General Chemistry: Dr. Rabih O. Al-Kaysi Ext: 47247 Email: Kaysir@ksau-Hs - Edu.sa

General Chemistry
Course # 111, two credits

Second Semester 2009
King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Science
Textbook: Principles of Modern Chemistry

by David W. Oxtoby, H. Pat Gillis, and Alan Campion (6 edition; 2007)
Dr. Rabih O. Al-Kaysi
Ext: 47247
Email: kaysir@ksau-hs.edu.sa
Lecture 15
Chemical Equilibrium

Equilibrium
• Consider colorless frozen N2O4. At room
temperature, it decomposes to brown NO2:
N2O4(g) → 2NO2(g).
• After some time, the color stops changing and we
have a mixture of N2O4 and NO2.
• Chemical equilibrium:
1) is the point at which the concentrations of
reactants and products are constant
2) Chemical equilibrium occurs when the reaction
forward and reverse reaction have equal rates
k forward = k reverse

Equilibrium: Collision Model
• Using the collision model: N O (g) → 2NO (g).
2 4 2
• At the beginning of the reaction, there is no NO2

so the reverse reaction (2NO2(g) → N2O4(g)) does
not occur.
• Only the production of NO2 will occur.
• As the amount of NO2 increases, there is a
chance that two NO2 molecules will collide
constructively to form N2O4.
• Thus, the forward chemical reaction has an
opposing reaction that will increase with the
increase in product formation.

Dynamic Equilibrium
• The point at which the rate of decomposition:
Rateforward
N2O4(g) → 2NO2(g)
equals the rate of dimerization: Ratereverse
2NO2(g) → N2O4(g).
is dynamic equilibrium. (Rate forward = Rate reverse )
• The equilibrium is dynamic because the reaction
has not stopped: Only the opposing rates are equal.
• A healthy human body is in a state of dynamic
equilibrium. You loose that equilibrium when you get

Expressing Equilibrium
Reactions
• At equilibrium, as much N2O4 reacts to form NO2 as
NO2 reacts to re-form N2O4:
N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
• The double arrow implies the process is dynamic.
• Consider
Forward reaction: A → B Rate = kf[A]
Reverse reaction: B → A Rate = kr[B]
A B
• At equilibrium kf[A] = kr[B], which implies
• The mixture at equilibrium is called an equilibrium
mixture.

The Equilibrium Constant: Keq
• No matter the starting composition of reactants and
products, the same ratio of concentrations is
achieved at equilibrium.
N2 + 3H2 2NH3

The Equilibrium Constant: Keq
• For a general reaction in solution where all the species are in
solution
aA + bB cC + dD
the equilibrium constant expression for everything in solution
is [ C] c [ D ] d
K eq =
[ A] a [ B] b
where Keq is the equilibrium constant, A, B, C, and D are the
reactants and products respectively, and a, b, c, and d are
the stoichiometric coefficients.
Eg: Decomposition of Ozone O3 to oxygen O2 is an equilibrium process
2O3 3O2 Keq = [O2]3 / [O3]2


Properties of Keq
• In solution Keq is based on the Molarities of
reactants and products at equilibrium.
• We generally omit the units of the equilibrium
constant.
• Note that the equilibrium constant expression has
products over reactants.
• K>>1 implies products are favored, and equilibrium lies
to the right.
• K<<1 implies reactants are favored, and equilibrium lies
to the left.
• The same equilibrium is established not matter how
the reaction is begun.

Forward Equilibrium Direction
• An equilibrium can be approached from any
direction.
• Example: N O (g) 2NO (g)
2 4 2
• Has
P2
NO 2
K eq = = 6.46 Keq = [NO2]2 / [N2O4] = 6.46
PN O
2 4
• K >1 implies an equilibrium favoring product or NO2

formation.

Reverse Equilibrium Direction
• In the reverse direction:
2NO2(g) N2O4(g)
• Thus,
P 1
N 2O 4
K eq = = 0.155 =
P2 6.46
NO 2
K >1 implies an equilibrium Not favoring product or

N2O4 formation.

Heterogeneous and
Homogeneous Equilibria
• Homogeneous equilibrium: When all reactants
and products are in one phase. Eg: solution, or gas
phase N2 + 3H2 2NH3 all in gas phase
• Heterogeneous equilibrium: When one or more
reactants or products are in a different phase, the
is.
• Consider: CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
– experimentally, the amount of CO2 does not seem to

depend on the amounts of CaO and CaCO3. Why?

Heterogeneous Equilibria
• The concentration (Molarity) of a solid or pure liquid is its (density /
molar mass) X 1000. Eg: The concentration of pure water [H2O] = (1/18)
X 1000 = 55.6 M
The Molarity of Hg liquid = 67.8 M.
• Because neither density nor molar mass is a variable, the concentrations
of solids and pure liquids are constant no matter how much is present
• For the decomposition of CaCO3: CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
[CaO]
K eq = × [CO 2 ] = constant × [CO 2 ]
[CaCO3 ]
• Thus, if a pure solid or a pure liquid is involved in a heterogeneous
equilibrium, its concentration is not included in the equilibrium expression
for the reaction.

Heterogeneous Equilibria
Assumptions
• We ignore the concentrations of pure liquids and
pure solids in equilibrium constant expressions.
• The amount of CO2 formed will not depend greatly
on the amounts of CaO and CaCO3 present.
• This applies to solids or pure liquids with constant
concentration
• Eg:
• In one of their experiments, Haber and co-workers introduced a mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen into a reaction vessel
and allowed the system to attain chemical equilibrium at 472 oC. The equilibrium mixture of gases was analyzed and
found to contain 0.1207 M H2, 0.0402 M N2, and 0.00272 M NH3. From these data, calculate the equilibrium constant,
Keq , for
• N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
• Eg:
• Gaseous Hydrogen iodide is placed in a closed container at 425 oC, where it partially decomposes to
hydrogen and iodine: 2HI (g) H2(g) + I2(g). At equilibrium, it is found that [HI] = 3.35*10-3 M;
[H2] = 4.79*10-4 M; [I2] = 4.79*10-4 M. What is the value of Keq at this temperature.
• A mixture of 0.100 mole of NO, 0.050 mole of H2, and 0.050 mole of H2O is placed in a 1.00-L vessel.
The following equilibrium is established:
• 2NO(g) + 2H2(g) N2(g) + 2H2O(g)
• (a) Calculate the Keq for the reaction.

Predicting Direction of
Reaction
• We define Q, the reaction quotient, for a general reaction
as aA + bB cC + dD
PCc PDd
Q=
• Q = K only at equilibrium. PAa PBb
Eg:
• At 448 oC the equilibrium constant, Keq , for the reaction: H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) is
50.5. Predict how the reaction will proceed to reach equilibrium at 448 oC if we start
with 2.0 x 10-2 mol of HI, 1.0 x 10-2 mol of H2, and 3.0 x 10-2 mol of I2 in a 2.0-L
container.

Reaction Quotient
• If Q > K then the reverse reaction must occur to
reach equilibrium (i.e., products are consumed,
reactants are formed, the numerator in the
equilibrium constant expression decreases and Q
decreases until it equals K).
• If Q < K then the forward reaction must occur to

reach equilibrium.
• If Q = K then the reaction is at equilibrium


Calculating Equilibrium
Concentrations
• The same steps used to calculate equilibrium constants are used.
• Generally, we do not have a number for the change in concentration line.
• Therefore, we need to assume that x mol/L of a species is produced (or
used).
• The equilibrium concentrations are given as algebraic expressions.
Eg:
• A 1.00-L flask is filled with 1.000 mol of H2 and 2.000 mol of I2 at 448 oC.
The value of the equilibrium constant, Keq , for the reaction:
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) at 448 oC is 50.5. What are the
concentration of HI, H2, and I2 in the flask at equilibrium.

Introducing Le Châtelier’s
Principle
• Consider the production of ammonia
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
• As the pressure increases, the amount of
ammonia present at equilibrium increases.
• As the temperature decreases, the amount of
ammonia at equilibrium increases.
• Can this be predicted?
• Le Châtelier’s Principle: if a system at equilibrium is
disturbed, the system will move in such a way as to
counteract the disturbance.

Change in Reactant or
Product Concentrations
• Consider the Haber process
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
• If H2 is added while the system is at equilibrium, the
system must respond to counteract the added H2
(by Le Châtelier).
• The system must consume the H2 and produce
products until a new equilibrium is established.
• So, [H2] and [N2] will decrease and [NH3] increases.

Application of Le
Châtelier’s Principle
• Adding a reactant or product shifts the equilibrium

away from the increase.
• Removing a reactant or product shifts the
equilibrium towards the decrease.
• To optimize the amount of product at equilibrium,
we need to flood the reaction vessel with reactant
and continuously remove product (Le Châtelier).

Effect of Temperature
• Adding heat (i.e. heating the vessel) favors away
from the increase:
– if ∆ H > 0, adding heat favors the forward reaction,
– if ∆ H < 0, adding heat favors the reverse reaction.
• Removing heat (i.e. cooling the vessel), favors
towards the decrease:
– if ∆ H > 0, cooling favors the reverse reaction,
– if ∆ H < 0, cooling favors the forward reaction.

The Effect of Catalysis
• A catalyst lowers the activation energy barrier for

the reaction.
• Therefore, a catalyst will decrease the time taken to
reach equilibrium.
• A catalyst does not effect the composition of the
equilibrium mixture.

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General Chemistry

Course # 111, two credits

King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Science

Textbook: Principles of Modern Chemistry

Dr. Rabih O. Al-Kaysi

• At the beginning of the reaction, there is no NO2

2O3 3O2 Keq = [O2]3 / [O3]2

• K >1 implies an equilibrium favoring product or NO2

K >1 implies an equilibrium Not favoring product or

– experimentally, the amount of CO2 does not seem to

• If Q < K then the forward reaction must occur to

• If Q = K then the reaction is at equilibrium

• Adding a reactant or product shifts the equilibrium

• A catalyst lowers the activation energy barrier for

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