DATA COLLECTION AND

PRESENTATION
Learning Outcomes:
⮚ Determine how to organize data
through frequency distribution.
⮚ Get oriented with the different
types of data presentation through
graphs
Methods of Collecting Data
• Direct Observation
• Experiments, and
• Surveys
Methods
• Mailing paper questionnaires to respondents, who
fill them out and mail them back
• Having interviewers call to respondents on the
telephone and ask them the question in a
telephone interview
• Sending the interviewers to the respondent’s
home or office to administer the questions in face-
to-face interviews
• Sending survey questionnaires thru google forms
• Depending upon the nature of the variable
data is classified into 2 broad categories:

✔ Qualitative Data
✔ Quantitative Data
Methods
Quantitative Qualitative Surveys

Questionnaires Focus groups

Tests Unstructured interviews
Existing databases Unstructured observations
Presentation of
Data
Ungrouped vs. Grouped Data
Data can be classified as grouped or
ungrouped.

Ungrouped data are data that are not

organized, or if arranged, could only be from
highest to lowest or lowest to highest.

Grouped data are data that are organized

and arranged into different classes or
categories.

MCPEGOLLO/BASIC STATISTICS/SRSTHS
Presentation of Data

MCPEGOLLO/BASIC STATISTICS/SRSTHS
Textual Presentation of Data
Data can be presented using
paragraphs or sentences. It involves
enumerating important characteristics,
emphasizing significant figures and
identifying important features of data.

MCPEGOLLO/BASIC STATISTICS/SRSTHS
Textual Presentation of Data
Example. You are asked to present the performance of your section in
the Statistics test. The following are the test scores of your class:

34 42 20 50 17 9 34 43

50 18 35 43 50 23 23 35

37 38 38 39 39 38 38 39

24 29 25 26 28 27 44 44

49 48 46 45 45 46 45 46

MCPEGOLLO/BASIC STATISTICS/SRSTHS
 Solution
First, arrange the data in order for you to identify the important
characteristics. This can be done in two ways: rearranging from lowest
to highest or using the stem-and-leaf plot.
Below is the rearrangement of data from lowest to highest:

9 23 28 35 38 43 45 48
17 24 29 37 39 43 45 49
18 25 34 38 39 44 46 50
20 26 34 38 39 44 46 50
23 27 35 38 42 45 46 50

MCPEGOLLO/BASIC STATISTICS/SRSTHS
With the rearranged data, pertinent data worth
mentioning can be easily recognized. The following
is one way of presenting data in textual form.

In the Statistics class of 40 students, 3 obtained

the perfect score of 50. Sixteen students got a
score of 40 and above, while only 3 got 19 and
below. Generally, the students performed well in
the test with 23 or 57.5% getting a passing score of
38 and above.

MCPEGOLLO/BASIC STATISTICS/SRSTHS
 Tabular Presentation of Data
Below is a sample of a table with all of its parts indicated:

Table Number

Table Title

Column Header

Row Classifier

Body

Source Note

http://www.sws.org.ph/youth.htm
MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
 Frequency Distribution
Tabular Form

It is a group of data into categories showing

the number of observations in each of the
non-overlapping classes.

Mutually Exclusive &

Exhaustive
Frequency Distribution Table
A frequency distribution table is a table
which shows the data arranged into
different classes(or categories) and the
number of cases(or frequencies) which
fall into each class.

The following is an illustration of a

frequency distribution table for ungrouped
data:
MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
Sample of a Frequency Distribution Table
for Ungrouped Data
Table 1.1
Frequency Distribution for the Ages of 50 Students
Enrolled in Statistics
Age Frequency
12 2
13 13
14 27
15 4
16 3
17 1
N = 50

MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
Grouped Frequency Distribution

It is used when the range of the data set is large.

The data are grouped into classes

✔ Categorical

✔ Interval or Ratio
Constructing Frequency Distribution

Grouped Frequency

Categorical Frequency

Grouped Frequency Distribution

Relative Frequency Table

Cumulative Frequency Table

Categorical Frequency

It is used to organized nominal-level or ordinal-level type

of data.

Examples:
Gender Political affiliation
Business type Year level
Example 1
Twenty applicants were given a performance evaluation
appraisal. The data set is

High High High Low Average

Average Low Average Average Average
Low Average Average High High
Low Low Average High High

Construct a frequency for the data.

Step 1
Construct a table.

Class Tally Frequency Percent

High
Average
Low
Step 2
Tally the raw data.

Class Tally Frequency Percent

High IIII-II
Average IIII-III
Low IIII

High High High Low Average

Average Low Average Average Average
Low Average Average High High
Low Low Average High High
Step 3

Convert the tallied data into numerical frequencies.

Class Tally Frequency

High IIII-II 7
Average IIII-III 8
Low IIII 5
Step 4
Determine the percentage.

Class Tally Frequency Percent

High IIII-II 7 35
Average IIII-III 8 40
Low IIII 5 25

Frequency of
Percentage Formula:
the class

Total number
Percentage of values
Sample of a Frequency Distribution Table
for Grouped Data
Table 1.2
Frequency Distribution Table for the Quiz Scores of 50
Students in Geometry
Score Frequency
s

0-2 1
3-5 2
6-8 13
9 - 11 15
12 - 14 19

MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
Basic Terms in a Frequency Distribution
Table

MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
Lower Class Limits
are the smallest numbers that can actually belong to
different classes

Rating Frequency

0-2 1
3-5 2
6-8 13
9 - 11 15
12 - 14 19
 Lower Class Limits
are the smallest numbers that can actually
belong to different classes
Rating Frequency

0-2 1
Lower Class 3-5 2
Limits
6-8 13
9 - 11 15
12 - 14 19
Upper Class Limits
are the largest numbers that can actually belong to
different classes

Rating Frequency

0-2 1
3-5 2
6-8 13
9 - 11 15
12 - 14 19
Upper Class Limits
are the largest numbers that can actually belong to
different classes

Rating Frequency

Upper Class 0-2 1

Limits 3-5 2
6-8 13
9 - 11 15
12 - 14 19
 Class Boundaries
are the numbers used to separate classes, but
without the gaps created by class limits
Class Boundaries
number separating classes

Rating Frequency
- 0.5
0-2 20
2.5
3-5 14
5.5
6-8 15
8.5
9 - 11 2
11.5
12 - 14 1
14.5
 Class Boundaries
number separating classes

Rating Frequency
- 0.5
0-2 20
2.5
Class 5.5
3-5 14
Boundaries 6-8 15
8.5
9 - 11 2
11.5
12 - 14 1
14.5
MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
 Class Midpoints
The Class Mark or Class Midpoint is the
respective average of each class limits
 Class Midpoints
midpoints of the classes
Rating Frequency

0- 1 2 20
Class
3- 4 5 14
Midpoints
6- 7 8 15
9 - 10 11 2
12 - 13 14 1
 Class Width
is the difference between two consecutive lower class limits
or two consecutive class boundaries

Rating Frequency

0-2 20
3-5 14
6-8 15
9 - 11 2
12 - 14 1
 Class Width
is the difference between two consecutive lower class limits
or two consecutive class boundaries

Rating Frequency

3 0-2 20
3 3-5 14
Class Width 3 6-8 15
3 9 - 11 2
3 12 - 14 1
 Relative Frequency Table
Relative
Rating Frequency Rating Frequency

0-2 20 0-2 38.5% 20/52 = 38.5%

3-5 14 3-5 26.9% 14/52 = 26.9%

6-8 15 6-8 28.8%
etc.
9 - 11 2 9 - 11 3.8%
12 - 14 1 12 - 14 1.9%

Total frequency = 52
Table 2-5
Cumulative Frequency Table
Rating Frequency <cf >cf

0-2 20 20 52
3–5 14 34 32
Cumulative
6–8 15 49 18 Frequencies
9 – 11 2 51 3
12 – 14 1 52 1

Table 2-6
 Frequency Tables
Relative Cumulative
Rating Frequency Rating Frequency Rating Frequency

0-2 20 0-2 38.5% 0–2 20

3-5 14 3-5 26.9% 3–5 34

6-8 15 6-8 28.8% 6–8 49

9 - 11 2 9 - 11 3.8% 9 – 11 51

12 - 14 1 12 - 14 1.9% 12 – 14 52

Table 2-3 Table 2-5 Table 2-6

Guidelines For Frequency Tables
1. Be sure that the classes are mutually exclusive.

2. Include all classes, even if the frequency is zero.

3. Try to use the same width for all classes.

4. Select convenient numbers for class limits.

5. Use between 5 and 20 classes.

6. The sum of the class frequencies must equal the

number of original data values.
 Constructing A Frequency Table
1. Decide on the number of classes or use the formula: 2^k≥n.

2. Determine the class width by dividing the range by the number of classes
(range = highest score - lowest score) and round up.
range
class width ≈ round up of
number of classes
3. Select for the first lower limit either the lowest score or a
convenient value slightly less than the lowest score.
4. Add the class width to the starting point to get the second lower
class limit, add the width to the second lower limit to get the
third, and so on.
5. List the lower class limits in a vertical column and enter the
upper class limits.
6. Represent each score by a tally mark in the appropriate class.
Total tally marks to find the total frequency for each class.
Determining Class Interval

Rule: 2k ≥ n

Where: k = no. of classes

n = no. of cases
i = suggested class interval
 Example 2
Suppose a researcher wished to do a study on the
monthly salary of young professionals of selected
companies in Makati City. The research first
would have to collect the data by asking each
young professional about his monthly salary(in
thousands). The data collected in original form is
called raw data. In this case, the data are

18.80 22.00 23.40 24.30 27.00 27.90 31.00 26.00 20.80 17.00
20.00 22.60 23.40 24.50 27.00 29.30 32.10 26.10 21.00 17.30
20.25 22.75 23.70 24.70 27.40 30.10 33.70 26.30 21.60 17.80
18.40 21.90 23.00 23.85 26.80 27.80 30.80 25.00 20.40 15.50
18.70 21.90 23.20 24.10 26.90 27.90 30.90 25.20 20.50 15.70
17.95 21.75 22.90 23.70 26.50 27.50 30.60 24.75 20.25 14.10
18.35 21.80 22.90 23.70 26.50 27.60 30.75 25.00 20.30 14.30
20.20 22.80 23.50 24.60 27.30 29.50 32.90 26.20 21.30 17.40
 Example 2

Construct a frequency distribution using Rule 1 and

determine the following

Range Percentage

Interval Midpoints

Class limits Cumulative frequencies

Relative frequencies
 Step 1

Arrange the raw data in ascending or descending order.

14.10 17.95 20.25 21.75 22.90 23.70 24.75 26.50 27.50 30.60
14.30 18.35 20.30 21.80 22.90 23.70 25.00 26.50 27.60 30.75
15.50 18.40 20.40 21.90 23.00 23.85 25.00 26.80 27.80 30.80
15.70 18.70 20.50 21.90 23.20 24.10 25.20 26.90 27.90 30.90
17.00 18.80 20.80 22.00 23.40 24.30 26.00 27.00 27.90 31.00
17.30 20.00 21.00 22.60 23.40 24.50 26.10 27.00 29.30 32.10
17.40 20.20 21.30 22.75 23.50 24.60 26.20 27.30 29.50 32.90
17.80 20.25 21.60 22.80 23.70 24.70 26.30 27.40 30.10 33.70
 Step 2
Determine the classes

✔ Find the Highest Value (HV) and Lowest Value (LV) in

the data set.

HV = 33.70 and LV = 14.10

✔ Find the Range

Range = HV – LV = 33.70 – 14.10 = 19.60

✔ Determine the number of classes using

2K ≥ n Rule
Determining the Number of Classes

2k ≥ n (2 raised to the power of k.)

✍ When k = 6

2k ≥ n ⇒ 26 ≤ 80 ⇒ 64 ≤ 80

✍ When k = 7

2k ≥ n ⇒ 27 ≥ 80 ⇒ 128 ≥ 80

Thus, the recommended no. of classes is 7.

 Determine the Class Interval (width)

Thus, the interval size or class width is 3.

 Step 2 (continuation)

Select a starting point for the lowest class limit

14

14.10 17.95 20.25 21.75 22.90 23.70 24.75 26.50 27.50 30.60
14.30 18.35 20.30 21.80 22.90 23.70 25.00 26.50 27.60 30.75
15.50 18.40 20.40 21.90 23.00 23.85 25.00 26.80 27.80 30.80
15.70 18.70 20.50 21.90 23.20 24.10 25.20 26.90 27.90 30.90
17.00 18.80 20.80 22.00 23.40 24.30 26.00 27.00 27.90 31.00
17.30 20.00 21.00 22.60 23.40 24.50 26.10 27.00 29.30 32.10
17.40 20.20 21.30 22.75 23.50 24.60 26.20 27.30 29.50 32.90
17.80 20.25 21.60 22.80 23.70 24.70 26.30 27.40 30.10 33.70
 Step 2 (continuation)
Determine Lower and Upper class limits

Class Limits

14 - 16
17 - 19
20 - 22
Lower Limit 23 - 25 Upper Limit
26 - 28
29 - 31
32 - 34
 Step 3
Convert the tallied data to numerical frequencies

Class Limits Tally Frequency

14 - 16 IIII 4
17 - 29 IIII-IIII 9
20 - 22 IIII-IIII-IIII-I 16
23 - 25 IIII-IIII-IIII-IIII-III 23
26 - 28 IIII-IIII-IIII-II 17
29 - 31 IIII-III 8
32 - 34 III 3
 Step 4
Determine the relative frequency (rf)

Class Limits Frequency Relative Frequency

14 - 16 4 0.05
17 - 29 9 0.11
20 - 22 16 0.20
23 - 25 23 0.29
26 - 28 17 0.21
29 - 31 8 0.10
32 - 34 3 0.04
Total 80 1.00

3 ÷ 80 ≈ 0.04
Step 5
Determine the percentage

Class Limits Frequency Percentage

14 - 16 4 5
17 - 29 9 11
20 - 22 16 20
23 - 25 23 29
26 - 28 17 21
29 - 31 8 10
32 - 34 3 4
Total 80 100

(3 ÷ 80) × 100% ≈ 0.04

 Step 6
Determine the cumulative frequencies (cf)
Class Limits f cf Found by

14 - 16 4 4 4
17 - 29 9 13 4+9
20 - 22 16 29 4 + 9 +16
23 - 25 23 52 4 + 9 +16 + 23
26 - 28 17 69 4 + 9 +16 + 23 + 17
29 - 31 8 77 4 + 9 +16 + 23 + 17 + 8
32 - 34 3 80 4 + 9 +16 + 23 + 17 + 8 + 3
Total 80
 Step 6

Determine the midpoints (X)

Class Limits f X Found by
(14 + 16) ÷ 2
14 - 16 4 15 (17 + 19) ÷ 2
17 - 29 9 18 (20 + 22) ÷ 2
20 - 22 16 21 (23 + 25) ÷ 2
23 - 25 23 24
26 - 28 17 27 (26 + 28) ÷ 2
29 - 31 8 30 (29 + 31) ÷ 2
32 - 34 3 33 (32 + 34) ÷ 2
Total 80
Stem-and Leaf- Plot

This method is to some extent overcomes the loss of actual

observations brought about by the histogram.

The advantage of the stem-and-leaf plot over the histogram is

that we can see the actual observations.

Was introduced by John Tukey.

The stem is the leading digit or digits.

The leaf is the trailing digit.

 Example 3
SJS Travel Agency, a nationwide local
travel agency, offers special rates on
summer period. The owner wants
additional information on the ages of
those people taking travel tours. A
random sample of 50 customers taking
travel tours last summer revealed these
ages.

18 29 42 57 61 67 37 49 53 47
24 34 45 58 63 70 39 51 54 48
28 36 46 60 66 72 40 52 56 49
19 31 44 58 62 68 38 50 54 48
27 36 46 59 64 72 39 51 55 48

Construct a stem-and-leaf plot.

Solution

Stem Leaf
1 8, 9
2 4, 7, 8, 9
3 1, 4, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, 9
4 0, 2, 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9
5 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9
6 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8
7 0, 2, 2

Tens digit (leading Units digit

digits) (trailing digits)
Graphing Frequency Distribution

✔ Frequency Polygon

✔ Histogram

✔ Cumulative Frequency Graph or Ogive

Graphical Presentation of Data

MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
Graphical Presentation of Data
Frequency Polygon

MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
Graphical Presentation of Data

MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
Graphical Presentation of Data
Cumulative Frequency Polygon or Ogive
⚫ An ogive (oh-jive), sometimes called a cumulative
frequency polygon, is a type of frequency polygon that
shows cumulative frequencies. In other words, the
cumulative percents are added on the graph from left to
right.
⚫ An ogive graph plots cumulative frequency on the y-
axis and class boundaries along the x-axis. It’s very
similar to a histogram, only instead of rectangles, an
ogive has a single point marking where the top right of
the rectangle would be. It is usually easier to create this
kind of graph from a frequency table.

MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
Graphical Presentation of Data
Cumulative Frequency Polygon or Ogive
There are two types of ogives :
1.Less than ogive : Plot the points with the upper limits of
the class as abscissa and the corresponding less than
cumulative frequencies as ordinates. The points are joined
by free hand smooth curve to give less than cumulative
frequency curve or the less than Ogive. It is a rising curve.
2.Greater than ogive : Plot the points with the lower limits
of the classes as abscissa and the corresponding Greater
than cumulative frequencies as ordinates. Join the points
by a free hand smooth curve to get the “More than Ogive”.
It is a falling curve.

MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
Other Types of Graphs/ Charts

✔ Line Graph or Diagram

✔ Bar Chart (Bar Graph)
✔ Pareto Chart
✔ Pie Chart (Circle Graph)
✔ Time Series Graph
✔ Pictograph
✔ Scatter Plot
Graphical Presentation of Data

MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
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MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
Example 4

Using the information in the table

below about the favorite snacks of
870 consumers, construct a pareto
chart, bar chart, and pie chart.

Products Sales
Junk Foods 135
Candy 250
Ice Cream 185
Chocolate 210
Others 90
Pareto Chart
It represents a frequency distribution for a categorical data
(or nominal-level) & frequencies are displayed by the heights
of vertical bars, which are arranged in order from highest to
lowest.
Bar Chart (Bar Graph)
The bases of the rectangles are arbitrary intervals whose
centers are the codes. The height of each rectangle represents
the frequency of that category. It is also applicable for
categorical data (or nominal-level).
Pie Chart (Circle Graph)
A circle divided into portions that represent the relative
frequencies (or percentages) of the data belonging to different
categories. The data in a pie chart should be categorical or
nominal-level.
Time-Series Graph

It represents data that occur over specific period of time

under observation.

It shows for a trend or pattern on the increase or decrease

over the period of time.
 Example 5

Using the information in the table

below about the dollar to peso
exchange rate from January to
December of 2016, construct a
time series graph.

Month Jan Feb March April May June

Peso/US Dollar 41 42 43 46 44 45
Exchange Rate
Month July August Sept Oct Nov Dec
Peso/US Dollar 43 42 45 44 45 43
Exchange Rate

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Time Series Graph
Pictograph

It immediately suggests the nature of the data being shown.

It is a combination of the attention-getting quality and the

accuracy of the bar chart.

Appropriate pictures arranged in a row (sometimes in a

column) present the quantities for comparison.
 Example 6

The VSAS Realty Inc. is a real estate

who develops household in Rizal
province. The information in the
table show the number of house
construction from 2013 to 2017.
Construct a pictograph.

Year 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

No. of Houses 400 250 600 550 700

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Solution

800
700
600
No. of houses

500
400
300
200
100
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Year
Legend: = 100 houses
MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
Consider the following test scores in a
Statistics class. Construct a frequency
distribution table out of it.

9 23 28 35 38 43 45 48

17 24 29 37 39 43 45 49

18 25 34 38 39 44 46 50

20 26 34 38 39 44 46 50

23 27 35 38 42 45 46 50

MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
Exercise:
For each of the following class intervals, give the
class width(i), class mark (x), and class
boundary (cb)
Class interval (ci) Class Width Class Mark Class
Boundary
a. 4 – 8
b. 35 – 44
c. 17 – 21
d. 53 – 57
e. 8 – 11
f. 108 – 119
g. 10 – 19
h. 25 – 29
i. 175 – 225
MCPegollo/Basic Statistics/SRSTHS
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