Fundamental

Theory of Sets
👉 Set Notations
👉 Two Methods of Writing Sets
👉 Kinds of Sets
👉 Venn-Euler Diagram
👉 Operations on Sets
👉 Application of the Union and Intersection of Sets
👉 Computer Representation of Sets
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The term discrete objects refers to different kind
of things that we frequently see in our day to
day life such as cellphones, books, subjects,
What programs, numbers, computer, etc.
is By well-defined, it means that the membership
in the set should be clear.
Set? Distinct means that each object is different from
A set is any well- the other objects within the set, such that in
defined collection, cases of duplication, only one occurrence of the
group, list, aggregation, objects is listed in the set.
or class of distinct
objects.
 Examples of well-defined sets:

1. The set of bachelor degrees offered in the

Elements or state universities
members 2. The set of letters of the Filipino alphabet
3. The set of odd numbers less than 50
are the 4. The set of numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11
objects in the 5. The students Tom, Manny and John
sets 6. The even integers 2, 4, 6, …
7. A collection of coins in the Philippines
Examples of not well-defined sets:

1. The set of courses offered.

2. The set of numbers
3. The set of collections of coins
4. The set of students
5. The set of objects
 6

Tell 1. A group of Filipino singers with ages

whether between 18 and 30 years old.
or not the 2. A collection of white flowers
following 3. A set of past President of the Republic
of the Philippines
sets are
4. A group of Senators
well- 5. A set of prime numbers less than 10
defined
 7
A set is usually named by the uppercase letters
A, B, C, …, X, Y, Z, while the elements are
usually denoted by lowercase letters a, b, …, x, y,
z and are enclosed in braces { }.
The notation “a Є A” is read as “ a is an element
Set of set A” or “ a is a member of A” or “ a is in A” or
“ a belongs to A”.
Notations
Є “Є”
(Greek letter Epsilon)
is used to symbolized an object
 By Enumeration or Roster Method 8

In this method, the elements of a set are listed or enumerated

(in any order without repetition) and enclosed in curly braces “{
}”
Ex. A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { a, e, i, o, u }
Two Methods of
C = { 1, 2, 3, … }
Writing Sets
By Defining or Rule Method
The rule method is used to define the elements of the set. The
set builder notation { x | P(x) } is used to represent any given
set. It is read “the set of all x such that”.
Ex. A = { x | x is natural number < 4} or A = { x | x Є N , x < 4}
B = { x | x is counting number } or B={x|xЄN}
 9

Example:
1. A is the set of integers
2. B is the set of whole numbers less than 1
3. C is the set of positive integers less than 1
4. D is the set of all even natural numbers between 20 and
40
5. E is the set of positive prime integers between 1 and 10
6. F is the set of consonants in the word “ structures”
 10

Write the following sets in set builder form.

1. {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
2. {0, 2, 4, 6}
3. {0, 2, 4, 6, …}
4. {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30}
5. {a, e, i, o, u}
 11

List the elements of the following sets.

1. {x| x precedes k in alphabet}
2. {x| x is the square of an integer and x < 20}
3. {x| x = 5}
4. {x| x2 – 5x + 4 = 0}
5. {x| x < 5, x Є N}
6. {x| x <1, x Є N}
7. {x| x Є W, -5 < x < 5}
8. {x| x Є Z, x is even number}
Write the following sets in Set builder
Seatwork 12

form:
List the elements of the following sets:
1.R = {Set of real numbers}
8. A = {x| x Є N, 1< x <1}
2.Q = {Set of rational numbers}
3.{M is the set of integers lying 9. B = {x| x Є Z, x is even and x >-10
between -1 and 10} 10. C = {x| x Є Z, x is composite,
4.A = {-5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1} 25<x<1}
5.{B is the set of prime numbers, x
is even} 11. D = {x| x Є W, x < 1}
6.{0} 12. E = {x| x Є Z, -8 ≤ x < 8}
7.{X is the set of colors: Red,
 Kinds of Sets
1. Finite Set
A set with k distinct elements, where k Є N. The given elements
are limited or countable and its last element can be identified
2. Infinite Set
A set whose elements are unlimited or countable.
Note: the infinity of the set is denoted by three dots { …} found
at the end of the listings.
 14

Tell whether the following sets are finite, infinite or

empty set
1. A is a set of numbers which are also a multiple of 3
2. B = {x| x is a triangle}
3. C is a set of fractions
4. D = {0, 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . , 1001}
5. E is the set of prime numbers
6. F = {x| xЄN, 0<x<1}
7. Set of animals with eight legs
8. Set of squares with 7 sides
9. Set of integers which are both even and odd
3. Unit Set
A set with only one element

4. Empty Set or Null Set or Void Set

A set containing no objects or elements. The symbols “{ }” and
“ø” are used to denote an empty set.

5. Universal Set
Set of all possible elements under consideration.
6. Equal Sets
A = B, if and only if A is a subset of B and B is a subset of A. the
symbol “≠”is used to denote if two sets are not equal.
7. Equivalent Sets
Two sets A and B are equivalent if they have exactly the same
number of elements. The symbol for set equivalence is “≈”.
 17

Which pairs of sets are equal or not equal?

1. {1, 2, 3} and {2, 1, 3, 2}
2. {k, l, c} and {x, c, 2}
3. A = {x| x is even} and B = {x| x is positive even number}
4. A = {x| x – 2 = 5} and {8}
8. Disjoint Sets
Two sets A and B are disjoint if they have no elements in
9. Complementary
common Sets
Two sets are complementary sets if they are disjoint and if
when combined collectively they form the universal set. The
notation for the complement of A is Ac.
 19

“CONSIDERATION”
1. P = {n, e, r, c} and M = {e, c, i, t, u, a}
2. M = {a, e, i, u} and C = {n, c, r, t, i, o}
3. C = {c, o, n, s, i, d, e, r} and S = {r, a, t, i, o, n}
4. R = { } and J = {c, o, n, s, i, d, e, r, a, t}
5. W = {t, e, i, d} and Y = {c, o, n, s, r, a}
 20
10. Subsets Sets
A is a subset of B denoted by A ⊆ B, if every
element of A is contained in B.
Super Sets
If A is a subset of B, then we can say that B is a
superset of A, and write B ⊇ A.
Proper Subset
A is a proper subset of B, denoted by “A ⊂ B” if A ⊆ B
and A ≠ B.

NOTE: Every set is a subset of itself. The empty set is a

subset of every set. The symbol “ ⊆ “ is called an inclusion
 21

Tell whether the first set is a subset of the

second set or not a subset

Given: C ⊆ A
A = {1, 3, 5, 8, 9} C ⊂ B
B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7} B ⊆ A
C = {1, 5} D ⊆ E
D = {2, 4, 6} E ⊆ D
E ⊆ E
E = {6, 2, 4}
ø ⊆ E
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11. Power Sets

The set of all subsets (proper or not) of a set A is called
the power set of A. The notation for the power set of A is
P(A).

The number of elements in the power set of the given

set can be verified by the formula |P(A)| = 2n.
NOTE: “|A|” means cardinality or the number of elements in
A.
 23

Find the cardinality in the power set of each of the

following:

1. Y = {letter in the word “STRUCTURES”}

2. W = {days in February in a leaf year}

3. M = {months of the year that start with vowels}

4. D = {positive divisors of 12}

 24

Power Sets
If we let A = {a, b, c}
then, |A| = 3
|P(A)| = 23 = 8

P(A) = [ ø, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}]
A
 25

Determine whether each of the following statements is true or

false.
Let A = [{0}, {1, 2}, {3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8}], B = [ø, {a}, {b, c}, {c, d}].
1. 0 Є A 8. a Є B
2. {1} ⊆ A 9. {a} ⊆ B
3. {3}, {4,5} ⊆A 10. {a} Є B
4. {8, 7} Є A 11. {c, d} ⊆ B
5. {4, 5, 6, 7} Є A 12. [{b, c}] ⊆ B
6. [{1, 2}] ⊆ A 13. Ø ⊆ B
7. Ø ⊆ A 14. {Ø} ⊆ B
 26

True or False. Write True if the statement is true and False

otherwise.
1. Ø ⊆ Ø 6. Ø Є Ø
2. {1, 2} Є {1, 2, 3, 4} 7. {1} ⊆ [{1}, 2]
3. Ø ⊆ { } 8. A Є A
4. {3, 7, 12, 14} = {3, 7, 12, 14, Ø} 9. {a} Є { a, b }
5. Ø ≈ { } 10. a ⊆ [{ a, b }, {c}]
 27

12. Product Sets

The product set of two sets A and B is defined as the set
of all ordered pairs (a, b) for which the first element a is
from set A and the second element b is from set B.

|AxB|=|A|.|B|
 28

Given: A = {x, y, z}, B = { 0, 1, 2, 3}, C = {a, b}.

List the elements of the following sets and determine how many
elements each set has.

1. A x B

2. B x C

3. C x C
 29

Venn – Euler Diagram

A pictographic interpretation of sets

 Venn – Euler Diagram 30

U
A B

U B U U
A A B A B

Figure 1: A ⊆ B Figure 2: Disjoint set Figure 3: Joint set

Example 31

Given:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {2, 3}
C = {1, 3, 5, 7}
U A
1 2 3 4
2 1
3
3 1
B 2 C
3 5 3
7
6 8
 32

Operations on Set:
1. U
Union
AUB
U

A BB
Example 33

Given:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {2, 3}
C = {1, 3, 5, 7}
U A
4
2 1
3
B C
5
7
6 8
 34

Operations on Set:
2. 
Intersection
AB
U

A B
Example 35

Given:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {2, 3}
C = {1, 3, 5, 7}
U A
4
2 1
3
B C
5
7
6 8
 36

Operations on Set:
3. Complement C

AC
U

A
Example 37

Given:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {2, 3}
C = {1, 3, 5, 7}
U A
4
2 1
3
B C
5
7
6 8
 38

Operations on Set:
4. Difference -
A-B
U

A B
Example 39

Given:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {2, 3}
C = {1, 3, 5, 7}
U A
4
2 1
3
B C
5
7
6 8
 40

Operations on Set:
5. Symmetric 
Difference
AB
U

A B
Example 41

Given:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {2, 3}
C = {1, 3, 5, 7}
U A
4
2 1
3
B C
5
7
6 8
 Example 42

U U U A
A B A B
B C

U-B BC - A (AC U B) - C

U A U A U A U A

B C B C B C B C

(A U B)  (A U (A  B)  C) CC – (A  B) B U (A 
C) C)
 Example 43

U U
A B A B

U A U A U A

B C B C B C
 44
Application
Addition Principle
For two sets:
|A U B| = |A| + |B| - |A  B|
|A U B| = |A| + |B|

Ex.

1. If A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, find |A U B|?

2. If |A| = 18, |B| = 16, |A  B| = 2, find |A U B|?

 45
Solve the following using the Venn
diagram
1. Among 90 faculty members in a state college, 35 own a
car, 40 own a house and 10 own both car and a house.
Find the number of faculty members who:
a. do not have a car.
b. have a car only
c. have neither a car nor a house
U

25
35 10 30
40
car house
25
 46

2. In the college, 125 male students are enrolled in the basketball class,
135 in the chess class and 100 in the volleyball class. Of these students, 3
are in both the basketball and chess classes, 6 are in both the chess and
volleyball classes, and 4 are in both the basketball and volleyball classes.
Two of these students are enrolled in all three classes. What is the total
number of enrolment in all classes?
U B
Solution: 120
= 120 + 2 + 2 + 1 + 92 + 4 + 128 2 1
= 349 V
2
92 4 128 C
 47
U B
120

2 1
2
V
92 4 128 C

1. How many male students are enrolled in exactly one of these classes?
2. How many male students are enrolled at least two of these classes?
3. How many male students are enrolled in exactly two of these classes?
4. How many male students are enrolled none of these classes?
 48
Computer Representation of Sets

Suppose that the universal set U = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}

Express each set below with bit strings where the bit in the strings is 1 and
if otherwise
1. {0, 2, 4, 6}
2. {0, 3, 6, 9}
3. {7, 8, 9}
Find the set specified by each of these bit strings
1. 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
2. 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
3. 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
 49

Rules:
0U0=0
Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} 11=1
A=111100101 1–0=1
B=010101011 11=0
Find: 00=0
1. A U B
2. A  B
3. AC
4. BC
5. A – B
6. A  B