLECULAR THEORY

• Explains the phases of matter based on the
movement (including direction of the
molecules), ions or atoms
• Solid – definite shape and size, definite volume
• Liquid – follows shape of container, definite
volume
• Gases – Indefinite shape and volume

SOLUTIONS
• Homogenous mixture single phase system of
two or more substances
Types of solution according to the solubility of solute
1. Saturated solution
2. Unsaturated solution
3. Supersaturated solution

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

1. NATURE OF SOLUTE AND SOLVENT
• “Like dissolves like
• Solubility – maximum amount of solute
expressed in grams that can be dissolved in
100g of water (S-L)
• Miscibility – ability of one substance to mix with
another substance (L-L)
2. TEMPERATURE
• Exothermic – solubility decreases with increase
in temperature
• Endothermic – solubility increases with increase
in temperature
• The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases with
increase in temperate
3. PRESSURE – affects gas only
FLAME TEST
METALS NON-LUMINOUS FLAME UNDER COBALT GLASS
Sodium Persistent golden yellow Nil
Potassium Violet Crimson
Lithium Carmine red Purple
Calcium Brick red Light green
Strontium Crimson Purple
Barium Yellowish green Bluish-green
Borate, Copper, Thallium,
Green
Phosphorus
Lead, Arsenic, Antimony,
Blue Yellow
Bismuth, Copper
Ammonium Colorless

SOLUBILITY RULES
The following are the solubility rules for common ionic solids. If there two rules appear to contradict
each other, the preceding rule takes precedence.
1. Salts containing Group I elements (Li+, Na+, K+, Cs+, Rb+) are soluble . There are few exceptions
to this rule. Salts containing the ammonium ion (NH 4+) are also soluble.
2. Salts containing nitrate ion (NO3-) are generally soluble.
3. Salts containing Cl -, Br -, or I - are generally soluble. Important exceptions to this rule are halide
salts of Ag+, Pb2+, and (Hg2)2+. Thus, AgCl, PbBr2, and Hg2Cl2 are insoluble.
4. Most silver salts are insoluble. AgNO3 and Ag(C2H3O2) are common soluble salts of silver;
virtually all others are insoluble.
5. Most sulfate salts are soluble. Important exceptions to this rule include CaSO 4, BaSO4, PbSO4,
Ag2SO4 and SrSO4 .
6. Most hydroxide salts are only slightly soluble. Hydroxide salts of Group I elements are soluble.
Hydroxide salts of Group II elements (Ca, Sr, and Ba) are slightly soluble. Hydroxide salts of
transition metals and Al3+ are insoluble. Thus, Fe(OH)3, Al(OH)3, Co(OH)2 are not soluble.
7. Most sulfides of transition metals are highly insoluble, including CdS, FeS, ZnS, and Ag2S.
Arsenic, antimony, bismuth, and lead sulfides are also insoluble.
8. Carbonates are frequently insoluble. Group II carbonates (CaCO 3, SrCO3, and BaCO3) are
insoluble, as are FeCO3 and PbCO3.
9. Chromates are frequently insoluble. Examples include PbCrO4 and BaCrO4.
10. Phosphates such as Ca3(PO4)2 and Ag3PO4 are frequently insoluble.
11. Fluorides such as BaF2, MgF2, and PbF2 are frequently insoluble.

GROUPS OF ANION
GROUP NO – MEMBER PRECIPITATE FORMED AND VISUAL RESULT
With 1M AgNO3 + 6M HNO3 With 1M BaCl2 + HNO3
AgCl (white), AgBr (cream),
I – Cl, Br, I No precipitate
AgI (yellow) insoluble in HNO3
AgS (black) soluble in HNO3, NO2
II – NO2-, S-2, C2H3O4-(acetate) No precipitate
and C2H3O2 (no precipitate)
White precipitate soluble in White precipitate of BaSO4,
III – SO3, CO3-2, C2O4-2
HNO3 CaSO4, BaC2O4 soluble in HNO3
Ag3PO4 (yellow), Ag3AsO4 BaCrO4 (yellow), Ba3(PO3)2
IV – PO3-3, AsO4-3, CrO4-2 (brown), Ag2CrO4 (red) all (white), Ba3(AsO4)2 (white) all
precipitate soluble in HNO3 precipitate soluble in HNO3
V – NO3-, ClO- No precipitate No precipitate
White precipitate soluble in
VI – SO4-2 No precipitate
HNO3
GROUPS OF CATION
GROUP NO – MEMBER CHARACTERISTICS
I – Pb+2, Hg+2, Ag+2 (insoluble chloride group) Form precipitate with dilute HCl
Do not react with HCl, but form precipitate with
II – Hg+, Bi+3, Cu+2, Cd+2, As+3, As+5, Sb+3, Sn+2, H2S, dilute mineral acid medium. However, they
Sn+4 (acid insoluble sulfide) form precipitates with (NH4)2S in neutral and
ammoniacal solution
Do not react with either HCl nor H2S in dilute
III – Fe+2, Fe+3, Al+3, Cr+3, Cr+6, Ni+3, CO+2, Mn+2, mineral acid medium. However they form
Mn+7, Zn+2 (base insoluble sulfides) precipitates with (NH4)2S in neutral or
ammoniacal solution
Do not react with HCl, H2S and (NH4)2S. Form
IV – Ba+2, Ca+2, Sr+2 (sulfate insoluble groups) precipitates with NH4Cl in neutral or slightly
acidic medium
Do not react with any of the reagents stated.
Na – yellow precipitate with cobalt uranyl
acetate;
V – Mg+2, Na+, K+, NH4 soluble group
K – white precipitate with sodium bitartrate;
NH4 – alkalinized vapors turns red litmus paper to
blue

COLOR REACTIONS
UNKNOWN TESTS
- Sulfuric acid + ethanol → fruity odor of ethyl acetate
Acetate
- Ferric chloride TS → brownish red or reddish brown ppt of basic acetates
- Ammonium TS → gelatinous ppt which dissolves in excess of ammonium
Aluminum TS
- Aluminon reagent → red lake
- Acidic cobalt solution → intense blue colored complex at interface
NH4SCN (Ammonium
Co(CNS)4
thiocyanate)
- Ferric salts → blood red ferric thiocyanate
- Silver nitrate TS → chocolate brown soluble in nitric acid
Arsenates
- Ammonium molybdate test → yellow precipitate
- Silver nitrate TS → yellow precipitate soluble in nitric acid
Arsenites - Magnesia mixture → no reaction (differentiating test for arsenates and
arsenites)
- Sulfuric acid + methanol → green bordered flame
Borates
- Turmeric paper → orange + sodium hydroxide → olive green
Bromine - Carbon tetrachloride → orange color
- In acidic aqueous solution → effervescence
Carbonate
- Phenolphthalein indicator (Pp) → red coloration
- Silver nitrate test → white curdy precipitate soluble in ammonia, insoluble
Chloride
in nitric acid
- Silver mirror test
- CaCl2 or Ca(OH)2 (in excess) → no precipitate → white precipitate which
Citrate dissolves in cooling
- Pyridine + acetic anhydride (3:1)/Denige’s reagent (distinguishing test for
citrate and tartrates) → carmine red
Chromium - Sodium hydroxide → grayish green slug dissolves in excess reagent
- Sodium hydroxide → blue precipitate of Co(OH)2 (boiling) → olive green →
rose red
Cobalt
- Potassium nitrite + acetic acid → yellow precipitate
- α-nitroso-β-napthol → brown precipitate soluble in HCl
- dimethylglyoxime → bright red crystalline precipitate insoluble in
Nickel ammonia
- α-nitroso-β-napthol → reddish brown precipitate soluble in HCl
- Fe + HCl → deposit of red film on iron
Copper - Potassium ferrocyanide → green precipitate forming a blue solution with
ammonia
Iodide - Chlorine water or potassium permanganate solution → violet color
- Sulfuric acid + sodium bisufite (cold) → decolorized
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY
- Sulfuric acid + oxalic acid (hot) → decolorized
Cyanate - Cobalt acetate + acetic acid → azure blue crystal
- Silver nitrate test → yellow precipitate in nitric acid and ammonia
Phosphate - Ammonium molybdate → yellow precipitate soluble in nitric acid and
ammonia
- Flame test → violet or lilac color
Potassium - Tartaric acid → white crystals insoluble in ethanol and glacial acetic acid
but soluble in sodium hydroxide
- Ferric chloride → violet color
Salicylate
- Acids → white precipitate of salicylic acid
- HCl → white curdy precipitate insoluble in nitric acid but soluble in
Silver
ammonia
- Flame test → intense golden yellow flame
Sodium
- Cobalt uranyl acetate → golden yellow precipitate
- Silver mirror test
Tartrate
- Pyridine + acetic anhydride (3:1) → emerald green
- HCl → white precipitate turning yellow; SO2
Thiosulfate
- Ferric chloride → dark violet which quickly disappears
Zinc - Hydrogen sulfide → white precipitate (only white sulfide)
- (Fluorescein test) – resorcinol + sulfuric acid + excess NaOH →
Saccharin
Fluorescent green liquid
- Tartaric acid → white precipitate of potassium bitartrate (only insoluble
Potassium
compound of potassium)

Fixed Charge Cations

+1 +2 +3
All Group 1A (Alkali) All Group 2A (Alkaline Earth) Al+3
Ag+1 Cd+2
Zn+2

Variable Charges Cations

+1 & +2 +1 &+3 +2 & +3 +2 & +4 +3 & +5
Hg Au Cr Sn Sb
Mercurous - Aurous - Auric Chromous - Chromic Stannous – Stannic Antimonous -
Mercuric Mn Pb Antimonic
Cu Manganous – Plumbous - Bi
Cuprous - Cupric Manganic Plumbous Bismuthous –
Fe Bismuthic
Ferrous - Ferric As
Co Arsenous - Arsenic
Cobaltous - Cobaltic
Ni
Nickelous - Nickelic

Anions
-1 -2 -3 -4
Fluoride F- Oxide O-2 Nitride N-3 Silicate (SiO4-4)
Bromide Br- Peroxide (O2-2)
Chloride Cl- Oxalate (C2O4 -2) Phospide P-3 Pyrophospate (P2O7-4)
Iodide I- Phosphite (PO3-3) Ferrocyanide [Fe(CN)6-4]
Sulfide S-2 Phosphate (PO4-3)
Hydride H -
Sulfite (SO3 -2)
Hydroxide OH- Sulfate (SO4 -2) Arsenite (AsO3-3)
Thiosulfate (S2O3 -2) Arsenate (AsO4-3)
Azide N3-
Acetate CH3COO- Carbide C2-2 Citrate (C6H5O7-3)
Carbonate (CO3 -2)
Nitrite (NO2 -) Ferricyanide [Fe(CN)6-3]
Nitrate (NO3 -) Biphosphite (HPO3 ) -2

6 of 7 - VGC
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Biphosphate (HPO4-2)
Cyanide CN-
Cyanate (CNO-) Metasilicate (SiO3-2)
Thiocyanate (SCN-)
Chromate (CrO4 -2)
Hypochlorite ClO –
Dichromate (Cr2O7 -2)
Chlorite (ClO2 –)
Chlorate (ClO3 –) Tartrate (C4H4O6-2)
Perchlorate (ClO4 –) Tetraborate (B4O7-2)

Bicarbonite (HCO2–)
Bicarbonate (HCO3–)

Bisulfide (HS-)
Bisulfite (HSO3 -)
Bisulfate (HSO4 -)

Permanganate (MnO4-)

7 of 7 - VGC