PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

prepared by
Janice Meeking,
Mount Royal College

CHAPTER 6
Bones and
Skeletal
Tissues: Part B

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 Bone Development

• Osteogenesis (ossification)—bone tissue

formation
• Stages
• Bone formation—begins in the 2nd month of
development
• Postnatal bone growth—until early adulthood
• Bone remodeling and repair—lifelong

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 Two Types of Ossification

1. Intramembranous ossification
• Membrane bone develops from fibrous
membrane
• Forms flat bones, e.g. clavicles and cranial
bones
2. Endochondral ossification
• Cartilage (endochondral) bone forms by
replacing hyaline cartilage
• Forms most of the rest of the skeleton

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 Mesenchymal
cell
Collagen
fiber
Ossification
center
Osteoid
Osteoblast
1 Ossification centers appear in the fibrous
connective tissue membrane.
• Selected centrally located mesenchymal cells cluster
and differentiate into osteoblasts, forming an
ossification center.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.8, (1 of 4)
 Osteoblast

Osteoid

Osteocyte
Newly calcified
bone matrix

2 Bone matrix (osteoid) is secreted within the

fibrous membrane and calcifies.
• Osteoblasts begin to secrete osteoid, which is calcified
within a few days.
• Trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.8, (2 of 4)

 Mesenchyme
condensing
to form the
periosteum
Trabeculae of
woven bone

Blood vessel

3 Woven bone and periosteum form.

• Accumulating osteoid is laid down between embryonic
blood vessels in a random manner. The result is a network
(instead of lamellae) of trabeculae called woven bone.
• Vascularized mesenchyme condenses on the external face
of the woven bone and becomes the periosteum.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.8, (3 of 4)
 Fibrous
periosteum
Osteoblast

Plate of
compact bone
Diploë (spongy
bone) cavities
contain red
marrow
4 Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, just deep to
the periosteum. Red marrow appears.
• Trabeculae just deep to the periosteum thicken, and are later
replaced with mature lamellar bone, forming compact bone
plates.
• Spongy bone (diploë), consisting of distinct trabeculae, per-
sists internally and its vascular tissue becomes red marrow.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.8, (4 of 4)
 Endochondral Ossification

• Uses hyaline cartilage models

• Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior
to ossification

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 Week 9 Month 3 Birth Childhood to
adolescence
Articular
cartilage
Secondary
ossification Spongy
center bone

Epiphyseal
Area of blood vessel
deteriorating Epiphyseal
cartilage matrix plate
cartilage
Hyaline
cartilage Medullary
Spongy
bone cavity
formation

Bone Blood
collar vessel of
Primary
periosteal
ossification
bud
center

1 Bone collar 2 Cartilage in the 3 The periosteal 4 The diaphysis elongates 5 The epiphyses
forms around center of the bud inavades the and a medullary cavity ossify. When
hyaline cartilage diaphysis calcifies internal cavities forms as ossification completed, hyaline
model. and then develops and spongy bone continues. Secondary cartilage remains only
cavities. begins to form. ossification centers appear in the epiphyseal
in the epiphyses in plates and articular
preparation for stage 5. cartilages.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.9

 Week 9
Hyaline cartilage

Bone collar

Primary
ossification
center

1 Bone collar forms around

hyaline cartilage model.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.9, step 1
 Area of deteriorating
cartilage matrix

2 Cartilage in the center

of the diaphysis calcifies
and then develops cavities.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.9, step 2
 Month 3

Spongy
bone
formation

Blood
vessel of
periosteal
bud

3 The periosteal bud inavades

the internal cavities and
spongy bone begins to form.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.9, step 3
 Birth
Epiphyseal
blood vessel Secondary
ossification
center

Medullary
cavity

4 The diaphysis elongates and a medullary cavity forms

as ossification continues. Secondary ossification centers
appear in the epiphyses in preparation for stage 5.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.9, step 4
 Childhood to adolescence
Articular cartilage

Spongy bone

Epiphyseal plate
cartilage

5The epiphyses ossify. When completed, hyaline cartilage

remains only in the epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.9, step 5
 Week 9 Month 3 Birth Childhood to
adolescence
Articular
cartilage
Secondary
ossification Spongy
center bone

Epiphyseal
Area of blood vessel
deteriorating Epiphyseal
cartilage matrix plate
cartilage
Hyaline
cartilage Medullary
Spongy
bone cavity
formation

Bone Blood
collar vessel of
Primary
periosteal
ossification
bud
center

1 Bone collar 2 Cartilage in the 3 The periosteal 4 The diaphysis elongates 5 The epiphyses
forms around center of the bud inavades the and a medullary cavity ossify. When
hyaline cartilage diaphysis calcifies internal cavities forms as ossification completed, hyaline
model. and then develops and spongy bone continues. Secondary cartilage remains only
cavities. begins to form. ossification centers appear in the epiphyseal
in the epiphyses in plates and articular
preparation for stage 5. cartilages.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.9

 Postnatal Bone Growth

• Interstitial growth:
•  length of long bones
• Appositional growth:
•  thickness and remodeling of all bones by
osteoblasts and osteoclasts on bone surfaces

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 Growth in Length of Long Bones

• Epiphyseal plate cartilage organizes into four

important functional zones:
• Proliferation (growth)
• Hypertrophic
• Calcification
• Ossification (osteogenic)

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 Resting zone

1 Proliferation zone
Cartilage cells undergo
mitosis.

2 Hypertrophic zone
Older cartilage cells
enlarge.
3 Calcification zone
Calcified cartilage
Matrix becomes calcified;
spicule
Osteoblast depositing cartilage cells die; matrix
bone matrix begins deteriorating.
Osseous tissue 4 Ossification zone
(bone) covering New bone formation is
cartilage spicules occurring.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.10

 Hormonal Regulation of Bone Growth

• Growth hormone stimulates epiphyseal plate

activity
• Thyroid hormone modulates activity of growth
hormone
• Testosterone and estrogens (at puberty)
• Promote adolescent growth spurts
• End growth by inducing epiphyseal plate
closure

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 Bone growth Bone remodeling

Articular cartilage
Cartilage
grows here.

Epiphyseal plate
Cartilage
is replaced Bone is
by bone here. resorbed here.
Cartilage
grows here. Bone is added
by appositional
Cartilage growth here.
is replaced
by bone here. Bone is
resorbed here.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.11

 Bone Deposit

• Occurs where bone is injured or added

strength is needed
• Requires a diet rich in protein; vitamins C, D,
and A; calcium; phosphorus; magnesium; and
manganese

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 Bone Deposit

• Sites of new matrix deposit are revealed

by the
• Osteoid seam
• Unmineralized band of matrix
• Calcification front
• The abrupt transition zone between the
osteoid seam and the older mineralized
bone

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 Bone Resorption

• Osteoclasts secrete
• Lysosomal enzymes (digest organic matrix)
• Acids (convert calcium salts into soluble forms)
• Dissolved matrix is transcytosed across
osteoclast, enters interstitial fluid and then
blood

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 Control of Remodeling

• What controls continual remodeling of bone?

• Hormonal mechanisms that maintain calcium
homeostasis in the blood
• Mechanical and gravitational forces

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 Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+

• Calcium is necessary for

• Transmission of nerve impulses
• Muscle contraction
• Blood coagulation
• Secretion by glands and nerve cells
• Cell division

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 Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+

• Primarily controlled by parathyroid hormone (PTH)

 Blood Ca2+ levels

Parathyroid glands release PTH

PTH stimulates osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and
release Ca2+

 Blood Ca2+ levels

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 Calcium homeostasis of blood: 9–11 mg/100 ml
BALANCE BALANCE
Stimulus
Falling blood
Ca2+ levels

Thyroid
gland
Osteoclasts Parathyroid
degrade bone glands Parathyroid
matrix and
glands release
release Ca2+
parathyroid
into blood. PTH
hormone (PTH).
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.12
 Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+

• May be affected to a lesser extent by calcitonin

 Blood Ca2+ levels

Parafollicular cells of thyroid release calcitonin

Osteoblasts deposit calcium salts

 Blood Ca2+ levels
• Leptin has also been shown to influence bone density
by inhibiting osteoblasts
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 Response to Mechanical Stress

• Wolff’s law: A bone grows or remodels in response to

forces or demands placed upon it
• Observations supporting Wolff’s law:
• Handedness (right or left handed) results in bone of
one upper limb being thicker and stronger
• Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely
to buckle
• Trabeculae form along lines of stress
• Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active
muscles attach

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 Load here (body weight)

Head of
femur

Tension Compression
here here

Point of
no stress

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.13

 Classification of Bone Fractures

• Bone fractures may be classified by four “either/or”

classifications:
1. Position of bone ends after fracture:
• Nondisplaced—ends retain normal position
• Displaced—ends out of normal alignment
2. Completeness of the break
• Complete—broken all the way through
• Incomplete—not broken all the way through

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 Classification of Bone Fractures

3. Orientation of the break to the long axis of the bone:

• Linear—parallel to long axis of the bone
• Transverse—perpendicular to long axis of the
bone
4. Whether or not the bone ends penetrate the skin:
• Compound (open)—bone ends penetrate the skin
• Simple (closed)—bone ends do not penetrate the
skin

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 Common Types of Fractures

• All fractures can be described in terms of

• Location
• External appearance
• Nature of the break

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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 6.2
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 6.2
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 6.2
 Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

1. Hematoma forms
• Torn blood vessels hemorrhage
• Clot (hematoma) forms
• Site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed

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 Hematoma

1 A hematoma forms.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.15, step 1
 Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

2. Fibrocartilaginous callus forms

• Phagocytic cells clear debris
• Osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone
within 1 week
• Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers to connect
bone ends
• Mass of repair tissue now called
fibrocartilaginous callus

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 External
callus

Internal New
callus blood
(fibrous vessels
tissue and
cartilage) Spongy
bone
trabecula
2 Fibrocartilaginous
callus forms.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.15, step 2
 Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

3. Bony callus formation

• New trabeculae form a bony (hard) callus
• Bony callus formation continues until firm
union is formed in ~2 months

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 Bony
callus of
spongy
bone

3 Bony callus forms.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.15, step 3
 Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

4. Bone remodeling
• In response to mechanical stressors over
several months
• Final structure resembles original

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 Healed
fracture

4 Bone remodeling
occurs.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.15, step 4
 Hematoma External Bony
callus callus of
spongy
bone
Internal New Healed
callus blood fracture
(fibrous vessels
tissue and
Spongy
cartilage)
bone
trabecula
1 A hematoma forms. 2 Fibrocartilaginous 3 Bony callus forms. 4 Bone
callus forms. remodeling
occurs.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.15

 Homeostatic Imbalances

• Osteomalacia and rickets

• Calcium salts not deposited
• Rickets (childhood disease) causes bowed
legs and other bone deformities
• Cause: vitamin D deficiency or insufficient
dietary calcium

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 Homeostatic Imbalances

• Osteoporosis
• Loss of bone mass—bone resorption outpaces
deposit
• Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur
become most susceptible to fracture
• Risk factors
• Lack of estrogen, calcium or vitamin D;
petite body form; immobility; low levels of
TSH; diabetes mellitus

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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.16
 Osteoporosis: Treatment and Prevention

• Calcium, vitamin D, and fluoride supplements

•  Weight-bearing exercise throughout life
• Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy
(HRT) slows bone loss
• Some drugs (Fosamax, SERMs, statins)
increase bone mineral density

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 Paget’s Disease

• Excessive and haphazard bone formation and

breakdown, usually in spine, pelvis, femur, or
skull
• Pagetic bone has very high ratio of spongy to
compact bone and reduced mineralization
• Unknown cause (possibly viral)
• Treatment includes calcitonin and
biphosphonates

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 Developmental Aspects of Bones

• Embryonic skeleton ossifies predictably so

fetal age easily determined from X rays or
sonograms
• At birth, most long bones are well ossified
(except epiphyses)

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 Parietal bone
Occipital bone Frontal bone
of skull
Mandible
Clavicle
Scapula
Radius
Ulna

Ribs Humerus

Vertebra
Ilium

Tibia
Femur

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.17

 Developmental Aspects of Bones

• Nearly all bones completely ossified by age

25
• Bone mass decreases with age beginning in
4th decade
• Rate of loss determined by genetics and
environmental factors
• In old age, bone resorption predominates

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