Communications 2

EE555

Heng Chan; Mohawk College

Course Content
Introduction & Review
Transmission Line Characteristics
Waveguides & Microwave Devices
Radiowave Propagation
Antennas
Microwave Radio & Radar Systems
Fibre Optic Communications

Heng Chan; Mohawk

Introduction & Review

Microwaves are defined as radio waves in the
frequency range > 1 GHz.
However, waves > 20 GHz are commonly
known as millimeter waves
Distributed, rather than lumped, circuit
elements must be used at microwave
frequencies because of a phenomenon called
skin effect.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

Skin Effect
At microwave frequencies current travels on
the outer surface, or skin, of the conductor
because of the increased inductance created.
The skin depth , (in m), for a conductor
with permeability, (in H/m), conductivity,
(in S/m), and at a frequency, f (in Hz), is
given by:
1

Heng Chan; Mohawk

Skin Effect (contd)

The current density, J,

decreases with the
distance beneath the
surface exponentially.
At a depth , the
current density
decreases to Jo/e.
As f increases, and
resistance .

Jo

J = Joe-z/
z
conductor
surface

Heng Chan; Mohawk

direction
of current
5

Transverse Electromagnetic Waves

In free space:

e
r
i
D

of
n
c t io

a
p
o
Pr

n
o
i
t
ga

Magnetic Field

Electric Field

Heng Chan; Mohawk

Notes on TEM Waves

The E- and H-fields and the direction of
motion of TEM waves are mutually
perpendicular to each other.
Velocity of radio waves in free space is c =
3x108 m/s, but in a medium with dielectric
constant r:
c
v

Heng Chan; Mohawk

f
7

Microwave Materials
Glass epoxy printed circuit boards are
unsuitable for microwave use because of
high dissipation factor and wide tolerance in
thickness and dielectric constant.
Instead, materials such as Teflon fiberglass
laminates, alumina substrates, sapphire and
quartz substrates must be used (refer to text
for details).

Heng Chan; Mohawk

Types of Transmission Lines

Differential or balanced lines (where neither
conductor is grounded): e.g. twin lead,
twisted-cable pair, and shielded-cable pair.
Single-ended or unbalanced lines (where one
conductor is grounded): e.g. concentric or
coaxial cable.
Transmission lines for microwave use: e.g.
striplines, microstrips, and waveguides.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

Transmission Line Equivalent Circuit

R
Zo

L
G

R
C

L
Zo

Lossy Line

R j L
Zo
G j C
Heng Chan; Mohawk

L
C

Lossless Line

L
Zo
C
10

Notes on Transmission Line

Characteristics of a line is determined by its
primary electrical constants or distributed
parameters: R (/m), L (H/m), C (F/m), and
G (S/m).
Characteristic impedance , Zo, is defined as
the input impedance of an infinite line or
that of a finite line terminated with a load
impedance, ZL = Zo.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

11

Formulas for Some Lines

For parallel two-wire line:
2D

120 2 D
L ln
; C
; Zo
ln
2D

d
d
r
ln
d

D
d

= or; = or; o = 4x10-7 H/m; o = 8.854 pF/m

D

For co-axial cable:

D
2
60
D
L
ln ; C
; Zo
ln
D
2 d
r d
ln
d

Heng Chan; Mohawk

12

Transmission-Line Wave Propagation

Electromagnetic waves travel at < c in a transmission
line because of the dielectric separating the conductors.
The velocity of propagation is given by:
1
1
c
v

m/s
LC

r
Velocity factor, VF, is defined as: VF v 1
c
r
Heng Chan; Mohawk

13

Propagation Constant
Propagation constant, , determines the
variation of V or I with distance along the
line: V = Vse-x; I = Ise-x, where VS, and IS
are the voltage and current at the source end,
and x = distance from source.
= + j, where = attenuation coefficient
(= 0 for lossless line), and = phase shift
coefficient = 2/ (rad./m)

Heng Chan; Mohawk

14

Incident & Reflected Waves

For an infinitely long line or a line
terminated with a matched load, no incident
power is reflected. The line is called a flat
or nonresonant line.
For a finite line with no matching
termination, part or all of the incident
voltage and current will be reflected.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

15

Reflection Coefficient
The reflection coefficient is defined as:
Er

Ei

or

It can also be shown that:

Ir
Ii

Z L Zo

Z L Zo

Note that when ZL = Zo, = 0; when ZL = 0, = -1;

and when ZL = open circuit, = 1.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

16

Voltage

Standing Waves
Vmax = Ei + Er

Vmin = Ei - Er

With a mismatched line, the incident and reflected

waves set up an interference pattern on the line
known as a standing wave.
Vmax 1
The standing wave ratio is : SWR V 1
min

Heng Chan; Mohawk

17

Other Formulas
When the load is purely resistive:
(whichever gives an SWR > 1)

Zo
ZL
SWR
or
Zo
ZL

Return Loss, RL = Fraction of power reflected

= ||2, or -20 log || dB
So, Pr = ||2Pi
Mismatched Loss, ML = Fraction of power
transmitted/absorbed = 1 - ||2 or -10 log(1-||2) dB
So, Pt = Pi (1 - ||2) = Pi - Pr
Heng Chan; Mohawk

18

Time-Domain Reflectometry
d
Oscilloscope

Transmission Line

ZL

Pulse or Step
Generator

TDR is a practical technique for determining the

length of the line, the way it is terminated, and the
type and location of any impedance discontinuities.
The distance to the discontinuity is: d = vt/2, where
t = elapsed time of returned reflection.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

19

Typical TDR Waveform Displays

Vr
Vi

t
RL > Z o

Vr

Vi
RL < Zo

ZL capacitive
ZL inductive
Heng Chan; Mohawk

20

Transmission-Line Input Impedance

The input impedance at a distance l from the load is:

Z L jZ o tan( l )
Zi Zo
Z o jZ L tan( l )
When the load is a short circuit, Zi = jZo tan (l).
For 0 l < /4, shorted line is inductive.
For l = /4, shorted line = a parallel resonant circuit.
For /4 < l /2, shorted line is capacitive.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

21

T-L Input Impedance (contd)

When the load is an open circuit, Zi = -jZo cot (l)
For 0 < l < /4, open circuited line is capacitive.
For l = /4, open-line = series resonant circuit.
For /4 < l < /2, open-line is inductive.
A /4 line with characteristic impedance, Zo, can
be used as a matching transformer between a
resistive load, ZL, and a line with characteristic
'
impedance, Zo, by choosing: Z o Z o Z L
Heng Chan; Mohawk

22

Transmission Line Summary

or
l < /4

l > /4

is equivalent to:

or
l > /4

is equivalent to:

l < /4
=

l = /4
=

/4
Zo

ZL

Zo
/4-section Matching
Transformer
Heng Chan; Mohawk

23

The Smith Chart

The Smith chart is a graphical aid to solving
transmission-line impedance problems.
The coordinates on the chart are based on
the intersection of two sets of orthogonal
circles.

One set represents the normalized resistive

component, r (= R/Zo), and the other the
normalized reactive component, jx (= jX/Zo).
Heng Chan; Mohawk

24

Smith Chart Basics

+j0.7
r=0
z1

r=2

j0
r=1

z2

z1 = 1+j0.7

z2 = 2-j1.4

-j1.4
Heng Chan; Mohawk

25

Applications of The Smith Chart

Applications to be discussed in this course:

Find SWR, ||, RL
Find YL
Find Zi of a shorted or open line of length l
Find Zi of a line terminated with ZL
Find distance to Vmax and Vmin from ZL
Solution for quarter-wave transformer matching
Solution for parallel single-stub matching
Heng Chan; Mohawk

26

Substrate Lines
Miniaturized microwave circuits use striplines
and microstrips rather than coaxial cables as
transmission lines for greater flexibility and
compactness in design.
The basic stripline structure consists of a flat
conductor embedded in a dielectric material
and sandwiched between two ground planes.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

27

Basic Stripline Structure

Ground Planes

r
Centre Conductor

Solid Dielectric

Heng Chan; Mohawk

28

Notes On Striplines

When properly designed, the E and H fields of the

signal are completely confined within the dielectric
material between the two ground planes.
The characteristic impedance of the stripline is a
function of its line geometry, specifically, the t/b
and w/b ratios, and the dielectric constant, r.
Graphs, design formulas, or computer programs are
available to determine w for a desired Zo, t, and b.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

29

Microstrip
w

r (dielectric)

Circuit Line

Ground Plane
Microstrip line employs a single ground plane, the
conductor pattern on the top surface being open.
Graphs, formulas or computer programs would be used to
design the conductor line width. However, since the
electromagnetic field is partly in the solid dielectric, and
partly in the air space, the effective relative permittivity, eff,
has to be used in the design instead of r.
Heng Chan; Mohawk
30

Stripline vs Microstrip

Advantages of stripline:
signal is shielded from external interference
shielding prevents radiation loss
r and mode of propagation are more predictable
for design

Advantages of microstrip:
easier to fabricate, therefore less costly
easier to lay, repair/replace components
Heng Chan; Mohawk

31

Microstrip Directional Coupler

2

/4

Top View

Conductor Lines
Dielectric
Ground Plane
Cross-sectional
View

Most of the power into port #1 will flow to port #3.

Some of the power will be coupled to port #2 but
only a minute amount will go to port #4.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

32

Formulas For Directional Coupler

The operation of the coupler gives rise to an even
mode characteristic impedance, Zoe, and an odd mode
characteristic impedance, Zoo, where:

Z o Z oe Z oo
For a given coupling factor, C (which is V2/V1):

Z oe Z o

1 C
1 C
; Z oo Z o
1 C
1 C
Heng Chan; Mohawk

33

Coupler Applications

Some common applications for couplers:

monitoring/measuring the power or frequency
at a point in the circuit
sampling the microwave energy for used in
automatic leveling circuits (ALC)
reflection measurements which indirectly yield
information on VSWR, ZL, return loss, etc.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

34

Branch Coupler
Z1 = 0.707 Zo
3
Input power at port #1 will
divide equally between
Zo
Zo
Ports 2 and 3 and none to
Z1
2
1
port 4.
Can provide tighter coupling and can handle
higher power than directional coupler.
4

Z1

Branches may consist of chokes, filters, or

matched load for more design flexibility.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

35

Hybrid Ring Coupler

Input power at port
#1 divides evenly
between ports 2 & 4
and none for port 3.

3/4
4
1

Similarly, input at
port #2 will divide
evenly between ports
1 and 3 and none for port 4.
One application: circulator.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

36

Microstrip & Stripline Filters

/4

IN

OUT

Side-coupled half-wave resonator band-pass filter

IN

OUT

Conventional low-pass filter

Heng Chan; Mohawk

37

Scattering Parameters

Microwave devices are often characterized by their

S-parameters because:
measurement of V and I may be difficult at
microwave frequencies.
Active devices frequently become unstable when
open or short-circuit type measurements are
made for h, Y or Z parameters.
An [S] matrix is used to contain all the Sparameters.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

38

S-Variables & S-Parameters

V1

a1
b1

a2

2-Port
Network

b2

V2

For port x:
Vix
Vrx
Vx = Vix + Vrx ; S-variables: a x
; bx
Px = Pix - Prx = |ax|2-|bx|2
b1 = S11a1 + S12a2
b2 = S21a1 + S22a2

or

Zo

Zo

b1 S11 S12 a1
b S S a
2 21 22 2

Heng Chan; Mohawk

39

S-Parameters of 2-Port Network

Note: when port 2 is
terminated with a
a2 0
matched load, a2 = 0.
b1
b2
Similarly, a1 = 0 when
S12
S 22
a1 0 ;
a1 0
a2
a2
port 1 is matched.
S11, and S22 are reflection coefficients, i.e., 11, & 22.
S21 represents the forward transmission coefficient.
Thus, Insertion Loss/attenuation = -10 log (Po2/Pi1)
= -20 log |S21| dB
S12 is the reversed transmission coefficient.
b1
S11
a1

b2
S 21
a2 0 ;
a1

Heng Chan; Mohawk

40

Properties of S-Parameters
In general, S-parameters have both magnitude
and angle.
For matched 2-port reflectionless networks, S11 =
S22 = 0
For a reciprocal 2-port network, S12 = S21.

For a lossless 2-port network, S12 = S21 = 1.

For n-port, [b] = [S] [a]. The n x n [S] matrix
characterizes the network.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

41

Microwave Radiation Hazards

The fact that microwaves can be used for cooking

purposes and in heating applications suggests that
they have the potential for causing biological
damage.
Health & Welfare, Canada specifies no limit
exposure duration for radiation level of 1 mW/cm2
or less for frequencies from 10 MHz to 300 GHz.
Avoid being in the direct path of a microwave
beam coming out of an antenna or waveguide.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

42

Waveguides

Reasons for using waveguide rather than

coaxial cable at microwave frequency:
easier to fabricate
no solid dielectric and I2R losses

Waveguides do not support TEM waves

inside because of boundary conditions.
Waves travel zig-zag down the waveguide by
bouncing from one side wall to the other.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

43

E-Field Pattern of TE1 0 Mode

b
a

g/2

End View
Side View
TEmn means there are m number of half-wave variations
of the transverse E-field along the a side and n number
of half-wave variations along the b side.
The magnetic field (not shown) forms closed loops
horizontally around the E-field
Heng Chan; Mohawk
44

TE and TM Modes

TEmn mode has the E-field entirely transverse, i.e.

perpendicular, to the direction of propagation.
TMmn mode has the H-field entirely transverse to the
direction of propagation.
All TEmn and TMmn modes are theoretically
permissible except, in a rectangular waveguide,
TMmo or TMon modes are not possible since the
magnetic field must form a closed loop.
In practice, only the dominant mode, TE10 is used.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

45

Wavelength for TE & TM Modes

Cutoff wavelength:

m / a 2 n / b 2

Any signal with c will not propagate down

the waveguide.
For air-filled waveguide, cutoff freq., fc = c/c
TE10 is called the dominant mode since c = 2a
is the longest wavelength of any mode.

or
Guide wavelength: g
2
1 / c
1 fc / f

Heng Chan; Mohawk

46

Other Formulas for TE & TM Modes

Group velocity: v g c
g
g
Phase velocity: v p c

Wave impedance:
Zo = 377 for air-filled
waveguide

or c 1 / c
or

c
1 / c

Z TE

Zo

1 / c

Z TM Z o 1 / c

Heng Chan; Mohawk

47

Circular/Cylindrical Waveguides

Differences versus rectangular waveguides :

c = 2r/Bmn where r = waveguide radius, and B mn is
obtained from table of Bessel functions.
All TEmn and TMmn modes are supported since m and
n subscripts are defined differently.
Dominant mode is TE11.
Advantages: higher power-handling capacity, lower
attenuation for a given cutoff wavelength.
Disadvantages: larger and heavier.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

48

Waveguide Terminations
g/2

Dissipative Vane

Side View

End View

Short-circuit

Sliding Short-Circuit

Dissipative vane is coated with a thin film of metal

which in turn has a thin dielectric coating for
protection. Its impedance is made equal to the
wave impedance. The taper minimizes reflection.
Sliding short-circuit functions like a shorted stub
for impedance matching purpose.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

49

Attenuators
Resistive Flap
Pi

Po
Rotary-vane Type

Pi

Atten.(dB) = 10 log (Pi/Po)

= -20 log |S21|
Po

Sliding-vane Type

Max. attenuation when flap

is fully inside. Slot for flap
is chosen to be at a nonradiating position.

Max. attenuation when vane

is at centre of guide and min.
at the side-wall.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

50

Iris Reactors
=
=

Inductive iris; vanes are vertical

Capacitive iris; vanes are
horizontal
Irises can be used as reactance
elements, filters or impedance
matching devices.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

51

Tuning Screw s
Tuning Screws

Post

A post or screw can also serve as a reactive element.

When the screw is advanced partway into the waveguide, it acts capacitive. When the screw is advanced
all the way into the waveguide, it acts inductive. In
between the two positions, one can get a resonant LC
circuit.
Heng Chan; Mohawk
52

Waveguide T-Junctions
2

2
E-Plane Junction
H-Plane Junction
Input power at port 2 will split equally between ports 1 and
3 but the outputs will be antiphase for E-plane T and inphase
for H-plane T. Input power at ports 1 & 3 will combine and
exit from port 1 provided the correct phasing is used.
1

Heng Chan; Mohawk

53

S-Matrix for T-Junctions

For ideal T-junction:
Note: + sign is used for
H-plane T, and (-) sign
for E-plane T.

1
1
2
2

1
[S ]
0
2

1
1
2 2

1
2

1
2

1
2

Also note that even

though S22 = 0 (i.e. lossless), S11 and S33 are
each equal to 1/2, i.e., input power applied to ports
1 and 3 will always suffer from reflection.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

54

Hybrid-T Junction
3

Under matched & ideal conditions:

0 0 1
0 0 1
1
[S ]
2 1 1 0

1 1 0

1
1

It combines E-plane and H-plane junctions.

Note : S11, S22, S33, and S44 are zero.
Pin at port 1 or 2 will divide between ports 3 and 4.
Pin at port 3 or 4 will divide between ports 1 and 2.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

55

Hybrid-T Junction (contd)

If input power of the same phase is applied
simultaneously at ports 1 and 2, the
combined power exits from port 4. If the
input is out-of-phase, the output is at port 3.
Applications:

Combining power from two transmitters.

TX and a RX sharing a common antenna.
Low noise mixer circuit.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

56

Directional Coupler
Termination
P1

g/4

P4
P3

P2

P2

P1
2-hole Coupler

Holes spaced g/4 allow waves travelling toward

port 4 to combine. Waves travelling toward port 3,
however, will cancel. Therefore, ideally P3 = 0.
To broaden frequency response bandwidth, practical
couplers would usually have multi holes.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

57

Directional Coupler (contd)

For ideal directional coupler:
where 2 + 2 = 1
Definitions:

[S ]
0

P1
Coupling Factor, C (dB) 10 log 20 log | S14 |
P4

Directivity,

D(dB ) 10 log

P41
S
20 log 41
P31
S31

Insertion Loss (dB) = 10 log (P1/P2) = -20 log |S12|

Heng Chan; Mohawk

58

Cavity Resonators
Resonant wavelength for a
rectangular cavity:
r

2
( m / a ) 2 ( n / b) 2 ( p / L ) 2

For a cylindrical resonator:

r

2
2

Bmn
p

L
r

Heng Chan; Mohawk

r
L

59

Cavity Resonators (contd)

Energy is coupled into the cavity either
through a small opening, by a coupling loop
or a coupling probe. These methods of
coupling also apply for waveguides
Applications of resonators:

filters
absorption wavemeters
microwave tubes
Heng Chan; Mohawk

60

Ferrite Components

Ferrites are compounds of metallic oxides such as

those of Fe, Zn, Mn, Mg, Co, Al, and Ni.
They have magnetic properties similar to
ferromagnetic metals and at the same time have
high resistivity associated with dielectrics.
Their magnetic properties can be controlled by
means of an external magnetic field.
They can be transparent, reflective, absorptive, or
cause wave rotation depending on the H-field..
Heng Chan; Mohawk

61

Examples of Ferrite Devices

Attenuator

Isolator
2

Differential
Phase Shifter

1
4-port
Circulator
Heng Chan; Mohawk

4
62

Notes On Ferrite Devices

Differential phase shifter - is the phase shift

between the two directions of propagation.
Isolator - permits power flow in one direction only.
Circulator - power entering port 1 will go to port 2
only; power entering port 2 will go to port 3 only;
etc.
Most of the above are based on Faraday rotation.
Other usage: filters, resonators, and substrates.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

63

Schottky Barrier Diode

Contact
Semiconductor
Layer
Substrate

Metal
Electrode

Its based on a simple metalsemiconductor interface.

There is no p-n junction but
SiO2
Dielectric a depletion region exists.
Current is by majority
carriers; therefore, very low
Metal
Electrode in capacitance.

Applications: detectors, mixers, and switches.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

64

Varactor Diode
Cj

Circuit Symbol

Co

V
Junction Capacitance Characteristic

Varactors operate under reverse-bias conditions.

The junction capacitance is:
Co K
Cj
where Vb = barrier potential
(Vb V ) m
(0.55 to 0.7 for silicon)
and K = constant (often = 1)
Heng Chan; Mohawk

65

Equivalent Circuit for Varactor

Cj

Rj

The series resistance, Rs, and diode

capacitance, Cj, determine the
cutoff frequency:
1

fc

Rs

2Rs C j

The diode quality factor for a given

frequency, f, is:
f

Heng Chan; Mohawk

f
66

Varactor Applications
Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) in AFC
and PLL circuits
Variable phase shifter
Harmonic generator in frequency multiplier
circuits
Up or down converter circuits
Parametric amplifier circuits - low noise

Heng Chan; Mohawk

67

Parametric Amplifier Circuit

Degenerative Mode: fp = 2fs

Pump signal (fp)

Nondegenerative mode:
L2
C1
Input
signal
(fs)

L1
Signal
tank (fs)

Upconversion - fi = fs + fp
Downconversion - fi = fs - fp
Power gain, G = fi /fs

C2
C3
D1

Regenerative mode:

L3

negative resistance
very low noise
very high gain
fp = fs + fi

Idler
tank (fi)
Heng Chan; Mohawk

68

PIN Diode
P+
I
N+

+V

R
In

S1

RFC
C1

C2
Out
D1

PIN as shunt switch

PIN diode has an intrinsic region between the P+

and N+ materials. It has a very high resistance in
the OFF mode and a very low resistance when
forward biased.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

69

PIN Diode Applications

To switch devices such as attenuators, filters,
and amplifiers in and out of the circuit.
Voltage-variable attenuator
Amplitude modulator
Transmit-receive (TR) switch
Phase shifter (with section of transmission
line)

Heng Chan; Mohawk

70

Tunnel Diode
Ip i

Ls
Rs
Symbol

Cj

-R

Equivalent
Circuit

Vp Vv

Characteristic Curve

Heavy doping of the semiconductor material creates

a very thin potential barrier in the depletion zone
which leads to electron tunneling through the barrier.
Note the negative resistance zone between Vp and Vv.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

71

More Notes On Tunnel Diode

Tunnel diodes can be used in monostable (A or C),
bistable (between A and C), or astable (B) modes.
These modes lead to switching, oscillation, and
amplification applications. However, the power
output levels of the tunnel diode are restricted to a
few mW only.
The resistive, and self-resonant frequencies are:

1
fr
2R C j

R
1 ;
Rs

1
fs
2

1
1

Ls C j ( RC j ) 2

Heng Chan; Mohawk

72

Transferred Electron Devices

TEDs are made of compound semiconductors such

as GaAs.
They exhibit periodic fluctuations of current due to
negative resistance effects when a threshold
voltage (about 3.4 V) is exceeded.
The negative resistance effect is due to electrons
being swept from a lower valley (more mobile)
region to an upper valley (less mobile) region in
the conduction band.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

73

Gunn Diode
The Gunn diode is a transferred electron device that
can be used in microwave oscillators or one-port
reflection amplifiers. Its basic structure is shown
below. N-, the active region, is sandwiched between
two heavily doped N+ regions. Electrons from the
l
cathode (K) drifts to
the anode (A) in bunched
NK
A
formation called domains.
Metallic
Electrode
Metallic Note that there is no p-n
N+
Electrode junction.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

74

Gunn Operating Modes

Stable Amplification (SA) Mode: diode behaves as

an amplifier due to negative resistance effect.

Transit Time (TT) Mode: operating frequency, fo =

vd / l where vd is the domain velocity, and l is the
effective length. Output power < 2 W, and
frequency is between 1 GHz to 18 GHz.
Limited Space-Charge (LSA) Mode: requires a
high-Q resonant cavity; operating frequency up to
100 GHz and pulsed output power > 100 W.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

75

Gunn Diode Circuit and Applications

Tuning
Screw

The resonant cavity

is shocked excited by
current pulses from
Iris
the Gunn diode and
the RF energy is
coupled via the iris
Diode
to the waveguide.
V
Gunn diode applications: microwave source for
receiver local oscillator, police radars, and
microwave communication links.

Resonant
Cavity

Heng Chan; Mohawk

76

Avalanche Transit-Time Devices

If the reverse-bias potential exceeds a certain

threshold, the diode breaks down.
Energetic carriers collide with bound electrons to
create more hole-electron pairs.
This multiplies to cause a rapid increase in reverse
current.
The onset of avalanche current and its drift across
the diode is out of phase with the applied voltage
thus producing a negative resistance phenomenon.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

77

IMPATT Diode
A single-drift structure of an IMPATT (impact
avalanche transit time) diode is shown below:

P+

N+

l
Avalanche
Drift Region
Region

Operating frequency: f vd
2l

where vd = drift
velocity

Heng Chan; Mohawk

78

Notes On IMPATT Diode

The current build-up and the transit time for the

current pulse to cross the drift region cause a 180 o
phase delay between V and I; thus, negative R.
IMPATT diodes typically operate in the 3 to 6 GHz
region but higher frequencies are possible.
They must operate in conjunction with an external
high-Q resonant circuit.
They have relatively high output power (>100 W
pulsed) but are very noisy and not very efficient.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

79

Microwave Transistors

Silicon BJTs and GaAsFETs are most widely used.

BJT useful for amplification up to about 6 MHz.
MesFET (metal semiconductor FET) and HEMT
(high electron mobility transistor) are operable
beyond 60 GHz.
FETs have higher input impedance, better
efficiency and more frequency stable than BJTs.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

80

Microwave Transistor Power Gain

Zs
Vs

Matching
Network
Gs

Transistor
Go

Matching
Network
GL

ZL

Max. power gain of a unilateral transistor amplifier

with conjugate matched input and output:
1
1
2
Gmax Gs GoGL
| S 21 |
2
2
1 | S11 |
1 | S 22 |
Note that Go = |S21|2 is the gain of the transistor. For
unconditional stability, |S11| < 1 and |S22| < 1.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

81

Noise Factor & Noise Figure

Noise Factor, Fn = SNRin/SNRout
Noise Figure, NF (dB) = 10 log Fn
= SNRin (dB) - SNRout (dB)
Equivalent noise temperature, Te = (Fn -1) To
where To = 290 oK
For amplifiers in cascade, the overall noise factor:
F2 1 F3 1
Fn 1
FT F1

...
G1
G1G2
G1G2 ...Gn 1
where Gn = amplifier gain of the nth stage.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

82

Microwave Tubes

Classical vacuum tubes have several factors

which limit their upper operating frequency:
interelectrode capacitance & lead inductance
dielectric losses & skin effect
transit time

Microwave tubes utilize resonant cavities

and the interaction between the electric field,
magnetic field and the electrons.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

83

Magnetrons
It consists of a cylindrical cathode surrounded by the
anode with a number of resonant cavities.
Interaction Its a crossed-field
Waveguide
device since the E-field
Space
Output
is perpendicular to the
dc magnetic field.
At a critical voltage
Cavity the electrons from the
Coupling
Window
cathode will just graze
Anode
the anode.
Cathode
Heng Chan ; Mohawk

84

Magnetron Operation

When an electron cloud sweeps past a cavity, it

excites the latter to self oscillation which in turn
causes the electrons to bunch up into a spoked
wheel formation in the interaction space.
The continuous exchange of energy between the
electrons and the cavities sustains oscillations at
microwave frequency.
Electrons will eventually lose their energy and fall
back into the cathode while new ones are emitted.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

85

More Notes On Magnetrons

Alternate cavities are strapped (i.e., shorted) so that

adjacent resonators are 180o out of phase. This
enables only the dominant -mode to operate.
Frequency tuning is possible either mechanically
(screw tuner) or electrically with voltage.
Magnetrons are used as oscillators for radars,
beacons, microwave ovens, etc.
Peak output power is from a few MW at UHF and
X-band to 10 kW at 100 GHz.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

86

Klystrons
Klystrons are linear-beam devices since the
E-field is parallel to the static magnetic field.
Their operation is based on velocity and
density modulation with resonating cavities
to create the bunching effect.
They can be employed as oscillators or
power amplifiers.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

87

Two-Cavity Klystron
Control
Grid

RF In

RF Out
Gap

Filament

Collector

Cathode
Anode
Electron
Beam

Buncher Catcher
Cavity Cavity

Drift
Region

v
Effect of velocity modulation
Heng Chan; Mohawk

88

Klystron Operation

RF signal applied to the buncher cavity sets up an

alternating field across the buncher gap.
This field alternately accelerates and decelerates the
electron beam causing electrons to bunch up in the
drift region.
When the electron bundles pass the catcher gap,
they excite the catcher cavity into resonance.
RF power is extracted from the catcher cavity by
the coupling loop.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

89

Multicavity Klystrons

Gain can be increased by inserting intermediate

cavities between the buncher and catcher cavity.
Each additional cavity increases power gain by 15to 20-dB.
Synchronous tuned klystrons have high gain but very
narrow bandwidth, e.g. 0.25 % of fo.
Stagger tuned klystrons have wider bandwidth at the
expense of gain.
Can operate as oscillator by positive feedback.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

90

Reflex Klystron
Cathode

Anode

Output
Cavity
Repeller

Filament
Electron
Beam
Vr

Condition for oscillation requires electron transit

time to be:
3

t n T where n = an integer and

4
T = period of oscillation

Heng Chan; Mohawk

91

Reflex Klystron Operation

Electron beam is velocity modulated when passing

though gridded gap of the cavity.

Repeller decelerates and turns back electrons thus

causing bunching.
Electrons are collected on the cavity walls and
output power can be extracted.
Repeller voltage, Vr, can be used to vary output
frequency and power.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

92

Notes On Reflex Klystrons

Only one cavity used.
No external dc magnetic field required.
Compact size.
Can be used as an oscillator only.
Low output power and low efficiency.
Output frequency can be tuned by Vr , or by
changing the dimensions of the cavity.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

93

Travelling-Wave Tube
RF In

Helix

Electron Beam

RF Out

Attenuator

Collector

The TWT is a linear beam device with the magnetic

field running parallel to tube lengthwise.
The helix is also known as a slow wave structure to
slow down the RF field so that its velocity down the
the tube is close to the velocity of the electron beam.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

94

TWT Operation

As the RF wave travels along the helix, its positive

and negative oscillations velocity modulate the
electron beam causing the electrons to bunch up.
The prolonged interaction between the RF wave
and electron beam along the TWT results in
exponential growth of the RF voltage.
The amplified wave is then extracted at the output.
The attenuator prevents reflected waves that can
cause oscillations.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

95

Notes On TWTs

Since interaction between the RF field and the

electron beam is over the entire length of the tube,
the power gain achievable is very high (> 50 dB).
As TWTs are nonresonant devices, they have wider
bandwidths and lower NF than klystrons.
TWTs operate from 0.3 to 50 GHz.
The Twystron tube is a combination of the TWT
and klystron. It gives better gain and BW over
either the conventional TWT or klystron.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

96

Radio- Wave In Free Space

Radio waves propagate as TEM waves in free space.
For an isotropic (i.e. omnidirectional) source:
Point
Source

30 Pr
Pr
PD
; E
2
4d
d

where PD = power density (W/m2); E = electric

field intensity (V/m); Pr = total radiated power (W);
and d = distance from source (m).
Heng Chan; Mohawk

97

Optical Properties Of Radio Waves

Since light waves and radio waves are part of the

electromagnetic spectrum, they behave similarly.
Thus, radio waves can:

refract at the boundary between two different media

reflect at the surface of a conductor
diffract around the edge of an obstacle
interfere with one and another to degrade performance

Propagation of radio wave in the atmosphere is

greatly influenced by the frequency of the wave.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

98

Radio Wave Propagation Modes

In every terrestrial radio system, there are

three possible modes of propagation:
Ground-wave or surface-wave propagation
Space-wave or direct-wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation
At frequencies < 2 MHz, ground wave is best.
Sky waves are used for HF signals.
Space waves are used for VHF and above.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

99

Ground-Wave Propagation
Ground waves start out with the electric field being
perpendicular to the ground.
Due to the gradient density of the earths atmosphere
the wavefront tilts progressively.
Wavefront

Direction of wave travel

Increasing
Tilt
Earth
Heng Chan; Mohawk

100

Notes On Ground Waves

Advantages:
Given enough power, can circumnavigate the earth.
Relatively unaffected by atmospheric conditions.

Disadvantages:

Require relatively high transmission power.

Require large antennas since frequency is low.
Ground losses vary considerably with terrain.

Applications: MF broadcasting; ship-to-ship and shipto-shore comms; radio navigation; maritime comms.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

101

Space-Wave Propagation
Most terrestrial communications in the VHF or
higher frequency range use direct, line-of-sight, or
tropospheric radio waves. The approximate
maximum distance of communication is given by:

d 17

hT

hR

where d = max. distance in km

hT = height of the TX antenna in m
hR = height of the RX antenna in m
Heng Chan; Mohawk

102

Notes On Space-Waves

The radio horizon is greater than the optical

horizon by about one third due to refraction of the
atmosphere.
Reflections from a relatively smooth surface, such
as a body of water, could result in partial
cancellation of the direct signal - a phenomenon
known as fading. Also, large objects, such as
buildings and hills, could cause multipath
distortion from many reflections.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

103

Sky-Wave Propagation

HF radio waves are returned from the F-layer of the

ionosphere by a form of refraction.
The highest frequency that is returned to earth in the
vertical direction is called the critical frequency, fc.
The highest frequency that returns to earth over a
given path is called the maximum usable frequency
(MUF). Because of the general instability of the
ionosphere, the optimum working frequency (OWF)
= 0.85 MUF, is used instead.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

104

Formulas For Sky Waves

F-Layer

From geometry
(assuming flat earth):

d = 2hv tan i

i
hv

where hv = virtual
height of F-layer

From theory (secant

law):

Earth

MUF = fc sec i
d

Heng Chan; Mohawk

105

Free-Space Path Loss

Defined as the loss incurred by a radio wave
as it travels in a straight line through a
vacuum with no absorption or reflection of
energy from nearby objects.
Formula: Lp (dB) = 92.4 + 20log f + 20log d
where f = frequency of radio wave in GHz
and d = distance in km.
If f is in MHz, replace 92.4 above by 32.4.

Heng Chan; Mohawk

106

Fade Margin

To account for changes in atmospheric conditions,

multipath loss, and terrain sensitivity, a fade
margin, Fm, must be added to total system loss:
Fm (dB) = 30log d + 10log(6ABf) - 10log(1-R) -70
where d = distance (km), f = frequency (GHz), R =
reliability (decimal value), A = terrain roughness
factor (0.25 to 4), and B = factor to convert worstmonth probability to annual probability (0.125 to 1
depending on humidity or dryness).
Heng Chan; Mohawk

107

Antenna Basics

An antenna is a passive reciprocal device.

It acts as a transducer to convert electrical
oscillations in a transmission line or waveguide to a
propagating wave in free space and vice versa.
It functions as an impedance matcher between a
transmission line or waveguide and free space.
All antennas have a radiation pattern which is a plot
of the field strength or power density at various
angular positions relative to the antenna.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

108

Antenna Efficiency
An antenna has an equivalent radiation resistance, Rr
Pr where Pr = power radiated and
given by:
Rr 2
i i = antenna current at feedpoint
All the power supplied to the antenna is not radiated.
Antenna efficiency:
Pr
Rr

Pr Pd

x 100

Rr R e

x 100

where Pd = power dissipated;

and Re = effective antenna resistance.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

109

Directive Gain & Power Gain

Directive gain of an antenna is given by:
PD
where PD = power density at some point D P
Dr
with a given antenna; PDr = power density
at the same point with a reference antenna.
Maximum directive gain is called directivity.
Reference antenna is generally the isotropic source.
When antenna efficiency is taken into account
directive gain becomes power gain: Ap = D.
In decibels, power gain is 10 log Ap
Heng Chan; Mohawk

110

Effective Isotropic Radiated Power

EIRP is the equivalent power that an isotropic antenna
would have to radiate to achieve the same power
density at a given point as another antenna:
EIRP = PrAt = PinAp
where Pr = total radiated power; Pin = antenna input power;
At = TX antenna directive gain; and Ap = antenna power gain.

Therefore, the power density at a distance, d, from an

antenna is:
EIRP
Pr At
PD

2
4 d
4 d 2
Heng Chan; Mohawk

111

Antenna Miscellany

Power captured by the receiving antenna with an

effective area, Aeff, is C = PDAeff. Note that Aeff
includes the gain and efficiency of the antenna.
Antennas can be linearly, elliptically or circularly
polarized depending on their E-field radiated.
Antenna beamwidth is the angular separation
between the two half-power points on the major
lobe of the antennas plane radiation pattern.
Antenna input impedance, Zin = Ei/Ii
Heng Chan; Mohawk

112

Half-Wave Dipole
/2
Balanced Feedline

Symbol

Simple and most widely used at f > 2 MHz.

Its a resonant antenna since its length is 2 x /4.
Zin = 73 approx.; Zmax = 2500 approx. at ends
Radiation pattern of dipole in free space has two
main lobes perpendicular to the antenna axis.
Has a gain of about 2.15 dBi
Heng Chan; Mohawk

113

Free-Space Radiation Pattern of Dipole

Heng Chan; Mohawk

114

Ground & Length Effects On Dipole

Since the ground reflects radio waves, it has a

significant effect on the radiation pattern and
impedance of the half-wave dipole.
Generally speaking, the closer the dipole is to the
ground, the more lobes will form and the lower the
radiation impedance.
Length also has an effect on the dipole antenna:
dipoles shorter than /2 is capacitive while dipoles
longer than /2 is inductive.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

115

Marconi/Monopole Antenna
Main characteristics:
vertical and /4
good ground plane is
required
omnidirectional in the
horizontal plane
3 dBd power gain
impedance: about 36
Heng Chan; Mohawk

116

Antenna Impedance Matching

Antennas should be matched to their feedline for

maximum power transfer efficiency by using an
LC matching network.
A simple but effective technique for matching a
short vertical antenna to a feedline is to increase its
electrical length by adding an inductance at its
base. This inductance, called a loading coil,
cancels the capacitive effect of the antenna.
Another method is to use capacitive loading.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

117

Antenna Loading

Capacitive Loading
Inductive Loading
Heng Chan; Mohawk

118

Antenna Arrays

Antenna elements can be combined in an array to

increase gain and get desired radiation pattern.
Arrays can be classified as broadside or end-fire,
according to their direction of maximum radiation.
In a phased array, all elements are fed or driven; i.e.
they are connected to the feedline.
Some arrays have only one driven element with
several parasitic elements which act to absorb and
reradiate power radiated from the driven element.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

119

Yagi-Uda Array

More commonly known as the Yagi array, it has

one driven element, one reflector, and one or more
directors.

Radiation
pattern

Heng Chan; Mohawk

120

Characteristics of Yagi Array

unidirectional radiation pattern (one main lobe, some

sidelobes and backlobes)
relatively narrow bandwidth since it is resonant
3-element array has a gain of about 7 dBi
more directors will increase gain and reduce the
beamwidth and feedpoint impedance
a folded dipole is generally used for the driven
element to widen the bandwidth and increase the
feedpoint impedance.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

121

Folded Dipole

Often used - alone or with other elements - for TV

and FM broadcast receiving antennas because it
has a wider bandwidth and four times the
feedpoint resistance of a single dipole.

Zin = 288
Feed line
Heng Chan; Mohawk

122

Log-Periodic Dipole Array (LPDA)

D6
D5

Apex
Feed
line

L2

L3

L4

L5

L6

Direction of main lobe

Heng Chan; Mohawk

123

Characteristics of LPDA

feedpoint impedance is a periodic function of log f

unidirectional radiation and wide bandwidth
shortest element is less than or equal to /2 of highest
frequency, while longest element is at least /2 of
lowest frequency
reasonable gain, but lower than that of Yagi for the
same number of elements
design parameter, = L1/L2 = D1/D2 = L2/L3 = .
used mainly as HF, VHF, and TV antennas
Heng Chan; Mohawk

124

Turnstile Array

omnidirectional
radiation in the
horizontal plane, with
horizontal polarization
gain of about 3 dB less
than that of a single
dipole
often used for FM
broadcast RX and TX

Half-wave dipoles
fed 90o out-of phase

Heng Chan; Mohawk

125

Collinear Array

all elements lie along a

straight line, fed in
phase, and often
mounted with main axis
vertical
result in narrow
radiation beam
omnidirectional in the
horizontal plane when
antenna is vertical

Feed
Line

Half-wave
Elements

Quarter-wave
Shorted Stub

Heng Chan; Mohawk

126

Broadside Array

all /2 elements are fed in phase and spaced /2

with axis placed vertically, radiation would have a
narrow bidirectional horizontal pattern
Half-wave
Dipoles

Feed
Line

Heng Chan; Mohawk

127

End-Fire Array

dipole elements are fed 90o out of phase resulting

in a narrow unidirectional radiation pattern off the
end of the antenna

Feed
Line

Half-wave
RadiationPattern
Dipoles
Heng Chan; Mohawk
128

Non-resonant Antennas

Monopole and dipole antennas are classified as

resonant type since they operate efficiently only at
frequencies that make their elements close to /2.
Non-resonant antennas do not use dipoles and are
usually terminated with a matching load resistor.
They have a broader bandwidth and a radiation
pattern that has only one or two main lobes.
Examples of non-resonant antennas are long-wire
antennas, vee antennas, and rhombic antennas.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

129

Loop Antenna
Main characteristics:
very small dimensions
bidirectional
greatest sensitivity in
the plane of the loop
very wide bandwidth
efficient as RX antenna
with single or multi-turn
loop
Heng Chan; Mohawk

Feedline

130

Helical Antenna
D

broadband (+ 20% of fo)

circularly polarized
S
o
A = 15 dB;
=
20
are typical
p
-3dB
Ground
when S, D, & # of turns increase:
Plane
Ap increases and decreases
to get higher gain and narrower
Coaxial
Feedline beamwidth, use an array
applications: V/UHF antenna;
End-fire Helical
satellite tracking antenna
Antenna

Heng Chan; Mohawk

131

UHF & Microwave Antennas

highly directive and beamwidth of about 1o or less

antenna dimensions >> wavelength of signal
front-to-back ratio of 20 dB or more
utilize parabolic reflector as secondary antenna for
high gain
primary feed is either a dipole or horn antenna
use for point-to-point and satellite
communications
Heng Chan; Mohawk

132

Parabolic Reflector Antenna

Power gain and -3 dB
beamwidth are:

D
70
Ap 2 ;

D
2

where = antenna efficiency

(0.55 is typical);
D = dish diameter (m); and
= wavelength (m)
Heng Chan; Mohawk

133

Hog-horn Antenna
The hog-horn antenna,
often used for terrestrial
microwave links,
integrates the feed horn
and a parabolic
reflecting surface to
provide an obstructionfree path for incoming
and outgoing signals.

Parabolic
Section

Heng Chan; Mohawk

Feed
Horn

134

Microwave Radio Communications

Can be classified as either terrestrial or satellite

systems.
Early systems use FDM (frequency division
multiplex) technique.
More recent systems use PCM/PSK (pulse code
modulation/phase shift keying) technique.
Microwave system capacities range from less than 12
VB (voice-band) channels to > 22,000.
Operate from 24 km to 6,400 km.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

135

Simplified Block Diagram

FM
Modulator

Mixer

BPF

Ch. Combiner

Upconverter

BPF

Ch. Separator

Preemphasized
Baseband
Input

Amp
RF Oscillator

IF Oscillator

RF
Out

FM Microwave Transmitter
Deemphasized
Baseband
Output

Downconverter
FM
Detector

Mixer
Amp
RF Oscillator

FM Microwave Receiver
Heng Chan; Mohawk

RF
In

136

Notes On FM Microwave Radio System

Baseband signals may comprise one or more of :

Frequency-division-multiplexed voice-band channels

Time-division-multiplexed VB channels
Broadcast-quality composite video or picturephone
Wideband data

IF carrier is typically 70 MHz

Low-index frequency modulation is used
Common microwave frequencies used: 2-, 4-, 6-,
12-, and 14-GHz bands.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

137

Microwave Radio Systems (contd)

The distance between transmitter and receiver is

typically between 24 to 64 km.
Repeaters have to be used for longer distances.
To increase the reliability of microwave links, the
following techniques can be used:

frequency diversity - two RF carrier frequencies

space diversity - two or more antennas are used
polarization diversity - vertical and horizontal
polarization
Heng Chan; Mohawk

138

System Gain
System gain for microwave radio link is:
Gs (dB) = Pt - Cmin= Fm + Lp + Lf + Lb - At - Ar

where Pt = transmitter output power (dBm)

Cmin = min. receiver input power (dBm)
Fm=fade margin for a given reliability objective (dB)
Lp = free-space path loss between antennas (dB)
Lf, Lb = feeder, coupling, & branching losses (dB)
At, Ar = Tx and Rx antenna gain respectively (dB)
Heng Chan; Mohawk

139

Introduction To Pulsed Radar

Pulse of energy

Pulse Repetition Time

PRT

Pulse repetition frequency, PRF = 1/PRT

Duty cycle, D = /PRT
Range to target, R = ct/2, where c = speed of light,
and t = time between TX pulse and echo return.
Dead zone, Rdead, and resolution, R, are both = c/2.
Resolution can be improved by pulse compression.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

140

Radar Power & Range Equation

Average power, Pa = Pp(PRF) = Pp/PRT = PpD
where Pp = peak power.
2 2
Pa G
Ideal radar range equation: PR

(4 ) R
3

where PR = signal power returned (W)

G = antenna gain
= wavelength of signal (m)
= radar cross section of target (m2)
In the real world, losses and noise must be added
to above equation.
Heng Chan; Mohawk

141

Pulsed Radar Block Diagram

Receiver Section
Video Video
IF Mixer RF
Amp Detector Amp
LO Amp
Signal
Processor

Control Section

Display

Modulator
Timer

Antenna

T/R
Switch
Transmitter

Heng Chan; Mohawk

142

Radar Display Modes

N

Targets

Beam
Sweep

Target

Range

E-Scan

Elevation

Plan Position
Indicator
Heng Chan; Mohawk

143

CW Doppler Radar
The Doppler effect Microwave
TX
can be used for
Oscillator
RX
determining the
Circulator
speed of a moving target.
Doppler
v = fd/2 (m/s)
Mixer
where fd = doppler shift (Hz)
fd
= radar wavelength (m)
Basic block diagram
of CW Doppler radar
Heng Chan; Mohawk

144

FM Doppler Radar
Both distance and velocity can be determined if
an FM Doppler radar is used.
Range: R

fi
fd-

fo

c( f d f d )
4a

where a = slope of line

or rate of change of fi

TX
RX

fd+

c( f d f d )
Velocity: v
4 fo
t

Heng Chan; Mohawk

145

Optical Fibre Communications

Advantages over metallic/coaxial cable:

much wider bandwidth and practically interference-free

lower loss and light weight
more resistive to environmental effects
safer and easier to install
almost impossible to tap into a fibre cable
potentially lower in cost over the long term

Disadvantages:
higher initial cost in installation & more expensive to
repair/maintain

Heng Chan; Mohawk

146

Optical Fibre Link

Input
Signal

Transmitter
Coder or
Light
Converter
Source

Source-to-fibre
Interface

Fibre-optic Cable

Fibre-to-light
Interface

Light
Detector

Amplifier/Shaper
Decoder

Output

Receiver
Heng Chan; Mohawk

147

Types Of Optical Fibre

Light
ray
Single-mode step-index fibre

Multimode step-index fibre

n1 core
n2 cladding
no air
n1 core
n2 cladding
no air
Variable
n

Multimode graded-index fibre

Index porfile
Heng Chan; Mohawk

148

Comparison Of Optical Fibres

Single-mode step-index fibre:

minimum signal dispersion; higher TX rate possible
difficult to couple light into fibre; highly directive light
source (e.g. laser) required; expensive to manufacture

Multimode step-index fibres:

inexpensive; easy to couple light into fibre
result in higher signal distortion; lower TX rate

Multimode graded-index fibre:

intermediate between the other two types of fibres

Heng Chan; Mohawk

149

Acceptance Cone & Numerical Aperture

Acceptance
Cone

n2 cladding
n1 core
n2 cladding

Acceptance angle, c, is the maximum angle in which

external light rays may strike the air/fibre interface
and still propagate down the fibre with <10 dB loss.

C sin

n1 n2

Numerical aperture:
NA = sin c = (n12 - n22)

Heng Chan; Mohawk

150

Losses In Optical Fibre Cables

The predominant losses in optic fibres are:

absorption losses due to impurities in the fibre material
material or Rayleigh scattering losses due to microscopic
irregularities in the fibre
chromatic or wavelength dispersion because of the use of a
non-monochromatic source
radiation losses caused by bends and kinks in the fibre
modal dispersion or pulse spreading due to rays taking different
paths down the fibre
coupling losses caused by misalignment & imperfect surface
finishes

Heng Chan; Mohawk

151

Absorption Losses In Optic Fibre

Loss (dB/km)

6
5

Rayleigh scattering
& ultraviolet
absorption

4
3
2

Peaks caused
by OH- ions

Infrared
absorption

1
0

0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Wavelength (m)
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Fibre Alignment Impairments

Axial displacement

Angular displacement

Gap displacement

Imperfect surface finish

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Light Sources

Light-Emitting Diodes (LED)

made from material such as AlGaAs or GaAsP
light is emitted when electrons and holes
recombine
either surface emitting or edge emitting
Injection Laser Diodes (ILD)
similar in construction as LED except ends are
highly polished to reflect photons back & forth
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ILD versus LED

Advantages:

more focussed radiation pattern; smaller fibre

much higher radiant power; longer span
faster ON, OFF time; higher bit rates possible
monochromatic light; reduces dispersion

Disadvantages:
much more expensive
higher temperature; shorter lifespan
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Optical Transmitter Circuits

+VCC
C1

Data Input

Enable

Q1

R2

R1

+HV

LED
C1

Data Input
Enable

R1

Q1

R3
C2

R2
ILD

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Light Detectors

PIN Diodes
photons are absorbed in the intrinsic layer
sufficient energy is added to generate carriers in the
depletion layer for current to flow through the device

Avalanche Photodiodes (APD)

photogenerated electrons are accelerated by relatively
large reverse voltage and collide with other atoms to
produce more free electrons
avalanche multiplication effect makes APD more
sensitive but also more noisy than PIN diodes

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Photodetector Circuit
+V

PIN or
APD

R1

Comparator
shaper

Data
Out

+
Threshold adjust

Enable

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Bandwidth & Power Budget

The maximum data rate R (Mbps) for a cable of given distance

D (km) with a dispersion d (s/km) is:

R = 1/(5dD)

Power or loss margin, Lm (dB) is:

Lm = Pr - Ps = Pt - M - Lsf - (DxLf) - Lc - Lfd - Ps 0

where Pr = received power (dBm), Ps = receiver sensitivity(dBm),
Pt = Tx power (dBm), M = contingency loss allowance (dB),
Lsf = source-to-fibre loss (dB), Lf = fibre loss (dB/km), Lc =
total connector/splice losses (dB), L fd = fibre-to-detector loss
(dB).

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