VTP 308 LECTURE NOTES

PREAMBLE

The livestock sector plays an important role in the rural economy of many nations. With agriculture as
the single largest employer of labor in the country. Given Nigeria’s agro climatic diversity, a large variety
of livestock are available for draught power, milk, meat, eggs, wool etc and thus ensuring regular income
to the livestock farmers. About 75 percent of the rural households and nomads are keeping livestock
from which resources are drawn to meet their needs. Therefore, livestock and livelihood have an
intimate relationship as more than 70 million rural households depend either directly or indirectly on
livestock for their livelihoods. Even more importantly, livestock provides a major source of
supplementary income for a large majority of urban populace and this sector is therefore, highly
livelihood intensive and more importantly provides sustenance to all these livestock owners and
members of livestock value chain. Improvement in livestock production is, therefore, an important
pathway for increasing the income of marginal and small farmers. The livestock extension education
plays an important role in this context to empower the farmers with appropriate technological
knowledge and skills through various extension education and training programmes. This note is simply
about livestock extension education with special reference to the livestock farming situations. The
concept of extension with a focus on livestock extension, farm journalism, extension approaches,
organizational communication, Social psychology, group dynamics, various approaches to adoption of
technologies and training methods for livestock development programmes are discussed briefly with a
view to provide an holistic understanding of livestock extension education.

The concept of extension has been applied to various fields depending upon the sector which is being
addressed. This has led to the development of disciplines like agriculture extension, livestock extension,
home science extension, fisheries extension etc.

Extension involves the conscious use of information and communication to help people to form sound
opinions and make good decisions. Extension is also defined as a professional communication
intervention deployed by an institution to induce change in voluntary behaviour with a presumed public
or collective activity. These definitions indicate that extension is for;

i. Extending educational advantages

ii. Forming sound opinions to make good decisions
iii. Bringing about desire changes in voluntary behavior.

The main objective of all extension work is to teach people living especially in rural areas how to raise
their standard of living by their own efforts using their own resources of manpower and materials with
the minimum assistance from Government.

The broader function of extension work to help people to solve their own problems through the
application of scientific knowledge is now generally accepted. Extension is largely educational in nature
and approach. Hence, the words “extension” and “extension education” are used interchangeably.
Education is a process of bringing desirable changes into the behavior of human beings. These changes
must be desirable to the society at large. The education is effective when it results in changes in all the
following specified behavioral components

i) Knowledge - What an individual knows?

ii) Attitudes -What he thinks?
iii) Skills (both Physical & Mental) -What he can do?
iv) Action - What he actually does?

This aspect is known by the acronym ‘KASA’.

Objectives of Extension Education

i. It can be said that the objective of extension education is to bring desirable changes in the
quality of life of the target group which it serves by helping them to change their attitude,
knowledge, skill and resources (both natural and man-made) like land, pasture, water,
livestock, equipment etc in a right way.
ii. The ultimate objective of livestock extension education is development of livestock farmers
by improving their living standards.

This could be done by;

* Bringing about a desirable changes in the knowledge, attitude and skill.

* Assisting livestock farmers to realize their needs and problems.

* Developing rural leadership, mobilizing people and their resources.

* Providing knowledge about recent technologies and their application.

The primary goals of the extension activities involves

 Changing attitudes, knowledge and skills of the people.

 Working with men and women, young people, boys and girls to answer their needs and wants.

 Helping people to help themselves

 Principles of “Learning by doing” and “Seeing is believing”

 Development of individuals, their leaders, their society and their world as a whole.

 Working in harmony with the culture of the people.

 A two way channel

 A continuous educational process

*** FARM JOURNALISM

Concept and Principles of Journalism with special reference to Farm Journalism

“Journalism is a service oriented profession because it is not just about providing raw information. It is
telling them how to use it to improve their lives and inspiring them to want to” -Swanson

Journalism is defined as:

 A systematic and reliable gathering dissemination of information for public consumption.

 Written form of journalism i.e. Printed matters, photojournalism and broadcast journalism are some of
forms of journalism.

***Agricultural journalism is otherwise known as Farm journalism. Farm journalism is playing a great
role in communication with farm people, homemakers, etc. Newspaper stories, magazine article,
leaflets, pamphlets, bulletins, circular letters, wall newspapers and radio scripts are increasingly being
written by the extension staff and read or listened to. The written work is helping to make advisory work
with farm people more interesting.

***Journalism is:

 Providing information that the public needs to know

 Giving fair and truthful account of news

 Emphasizing the importance of free speech

 Spurring people to action

 Having courage

***Principles of Journalism:

1. Responsibility: the right of a journalist is to write and attract the readers to the issues of public
welfare

2. Sincerity, truthfulness and accuracy: Good faith of the readers can be obtained through sincerity,
truthfulness and accuracy which is the foundation of journalism

3. Objectivity/impartiality: maintaining impartiality in reporting is the basic lesson for a journalist,

otherwise reaction of the readers to the report will be lopsided

4. Fair play: right practice of journalism is to treat the public equally

5. Independence: Journalism is free from all obligations except issues of public interest 6. Freedom of
press: Foremost duty of journalism is to guard its freedom

7. Decency: Journalism tries to shape public conduct for a given situation

Types of Journalism:

1. Advocacy journalism

2. Interpretative journalism

3. Development journalism in agriculture

4. Convergence journalism

5. Ambush journalism

1. Advocacy journalism
 Advocacy journalism is a genre of journalism that intentionally and transparently adopts a non-
objective viewpoint, usually for some social or political purpose.

 Because it is intended to be factual, it is distinguished from propaganda.

 It is publicity oriented

 Here, journalists supports any issue in the public form

2. Interpretative journalism or Reporting

 Interpretative or explanation oriented reporting

 The farm reporters explain Why, How, What, etc.

 Here, farm reporter is not only writer of news but he is also orator

 He publishes news in such a way the readers are motivated and enthusiased to adopt any new
technology that he writes about

3. Development journalism in agriculture

 Separate school of thought which increases the sense of people

 It focuses on protection of farming community and their development

 It creates sense of improvement in the people for their own development

4. Convergence journalism

 A form of journalism which combines different forms of journalism such as print, photographic and
video into one piece or group of pieces.

 Convergence journalism can be found in the sites of CNN and many other news sites

5. Ambush journalism

 Refers to aggressive tactics practiced by journalists to suddenly confront and question people who
otherwise do not wish to speak directly to the media

 This particularly has been applied by television journalists

***Yellow journalism

 Journalism that exploits, distorts or exaggerates the news to create sensation and attract readers
 It is a sensationalistic journalistic practice

 A type of journalism that downplays legitimate news in favor of eye-catching headlines that sell more
newspapers

 It may feature exaggeration of news events, scandal-mongering, sensationalism or unprofessional

practices by news media organizations or journalism

 As pejorative to decry any journalism that treats news in an unprofessional or unethical fashion, such
as systematic political bias

 It can also be the practice of over-dramatizing events.

***Yellow journalism can be ascribed from any of these of 5 characteristics:

 Scare headlines in huge print, often of mirror news

 Lavish use of pictures or imaginary drawing

 Use of faked interviews, misleading headlines, pseudo-science and a parade of false learning from so-
called experts

 Emphasis on full-color Sunday supplements, usually with comic strips

 Dramatic sympathy against the system

At all times, what is being written must be: Brief, Specific, Accurate, and Convincing.

Vocabulary in Journalism

 BY-LINE Indicates who wrote the story; often includes the writer's title

 CAPTION: The portion of the layout which explains what is happening in a photograph. Also called
cutlines. Often includes a photo credit.

 EDITOR: Has overall responsibility for the publication

 EDITORIAL A type of story which serves to express an opinion and encourage the reader to take some
action

 ETHICS: A standard of conduct based on moral beliefs

 FACT: A statement that can be proven. Not an opinion

 FEATURE: A story written with some interpretation that goes beyond just reporting the facts

 FLAG: The name of the paper that usually appears at the top of page one

 GRAF: A paragraph in news writing. These are often short, around 2-3 sentences.

 HAMMER: A form of headline consisting of a few very large words over a smaller sub-headline

 HEADLINE: Large type designed to summarize a story and grab the reader's attention
 HUMAN INTEREST: An element of news that includes people or events with which the audience can
identify; stories that are just interesting

 INVERTED PYRAMID: A style of writing most commonly applied to news stories in which the most
important facts appear early in the story and less important facts later in the story

 KICKER: A short (one or two word) statement at the beginning of a caption that serves to grab the
reader's attention

 LEAD: The beginning of the story which serves to summarize the story and/or grab the reader's
attention

 LIBEL: Written defamation; damaging false statements against another person or institution that are in
writing or are spoken from a written script

 QUOTATION: A statement made by another person included in a published story. A direct quotation is
exactly what the person said and appears inside quotation marks. An indirect quote is a paraphrase of
what a person said and does not appear in quotes.

 REVIEW: A form of editorial written to comment on a play, movie, piece of music or some other
creative work

 SLANDER: Spoken defamation; damaging false statements against another person or institution that
are spoken

Extension involves

 Changing attitudes, knowledge and skills of the people.

 Working with men and women, young people, boys and girls to answer their needs and wants.

 Helping people to help themselves

 Principles of “Learning by doing” and “Seeing is believing”

 Development of individuals, their leaders, their society and their world as a whole.

 Working in harmony with the culture of the people.

 A two way channel

 A continuous educational process

***Barriers to Effective Communication

The following are some of the common problems which come in the way of effective communication:

1. Lack of planning

2. Unclarified assumption (s) of the sender

3. Semantic distortion
4. Badly expressed message

5. Loss by transmission

6. Poor listening and premature evaluation

7. Fear, distrust and threat

8. Insufficient adjustment period to change

9. Biasness of the communicator.

***Training

Training is a process of acquisition of new skills, attitudes and knowledge in the context of preparing for
entry into a vocation or improving ones productivity in an organization or enterprise.

ILO (1986) defined training as activities which essentially aim at providing attitude, knowledge and skills
required for employment in a particular occupation or a group of occupations for exercising a function in
any field of economic activity. Training provides a systematic improvement of knowledge and skills
which in turn helps the trainees to function effectively and efficiently in their given task on completion
of the training. Among extension services, training is rightly considered as a key input for human
resource development and contributes substantially to face the challenges by all concerned (Working
Group on Agricultural Extension for formulation of XI Five Year Plan).

The training programmes are idealistically designed and conducted for inducing changes in the durable
aspects of persons, changes in relationships and changes in action. The training strategies vary
depending upon the learning outcome the trainer seeks to achieve among their trainees. The training
may be for improving the proficiency in the task performed or learning a process. The training
modalities also need to be differentiated based on the requirement and type of organization which is
imparting the training. Modality is a broader concept than the training method: for example several
methods can be used for designing a particular modality.

Training modality can be classified on the basis of

(i) Contact with learner

(ii) Formalization of training
(iii) Management of training and content emphasis.

Any training programme starts with identification of training needs, followed by translation of training
needs into objectives. Based upon the objectives, the contents of the programme are developed, taking
into consideration the knowledge, skill and attitude elements needed to achieve each objective. Once
the training contents or topics are decided, appropriate training methods suitable for each topic should
be selected. Then, the topics have to be put in a particular sequence and a complete course schedule
with time and duration is to be decided. All learning and training is best done through active subject and
therefore all extension professionals must understand well the basics of training in order to design and
conduct successful training programmes. The effectiveness of training depends upon the extent to
which the training objectives are realized which again depends upon the active participation and
involvement of the trainers in training sessions.
Types of Training

Training has been conceived as a process consisting of three phases, viz. pretraining, training and
post training.

Pre-service training and in-service training are the types of training generally organized.

Pre-Training: Preparatory phase prior to the actual training process is very much essential. The
trainer usually assesses the training needs of the intended trainees and designs appropriate course
content as well as methods to realize the objectives set for the programme. Arrangements for
selection of participants, appraisal of course details and necessary preparations for conducting the
training programmes are completed during the pre-training phase.

Actual Training: The training is organized as per the training plan/schedule. The activities such as
reception of trainees, board and lodging, inauguration, guest lectures, organization of instructions,
demonstration skill training, field trip, evaluation etc. are conducted during this phase. Due care is to
be taken for creating proper training climate (favourable learning situation) for the participants to
learn new ideas and skills. Good rapport and team building among the trainees need to be
encouraged.

Post Training: The success of the training programme largely lies with the follow up activities
undertaken after the conclusion of training. Post training tie up with related line departments for
continuity, making arrangements with financial institutions for linking up trainees for getting
financial assistance, providing them with information about further opportunities available in the
field for their improvement, and impact analysis are must for making the training programme
successful. The post training evaluation needs to be done and based on the feedback, necessary
corrections for bringing about further improvement is a must. Basic Training Approaches: The
training approaches can be classified into traditional, participatory and performance based
approaches. In the traditional approach the trainer designs the objectives, contents, teaching
techniques etc. and the participants have no say in the process. In the participatory approach the
trainer and trainees jointly decide the programme. In case of performance-based approach, the
emphasis is given to acquiring of specific observable skill or attainment of a specific level of
proficiency before clearing the trainee for successive levels.

***Training Need Assessment

Training need refers to the gap between “what is” and “what should be” in terms of the trainees
knowledge, skill, attitude and the behaviour in a given situation and time. It is important to analyze
the training needs for designing an effective training programme as the programme must address
the training needs of the trainees.

***The following are four major approaches to assess the training needs:

(i) Performance Appraisal

In this method the actual performance of the trainee in a given situation is compared with
that of the ideal or expected performance. It can be evaluated through direct observation,
evaluation of performance records for a period of time and the individuals‟ self-appraisal
 about their performance compared with their actual output. Through this method one can
link between knowledge and skill requirements with their job performance.
(ii) Task Analysis
A detailed analysis of the task performed by an individual as per the standards and job chart
is done. The data pertaining to the knowledge and skill requirement for the task, their
performance in the actual situation need to be collected through interviews, case methods,
and direct observation techniques. A detailed interview schedule need to be prepared for
the assessment of training needs based on the task analysis for collection of relevant data.
The schedule contains the details of different tasks and the frequency of performance of
each task. The details such as level of importance and level of competency are obtained in a
differential rating manner for each task. The common methods used for task analysis are
interview, questionnaire, case method and observation. The task analysis is a process by
which one can know the different elements or sub-tasks which are critical for its
performance.
(iii) Survey method
It is one of the most frequently used methods. The need analysis is done based upon the
individual perceptions and opinions of the individuals for whom the training programme is
intended. Data will be collected through structured schedule, questionnaires and interviews.
This method is comparatively fast and less expensive. Through this method a large number
of people can be involved in the training needs identification.
(iv) Competency Study
Under this method, a thorough job analysis is undertaken to know the different qualities
needed for the individual to perform his job effectively and efficiently. Based on the qualities
required, the individuals are further assessed in terms of their competencies in performing
the job. The competencies in terms of knowledge, skills and other qualities required are
identified by involving the experts. A thorough analysis is made by matching the individual
qualities with the expected competencies required for the job. It involves active
involvement of experts and the trainees through a whole hearted open discussion approach
to arrive at the right conclusion. This method is relatively fast and less expensive.
(v) Skill-Gap Analysis
It is a process of determining the training needs of individual trainees in relation to
important tasks-steps or components of tasks identified for training. It determines how
skilled or proficient individual trainees are on these tasks or components, how many of
them differ from the desired performance and whether or not they need training in a
precise manner.
Leadership in Livestock Extension Leadership is the process of influencing people to direct
their efforts towards the attainment of particular goal(s). The success of a leader depends
upon his ability to work with people and to get things done through people. This involves
the use of effective communication skills. To be effective, the leader must have the ability to
convey meanings to his people. Leaders must be both efficient and effective. Efficiency is the
ability to do things right whereas effectiveness is the ability to do the right things. When
leaders deal with efficiency they generally communicate in terms of objectives such as cost,
productivity and worker turn over. When they deal with effectiveness, they often
communicate in terms of demand, growth rate, return on investment and other criteria that
 can be used in comparing the agencies performance with that of the expected targets to be
achieved. Successful leaders are interested in both efficiency and effectiveness.

Different Extension Approaches

Many of the projects did not yield the expected results, which is mainly attributed to the poor
participation of the farmers. Stray attempts have been made by several organizations to improve the
farmer participation in the development projects.

***Some of the approaches which focus on farmer participation are discussed below:

Livelihood Approach:

It is very well documented that livestock provided livelihood security to at least one fourth of our
population. The research has clearly indicated the “asset role” being played by the livestock particularly
bovines to the landless people whose livelihood depends to a great extent on the animals they rear. The
dependency on cattle will increase with increase in their level of poverty. Similarly, the small ruminants
and poultry are considered as important resources for the poor and the income they generate from
these resources is quite substantial. Hence, while formulating the livestock development policies the
policy makers must take into consideration the interests of these resource poor livestock owners. Or
else their livelihood will be at stake.

Group Approach:

The Extension approach needs to be changed from individual to group mainly because the decision
making is shifted from individual to groups of producers. The development of sustainable farming
practices often requires collective decision making, whereas extension in the past mainly supported
individual (Head of the family) decision making. This is the reason why the basic purpose of advancing
loans to the only this category in the past for starting livestock as to eke them out of poverty is defeated
instead they may end up in debt trap

Market Driven Approach:

It is being clear now that the adoption of technologies is market driven rather than technology driven.
With the available technologies, it is not a problem to produce milk, chicken, meat, eggs or wool but it is
very difficult to market these products due to lack of proper marketing infrastructure. Procurement,
transportation and sale of livestock products are more difficult and complex than producing them.
Although dairy sector has been doing quite well, not more than 20 per cent of the milk is being handled
by the organized sector. Except in case of poultry eggs and chicken the marketing of other livestock
products is totally in unorganized sector. There are no organized markets for livestock transactions
either. Unless the markets are improved with price fixation based on proper standards and grading it is
difficult to encourage the livestock owners to adopt technologies to enhance production.

***Mosher (1966) highlighted five "essentials" for "agricultural development" which are quite relevant
even today.

These include:

(i) markets for farm products

(ii) constantly changing technology
 (iii) local availability of supplies and equipment
(iv) production incentives for farmers and
(v) Transportation.

***In addition, he listed five potential "accelerators" of agricultural development. They are:

(i) education for development

(ii) production credit
(iii) group action by farmers
(iv) improving and expanding agricultural land and
(v) national planning for agricultural development.

Entrepreneurial Development Approach:

It is well known that some farmers have got entrepreneurial abilities which enable them to try new
methods of farming. Such entrepreneurs who are usually described as innovators exist in almost all
social systems and skill of the extension personnel lies in identifying as well as encouraging such people
to enter into new ventures of livestock development. The experiences of these path finders could be
profitably utilized to up-scale for wider use. It is necessary to identify such entrepreneurs, prepare
success stories and give wide publicity through various mass media channels to enable the interested
people to emulate them. However, the success of such entrepreneurs depends upon several factors
which at times may be specific to the area or individual concerned.

Participatory Approaches:

Of late it is very well recognized that the farmers are considered as partners in development rather than
as end users of technology. Evidence supports that it is beneficial to involve the livestock farmers in
developing, adopting and evaluating the technologies. Many of the extension programmes were not
successful due to poor participation of farmers. For its obvious advantages, ADP when launched, had to
include farm testing as one of the key activities, while reviewing their newly introduced against the
existing activities. However, it is necessary to understand the differences between transfer of
technology and participatory extension.

The livestock extension should aim at empowering livestock farmers on a sustainable manner through
the various policies of providing incentives to the livestock farmers. It is necessary for the extension
service providers to shift their approach from rigid to more flexible and sustainable participatory
extension to be able to face the challenges in livestock development.

***ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Organizational communication is the type of communication that takes place between people who are
walking towards common goals within an organization.

Types of communication are Verbal, Written and Non-Verbal. While types of organizational
communication are: Formal and Informal, Directional, Internal and external, Oral and written.

The pattern of communication flows in an organization are commonly classified according to the
direction of interaction, which are Downward, Upward, Horizontal, Diagonal and External.

***Effective communication skills

These include: Active listening, Straight talking, Non-verbal communication, stress management,
Emotional control etc

***There are various ways to enhance effective communication for the success of the organization

i. Clear and concise

ii. Prepare ahead of time
iii. Be careful of non-verbal communication
iv. Watch your tone
v. Practice active listening
vi. Build your emotional intelligence

***Effective training methods in an organization and in extension education

i. Technology based training

ii. Simulations
iii. On-the- job training
iv. Coaching and mentoring
v. Instructor-led training
vi. Role playing
vii. Films and videos
viii. Case studies

Major learning styles

They are: Visual – learning by seeing and watching

Auditory- learning by listening

Kinaesthetic- learning by doing and through actions

***Social Psychology

It is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviors are influenced by the
actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. Social psychologists typically explain human
behavior as a result of the interaction of mental state and immediate social situation.

***Group Dynamics

A group can be defined as 2 or more individuals that are connected to each other by social
relationship. Group tends to interact, influence each other and share a common identity.

To a large extents human define themselves by the group membership which form their social
identity and their social characteristics which is referred to as their dynamics.

***They have a number of emergent qualities that distinguish them from aggregates:

Norms- Implicit rules and expectations for group members to follow e.g. saying thank you, shaking
hands etc
Roles – implicit rules and expectations for specific members within the group e.g. the oldest sibling,
who may have additional responsibilities in the family.

Relations – patterns of liking within the group and also differences in prestige or status e.g. leaders,
popular people.