Gauss’s Law:

• From previous example the flux through the surface of a

sphere which has a point charge q at its center is
• Consider several closed surfaces surrounding a
charge q, as shown in Figure
• Surface S1 is spherical, but surfaces S2 and S3 are
not.
• Flux that passes through S1 has the value .
• Flux is proportional to the number of electric field
lines passing through a surface.
• Number of lines through S1 is equal to number of
lines through the nonspherical surfaces S2 and S3.
• Conclusion (Gauss’s law):
• The net flux through any closed surface surrounding
a point charge q is given by and is independent of
the shape of that surface.
the net electric flux through a closed surface that surrounds
no charge is zero.
• Gauss’s law, which is a generalization of what we have just described, states that
the net flux through any closed surface is
; is the net charge inside the surface and E represents the electric field at any point
on the surface
• Gauss’s law can be solved for E to determine the electric field due to a system of
charges or a continuous distribution of charge.
• In practice, however, this type of solution is applicable only in a limited number of
highly symmetric situations
• choose the Gaussian surface surrounding the charge distribution carefully, the
integral can be simplified
• Quick Quiz 24.4
• Consider the charge distribution shown in Figure The charges
contributing to the total electric flux through surface are
(a) only
(b) only
(c) and
(d) all four charges
• The charges contributing to the total electric field at a chosen
point on the surface are:
(a) only
(b) only
(c) and
(d) all four charges
• A spherical gaussian surface surrounds a point charge q. Describe
what happens to the total flux through the surface if
(A) the charge is tripled,
(B) the radius of the sphere is doubled,
(C) the surface is changed to a cube, and
(D) the charge is moved to another location inside the surface.
(A) Tripled
(B) No change (its same number of lines)
(C) No change (independent of shape)
(D) No change (only total number of charges inside is what matters)
• Always take advantage of the symmetry of the charge distribution so
that we can remove E from the integral and solve for it.
• Determine a surface that satisfies one or more of the following
conditions:
1. The value of the electric field can be argued by symmetry to
be constant over the surface.
2. The dot product (E.dA) can be expressed as a simple algebraic
product E dA because E and dA are parallel.
3. The dot product (E.dA) is zero because E and d A are
perpendicular.
4. The field can be argued to be zero over the surface.
 dA
• Example: An insulating solid sphere of radius a E
has a uniform volume charge density 1 and
carries a total positive charge Q
(A) Calculate the magnitude of the electric field
at a point outside the sphere.
• select a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r,
concentric with the sphere,
(B)Find the magnitude of the electric field at a
point inside the sphere
• Select a spherical Gaussian surface having radius
r <a, concentric with the insulating sphere
• A thin spherical shell of radius a has a total
charge Q distributed uniformly over its
surface. Find the electric field at points
(A) outside and (B) inside the shell
(A)
(B) E=0 (
 dA
• Find the electric field a distance r from a line
of positive charge of infinite length and E
constant charge per unit length λ
• The symmetry of the charge distribution
requires that E be perpendicular to the line
charge and directed outward
• select a cylindrical gaussian surface of radius r
and length l that is coaxial with the line charge
• curved part: E is constant in magnitude and
perpendicular to the surface at each point
• flux through the ends of the gaussian cylinder
is zero because E is parallel to these surfaces
• The total charge inside our gaussian surface is
λl
• Find the electric field due to an infinite plane of positive charge with
uniform surface charge density
• The direction of E on one side of the plane is opposite its direction on
the other side
• Gaussian surface is a small cylinder whose axis is perpendicular to the
plane and whose ends each have an area A and are equidistant from the
plane.
• curved surface: E is parallel and, therefore, perpendicular to dA
everywhere on the surface no contribution to the surface integral from
this surface
• Flat ends of the cylinder: The flux through each end of the cylinder is EA
• Total flux through the entire gaussian surface is just that through the
ends, E = 2EA.
• Total charge inside the surface is

• The distance from each flat end of the cylinder to the plane does not
appear in Equation we conclude that at any distance from the plane.
That is, the field is uniform everywhere.
 • The following charges are located inside a submarine:5.00 µC, -9.00 µC, 27.0 µC, and -84.0 µC.
(a) Calculate the net electric flux through the hull of the submarine.

(b) Is the number of electric field lines leaving the submarine greater than, equal to, or less than
the number entering it?
More entering ( is negative)

• A point charge Q is located just above the center of the flat face
of a hemisphere of radius R as shown in Figure. What is the
electric flux
(a) through the curved surface

(b) through the flat face?

• A point charge Q = 5.00 µC is located at the
center of a cube of edge L = 0.100 m. In
addition, six other identical point charges
having q = -1.00 µC are positioned
symmetrically around Q as shown in Figure.
Determine the electric flux through one face
of the cube
• Calculate the total electric flux through the
paraboloidal surface due to a uniform electric
field of magnitude in the direction shown in
Figure
 24.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
• Electrical conductor contains charges (electrons) that are not bound to any atom and
therefore are free to move about within the material.
• When there is no net motion of charge within a conductor, the conductor is in electrostatic
equilibrium.
• A conductor in electrostatic equilibrium has the following properties:
1. The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.
No electron motion → no force → E=0
* Before external field is applied electron are distributed uniformly through the conductor
* When the external field is applied, the free electrons accelerate to the left results in a
plane of positive charge on the right surface
* These planes of charge create an additional electric field inside the conductor that opposes
the external field
* until the magnitude of the internal field equals that of the external field, resulting in a net
field of zero inside the conductor
* The time it takes a good conductor to reach equilibrium is on the order of 10'16 s, which
for most purposes can be considered instantaneous.
2. If an isolated conductor carries a charge,
the charge resides on its surface.
• Gaussian surface is drawn inside the
conductor and can be as close to the
conductor’s surface.
• Electric field must be zero at every point
on the gaussian surface.
• Net flux through this gaussian surface is
zero.
• Net charge inside the gaussian surface is
zero.
• surface), any net charge on the conductor
must reside on its surface
.
3. The electric field just outside a charged
conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the
conductor and has a magnitude 4//0, where 4 is
the surface charge density at that point.
4. On an irregularly shaped conductor, the surface charge density is
greatest at locations where the radius of curvature of the surface is
smallest