SETLecture 5

Discrete Mathematics
What is Set?
Set & Rule of inference – Lesson 5

October 23rd, 2013
A set is said to contain its elements.
A set is an unordered collection of objects, called
elements or members of the set.
{1, 2, 3} is the set containing “1” and “2” and “3.” list the
members between braces.
{1, 1, 2, 3, 3} = {1, 2, 3} since repetition is irrelevant.
{1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1} since sets are unordered.
{1,2,3, …, 99} is the set of positive integers less than 100
{1, 2, 3, …} is a way we denote an infinite set (in this
case, the natural numbers).
 = {} is the empty set, or the set containing no
elements.
Note:   {}
Some examples
 The set V of all vowels in the English
alphabet V = {a, e, i, o, u}.
 The set of positive integers less than 100
can be denoted by {1, 2, 3, . . . , 99}.
ellipses (. . .) are used when the general
pattern of the elements is obvious.
 {a, 2, Fred, New Jersey} is the set
containing the four elements a, 2, Fred,
and New Jersey.
Element of Set
 A set is an unordered collection of
objects referred to as elements.
 A set is said to contain its elements.
We write a ∈ A to denote that a is an
element of the set A.
 The notation a ∈ A denotes that a is
not an element of the set A.
Try Yourself
 Let A = {1, 3, { { 1,2}, ø},{ø } }. State
whether the following statements are
true or not. Give reason.
 {{1, 2},{ø } } ϵ A
 {1, 4,{ø } } ϵ A
ø ϵ A
Some Sets
N = {0,1,2,3,…}, the set of natural numbers, non negative integers,

(occasionally IN)
Z = { …, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,3, …), the set of integers
Z+ = {1,2,3,…} set of positive integers
Q = {p/q | p  Z, q Z, and q0}, set of rational numbers
R, the set of real numbers

R+, the set of positive real numbers
C, the set of complex numbers.
Set builder notation
 Another way to describe a set is to
use set builder notation.
 O = {x | x is an odd positive integer
less than 10}
 or, specifying the universe as the set
of positive integers, as
 O = {x ∈ Z+ | x is odd and x < 10}.
Empty Set
 There is a special set that has no elements. This set is
called the empty set,or null set, and is denoted by ∅. The
empty set can also be denoted by { }
Common error is to confuse the empty set ∅ with the set { ∅}

 The empty set can be thought of as an empty folder and the
set consisting of just the empty set can be thought of as a
folder with exactly one folder inside, namely, the empty
folder.
 Determine whether these statements are true or false.
 a) ∅ ∈ {∅} b) ∅ ∈ {∅, {∅}}
 c) {∅} ∈ {∅} d) {∅} ∈ {{∅}}
Subset
The set A is a subset of B if and only
if every element of A is also an
element of B. We use the notation
A ⊆ B to indicate that A is a subset of
the set B.
Ven diagram of Subset
B
A
Fig: A Is a Subset of B.
Try Yourself
 Let A = {1, 5, { { 1,2}, ø},{ø } }. State
whether the following statements are
true or not. Give reason.
 {1, 3, ø} ⊆ A
 {1, 5, ø} ⊆ A
{}⊆A
Proper subset
When we wish to emphasize that a
set A is a subset of a set B but that
A = B, we write A ⊂ B and say that A is
a proper subset of B.
∀x(x ∈ A → x ∈ B) ∧ ∃x(x ∈ B ∧ x ∈
A)
Try Yourself
A is the set of prime numbers less than 10 , B is the
set of odd numbers less than 10, C is the set of
even numbers less than 10.
How many of the following statements are true? Explain
 i. A ⊂B Is ∀x(x ∈ A → x ∈ B) ∧ ∃x(x ∈ B ∧ x ∈ A) true?
 ii. B ⊂ A
 iii. A ⊂ C
 iv. C ⊂ A
 v. B ⊂ C
 vi. C ⊂ A
 Prime numbers less than 10 are: 2,3,5,7
Set Theory - Definitions and notation
A few more:
Is {a}  {a}? Yes
Is {a}  {a,{a}}? Yes
Is {a}  {a,{a}}? Yes
Is {a}  {a}? No
Power set
 The power set of S is denoted by
P(S).
 The power set P({0, 1, 2}) is the set of all subsets of {0, 1,
2}. Hence,
 P({0, 1, 2}) = {∅, {0}, {1}, {2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, {1, 2}, {0, 1, 2}}.
 Note that the empty set and the set itself are members of
this set of subsets.
Examples
If S is a set, then the power set of S is 2S = { x : x  S }.
If S = {a}, We say, “P(S) is

2S = {, {a}}.
the set of all
If S = {a,b}, 2S = {, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}. subsets of S.”
If S = , 2S = {}.
If S = {,{}}, 2S = {, {}, {{}}, {,{}}}.
Fact: if S is finite, |2S| = 2|S|. (if |S| = n, |2S| = 2n) Why?

Set Theory - Definitions and notation
Quick examples:
{1,2,3}  {1,2,3,4,5}
{1,2,3}  {1,2,3,4,5}
Is   {1,2,3}? Yes! x (x  )  (x  {1,2,3}) holds (for all

over empty domain)
Is   {1,2,3}? No!
Is   {,1,2,3}? Yes!
Is   {,1,2,3}? Yes!
Set operators
The union of two sets A and B is:
A  B = { x : x  A v x  B}
If A = {Charlie, Lucy, Linus}, and B = {Lucy, Desi},
then
A  B = {Charlie, Lucy, Linus, Desi}
B
A
Set Theory - Operators
The intersection of two sets A and B is:
A  B = { x : x  A  x  B}
If A = {Charlie, Lucy, Linus}, and B = {Lucy, Desi},
then
A  B = {Lucy}
B
A
The intersection of two sets A and B is:
A  B = { x : x  A  x  B}
If A = {x : x is a US president}, and B = {x : x is in this room}, then
A  B = {x : x is a US president in this room} = 
Sets whose
B
A intersection is
empty are called
disjoint sets
20
The complement of a set A is:
A = { x : x  A}
If A = {x : x is bored}, then
A = {x : x is not bored}
U
A = U
and
U=
I.e., A = U – A, where U is the universal set.

“A set fixed within the framework of a theory and consisting of all objects
considered in the theory. “
Try yourself
 (i) Identify the area ¬ R(x) ˄ I(x) ˄ ¬ M(x)
 Determine True or False: x R(x) ˄ M(x) ˄ I(x) → D(x)
Rules of Inference
 We can always use a truth table to

show that an argument form is valid.
We do this by showing that
whenever the premises are true, the
conclusion must also be true.
Example
 “If you have a current password, then you can log onto the
network.”
“You have a current password.”
 Therefore, “You can log onto the network.”
 We would like to determine whether this is a valid argument.
 That is, we would like to determine whether the conclusion “You
can log onto the network” must be true when the premises “If you
have a current password, then you can log onto the network” and
“You have a current password” are both true.
 Use p to represent “You have a current password” and q to
represent “You can log onto the network.”
 Then, the argument has the form
 p→q
p q p q
 p
 ∴q T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
 where ∴ is the symbol that denotes “therefore.” the

statement ((p → q) ∧ p) → q is a tautology
 This argument is valid because when (premises) p → q and p
are both true, then the (conclusion) q is true.
Try Yourself
 . Verify whether the following argument is valid or
not.
a) ￢ q
p→q
∴ ￢p
b) p → q
q→p
∴p˅q

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Discrete Mathematics

Set & Rule of inference – Lesson 5

N = {0,1,2,3,…}, the set of natural numbers, non negative integers,

Z = { …, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,3, …), the set of integers

Z+ = {1,2,3,…} set of positive integers

Q = {p/q | p  Z, q Z, and q0}, set of rational numbers

R, the set of real numbers

Common error is to confuse the empty set ∅ with the set { ∅}

Is {a}  {a}? Yes

Is {a}  {a,{a}}? Yes

Is {a}  {a,{a}}? Yes

If S = {a}, We say, “P(S) is

Fact: if S is finite, |2S| = 2|S|. (if |S| = n, |2S| = 2n) Why?

Is   {1,2,3}? Yes! x (x  )  (x  {1,2,3}) holds (for all

A  B = {Charlie, Lucy, Linus, Desi}

A  B = {x : x is a US president in this room} = 

I.e., A = U – A, where U is the universal set.

 We can always use a truth table to

 where ∴ is the symbol that denotes “therefore.” the

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