 Flood routing

 Methods of flood routing

 Reservoir sedimentation

 Measurement of sediment load

 Reservoir sediment control

 Economic height of a dam

 Economics of the combined project

Courtesy: SK Garg, BC Punmia and

Internet resources.
“ It is the process of calculating water levels in reservoir, the
storage quantities and outflow rates corresponding to a
particular inflow hydrograph at various instants”.
PURPOSE
 to determine maximum rise in its water surface and discharge
in the d/s channel when particular flood passes through it by
studying the rainfall records and previous flood hydrographs.

It provides the complete solution of a flood control problem and

satisfactory operation of a flood prediction service.
 Flood protection reservoirs are generally located many
km u/s of the cities which are to be saved against floods.

The hydrograph of a flood entering a reservoir will

change in shape as it emerges out of the reservoir,
because certain volume of its water is stored in the
reservoir.
u/s flood hydrograph has higher peak value with shorter
base (AB)
but
d/s hydrograph has lower peak flow with the broader base
(AC).
 METHODS OF FLOOD ROUTING
A variety of routing methods are available and they can be
classified into two categories;
(1) Hydrologic routing and
(2) Hydraulic routing
(1) Hydrologic Reservoir Routing Methods

The equation of continuity is used in all the hydrologic

routing methods, as the primary equation, states that
“the difference between the inflow and the outflow rate is
equal to the rate of change of storage”, i.e.
I – 0 = ds/dt Eq.1
Where I = Inflow rate
0 = Outflow rate
S = Storage
Alternatively, in small time interval ∆t, the difference between the total
inflow volume and the total outflow volume is equal to the change in
storage volume :

Ī ∆t(inflow volume) I(v) – Ō ∆t (Outflow volume) 0(v) = ∆ S Eq. 2

Where Ī = Average inflow (rate) in time ∆t

Ō = Average outflow (rate) in time ∆t
∆S = Change in storage during the time ∆t
Since Ī = (I1 + I2))/2
Ō = (O1 + O2)/2
∆S = S2 – S1
Where suffixes 1 and 2 denote the beginning and the end of the time
interval ∆t.
Eq. 2 can be written as ;
[(I1 + I2))/2] ∆t – [(O1 + O2)/2] ∆t = S2 – S1 Eq. 3

The above relationship seems to be very simple but its evaluation is not
easily possible without drastic simplifying assumptions.
Several procedures have, however , been
suggested to solve the above basic equation
(Eq.3). The following hydrologic methods may
be used for reservoir routing :

1. Trial and error method

2. Modified pal’s method or storage indication
method and
3. Goodrich method.
Sediment Flow in Streams: Reservoir Sedimentation
All the rivers carry certain amount of silt eroded from the catchment’s
area during heavy rains.

The extent of erosion, and hence the silt load in the stream depends upon
the following factors:

1. Nature of soil of the catchment’s area

2. Topography of the catchment’s area

3. Vegetation cover

4. Intensity of rainfall
Soft soil, sheet erosion
Hard soil, lesser silt erosion
Steep slopes, high velocities, erode the surface soil
higher intensity of rainfall, greater run-off, more erosion
More vegetation cover, reduced velocities, reduced erosion
Poor or No vegetal cover, produce more silt
In case of more silt load within tributaries, quick silting of the
reservoir takes place.
(a) Bed load, and (b) Suspended load.
Bed load is 10 to 15% of the suspended load.
In the reservoir, velocity of stream is very much reduced, giving rise to
settlement of coarser particles in the head reaches of the reservoir.
Finer particles are kept in suspension for sufficient time till they settle
just to the upstream side of the dam as shown in figure.
Some fine particles may pass through sluice ways, turbines or
spillways.
RESERVOIR SEDIMENT CONTROL

Following are some of the methods used for the control of reservoir:
(1)Proper Selection of Reservoir Site
The silt transported in the system depends upon the nature of the
catchment area.
The reservoir site should be such that it excludes runoff from easily
erodable catchment area.
If a certain tributary of the main stream carries more silt, the dam
should be constructed to the upstream of that tributary.
(2)Control of Sediment Inflow
This is a preventive measure.
Small check dams may be constructed across those
tributaries which carry more silt.
Increase of vegetal cover over the catchment area also
decreases the soil erosion and hence sediment inflow is
reduced.
3) Proper Designing and Reservoir Planning

 A small reservoir on a big river has lesser trap efficiency.

 Hence, if the dam is constructed lower in the first
instance, and is being raised in stages, the life of the
reservoir will be very much increased.
 Sufficient outlets should be provided in the dam at
various elevations, so that the floods can be discharged
to the downstream without much silt deposit.
(4) Control of Sediment Deposit
• The sediment deposit in the reservoir can be controlled by
proper operation of the gates of scouring sluices and the
head regulators of the canals etc.
• These should be so designed and operated that selective
removal of silt is affected.
• During the floods, when sediment inflow is higher, the
scouring sluices must be opened to discharge the silt
downstream.
(5) Removal of Sediment Deposit
 This is a curative measure.
 The under-sluices may be used to scour the deposited silt.
 The silt deposit can also be removed by excavating and
dredging processes, though this proposal is very costly.
 The best way, therefore, is to first disturb the deposited silt by
mechanical means so that the silt is loosened and pushed
towards the sluices, and then opening the sluices so that most
of the silt is discharged downstream.
 Another useful way is to let most of the flood water pass
through the scouring sluices with minimum detention in the
reservoir. This will require strong structural components of the
sluice gates.
(6) Erosion Control in the Catchment Area
Various methods of soil conservation can be adopted, such as:
• provision of control bunds
• checking gully formation by providing small embankments,
• afforestation
• re-grassing and control of grazing etc
• provision of vegetation screen helps in reducing the ‘sheet
erosion’
ECONOMIC HEIGHT OF A DAM
The economic height of a dam is that height of a dam,
corresponding to which, the cost of the dam per unit of
storage is minimum.

For this purpose, the estimates are prepared for construction

costs, for several heights of dams, somewhat above and
below the level at which the elevation storage curve shows a
fairly high rate of increase of storage per unit rise of elevation,
keeping the length of the dam moderate.

The construction cost is found to increase with the dam

height, as shown
 For each dam height, the reservoir storage is known from
the reservoir-capacity curve.

 The construction cost per unit of storage for all the possible
dam heights can then be worked out and plotted, as shown
in previous figure.

 The lowest point A on this curve, gives the dam height for
which the cost per unit of storage is minimum, and hence,
most economical.
Example:-
The construction costs for certain possible height of a dam at a
given site have been estimated and are tabulated in the table
below. The storage capacity for all these dam heights are also
given.
Determine the most economical height of the dam from purely
construction point of view. S. Height of Construction Storage
No. the dam cost
(m) (MRs) (MCM)
1 10 4 50
2 20 8 110
3 30 12 180
4 40 18 250
5 50 27 350
6 60 39 500
7 65 50 600
Solution:
The given table is extended, so as to workout the cost per million
cubic meter of storage as shown in col. 5.
S. Height Constructio Storag Cost per Cost per
No of the n cost e unit of unit of
. dam (MRs) storage storage
(m) (MCM) (MRs/MCM) (MRs/MCM)
*1000
1 10 4 50 0.080 80
2 20 8 110 0.073 73
3 30 12 180 0.067 67
4 40 18 250 0.072 72
5 50 27 350 0.077 77
6 60 39 500 0.078 78
7 65 50 600 0.083 83

The cost per unit of storage is plotted against the height of the
dam, as shown in figure.
The most economical height is the lowest point of this curve,
and it works out to be 30 meters.
ECONOMICS OF THE COMBINED PROJECT
 Engineering economy is the science of applying economic
criteria to select the best of alternative engineering designs.

 A design if implemented will produce a time pattern of

consequences which must be predicted, evaluated and
compared.

 The principles of engineering economics guide the structuring

of alternatives so they may be compared to determine which
should be selected.

 The evaluation process requires prediction of consequences

expected to result from picking the alternative, estimation of
the magnitude of each consequence, and conversion of each
consequence magnitude into measurable units.
Some Basic Principles
1) Equivalence of kind

The major obstacles to expressing the consequences of alternative

courses of action in commensurable units are differences in kind and
differences in time.

For example, one irrigation project provides water for peaches, the
second provides water for the production of cotton.

Construction of first project will produce x tons of peaches.

Construction of second will produce y bales of cotton.

If two projects can be constructed for equal cost, selection depends

upon whether x tons of peaches or y bales of cotton is more valuable.

These could be compared only when they are expressed in common

units.

The first step in economic analysis must be to find a common unit.

2) Equivalence of Time

An irrigation project will provide water for many years. In evaluating the
example project, shall peaches produced this year be reckoned as
having equal value to those expected to be produced 30 years from
now?

Most people would be more inclined to invest a dollar to produce 5 lb of

peaches now than to invest the dollar to produce 5 lb of peaches 30
years from now.

In order to make realistic investment decisions, each monetary value

must be identified by both amount and time.

Amounts at different times should not be directly compared or

combined. They are not in common units. Amounts in different time
periods may be made equivalent by multiplying future amounts by a
factor becoming progressively smaller into the more distant future.
3) Whose View Point??

There are three possible view points in an engineering economy

study.

1. That of the group sponsoring or financing the project, consider

only consequences affecting this group.

2. That of all the people in a specific area such as a state, county

or special district, consider only consequences affecting those
living in this defined area.

3. That of the entire nation, consider all consequences to

whomsoever they may occure.
4) Sunk Cost

The justification of following a course of action depends on the

events occurring with it being better than those occurring without
it, by an amount exceeding its implementation cost.

5) Incremental Cost

According to incremental cost principle, the change in benefits,

and the change in costs resulting from a given decisions
determine the merit of that decision.

Each project segment should be judged on its own merits.

6) Intangible Value

Each value which cannot be expressed in monetary terms is

called an intangible or irreducible.

For example, species of plants or animal life or sights of unusual

beauty have:

no acknowledged money value;

Neither they have direct effects on human beings:

physically through loss of health or life;

emotionally through loss of national prestige; or

psychologically through environmental changes.

All intangible values should be quantified as precisely as possible.

The decision maker should have access to the best possible

information on the nature of intangible consequences as well as
the magnitude of the economic consequences.
7) Predictive Uncertainty

Because economic analysis compare future consequences of

engineering alternatives, the reliability of each conclusion
depends on the ability to predict future events.

Uncertainty w.r.to water resources project evaluation has been

described by Mckeans, “inherent in the nature of things and is not
necessarily evidence of lazy or careless estimation”.

8) Structuring Alternatives

All reasonable possibilities should be considered.

Fig. 6.11 shows s plot between trap efficiency and capacity inflow ration
on the basis of the existing reservoirs. It is clear from the above curve
that for a given inflow rate, the trap efficiency decreases wit reduction in
reservoirs capacity due to sediment deposit. Hence the rate of silting is
higher in the initial stages, and it decreases as silting take place. Thus
the complete filling of a reservoir may take a very long time.

At the same time, a small reservoir (having small capacity) on a large stream (having large inflow
rates) has a very small Capacity ratio.
Inflow

The trap efficiency for such a reservoir is extremely small and stream passes most of its inflow so quickly
that the finer sediments do not settle but are discharged downstream. On the other hand, a large
reservoir constructed on small stream (having less inflow rates) has greater Capacity ratio. Such a
Inflow

Reservoir has greater trap efficiency. Such a reservoir may retain water for several years and permit
almost complete deposition of the sediment.