Chemistry Revision E-Assessment

CHAPTER 1: Matter
Matter
● Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass
● Examples include water, planets, and atoms

Density
● Density (D) is the Mass (M) per unit of Volume (V); how packed molecules are
● Density (kg/m^3) is equal to Mass (kg) divided by volume (m^3)

Law of Conservation of Mass

● In an isolated system (enclosed space) mass can be neither formed, nor destroyed through
chemical reactions and physical transformations, but will remain constant.

Classification of Matter

Properties of Types of Matter

● Atoms: The smallest part of an element that retains its chemical properties.
● Elements: A substance where all atoms of the substance share the same properties.
● Compounds: A substance which is made up of two or more different elements.
● Mixtures: A material that is made up of two or more different substances that are physically
mixed together, and can be separated physically.

Pure and Impure Substances

● A pure substance is a substance that is made up of only one type of molecule. For example
Oxygen or Water.
● An impure substance is a substance that is made up of two or more different molecules. For
example Air or Salt Water.

States of Matter
● Solid: High density and resistant to changes: For example: Rock
● Liquid: Medium density fluid that maintains its volume. For example: Water
● Gas: Low-density fluid that can change its volume. For example: Air

Changes of State
 ● Deposition: Gas -> Solid
● Sublimation: Solid -> Gas

● When a substance is heated up, its molecules move faster with greater energy. The resulting
increase in collisions causes the substance to move farther away from one another, becoming less
dense.

Kinetic Theory (collision and correct orientation)

Enough energy that is higher than the reactivation energy
As you raise the temp a higher percentage of molecules will be above the initial activation energy

Definition: There are 2 parts to kinetic theory

1. the temperature of a substance increases with an increase in either the average kinetic
energy of the particles or the average potential energy of separation (as in fusion) of the
particles or in both when heat is added
2. the particles of a gas move in straight lines with high average velocity, continually encounter one
another and thus change their individual velocities and directions, and cause pressure by their
impact against the walls of a container

Relation to Temperature
● According to part one, an increase in average kinetic energy or average potential energy, as well
as an increase in temperature, will occur if heat is added. This means that an increased
temperature and average energy both occur simultaneously, so they will be proportional to one
another.

Diffusion
Definition
● The movement of a fluid from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
Factors that Affect Diffusion
● Temperature: An increase in temperature increases the rate of diffusion as it increases the energy
of the particles, enabling them to move faster.
● Concentration Difference: A higher concentration difference will result in a faster rate of
diffusion, as a lot more diffusion needs to take place.
● Diffusion Distance: The shorter distance the particles have to move, the faster they will be able to
diffuse.
● Mass of the Molecule: The more mass a molecule has, the rate of diffusion will decrease, as a
greater mass means that more energy is required to move it.

Arrangements of Matter
Impure Substances
● A homogeneous substance is a substance from which all samples taken will have the same
properties
● A heterogeneous substance is a substance from which all samples taken will not have the same
properties.
● A pure substance has one melting point and one boiling point, whereas an impure substance will
have different melting and boiling points for each of the different molecules within it.

Phases
Definitions
● Solute: The minor component in a solution, dissolved in the solvent.
● Solvent: The liquid in which a solute is dissolved to form a solution.
● Saturation: When no more solute can be dissolved in a solvent the solution is said to be
saturated.
● Phase: A physically distinctive form of matter with uniform properties.
● Suspension: A state in which larger particles are dispersed throughout a fluid, which eventually
settles and forms layers.
● Colloid: A state in which smaller particles are dispersed throughout a fluid.
● Gel: A dispersion of liquid molecules in a solid.
● Emulsion: A mixture of two substances that originally don’t mix but bind together with the aid of
a chemical agent (emulsifier).
● Miscible substances are substances that are able to form a solution with one another, whereas
immiscible substances cannot.
● An emulsifier is a chemical agent that is used to make immiscible substances form a solution.
This is done by binding the two substances to different ends of the emulsifier.
○ For example, water and oil are immiscible, but if one end of an emulsifier bond to water
(hydrophilic end) and the other bonds to oil (hydrophobic end) then a solution will be
made.

Separating Substances
Definitions
● Filtrate: The product of filtration
 ● Residue: What is left after filtration takes place.
● Distillate: The vapour collected in distillation is then cooled to form a liquid.
● Volatile: When a substance can easily undergo a change from a liquid into a gas.

Methods of Separation
● Decantation: Separating a solid + liquid mixture by pouring out the liquid and leaving only the
solid.
● Evaporation: Heating up a solution so that the solvent of the solution evaporates and leaves the
solute in the container.
● Vaporization: Heating up the solid/liquid to turn it into a gas.
● Filtration: Using a funnel and filter paper over a beaker, place a solid + liquid mixture in the
funnel, and only the liquid will pass through.
● Separation Funnel: Place a suspension of 2 liquids in a separation funnel, the higher-density
liquid will sink to the bottom and flow through the funnel.
● Distillation: Attached to a Liebig condenser with cold flowing water, heat up (its boiling point)
mixture and collect the condensed vapour on the other end of the Liebig condenser. For example,
take a solution of alcohol and water, with a boiling point of 70 and 100 degrees respectively. In
order to separate the two solutions, the mixture is heated to a boiling point. Alcohol will soon
reach the boiling point and will evaporate. Leaving behind water molecules. The evaporated
solution is condensed and collected through a Liebig condenser. Hence both elements are
separated.
● Chromatography: Place a small spot of the ink 2cm from the bottom of a piece of paper, and
suspend the paper so that the bottom 1cm is in the water in a beaker.

CHAPTER 2: Atomic Structure

Definitions
● Mass Number (A): The relative mass of an atom of an element
● Atomic number (P): The amount of protons per atom of that element
● Valence is the number of electrons in the outer shell of the atom

Atomic Models
Isotopes
Definition
● An atom that has more or less neutrons in its nucleus than normal, and therefore has a change in
atomic mass but not an atomic number.

Examples and Uses

● Heavy Water: Water made up of oxygen and isotopes of hydrogen (H-1, H-2, and H-3) is used to
slow down neutrons in order to increase the likelihood of a nuclear reaction.
● Uranium 235: Used as an energy source in a nuclear power plant.

Metals & Non-Metals: Properties

Metals Non-metals

Lustrous Dull

Malleable Non-malleable

Ductile Non-ductile

Good conductor of heat/electricity Bad conductor of heat/ electricity

Solid room temp (except mercury and gallium) Solid / liquid / gas at room temp

High-density Low-density

Positive ions (Cations) Negative ions (Anions)

Hard Brittle

Sonorous (metalloids have properties from both columns)

Metal Extraction
● Metals are listed on what's known as the reactivity series, a list that
describes which metals are more reactive than others.
● Metals that are less reactive than carbon can be extracted by having
carbon replace them in whatever compound they are currently in.
● Metals that are less reactive hydrogen are considered ‘native,’ and
do not need to be extracted.
● Metals above carbon need to be extracted through electrolysis,
through the use of special bacteria, which then release leachate
solution, which contains the extracted metal.
Groups in the Periodic Table
Properties
Group 1 - alkali metals Group 7 - halogens Group 8 - noble gases

Good conductor of electricity Highly reactive with metals Does not react at all

Malleable Different states at room Gas at room temperature

temperature

Trends
Group 1 - alkali metals Group 7 - halogens Group 8 - noble gases

Atomic radius gets larger as you go down the group

MP and BP go down as you go MP and BP go up as you go down the group

down the group

More reactive as you go down Less reactive as you go down the Non-reactive
the group group

Ions and Valence

Groups 1, 2, 3
● Group 1: Forms +1 ions
● Group 2: Forms +2 ions
● Group 3: Forms +3 ions

Groups 5.6.7
● Group 5: Forms -3 ions
● Group 6: Forms -2 ions
● Group 7: Forms -1 ions

Compounds
● All compounds have a charge of 0

Transition Metals
● Transition metals can sometimes have different charges
● For example, iron can have a +2 or +3 charge, shown as iron (II) or iron (III)
● Generally stronger with a high melting point

Polyatomic Ions
● Ions made of 2 or more atoms
● Common Polyatomic Ions:
CHAPTER 3: Bonding

Ionic Bonding
Ions
● Ions are atoms that are positively or negatively charged. When electron transfer happens, atoms
have more or less electrons than protons, making them ions.
● Anions: Negatively charged Ions
● Cations: Positively charged Ions

Definition
● Electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions

The Process
● All atoms want to have a full outer shell. Ionic bonding occurs when atoms exchange electrons
with each other to fulfil this.
● Because one atom loses an electron, making it positively charged, and vice versa for the other
atom, they are attracted to each other, and therefore they bond.
● This happens between metals and non-metals.
● They have a regular, repeating arrangement called an ionic lattice

Formulas
1. Write the ions with no charges
2. Swap the numbers to give the formula
3. Simplify the ratio if possible

Properties
● High melting and boiling points
● Ions with higher charge have a higher melting point
○ Because they have stronger electrostatic forces to overcome
● Can conduct electricity in liquid or aqueous solution
● Dissolves in water
● Crystalline and brittle
Covalent Bonding
Definition

The Process
● Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons for atoms to fill each other’s outer shells. The
positive nuclei are attracted to the shared electrons, thus they become a bond.

Single, Double and Triple Bonds

● Single bonds occur when there is a single pair of electrons shared (2 electrons)
● Double bonds occur when there is a double pair of electrons shared (4 electrons)
● Triple bonds occur when there is a triple pair of electrons shared (6 electrons)

Properties
● Low melting and boiling points
○ Weak intermolecular forces
● Do not conduct electricity
○ Don’t have any free delocalised electrons
● Covalent bonds are strong
○ Lot of energy needed to break them

Carbon allotropes

Simple and Giant Covalent Structures

● Simple covalent structures are made up of individual molecules. Giant covalent structures consist
of rigid 3D lattices where atoms are held in place.
● Giant covalent have many covalent bonds to break

Metallic Bonding

The Process
 ● Atoms share delocalized electrons which float around in a ‘sea of electrons.’ Since the atoms have
lost electrons, they become Cations. The positively charged atoms are attracted to the negatively
charged delocalized electrons. The atoms form a grid.

Properties of Metals
● Conductive - the delocalized electrons are free to move and have a charge
● Malleable - the metals form layers, which are easy to bend
● Ductile - the metal forms layers, which can be stripped off

Properties of Substances
● The properties of a substance can be linked to what kind of compound it is, for example, since
oxygen is a covalent bond, it cannot conduct electricity, as it has no free-to-move charged
particles.

Types of Molecular Forces

● Intermolecular Forces: Forces that take place between multiple molecules
○ Hydrogen Bonding - Is an electrostatic attraction created between a covalently bonded
hydrogen atom to an electronegative atom (Oxygen, Fluorine, and Nitrogen). This creates
strong dipoles that can then interact.
○ Dipole-Dipolele Action - Different atoms have different electronegativity values hence
dipoles are created as the shared electron are more attracted to one side.
○ London Dispersion Forces - These are temporary dipoles created in a molecule through
the movement of electrons. Often large molecules have very strong diples created by
LDFs; this is cause they have many electrons.
● Intramolecular Forces: Forces that take place within a molecule

Lewis Structure -
https://www.dummies.com/education/science/chemistry/drawing-lewis-dot-structures-for-chemistry/

CHAPTER 4: Acids and Alkalis

Acids
● An acid is a substance that releases H+ ions in water
● A strong acid dissociates into H+ ions
○ Hydrochloric acid - HCL
○ Sulfuric acid - H2SO4
○ Nitric acid - HNO3
● A weak acid partially dissociates into H+ ions
○ Ethnoic acid - CH3COOH

Bases
● A base is a substance that can neutralise an acid
● A base that is soluble in water is also an alkali
○ An alkali releases OH- ions in water
 ● A strong base dissociates into H+ ions (or OH-)
○ Sodium hydroxide - NaOH
○ Potassium hydroxide - KOH
● A weak acid partially dissociates into H+ ions (or OH-)
○ Ammonia - NH3

Neutralization

● Neutralization is a chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react quantitatively with each
other. This often leads to the production of salt.
● Results in heat released
● There are multiple different types of acid-base reactions. However, the basic reactions are:

● Acid + Base ---> Salt + Water

○ HCl + NaOH ---> H2O + NaCl
○ H2SO4 + KOH ---> H2O + K2SO4

● Acid + Metal ---> Hydrogen Gas + Salt

○ HBr+Mg--->H2 +MgBr2
○ HNO3 + Zn ---> H2 + ZnNO3

● Acid + Metal Hydroxide ---> Salt + Water

○ Mg(OH)2 + HCl --->MgCl2 + H2O
○ Zn(OH)2 + HCl ----> ZCl + H2O

● Acid + Metal Oxide ----> Salt + Water

○ MgO + HNO3 -----> Mg(NO3)2 + H2O
○ ZnO + H2SO4 -----> ZnS2 + H2O

● Acid + Metal Carbonate ----> Carbon Dioxide + Salt + Water

○ CuCO3 + 2HNO3 ---> Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2
○ ZnCo3 + H2SO4 ---> ZnSO4 + H2O + CO2

● There are multiple uses of neutralization in industries such as:

○ Treatment of wasp stings
■ These stings are traditionally very basic. Although, applying something acid-like
vinegar neutralizes them.
○ Toothpaste
■ When you eat throughout the day acidic and basic food goes in and out of your
mouth. Hence, when you brush your teeth one of the main jobs of toothpaste is to
neutralize what is present and create a buffer. A buffer is something that resists
pH changes meaning that adding acid will not change the pH significantly.
○ To combat acidification
 ■ In farming there is something known as acid soil; this often leads to less plant
growth and yield. To combat this issue farmers often use a basic substance, to
neutralize the soil after acid rain.

CHAPTER 5: Chemical Reactions

Definitions
● Reduction: A reaction that involves the gaining of electrons by one of the atoms involved in a
reaction, or two or more chemical species.
● Oxidation: Is the loss of electrons during a reaction by a molecule, atom or ion. When oxidation
happens the oxidation state of the molecule increases.
● Reducing Agent: This is an element or compound that loses/donates an electron to another
chemical species in a redox chemical reaction.
● Oxidizing Agent: A substance that can oxidize other substances. In other words, it is the one that
gains electrons.
● The oxidation number is the charge on an element or molecule.
● Oxidation and Reduction can be remembered by the acronym OILRIG. Oxidation is the loss of
electrons, while reduction is the gain of electrons.

Electrolysis

Definitions
● Electrolysis: Is the passing of direct electric current through an ionic substance that is either
molten or dissolved in a suitable solvent, producing a chemical reaction at the electrode.
● Electrolyte: A chemical compound that conducts electricity by changing into ions when melted
or dissolved into a solution.
● Anode: Anode is where oxidation takes place
● Cathode: Where reduction takes place
● Corrosion: is the irreversible damage or destruction of material due to a chemical or
electrochemical reaction
● Reactivity series: A series of metals from the most reactive to least.

CHAPTER 6: Combustion

Complete and Incomplete Combustion

● Combustion, otherwise known as burning, involves the reaction of a hydrocarbon and oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide and water.
○ If there is sufficient oxygen, carbon dioxide is produced. This is known as complete
combustion.
○ If there is not enough oxygen, carbon monoxide is produced. This is known as incomplete
combustion
Chemical Equations
Complete: CxHy + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Incomplete: CxHy + O2 → CO + H2O

Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil

CHAPTER 6: Energy Changes

Exothermic and Endothermic

Definitions and Examples

● An exothermic reaction is a reaction that releases heat energy as the reaction happen
● An endothermic reaction is a reaction that absorbs heat energy as the reaction happens

Examples:

Identifying Type of Reaction

● If 𝛥𝐻𝐻 ≥ 0 then the reaction is endothermic and vice versa
● In terms of bond enthalpies, when bonds are broken, energy is required, but when they are made
they release energy. If the new bonds release more energy than the previous bonds are broken,
then it is exothermic; vice versa.
● If 𝛥𝐻 < 0 then the reaction is exothermic and vice versa
Use in Industry
● Exothermic reactions are used to heat the steam in order to move turbines and generate
electricity
● Endothermic reactions are used in cold packs to treat bruises.

Calorimetry
● Calorimetry is the process of measuring the amount of heat released or absorbed during a
chemical reaction. By knowing the change in heat, it can be determined whether or not a reaction
is exothermic or endothermic.

Assumptions of Calorimetry
● The substance is pure
● No heat is absorbed by the calorimeter
● A concentration of 1 mol/dm^3 is used

Calorimeter Experiments

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SagNcyN1yUQ

Rate of reaction
● Different reactions take place at different rates
● Reactions with oxygen can be fast (burning) or slow (rusting)

Collision Theory
● Collision theory is used to predict rates of chemical reactions, particularly for gases.
● The theory is based on the assumption that for a reaction to occur it is necessary for the reaction
species to come together.
● There are three main points listed in collision theory
○ Molecules must collide to react
○ Collision must have the correct orientation
○ Collision must have enough energy
● Particles will collide more frequently if:
○ There is a higher concentration
○ Particles are reacting faster
Factors affecting rate
● Surface area
○ When a solid is powdered, the particles are exposed so there is more chance of a collision
● Concentration
○ More number of particles results in a higher chance of collision
● Temperature
○ When temperature increase, the particles gain kinetic energy, so more collisions take
place

Equilibrium
Definitions
● Chemical equilibrium is a state in which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the
backward reaction. In other words, there is no net change in concentration. Otherwise, this is
known as dynamic equilibrium.
● A physical equilibrium is a system whose physical state does not change when dynamic
equilibrium is reached in a system

Catalyst
● A Catalyst is used to find an alternative pathway to reaction with lower activation energy.
● Le Chatelier Principle is used to predict the behaviour of a system due to changes in temperature,
concentration and pressure.

Examples of catalysts
● Zinc reacts more rapidly with acid when in contact with copper
● Hydrogen peroxide decomposes more rapidly in the presence of manganese dioxide MnO2

Uses of catalysts
● Catalysts speed up reactions and therefore allow:
○ Shorter reaction times
○ Reduced temperature and reduced energy costs
○ Reduced pressure (sometimes) and reduced costs and hazards

CHAPTER 7: Fuels and Pollution

● Combustion of fuels affects pollution

● Also other sources of pollution
 ● CO2 is released by the complete combustion of fossil fuels
● Contributes to an increased greenhouse effect

Greenhouse gases
● Carbon dioxide
● Methane
● Water vapour

STEPS OF GREENHOUSE EFFECT

1. Radiation comes from the sun as light
2. Passes through earth’s atmosphere
3. Absorbed at the surface
4. Energy radiated from the surface is infrared radiation
a. Smaller wavelength
5. Can’t all escape, some of it is reflected back into the atmosphere
6. The earth is absorbing more heat than it is emitting

● The greenhouse effect is essential for life, too strong is bad

● CO2 absorbs infrared so more heat is absorbed with an increase in CO2 emissions

Acid rain
● Sulfur dioxide is a colourless, pungent-smelling gas that is a pollutant responsible for acid rain
● SO2 is a non-metal oxide so it forms an acidic solution in water, hence forming acid rain
● Sources: combustion of fossil fuels - especially coal
● Sulfur dioxide is produced when sulfur-containing fuels are burned - oxidation
○ S + O2 -> SO2
● Acid rain causes corrosion to metal structures, buildings and statues made of carbonate rocks,
and damage to aquatic organisms.
● Pollutes crops and water supplies, irritates lungs, throats and eyes

● Nitrogen oxides are produced when nitrogen and oxygen in the air react in hot engines
● They are oxidised in the atmosphere and dissolve in water in clouds to nitric acid and sulfuric acid
 ● Lightning strikes can also trigger the formation of nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxides in the
air
● Rain below 5.5Ph is acid rain

Partial combustion releases co or c.

Co is toxic
Soot forms particulate matter
Enter the lungs and cause respiratory and heart disease

Partially burned fuels are a pollutant

They are VOCs. volatile organic compounds
They react with NOx in the air, in sunlight, they form ozone-
Ozone causes inflammation of the airways

Ozone layer depletion

● Ozone is three oxygen atoms bonded together, it can either be “good” or “bad”.

Is ozone good or bad?

● Good: Ozone present in the stratosphere absorbs harmful UV radiation, becoming essentially the
earth's sunscreen; protecting us from getting skin cancer.
● Bad: Ozone present below the atmosphere is harmful to humans, as it is a toxic gas which
shouldn't be breathed in.

● Ozone layer depletion - the gradual thinning of the earth's ozone layer in the upper atmosphere.
○ caused primarily by two different reactions
■ Nitrogen oxides react with ozone to form nitrogen and oxygen.
■ Chlorine acts as a catalyst causing ozone to rapidly break down into oxygen

How did CFCs cause the ozone hole?

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), found in aerosol sprays, refrigerants and air conditioners break down when
they come in contact with the high energy in the upper atmosphere releasing free chlorine ions. These
deplete the ozone layer. In fact, this got so bad in the 1980s that there was a huge ozone hole above
Antarctica.

They were banned in 1996, when the connection between them and ozone depletion was discovered, and
now the ozone hole has been filled.