KIE2008 (Week 2)

Amplitude Modulation
(AM)
i. Amplitude Modulation
ii. Implementation of Amplitude Modulators
iii. Signal Multiplexing

Adapted from,
Proakis and Salehi (2014), Fundamental of
Communication Systems, 2nd Ed. Pearson.
Introduction To Modulation
 Introduction To Modulation
• The analog signal to be transmitted is denoted by m(t), assumed to be a lowpass signal of
bandwidth W, M(f) = 0, for |f| > W
1 T /2
• The power content of this signal is denoted by Pm  lim T / 2 m(t ) dt
2

T  T

• The message signal m(t) is transmitted through the communication channel by impressing it on a
carrier signal of the form
c (t )  Ac cos( 2f c t  c )

• Ac : Carrier amplitude, fc : Carrier frequency

• c : Carrier phase, depends on the choice of the time origin (assume that the time origin is
chosen such that c = 0)
• Message signal m(t) modulates the carrier signal c(t) in either amplitude, frequency, or phase if
after modulation, the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the signal become functions of the
message signal
• Modulation converts the message signal m(t) from lowpass to bandpass, in the neighborhood of
the carrier frequency fc.
AM and FM Radio Frequencies

The Amplitude Modulated (AM radio)

carrier frequencies are in the frequency
range 535-1605 kHz. Carrier frequencies of
540 to 1600 kHz are assigned at 10 kHz
intervals.
 i. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• In amplitude modulation, the message signal m(t) is impressed on the amplitude
of the carrier signal, c(t)
• This results in a sinusoidal signal whose amplitude is a function of the message
signal m(t)
• There are several different ways of amplitude modulating the carrier signal by
m(t)
(a)Double sideband, suppressed-carrier AM (DSB-SC AM)
(b)Conventional double-sideband AM (DSB AM)
(c) Single-sideband AM (SSB AM)
(d)Vestigial-sideband AM (VSB AM)
 (a) Double-Sideband Suppressed-Carrier AM
• A double-sideband, suppressed-carrier (DSB-SC) AM signal is obtained by multiplying the
message signal m(t) with the carrier signal c(t) = Accos(2fct)
• Amplitude-modulated signal
u (t )  m(t )c(t )  Ac m(t ) cos( 2 f c t )
• Figure 2.1:
• relatively slowly varying message signal m(t) is
changed into a rapidly varying modulated signal
u(t), and due to its rapid changes with time, it
contains higher frequency components
• the modulated signal retains the main
characteristics of the message signal, it can be
used to retrieve the message signal at the receiver
Figure 2.1 An example of message, carrier,
and DSB-SC modulated signals
Spectrum of the DSB-SC AM Signal
• Spectrum of the modulated signal can be obtained by
taking the FT of u(t)

Ac
U( f )  [ M ( f  f c )  M ( f  f c )]
2

• Figure 2.2:
• The magnitude of the spectrum of the message
signal m(t) has been shifted in frequency by an
amount fc
• The bandwidth occupancy, of the amplitude-
modulated signal is 2W, whereas the bandwidth
of the message signal m(t) is W
• The channel bandwidth required to transmit the
Figure 2.2 Magnitude and phase spectra of
modulated signal u(t) is Bc = 2W the message signal m(t) and the DSB-AM
modulated signal u(t)
Recall:
Determine the Fourier Transform of the signal  𝑥 ( 𝑡 ) ∙ cos ⁡(2 𝜋 𝑓 0𝑡 )

1 𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 1 𝑗2 𝜋𝑓 𝑡
 

[
ℱ [ 𝑥 (𝑡 ) cos⁡(𝜋𝑓 0𝑡)]=ℱ 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑒 + 𝑥 (𝑡 )𝑒
2 2
0 0

]
 1 1
¿ 𝑋 ( 𝑓 − 𝑓 0 )+ 𝑋 (𝑓 + 𝑓 0 )
2 2
• The frequency content of the modulated signal u(t) in the frequency band | f | > fc is
called the upper sideband of U(f) , | f | < fc is called the lower sideband of U(f)
• The frequency content of U(f) for f > fc corresponds to the frequency content of M(f) for f
> 0, the frequency content of U(f) for f < - fc corresponds to the frequency content of M(f)
for f < 0
• Hence, the upper sideband of U(f) contains all the frequencies in M(f) . Also, lower
sideband of U(f) contains all the frequencies in M(f) .
• The other characteristic of the modulated signal u(t), it does not contain a carrier
component
• That is, all the transmitted power is contained in the modulating (message) signal m(t)
• For this reason, u(t) is called a suppressed-carrier signal
Example 3.2.1 (Textbook)
Power Content of DSB-SC Signals
•• The
  power content of the DSB-SC signal
1 T /2 1 T /2
T / 2 u 2 (t ) dt  lim T / 2 Ac m
2 2
Pu  lim (t ) cos2 ( 2f c t ) dt
T  T T  T

Ac2 1 Ac2
T / 2 m (t )1  cos(4f c t ) dt  2 Pm
T /2 2
 lim
2 T  T

• Pm : power in the message signal m(t) Figure 2.3 Plot of m2(t)cos(4fct).

• Figure 2.3: m2(t) is a slowly varying signal, multiplied by
cos(4fct), which is a high frequency sinusoid, the result is a
high-frequency sinusoid with a slowly varying envelope
• Since the envelope is slowly varying, the positive and the
negative halves of each cycle have almost the same
amplitude. Hence, when they are integrated, they cancel
each other
• Thus, the overall integral of m2(t)cos(4fct) is almost zero
Figure 2.4 This figure shows why the
(Figure 2.4) second term in Equation is zero.
12
Example 3.2.3 (Textbook)
In Example 3.2.1, determine the power in the modulated signal and the
power in each of the sidebands
Demodulation of DSB-SC AM Signals
• Suppose that the DSB-SC AM signal u(t) is transmitted through an ideal channel (with no
channel distortion and no noise)
• The received signal is equal to the modulated signal,
r (t )  u (t )  m(t )c(t )  Ac m(t ) cos( 2 f c t )
• Demodulate the received signal by
• Multiplying r(t) by a locally generated sinusoid cos(2fct + ), where  is the phase of
the sinusoid
r (t ) cos( 2 f c t   )  Ac m(t ) cos( 2 f c t ) cos( 2 f c t   )
1 1
 Ac m(t ) cos( )  Ac m(t ) cos( 4 f c t   )
2 2

• Pass the product signal through an ideal lowpass filter with the bandwidth W
14
• Since the frequency content of the message signal m(t) is
limited to W Hz, where W << fc, the lowpass filter can be
designed to eliminate the signal components centered at
frequency ±2 fc and to pass the signal components centered
at frequency f = 0 without experiencing distortion
• The output of the ideal lowpass filter
Figure 2.5 Frequency-domain representation of
1 the DSB-SC AM demodulation.
yl (t )  Ac m(t ) cos( )
2
 Note that m(t) is multiplied by cos()
• The power in the demodulated signal is decreased by a factor of cos2.
• The desired signal is scaled in amplitude by a factor that depends on the phase  of the locally
generated sinusoid.
1. When   0, the amplitude of the desired signal is reduced by the factor cos().
2. If  = 45, the amplitude of the desired signal is reduced by and the power is reduced by a
factor of 2.
3. If  = 90, the desired signal component vanishes
15
• Phase  of the locally generated sinusoid should ideally be
equal to 0 (the phase of the received-carrier signal).
Therefore, need a phase-coherent or synchronous
demodulator for recovering the message signal m(t) from the
received signal.
• One method is to add a carrier component into the
transmitted signal: "a pilot tone" Figure 2.6 Addition of a pilot tone to a
• Its amplitude Ap and its power Ap2 / 2 are selected to be DSB-AM signal.
significantly smaller than those of the modulated signal
u(t).
• Thus, the transmitted signal is a double-sideband, but it is
no longer a suppressed carrier signal
• At the receiver, a narrowband filter tuned to frequency
fc, filters out the pilot signal component
• Adding a pilot tone has disadvantage, certain portion of the
transmitted signal power must be allocated to the Figure 2.7 Use of a pilot tone to
demodulate a DSB-AM signal.
transmission of the pilot
 (b) Conventional double-sideband AM
• A conventional AM signal consists of a large carrier component, in addition
to the double-sideband AM modulated signal
• The transmitted signal is expressed as
u (t )  Ac [1  m(t )] cos( 2 f c t ) Acm(t) cos(2fct) : double-sideband AM signal
Accos(2fct) : carrier component

• As long as |m(t)|  1, the amplitude Ac[1 + m(t)] is always positive

• If m(t) < -1 for some t , the AM signal is overmodulated and its
demodulation is more complex
• In practice, m(t) is scaled so that its magnitude is always less than unity
m(t )
m(t )  amn (t ) mn (t )  a: modulation index, 0 < a < 1
max m(t ) Figure 2.8 A conventional AM
signal in the time domain
• Since |mn(t)| 1 and 0 < a < 1, we have 1 + amn(t) > 0 and the modulated
signal can be expressed as
u (t )  Ac [1  amn (t )] cos( 2 f c t )
17
 Spectrum of the Conventional AM Signal

• If m(t) is a message signal with Fourier transform

(spectrum) M(f), the spectrum of the amplitude-
modulated signal u(t) is
U ( f )   Ac amn (t ) cos( 2 f c t )
  Ac cos( 2 f c t )
Ac a
  M n ( f  f c )  M n ( f  f c )
2
A
 c  ( f  f c )   ( f  f c )
2

• Obviously, the spectrum of a conventional AM

signal occupies a bandwidth twice the bandwidth Figure 2.9 Conventional AM in both the time and
frequency domain.
of the message signal
19
Example 3.2.4 (Textbook)
 Power for the Conventional AM Signal

• A conventional AM signal is similar to a DSB when m(t) is substituted with 1 + amn(t)

Ac2
• DSB-SC : The power in the modulated signal Pu  2 Pm
• Conventional AM :
1 T /2 1 T /2
Pm  lim
T  T
T / 2 [1  amn (t )]2 dt  lim
T  T
T / 2 [1  a 2 mn2 (t )]dt

Ac2 Ac2 2
Pm  1  a Pmn
2
Pu   a Pmn
2 2
• second component is usually much smaller than the first component (a < 1, |mn(t)|<
1, and for signals with a large dynamic range, Pmn << 1)
• This shows that the conventional AM systems are far less power efficient than the
DSB-SC systems
21
Example 3.2.5 (Textbook)
Demodulation of Conventional DSB-AM
Signals
• Advantage of conventional AM signal
transmission is easily demodulated
• Since the message signal m(t) satisfies the
condition |m(t)| < 1, the envelope (amplitude)
1+m(t) > 0
• If we rectify the received signal, we eliminate
the negative values without affecting the Figure 2.10 An envelope detector.
message signal
• The rectified signal is equal to u(t) when u(t) > 0, and it is equal to zero when u(t) < 0
• The message signal is recovered by passing the rectified signal through a lowpass filter
whose bandwidth matches that of the message signal
• The combination of the rectifier and the lowpass filter is called an envelope detector
• Envelope detector consists of a diode and an RC circuit

23
Envelope Detector
• During the positive half-cycle of the input signal,
the diode conducts and the capacitor charges up
to the peak value of the input signal
• When the input falls below the voltage on the
capacitor, the diode becomes reverse-biased and Figure 2.11 Envelope detection of a conventional
the input disconnects from the output AM signal.
• During this period, the capacitor discharges
slowly through the load resistor R
• On the next cycle of the carrier, the diode again conducts when the input signal exceeds the
voltage across the capacitor
• The capacitor again charges up to the peak value of the input signal and the process is
repeated

24
 Message signal Envelope detector
• RC is too large: the discharge of the capacitor is too slow and output
again the output will not follow the envelope of the modulated
signal
• RC is too small: the output of the filter falls very rapidly after
each peak and will not follow the envelope of the modulated
signal closely
1 1
• For good performance of the envelope detector, f  RC 
W
c
Envelope detector
output
capacitor discharges slowly through the resistor, the output of
~ (t )
the envelope detector m , closely follows the message signal
• The simplicity of the demodulator has made conventional DSB-
AM a practical choice for AM-radio broadcasting
• It is cost-effective to construct powerful transmitters and
sacrifice power efficiency in order to simplify the signal
demodulation at the receivers Figure 2.12 Effect of (a) large and (b) small RC
values on the performance of the envelope detector.
25
 (c) Single-Sideband AM
• A DSB-SC AM signal required a channel bandwidth of Bc = 2W Hz for transmission, where W
is the bandwidth of the message signal. However, two sidebands are redundant
• The transmission of either sideband is sufficient to reconstruct the message signal m(t) at
the receiver. Thus, we reduce the bandwidth of the transmitted signal to that of the
baseband message signal m(t)
• Single-sideband (SSB) AM signal is represented as
u (t )  Ac m(t ) cos( 2 f c t )  Ac m
ˆ (t ) sin( 2 f c t )

• mˆ (t ) : the Hilbert transform of m(t)

• Plus sign: lower sideband

• Minus sign: upper sideband

Figure 2.13 Generation of a lower single-sideband AM

26 signal.
• Another method, generates a DSB-SC AM signal and then employs a filter that selects either
the upper sideband or the lower sideband of the double-sideband AM signal

Figure 2.14 Generation of a single-sideband AM signal by filtering one

of the sidebands of a DSB-SC AM signal.

27
Example 3.2.6 (Textbook)
Demodulation of SSB-AM Signals
• To recover the message signal m(t) in the received SSB-AM signal, require a phase-coherent or
synchronous demodulator, similar to DSB-SC AM signals
• For the USSB signal r (t ) cos( 2 f c t   )  u (t ) cos( 2 f c t   )
 12 Ac m(t ) cos( )  12 Ac m ˆ (t ) sin( )  double frequency terms.

• By passing through an ideal lowpass filter, the double-frequency components are eliminated,

yl (t )  1
2 Ac m(t ) cos( )  1
2
ˆ (t ) sin( )
Ac m
• Note that the phase offset not only reduces the amplitude of the desired signal m(t) by cos, but
it also results in an undesirable sideband signal due to the presence of ˆ in yl(t)
m(t )
• The latter component was not present in the demodulation of a DSB-SC signal
• However, it is a factor that contributes to the distortion of the demodulated SSB signal

30
(d) Vestigial-Sideband AM

31
 (d) Vestigial-Sideband AM
• This type of modulation is appropriate for
signals that have a strong low-frequency
component, such as video signals
• To generate a VSB-AM signal, DSB-SC AM
signal is passing through a sideband filter Figure 2.15 Generation of VSB-
with the frequency response H( f ) AM signal.

• The VSB signal is expressed as

u (t )  [ Ac m(t ) cos 2f c t ]  h(t ) h(t): impulse response of the VSB filter

Ac
U( f )   M ( f  f c )  M ( f  f c ) H ( f )
2

32
Spectrum of Vestigial side band
The stringent frequency-response
requirements on the sideband filter in
an SSB-AM system can be relaxed by
allowing a vestige, which is a portion
of the unwanted sideband, to appear
at the output of the modulator

We can then simplify the design of the

sideband filter at the cost of a modest
increase in the channel bandwidth
required to transmit the signal
 Demodulation of VSB
• Multiply u(t) by the carrier component cos2fct and v (t )
pass the result through an ideal lowpass filter,
v (t )  u (t ) cos 2 f c t

1
V( f )  U ( f  f c )  U ( f  f c ) Figure 2.16 Demodulation
2
of VSB signal.
• Substitute U( f ) ,
Ac Ac
V( f )   M ( f  2 f c )  M ( f ) H ( f  f c )   M ( f )  M ( f  2 f c ) H ( f  f c )
4 4

• The lowpass filter rejects the double-frequency terms and passes only the components in the
frequency range | f |W
Ac
Vl ( f )  M ( f ) H ( f  f c )  H ( f  f c ) 
4
35
VSB filter characteristics
Frequency response of the VSB filter for selecting
the lower sideband of the message
 ii. Implementation of Amplitude Modulators
Power-Law Modulation
• Input-output characteristic (square-law):

vo (t )  a1vi (t )  a2 vi2 (t )
Figure 2.17 Power-law AM
vi(t): input signal, vo(t): output signal, (al, a2): constants modulator.

vi (t )  m(t )  Ac cos 2f c t

) the m(t )  Adevice isf c t ]  a2 [ m(t )  Ac cos 2f c t ]
2
• If the input
vo (t to a1[nonlinear c cos 2

 2a2 
 a1m(t )  a2 m 2 (t )  a2 Ac2 cos 2 2f c t  Ac a1 1  m(t )  cos 2f c t
 a1 

 2a2 
u (t )  Ac a1 1  m(t )  cos 2f c t where 2a2|m(t)|/al < 1 by design

• The output of the bandpass a
filter
1 with abandwidth 2W centered at f = fc yields 38
 Switching Modulator
• The sum of the message signal and the carrier, vi(t) are
applied to a diode

vi (t )  m(t )  Ac cos 2f c t

• Switching operation: multiplication of the input vi(t) with

the switching function s(t),
1 2  ( 1) n 1 Figure 2.18 Switching modulator
s (t )    cos 2f c t ( 2n  1)
2  n 1 2n  1
Ac 4
vo (t ) = [m(t ) + Ac cos(2 f c t )]s (t ) = 1+ m(t ) cos(2 f c t ) + other terms
2 Ac

• The desired AM-modulated signal is obtained by passing vo(t) through a bandpass filter with the center
frequency f = fc and the bandwidth 2W
Ac  4 
u (t )  1  m (t )  cos( 2 f c t )
2  Ac 
39
Balanced Modulator
• Generating a DSB-SC AM signal: use two conventional-AM modulators. For example,
use two square-law AM modulators
• Care must be taken to select modulators with approximately identical characteristics
so that the carrier component cancels out at the summing junction

Figure 2.19 Balanced modulator.

40
Ring Modulator
• Generating a DSB-SC AM signal
• The switching of the diodes is controlled by a
square wave of frequency fc, denoted as c(t),
which is applied to the center taps of the two
transformers
• When c(t) > 0, the top and bottom diodes
conduct, while the two diodes in the cross-
arms are off
• When c(t) < 0, the diodes in the cross-arms of Figure 2.20 Ring modulator for
generating a DSB-SC AM signal.
the ring conduct, while the other two diodes
are switched off
• Operation of the ring modulator: multiplier of m(t) by the square-wave carrier c(t),

vo (t )  m(t )c (t )

• The desired DSB-SC AM signal u(t) is obtained by passing vo(t) through a bandpass filter with the
center frequency fc, and the bandwidth 2W
41
 iii. Signal Multiplexing
• Combining separate message signals into a composite signal for transmission
over a common channel is called multiplexing
• There are two commonly used methods for signal multiplexing:
1. Time-division multiplexing
• Time-division multiplexing is usually used to transmit digital
information; this will be described in a subsequent lecture.
2. Frequency-division multiplexing
• Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) may be used with either analog
or digital signal transmission

42
 Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
In FDM, the message signals are separated in frequency
• Lowpass filters (transmitter)
ensure the bandwidth of the
message signals is limited to W
Hz
• Each signal modulates a
separate carrier, K modulators
are required
• Signals from K modulators are
summed and transmitted over
the channel
• For SSB and VSB modulation, the
modulator outputs are filtered
prior to summing the modulated
signals Figure 2.21 Frequency-division multiplexing of multiple signals.
43
• At the receiver, the signals are
separated by passing through a parallel
bank of bandpass filters
• each filter is tuned to one of the
carrier frequencies and has a
bandwidth that is wide enough to
pass the desired signal
• output of each bandpass filter is
demodulated, and each
demodulated signal is fed to a
lowpass filter that passes the
baseband message signal and
eliminates the double-frequency
components
• FDM is widely used in radio and telephone communications

44
 Quadrature-Carrier Multiplexing
This multiplexing transmits two
message signals on the same
carrier frequency
• m1(t) and m2(t) are two separate
message signals to be
transmitted over the channel
• uses two quadrature carriers,
Accos2fct and Acsin2fct
• The signal ml(t) amplitude
modulates the carrier Accos2fct
• The signal m2(t) amplitude
modulates the quadrature
carrier Acsin2fct
Figure 2.22 Quadrature-carrier multiplexing.
• Transmitted signal is
u (t )  Ac m1 (t ) cos( 2 f c t )  Ac m 2 (t ) sin( 2 f c t )
45
 What Should You Know!
• Understand the bandwidth requirement
• Understand the principle of amplitude modulation
• Know how to modulate a signal to a certain frequency
• Know how to demodulate a signal back to the baseband
• Can write the equation and draw block diagram for both modulation and
demodulation
• Can plot the signal spectrum after modulation and demodulation
• Know how to calculate power
• Understand the principle of frequency division multiplexing
• Can write the equation and draw block diagram for both modulation and
demodulation
Exercise 1

DSB-SC
Exercise 2

DSB-SC
Exercise 3
Exercise 4