Active Power (P) –

Frequency (f) Control

Outline
1. Introduction
2. Power plant model
3. Overview of control tasks
4. Primary frequency control
5. Secondary frequency control
6. Summary
Introduction
 Why constant frequency?
If frequency deviates significantly from the normal value:
 Turbines can sustain damage due to speeding up or sub-synchronous resonance.
 Transformers can heat up and damage themselves.
 The performance of consumer devices may suffer
 protection system / relays trip out generators, lines, and transformers if the
frequency deviations are too severe
1. INTRODUCTION

 System collapse can be the ultimate result in extreme cases

The condition for frequency remaining at or around the standard value (50/60 Hz):

Power generation = Power consumption + losses

Power system an exceedingly complex system

220 – 400 kV

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_grid
Medium voltage
10 – 20 kV
 Multiple layers of frequency control

 A complex and large interconnected system spanning a large

geographic area
 As electric power cannot be stored in any significant
amount, generation must continually match demand
 If demand and supply fall out of balance, local or even
1. INTRODUCTION

widespread blackouts can result.

 Multi timescale frequency control is required to match
power generation with power consumption and keep
frequency around the nominal value
 Frequency control as one of the ancillary services
 Adequate generation capacity must be held in reserve for
frquency control
 one of the ancillary services

Definition of „Ancillary Services“ by US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC):

1. INTRODUCTION

„the specialty services and functions provided by the electric grid that facilitate and support the continuous flow
of electricity so that supply will continually meet demand“
 Ancillary service – operating reserve
 An operating reserve refers to generators that can quickly be dispatched to
ensure that there is sufficient energy generation to meet power demand.
 Spinning reserves are generators that are already online and can rapidly increase their
power output to meet fast changes in demand. Spinning reserves are required because
demand can vary on short timescales and rapid response is needed.
 Other operating reserves are generators that can be dispatched by the operator to meet
1. INTRODUCTION

demand, but that cannot respond as quickly as spinning reserves.

Difference between scheduling and dispatch
Scheduling refers to before-the-fact actions, e.g. scheduling a generator to produce a certain amount of

power the next day, week, etc., while dispatch refers to the real-time control of the available resources.
 Reactive power and voltage control (another ancillary service)
 Compensating the voltage drops caused by current flow and maintaining voltages within the permissible range
 Power Plant Model

 Generator model
 Turbine model
 Governor model
 Controller model
 Power plant model

Power
Reference
(Scheduled
Primary controller Value)
2. POWER PLANT MODEL

Generator Mechanical power input PM from the turbine

Inputs The field voltage EFD from the exciter
Generator The generated electrical output power PG + jQG
Outputs The generator terminal voltage Ut
Rotor speed   Therefore, the governor – turbine control loop can
be decoupled from the excitation loop
 The excitation system is fast (reaction time: 10 – 50 ms)
 since the voltage regulation is much faster
 The governor – turbine system is slow in its reaction to than the speed - active power regulation
dynamic events (reaction time: 0.5 – 10 s)
 Generator model
Governor
control

Block diagram of governor/turbine/generator model

Mathematical model of the generator:
The generator’s inertial response is described by the swing
2. POWER PLANT MODEL

equation
where:
J= The total moment of inertia of the synchronous machine and the attached
d 2 δm dδm rotating masses (in kg.m2)
J  TM  TG  ω  ω0  Δω  m = The rotor angle (in mechanical radians) measured from the synchronously
dt 2 dt rotating reference frame
TM = The turbine mechanical input torque (in Nm). (Positive Tm : mechanical power
d Δω fed into the machine, i.e. normal operation as a generator in steady state.)
J  TM  TG TG = The electromagnetic and damping torques on the rotor (in Nm).
dt (Electromagnetic torque is positive in normal operation as a generator.)
 Governor - turbine – generator model
It is more convenient to work with power rather than torque. Thus,
𝑑∆𝜔
𝐽. 𝜔𝑚 𝑃𝑀 𝑃𝐺
𝑑𝑡
with
𝐽. 𝜔𝑚 𝑀 𝜔𝑚 . 𝑇𝑀 𝑃𝑀 𝜔𝑚 . 𝑇𝐺 𝑃𝐺

leading to another version of the swing equation:

dΔω
2. POWER PLANT MODEL

M  PM  PG
dt
PM P 
M = the machine’s inertia constant (in form of angular momentum) in MW/s 1
The damping power of the system is given by the relationship: - 𝐷 𝑠𝑀
PG
dδ
Pd  D  , where D = the damping coefficient.
dt
The swing equation including damping thus becomes (s: Laplace operator):
dΔω
M  PM  PG  DΔω 𝑀. 𝑠. ∆𝜔 𝑃𝑀 𝑃𝐺 𝐷. ∆𝜔 → 𝐷 𝑠𝑀 . ∆𝜔 𝑃𝑀 𝑃𝐺
dt
 The turbine model

 Turbines are grouped broadly

into steam and hydro turbines.

 Steam turbine
 The basic time constant associated  Hydro turbine:
with a steam turbine is TCH, which  In case of hydro turbines, the time constant
2. POWER PLANT MODEL

corresponds to the time constant of the depends on the geometry of the system. A typical
steam chest. The simplest transfer transfer function of a hydro turbine is:
function is:
1  2sTW 
THT ( s ) 
1 1  sTW 
1 𝑠𝑇

TW is known as the water time constant.

(Steam chest is the compartment in a steam engine
that contains the valve system and through which
steam is delivered from the boiler to the turbine.)
 The governor model
 The simplest governor representation is a
single block with time constant TG

1
1 𝑠𝑇

 In a general case, the governor of a steam turbine (as an

2. POWER PLANT MODEL

example) may be represented by the transfer function:

1  sT2 
TGV ( s ) 
1  sT1   1  sT3 
The time constants will, generally, have the following values.
For a mechanical hydraulic governor T1 = 0.2 – 0.3 s, T2 = 0.0 , T3 = 0.1 s
For an electro hydraulic governor T1 = 0.0 , T2 = 0.0 , T3 = 0.025 – 0.1 s
without steam feedback
For an electro hydraulic governor T1 = 2.8 s, T2 = 1.0 , T3 = 0.15 s
with steam feedback (It utilizes a feed forward mechanism; hence time constant T2 in the
numerator)
 Frequency Control –
an Overview

 Inertial response
 Primary control
 Secondary control
 Tertiary / manual control
 Frequency control layers
Inertial response

Primary control Secondary control

Balancing
authority reserve

Tertiary control
Power

Time
6. SUMMARY

of a rotaing mas to
changes in speed
Natural response

Automatic / manual
control action
https://www.next‐kraftwerke.de/wissen/regelenergie/sekundaerreserve
 Inertial reponse
 The rotating masses of all generators, turbines, motors, etc. combine
to produce system inertia (J) leading to the following equation of
motion (also referred to as the “swing equation”
3. OVERVIEW OF CONTROL TASKS

𝐽 𝑇 𝑇 →

 The inertia of the system slows the angular acceleration of the

generators – Thus the inertia of the system has a stabilizing effect.
 Asynchronous motors (in accordance with their operating principle)
absorb less power when the line frequency drops, or higher power
when the frequency increases.
 Governor (primary) control model
3. OVERVIEW OF CONTROL TASKS

𝑃
 Active Power and Frequency Control
 The system frequency depends on active power balance
 As frequency is a common variable throughout the system (including interconnected
areas), a change in active power demand at one point is reflected throughout the
system in terms of frequency change
3. OVERVIEW OF CONTROL TASKS

Area 1
Example:
New power demand PL = PG in Area 3 
L12
f in Area1, Area2, Area3

 Since there are many generators

Area 2
Area 3 injecting power into an interconnected
L23 system, some means must be provided
to allocate change in the demand to the
generators in the system
L12, L23 : Tie lines  This is the objective of the primary
control function
 Active Power and Frequency Control
Speed governor on each generating unit (participating on primary control):
 provides primary speed control function
3. OVERVIEW OF CONTROL TASKS

 A change in load PL immediately

results in a change in generation PG
 But mechanical power PM can only
change as a result of governor action
𝑃 𝑃
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
∆
∆𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝑃 ∆𝑃  𝑃  ∆𝜔 0 𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙 ∆𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 ∆𝑃

Objective of primary control (governor action):

 ensure that a large and sudden frequency fall / rise is prevented
 Active Power and Frequency Control
Supplementary control / Secondary control:
 originates from a central controller in the system
control center
Area 1
 allocates generation to ensure: L1
3. OVERVIEW OF CONTROL TASKS

2
 frequency is brought back to the nominal value
 inter-area power flow is restored to the scheduled value
Area 2 Area 3

adjust ∆𝑃  ∆ 0 & ∆𝑃 0
𝑃 : power flow between Area i and Area j inter-area power flows 𝑃
 Secondary Frequency Control

Secondary control or Automatic Generation Control (AGC) ensures that:

 frequency steady state error is corrected and
 the load reference(s) of governors is adjusted slowly in such a way that generators
3. OVERVIEW OF CONTROL TASKS

in a particular area take on the burden of their own load, i.e. unscheduled power
exchange between areas is avoided
This control is also called "secondary control". This correction may be
done over several minutes as opposed to 5-10 seconds for initial or
"primary" control action of governors.
 Load – Frequency Control - Overview
Demand side control
Generation side control (if primary / secondary controllers fail to stop frequency decline)
3. OVERVIEW OF CONTROL TASKS

UFLS: under frequency load

shedding

(under frequency load shedding)

 Load – Frequency Control - Overview
3. OVERVIEW OF CONTROL TASKS
 Load – Frequency Control - Overview
Spinning Reserve
 the on-line reserve capacity that is synchronized to the grid system and ready
to meet power demand quickly ( e.g. within 10 minutes of a dispatch
instruction by the System Operator).
3. OVERVIEW OF CONTROL TASKS

 to maintain system frequency stability during emergency operating conditions

and unforeseen load swings.

Non-Spinning Reserve
 off-line generation capacity that can be ramped to capacity and synchronized
to the grid after a dispatch instruction by the System Operator
 and that is capable of maintaining that output for at least two hours. Non-
Spinning Reserve is needed to maintain system frequency stability during
emergency conditions.
 Primary Frequency Control

 Isochronous speed governor

 Speed droop governor
 Droop constant
 Allocation of primary reserve
 Frequency dependency of the load
 Primary Speed Controls

 Isochronous speed governor

4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

 Governor with Speed Droop

 Isochronous governor characteristic
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

Figure 1: Schematic of an isochronous governor Figure 2: Response of generating unit with isochronous governor
 Isochronous speed control

Isochronous speed governor is an integral controller resulting in

constant speed
 not suitable for multi‐machine systems,
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

 because slight differences in speed settings would cause the

machines to fight against each other
 can be used only when one generator is supplying an isolated load or
when only one generator in a system is required to respond to load
changes
 Primary Speed Controls

 Governor with Speed Droop

4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

∆𝑓
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑅
∆𝑃

Governor speed Adds / subtracts input proportional to 

droop control 1/R proportionality factor

 speed regulation or droop is provided to ensure proper load sharing

 a proportional controller with a gain of 1/R
 if the percent regulation of the units are nearly equal, change in output of each unit will be nearly
proportional to its rating
 the speed‐load characteristic can be adjusted by changing governor settings
 Percent Speed Regulation or Droop

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆

𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹 x100
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆

𝝎𝑵𝑳 𝝎𝑭𝑳
= x100
𝝎𝟎
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

where
NL = steady‐state speed at no load
FL = steady‐state speed at full load
0 = nominal or rated speed

For example, a 5% droop or regulation

means that a 5% frequency deviation causes
100% change in valve position or power
output.
Figure 5: Ideal steady‐state characteristics of a governor with speed droop
 Load Sharing by Parallel Units
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

Figure 7: Response of a generating unit with a governor

having speed‐droop characteristics

Figure 6: Load sharing by parallel units with drooping governor characteristics

 Load Sharing by Parallel Units
G1  G2   Gn
PG10 PG20 PGn0

PL

f f 1 PGn
1 PG2
f 50 Hz
50 Hz 1 PG1 50 Hz
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

- - 𝑅 -
- 𝑅 - 𝑅 -
PM01 PM02 f PM0n
f f
f f f
50 Hz 50 Hz 50 Hz
f
f

∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃

𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
P 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
P P
𝑃 𝑃 ∆𝑃 𝑓 𝑃 𝑃 ∆𝑃 𝑓
𝑃 𝑃 ∆𝑃 𝑓

1 1 1 ∆𝑃 1 1 1 1
∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 … ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 𝑓 𝑓 … . 𝑓 → 𝑓 …
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 1 1 1 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 Area droop
…
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
 Load reference control
 Relationship between speed and load
52.5
can be adjusted by changing "load
reference set point“
2.5 Hz = 3%
(Effect of load reference control is depicted in Figure
50 on the left.)
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

C
B  three characteristics representing three
Frequency in Hz

A load reference settings shown, each with

5% droop
  at 50 Hz, characteristic A results in
zero output;
 characteristic B results in 50% output;
50% 100%
% power output
 characteristic C results in 100%
Figure 8: Effect of speed‐changer setting on governor characteristic output
 Load reference control

52.5

2.5 Hz = 3%
 Power output at a given speed can be
50
adjusted to any desired value by
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

C
controlling load reference
B
Frequency in Hz

 When two or more units are

A
operating in parallel:
  adjustment of droop establishes
proportion of load picked up when
system has sudden changes
50% 100%
 adjustment of load reference determines
% power output
Figure 8: Effect of speed‐changer setting on governor characteristic unit output at a given frequency
 Composite System Regulation Characteristic

 System load changes with frequency. Assuming a load damping

constant of D, frequency sensitive load change is:
PL = D. f
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

 When load is increased, the frequency drops due to governor droop;

 Due to frequency sensitive load, the net reduction in frequency is not
as high.

 The composite regulation characteristic includes prime mover

characteristics and load damping.
 Composite System Regulating Characteristic
1
∆𝑃 ∆𝑓
∆𝑃 𝑅
𝐷
∆𝑓

50
∆𝑃 1
∆𝑓 𝑅 f ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 𝐷 ∆𝑓
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

Frequency in Hz

∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 ‐ ∆𝑃 →
 1
PG PD
∆𝑓 𝐷 ∆𝑓
𝑅
PL 1
∆𝑓 𝐷
𝑅
∆𝑃
Figure 10: Composite governor and load characteristic → ∆𝑓
1
𝐷
𝑅
 Composite System Regulating Characteristic
 An increase of system load by PL (at nominal frequency) results in:
 a generation increase of PG due to governor action, and
 a load reduction of PD due to load characteristic

∆𝑷𝑳 ∆𝑷𝑳
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

∆𝒇 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟏
⋯ 𝑫 𝑹 𝑫
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒏 𝒆𝒒
Where:
𝟏
𝑹𝒆𝒒
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⋯
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒏

∆𝑷𝑳 𝟏
𝜷 𝑫
∆𝒇 𝑹𝒆𝒒
 The composite frequency response characteristic is normally expressed in MW/Hz. It is also
sometimes referred to as the stiffness of the system.
 The composite regulating characteristic of the system is equal to 1/
 Primary control - summary

 Frequency- (speed) –control is a decentralized power

control
 For its effectiveness a reserve in the valve setting is
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

necessary
 Exhibits a proportional control behaviour
 Primary control - summary
As per the German “Transmission Code”
 If f = 50 Hz ± 10 mHz (i.e. 49.99 Hz to 50.01 Hz) no control action is
required
 Power plants participating in the primary control must be able to
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

provide all the primary control power within 30 s within a quasi‐

stationary frequency deviation of ± 200 mHz, i.e. increase or
decrease the power output in a linear manner and maintain this
output up to 15 minutes
 The primary control power reserve must correspond to at least 2%
of the rated capacity of the plant
 Example
Given: R = 5%, D = 0

1
∆𝑃 ∆𝜔
𝑅
1
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

∆𝜔 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 →
𝐷 𝑠𝑀
1
𝑠 ∆𝜔 𝐷 ∆𝜔 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
∆𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑀
In steady state s = 0
1
Incremental model 0 𝐷 ∆𝜔 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 0 →
𝑀
1. Assuming PC = 0, what is the steady state , if load 1
∆𝜔
disturbance equal to 100% occurs, i.e. PL = 100 % ? 𝑅
e.g. a total system load of 100 MW  200 MW ∆𝑃 1
∆𝜔 0.05 5%
1 1/0.05
𝐷
𝑅
A 100 % increase in load (power ) demand will cause the
frequency to drop by 5 % (2.5 Hz)
 Example

∆𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
Given: R = 5%, D 0; D’ 0
D: machine damping coefficient
D’: load frequency sensitivity factor
Incremental model 1
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

∆𝜔 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
𝐷 𝑠𝑀
1 1
2. Assuming PC = 0, what is the frequency error , if ∆𝜔 ∆𝑃 𝐷 ∆𝜔 →
𝑅 𝐷 𝑠𝑀
the frequency dependency of the load is considered?
1
∆𝜔 𝐷 𝐷 𝑠𝑀 ∆𝑃 →
Assume ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 𝐷′∆𝜔 𝐷 1% 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑅
∆𝑃
∆𝜔 𝑠 0
1
𝐷 𝐷
𝑅
Both the frequency dependency of the load and the machine
damping coefficient reduce the speed change following a
load change.
 Example

∆𝑃 𝑃 𝑃

1
Incremental model ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 ∆𝜔
4. PRIMARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

𝑅
1
2. What is the necessary PC, to make  in steady state zero? ∆𝜔 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 →
𝐷 𝑠𝑀
1
𝑠 ∆𝜔 𝐷 ∆𝜔 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
𝑀
In steady state s = 0
1
𝑠 ∆𝜔 – 𝐷 ∆𝜔 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 0
𝑀
For the frequency error () to be zero, PC must be equal → ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 →
to PL. In other words, the increased power demand must be
matched by a corresponding increase in generation ∆𝑃 ∆𝜔 ∆𝑃 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ∆𝜔 = 0)
 Secondary Frequency Control

 Control area power balance

 Tie line flow
 Area control error (ACE)
 Automatic generation control (AGC)
 Characterisitc of secondray controller
 Balancing Authority Areas
 A “balancing authority area” (also called a “control area”) represents the
portion of the interconnected electric grid operated by a transmission
entity.
5. SECONDARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

control area

 Transmission lines that join two areas are Area 1

known as tie‐lines. L12
 The net power out of an area is the sum of tie‐lines
the flow on its tie‐lines.
 The flow out of an area is equal to:
total generation ‐ total load ‐ total losses = Area 2
Area 3

tie‐line flow

46
 Supplementary Control of Isolated Systems
 With primary speed control: a change in generation can occur ONLY if there is frequency deviation
 Restoration of frequency to rated value requires manipulation of the speed/load reference.
 This is achieved through supplementary control as shown in Figure 11.
 This control function is called „secondary control“ or „automatic generation control (AGC)“
5. SECONDARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

AGC: because the load references of generators

participating on secondaary control are
adjusted automatically as a result of a signal
issued by the system control center

For the frequency error () to be zero, PC

must be equal to PL. In other words, the
increased power demand must be matched by
a corresponding increase in generation

Figure 11: Addition of integral control on generating units selected for AGC
 Area Control Error (ACE)

 Automatic generation control (AGC) is a major control function in the

utility’s energy control center aimed at:
 adjusting the output power of one or multiple generators within the area in response
5. SECONDARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

to changes in the overall power demand in the system.

 A central controller takes into account:
 the grid frequency
 the power balance of the control area
 then the control power required in the control area is determined and sent to the power plants
designated for secondary control by means of a communication channel.

48
 Area Control Error (ACE)

 The input to the secondary controller is the area control error (ACE). ACE is
a combination of:
 the deviation of frequency from the nominal value, and
5. SECONDARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

 the difference between the actual flow out of an area and the scheduled (agreed) flow.

𝐴𝐶𝐸 𝐵 . ∆𝜔 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃 the difference between the actual flow out of an area

minus the scheduled flow

1
𝐵 𝐷 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑅

49
 Area Control Error (ACE)
 This control strategy drives the frequency error to zero, i.e. f=0.
 The control strategy also drives transmission line flow error to
zero thereby maintaining the tie‐line flow at the pre‐disturbance
5. SECONDARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

(scheduled) value.
 By so doing, the generation increases exactly matches the load
increase in the areas where the load disturbance had taken place.
 Generally, this control strategy will yield a steady state response,
in which each area will modulate its own generation to meet its
own demand by keeping the inter‐area line flows at scheduled
(specified) values.

50
 Supplementary Control of Interconnected Systems
f measurement
5. SECONDARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

Tie line flow

measurement

Tie Line
 a transmission line connecting two different Control Areas is called a tie
line
 all tie-lines in a system must be specified
 updated measurements of active power must be available for all tie-
lines for AGC
 there may be more than one tie-line connecting two Control Areas, but
only net interchange is controlled, individual tie-lines are not
controlled.
 Supplementary Control of Interconnected Systems
 Figure 12 illustrated calculation of ACE Bias factor, B, set nearly equal to
regulation characteristic (I/R + D) of the area;
 gives good dynamic performance
5. SECONDARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

 Additional function of AGC is to allocate generation economically

Figure 12: AGC control logic for each area

 Automatic Generation Control

 Most systems use automatic generation control (AGC) to

automatically change generation to keep their ACE close to
5. SECONDARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

zero.
 Usually the control center (either ISO or utility) calculates ACE
based upon tie-line flows and frequency; then the AGC module
sends control signals out to the generators every few seconds
or so.

ISO: independent system operator

ACE: area control error
AGC: automatic generation control

53
 Secondary control - summary

 Frequency‐ tie line power control

 One central controller for each control area

5. SECONDARY FREQUENCY CONTROL

PI‐ (I) Characteristics

 The control error remaining after the primary control has to be
eliminated ‐ thus I‐characteristic
1
‐ 𝑠𝑇

(time constant (TI) in the range of several minutes)

Summary
 Summary
Inertial response
 The rotating masses of all generators, turbines, motors, etc. combine
to produce system inertia.
𝐽 𝑇 𝑇 →
 The inertia of the system slows the angular acceleration of the
generators – Thus the inertia of the system has a stabilizing effect.
 Asynchronous motors (in accordance with their operating principle)
6. SUMMARY

absorb less power when the line frequency drops, or higher power
when the frequency increases.
 Summary
Primary control
 The primary control acts within seconds of the frequency deviation exceeding 20 mHz. (Minor
frequency deviations within a dead band of 20 mHz are ignored to reduce wear and tear on turbine
valves as a result of excessive activity.)
 Primary control does not require coordination between power plants; in each power plant
participating on primary control, the grid frequency is measured locally and responded accordingly.
 The power change will be proportional to the deviation of the frequency
 As a proportional control, primary control reduces the frequency deviations, but does not bring them
to zero.
According to the German Transmission Code:
6. SUMMARY

 Power plants participating in the primary control must be able to provide all the primary control
power within 30 s within a quasi‐stationary frequency deviation of ± 200 mHz, i.e. increase or
decrease the power output in a linear manner and maintain this output up to 15 minutes.
 The primary control power reserve must correspond to at least 2% of the rated capacity of the plant.
 So far, only large power plants (with more than 100 MW of power) participate on primary control
 The continental European power grid maintains in all 3000 MW reserve power for primary control.
 Summary
Secondary control
 The secondary control takes place at the level of the transmission grids and reacts
much slower.
 A central controller takes into account the grid frequency and the power balance of
the respective control area.
 In each case, the entire control power required in the control zone is determined
and distributed to the power plants slated for secondary control.
 The secondary reserve must be provided by the transmission system operators
6. SUMMARY

within 5 minutes to relieve the primary reserve in the event of new frequency
events.
 Each TSO operates its own power frequency control, which distributes a secondary
reserve requirement fully automatically.
 Summary
Tertiary control
 The tertiary control (minute reserve) is used to assist and relieve the secondary control.
 Since there is enough time (approximately 15 minutes) for the request for tertiary control
power following primary and secondary controls, and because it is needed less frequently,
this request can be made by the transmission system operator by telephone.

Balancing authority reserve

 The extra generating capacity (spinning reserve) available by increasing the power output of generators that are already
connected to the power system
6. SUMMARY

 The non‐spinning reserve or supplemental reserve is the extra generating capacity that is not currently connected to the
system but can be brought online after a short delay. In isolated power systems, this typically equates to the power
available from fast‐start generators.
 However, in interconnected power systems, this may include the power available on short notice by importing power
from other systems or retracting power that is currently being exported to other systems
 The last resort – load shedding
 As a last resort, an unplanned load shedding for certain consumers can occur in the event of
a strong underfrequency.
 There is a multi‐stage plan for this (in Germany with five stages).
 Underfrequency load shedding starts with certain predetermined loads (contractually agreed
loads); ordinary consumers are not affected at first.
 If the frequency continues to drop, immediate automatic load shedding occurs to further
reduce the network load. This affects randomly selected smaller network areas, which are
then separated from the rest of the network.
 If such emergency measures are no longer sufficient and the grid frequency continues to
6. SUMMARY

drop, an automatic shutdown of power plants starts. This is to avoid equipment damage due
to mechanical resonances that may be caused by the incorrect speeds
 In extreme cases, the entire European network would collapse. However, this very serious
case is very unlikely or only to be expected in very exceptional circumstances
 If such a collapse threatens to occur, individual networks are separated from each other in an
orderly manner.