Power System Control (PSC)

SEHS4652 Power Systems

Power System Control

Dr. SHI Rui Claire

An electrical grid or national grid may have many types of generators and loads, but generators
must be controlled to maintain stable operation of the system.
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Power System Control (PSC)

Power system controls
Automatic control systems are used
extensively in power systems. Local
controls are employed at turbine- The objective of the control
generator units and at selected voltage- Load
controlled buses. Central controls are Frequency
Automatic strategy is to generate and deliver
Generation
employed at area control centers. Control Control (AGC) power in an interconnected system
The central control center monitors (LFC) as economically and reliably as
information including area frequency,
generating unit outputs, and tie-line possible.
Reactive
power flows to interconnected areas.
Power and Maintaining the voltage and
This information is used by automatic Voltage
load-frequency control (LFC) in order to frequency within limits.
maintain area frequency at its scheduled Control
value (60 Hz) and net tie-line power flow
out of the area at its scheduled value.
Raise and lower reference power signals
are dispatched to the turbine-governors
of controlled units. 9 4

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Power system controls Power system controls- load-frequency control (LFC)
In a power system consisting of interconnected areas, each
AVR Loop reactive power
depends on voltage area agrees to export or import a scheduled amount of
magnitude power through transmission-line interconnections, or tie-
lines, to its neighboring areas.
The following summarizes the two basic load frequency
LFC Loop
control objectives for an interconnected power system:
1. Following a load change, each area should assist in returning the steady state
frequency error f to zero.
real power depends on changes in Measure of the change in rotor angle, the 2. Each area should maintain the net tie-line power flow out of the area at its
Daily load cycle
rotor angle, and frequency error to be corrected scheduled value, in order for the area to absorb its own load changes.
Voltage regulator and turbine-governor controls for a steam-turbine generator
Immediate effect of a sudden load demand is a reduction in
Two basic controls of a steam turbine-generator: the voltage regulator and turbine-governor.
the speed of the synchronous generator plant. Kinetic
The voltage regulator adjusts the power output of the generator exciter in order to control the energy is normally sufficient to maintain the energy balance
magnitude of generator terminal voltage Vt. until speed reduction is detected. The steam valves are
The turbine-governor adjusts the steam valve position to control the mechanical power output pm of opened wider to restore the output/input balance. The
the turbine. valves adjust the real power output and
5 frequency. 7

Power system controls - Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) Example

An isolated 75 MVA synchronous generator feeds its own load and operates initially at no load at 3000
The exciter delivers DC power to the field winding on rev/min, 50 Hz. A 20 MW load is suddenly applied and the steam valves of the turbine continue to open
the rotor of a synchronous generator. after 0.5 s due to the time lag in the governor system. Calculate the frequency to which the generated
For older generators, the exciter consists of a DC voltage drops before the steam flow meets the new load. The stored energy for the machine is 4 kWs
generator driven by the rotor. The DC power is per kVA of generator capacity.
transferred to the rotor via slip rings and brushes. For Solution:
newer generators, static or brushless exciters are For this machine the stored energy at 3000 r.p.m.
often employed.
AVR plays a vital role in maintaining a stable voltage Before the steam valves start to open, the machine loses of the stored energy in order to
output from a generator. It continuously monitors the supply the load.
voltage, compares it to a setpoint, and adjusts the
excitation system to ensure the generator produces Stored energy after
the desired voltage.
Stored energy is proportional to w2
AVR regulates the reactive power and voltage
magnitude. Therefore, the new frequency is

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Power system controls - turbine-governor control Power system controls governor model
Turbine-generator units operating in a power system contain The relationship between net accelerating power and the electrical and mechanical power is
stored kinetic energy due to their rotating masses.
If the system load suddenly increases, stored kinetic energy
is released to initially supply the load increase.
d ( ) d ( )
Also, the electrical torque Te of each turbine-generating unit  Pnet  Pm  Pe 0 J M
dt dt
increases to supply the load increase, while the mechanical 
d
torque Tm of the turbine initially remains constant. s 1
( Pm  Pe )
dt 2H
That is, each turbine-generator decelerates and the rotor
where, =2 f is the frequency in radian. = 2 fs= 50 Hz. H is the per unit inertia constant, in seconds. Pm and Pe are the
speed drops as kinetic energy is released to supply the load per unit mechanical and electrical power, respectively.
increase. With speed expressed per unit, we have
The electrical frequency of each generator, which is d ( ) 1
 Pm  Pe
proportional to rotor speed for synchronous machines, also dt 2H
drops. Taking Laplace transform gives that
1
 (s ) ( Pm ( s )  Pe ( s ))
2 Hs
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Power system controls - governor model Power system controls- load model
Loads, such as motors, are sensitive to changes in frequency. The speed load characteristic
of a composite load is approximated by:

 Pe  PL D
The motion of a synchronous machine is governed by law of rotation, which states
that the product of the moment of inertia times the angular acceleration is equal to the net
Where, is the non-frequency-sensitive load change, and is the frequency-sensitive load change. D expressed as
accelerating torque. %change in load divided by % change in frequency. D = 1.5 expressed as load changed by 1.5% for a 1% change in frequency.
Machine absolute phase angle
The generator and load block diagram is:

Where, J is moment of inertia of the rotor, is rotational speed rad, Tnet is net accelerating torque, Tm is shaft torque corrected for
the rotational losses, Te is electromagnetic torque exerted on the machine by generator, M is angular momentum of the machine,
, is equal to the difference in phase angle between is phase angle deviation the machine as subjected to an acceleration of a and
a reference axis rotating at exactly w0.

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Power system controls- prime mover model Power system controls- governor model
The source of mechanical power, known as the prime mover, may be hydraulic turbines, The speed governor output Pg is the difference between the reference set power Pref and
steam turbines, or gas turbines. The model of the turbine relates changes in mechanical the power /R
power output to changes in valve position .

or in s-domain

Where, is the time constant. On opening the steam valve, the steam flow will not reach the turbine cylinder instantaneously.
The time delay experienced in this is in the order of 2s in the steam pipe. The s-domain relationship between steam valve position Pv and speed governor output Pg is:
The block diagram is:

Where, g is the speed governor time constant.

1
1+

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Power system controls- governor model Power system controls- load-frequency control (LFC)
1
When the generator electrical load is suddenly decreased, the  (s ) ( Pm ( s)  Pe ( s ))
2 Hs
electrical power is less than the mechanical power input. This power Generator
difference causes the turbine speed to change and, consequently, the Model
generator frequency to increase. The change in speed is sensed by the  Pe  PL D
turbine governor, which adjusts the turbine input valve to change the
mechanical power input to bring the speed to a new steady state. Load
Model
Flyball speed governor senses change in speed (frequency). As the
speed increases the flyballs move outwards and the point B on linkage
mechanism moves downwards. The reverse happens when the speed
decreases. Prime
Mover
Speed changer enables the speed governor system to adjust the Model

speed of the generator unit while in operation. Its downward

movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is
admitted to the turbine under steady conditions. Governor
Model

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Power system controls- load-frequency control (LFC) Power system controls- load-frequency control (LFC)
By combining the block diagram of generator model, load model, prime mover model, and It is clear that for cases with no frequency-sensitive load (i.e., D=0), the steady-state
governor model. The block diagram of an isolated power system is as below: deviation in frequency is determined by the governor speed regulation;

When several generators with governor speed regulations R1, R2, , Rn and frequency-
By redrawing the block diagram before, the load change - PL(s) as the input and frequency sensitive load change parameters, D1, D2, ..., Dn are connected to the system, the steady-
deviation (s) as the output of the results in the block diagram as below: state deviation in frequency is given by:

The open-loop transfer function of this block diagram is: Defining (area frequency response characteristic)

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Power system controls- load-frequency control (LFC) Example: load-frequency control (LFC)
Consider a free governor operation situation in which the speed changer has a fixed setting One area of an interconnected 50 Hz power system has three turbine generator units rated 1000, 750, and 500
MVA, respectively. The regulation constant of each unit is R = 0.05 pu based on its own rating. Each unit is initially
(i.e. ) and the load demand changes. For such an operation, there is a steady change
operating at one-half of its own rating, when the system load suddenly increases by 200 MW. Determine:
in system frequency for a sudden change in load demand by an amount. a) The pu area frequency response on a 1000 MVA system base;
The closed-loop transfer function relating to the load change - PL(s) to the frequency b) The steady-state drop in area frequency; and
deviation (s) is: c) The increase in the turbine mechanical power input of each unit.
Assume that the reference power setting of each turbine generator remains constant. Neglect the dependence of
load on frequency.
Solution: (c)
On 1000 MVA base
(a)
The load change is a step input, i.e.,
The steady-state value of is: (c)

Note that Unit 1, whose MVA rating is 33.33% larger than that
With the load increase 200 MW (0.20 per unit) and of Unit 2 and 100% larger than Unit 3, picks up 33.33% more
load than Unit 2 and 100% more load than Unit 3.
That is, each unit shares the total load change in proportion to
its own rating.
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Tutorial: load-frequency control (LFC) Overview of AGC
A single area power system, as shown in the following figure, has the following parameters:
The load varies by 0.72 percent for a 0.9 percent change in frequency. Find: Load is always changing.
a) What is the value of D?
b) If R = 0.05 per unit and the turbine-rated output is 250MW at the nominal frequency of 50 Hz, find the system To maintain power balance, generators need to produce more or less to keep up with the
steady-state frequency deviation in Hz when a sudden load increase of 50 MW occurs.
load.
When Gen < Load (Gen > Load), generator speed and frequency will drop (rise).
Solution:
(a)
We use this generator speed and frequency as control signals!

(b)

The steady-state frequency deviation in Hz due to the sudden load change of 50MW is

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Definition of AGC System Modeling: Turbine-Governor Model

AGC in power system is defined as a system that adjusts the power output of multiple Small signal analysis model, relating mechanical power to the control power and the generator speed.
generators at different power plants in response to changes in load.
1
Electric energy cannot be stored in practical power system applications GM(s)
R
- Power lines do not store energy - 1 PM
PC
- Plate capacitors store electric energy + (1+ sTG )(1+sTT )

Not much, not for so long Where PC = Small change in control setting power
= Small change in governor synchronous speed
- Non-electric energy storage in power systems PM = Small change in mechanical output power
R = Regulation constant
Pump storage (potential energy) GM (s) = Transfer function relating mechanical power to control signals

Chemical capacitors (chemical energy, batteries) From synchronous turbine-governor: small signal analysis model,
Flywheels, rotating masses of generators (kinetic energy)
Electricity has to be generated the instant it is used GM (s)

Automatic control systems are necessary in all larger power systems

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Static Speed-Power Curve AGC for 2-Generator: Static Speed-Power Curve
Load increases.
From,
Frequency drops.
Slope = -R
Steady state is reached when 0

frequency of both generators is

0
Primary control: Immediate change the same. 2
2 corresponding to sudden change of load 1
1 (frequency).
+ = Change in
Secondary control: Change in setting control total load
power to maintain operating frequency.
PM
The higher R (regulation), the better. PM1 PM1 PM2 PM 2
PC1 = PM1 PC2 = PM2

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Power Balance Equation at Each Bus Example: Load sharing between machines in parallel
Two synchronous generators operate in parallel and supply to total load of 200 MW. The capacities of the machines
At each bus, are 100 MW and 200 MW and both have governor droop characteristics of 4% from no load to full load. Calculate
the load taken by each machine, assuming free governor action (i.e. speed changer has a fixed setting).Let x MW be
the power supplied from the 100 MW generator.
Solution:
Load on the 100 MW generator = x = 66.66 MW
Where, = Generator i power, 4x 800 4 x Load on the 200 MW generator = 133.33 MW
100 200
= Load power at bus i,
The units are operating in parallel, sharing 900 MW at the nominal frequency. Unit 1 supplies 500 MW and unit 2
= Power flow from bus i supplies 400 MW at 50 Hz. The load is increased by 90 MW. Find the steady-state frequency deviation and the new
generation on each unit.
a) Assume there is no frequency-dependent load, i.e., D =0.
Consider small changes, b) The load varies 1.5 % for every 1 % change in frequency, Notice
i.e., D =that
1.5. when the governor droops are the same,
the machines share the total load in proportion to
their capacities or ratings. Hence, it is advantageous
for the droops of all turbines to be equal.

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Tutorial: Load sharing Tutorial: Load sharing
A single area consists of two generating units with the following characteristics:
b) For D = 1.5, the per unit steady state frequency deviation is:
Unit Rating Speed Regulation R
(pu on unit MVA base)
1 600 MVA 6%
2 500 MVA 4%
Thus, the steady-state frequency deviation in Hz is:
The units are operating in parallel, sharing 900 MW at the nominal frequency. Unit 1 supplies 500 MW and unit 2
supplies 400 MW at 50 Hz. The load is increased by 90 MW. Find the steady-state frequency deviation and the new
And the new frequency is:
generation on each unit.
a) Assume there is no frequency-dependent load, i.e., D =0.
b) The load varies 1.5 % for every 1 % change in frequency, i.e., D = 1.5. The change in generation for each unit is :
Solution:
First, express the governor speed regulation of each unit to a common MVA base.
Select 1000 MVA for the apparent power base, then:

The per unit load change is Thus, unit 1 supplies 537.5 MW, and unit 2 supplies 446.875 MW at the new operating frequency of 49.8125Hz
The total change in generation is 84.735, which is 5.625 MW less than the 90 MW load change. This is because the change in load
due to frequency drop which is given by:

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Tutorial: Load sharing

a) Assume there is no frequency-dependent load, i.e., D = 0. The per unit steady state frequency deviation is
The per unit load change is

Thus, the steady-state frequency deviation in Hz is

And the new frequency is:

The change in generation for each unit is :

Thus, unit 1 supplies 540 MW and unit 2 supplies 450 MW at the new operating frequency 49.8Hz

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