5.4.

Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities

 The political, social, and economic processes of the medieval period
were the major factors for the people's interactions across regions.
 Such interactions occurred during peace and conflict times.
 The cases in point were:
1. Trade contacts
2. conflicts to control trade routes
3. religious expansion
4. territorial expansion
5. population movements.

1
 Cont. . .

 The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption

mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa.
A. Guddifacha: refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent.
 In this system, the child enjoyed equal rights and privileges
with a biological child.
B. Moggasa- was a system of adopting non-oromos commonly known as
Oromsu
 incorporation of individuals or groups to a clan through oath of
allegiance with all the rights and obligations that such
membership entailed.
-The adopted gained both protection and material benefits.

2
 Cont. . .

 Neighboring people adopted Gadaa system & Oromo language.

 the Oromo also adopted and adapted cultures and traditions of
others
example; 1. adoption of monarchical systems
2. integration with Christian & Muslim cultures.
3. the rise of nobles in the northern Oromo in
politics of the Gondarian period, Zemene-
Mesafint, the making of modern Ethiopia.

3
 5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions
5.5.1. Peoples and States in the East

Somali
 Somali practiced pastoral economy
 Merca town was a capital that brought large number of Somalis
together in the 13th
 Somali contingents also played important role in the victories of the
Sultanate of Adal against the Christian kingdom

4
 C o n t.

 Historically, a council known as shir governed the society.

-highly democratic in w/h all-adult male equally participated
-the council governed wide-ranging affairs; resource allocation,
marriage, trade and crime.
Afar
 Lived northeastern Ethiopia, northern Djibouti, southern Eritrea.
 Afar had an indigenous governance, Makabanto, democracy.

5
 Cont. . .

 occupied the lowland territory near Bab el-Mandeb in 13th

 Afar founded many historical cities; Maduna and Abasa
 after Adal collapsed in the 16thc, the Afar established
sultanates; Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito and Gobad.
 Awsa Sultanate succeeded the Imamate of Awsa since
1577, when Mohammed Jasa moved his seat from Harar
to Awsa.

6
 C o n t.

Argoba
 insufficient reference or information about Argoba people.
 with regard to their origin, there are two versions
1. they descended from the followers of Prophet Mohammed who
came to the Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat.
2. the Argoba is not related with Muslim-Arab immigrants.
The Emirate of Harar
 Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers & capital of Adal until
1577
 Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim used Harar as center to launch his
campaign against Christian kingdom
 during the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a walled city
where the sultanate of Harari developed
7
 Cont. . .

 In the mid 17th c, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647-62) in cooperation
with the Oromo established a dynasty which ruled for nearly two
centuries and a half.
 Its economic power grew as it controlled trade routes
 Ruled the surrounding Oromo & Somali through trade, inter-
marriage, & expansion of Islamic teachings.
 Its last amir, Amir Abdulahi submitted to Emperor Menilek in 1887.

8
5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South Central Parts
The Kingdom of Shewa

 formed by Negasi Kristos (r.1696-1703)

 Expanded to control Asandabo, Debdabo, Mafud and Ifat.
 The dynasty became very strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie
(r.1813-47), the grandfather of Emperor Menilek II.
-many travelers visited Shewa and signed “treaty of friendship and
commerce” with the British in 1841.
 its economy mainly based on agriculture, trade and craft.

9
 C o n t.

 There was an important trade center known as Aliyu Amba near

Ankobar, administered by the Shewan court.
Gurage
 divided into Western (Sebat Bet) & Northern Gurage (Kistane).
 The staple crop in Gurage land is enset.
 Their traditional system of governance is Yajoka Qicha among the
Sebat Bet and the Gordanna Sera among the Kistane.
 There was, however, no centralized leadership.
 Power was vested in clan or lineage groups.

10
 C o n t.

Kambata
 By about 1550-70, four communities of separate origin united to
form the contemporary state of Kambata
 These are; people originated from Hambericho, and those who
came from Sidama; Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro
 Their ethno-genesis was also related with Omotic and Semitic
peoples who moved into the region
 Emperor Yishak (r.1413-30) annexed Kambata proper
 In 1532, it was captured by Imam Ahmed’s army
 speaks Kambatissa, Highland East Cushitic family
 The people were ensete farmers

11
 Cont. . .

 Their traditional administrative- the Hambericho Council.

- it had 7 members representing the seven clans.
Hadiya
 its origin goes back to the 13th century.
 It was mentioned in the Kebre-Negest (Glory of the Kings)
 heterogeneous both linguistically and culturally.
Northern (Semitic-speaking agricultural people) while the southern
part was largely inhabited by Cushitic-speaking pastoral communities.
There was a considerable Muslim population.
 By 1332, Amde-Tsion subjugated it after defeating Amano.

12
 Cont. . .

 Hadya King, Mahiqo rebelled against Emperor Zara-Yaqob.

 To solve the problem, Zara-Yaqob made political marriage.
- Married Princess Elleni, from Hadiya.
 Garad Aze refused to pay tribute to Emperor Sartsa-Dengel, but
was suppressed in 1568/9.
 The relation between Hadya and Christian kingdom was interrupted
following the wars between Adal and the Christian highland
kingdom and the Oromo expansion.
 After these two major historical events, Hadiya’s population
became more diverse

13
 Cont. . .
 However, descendants of the old Hadiya traced from four different
linguistic clusters: the Oromo, the Sidama, the Kabena and Alaba
 the Hadiya language are intelligible to members of Kambata and
Sidama groups
5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South
Sidama
 they have been living in the highlands of Arbegona, Bansa and
Arroressa districts
 Agriculture remained the basis of Sidama’s economy.
* major food and cash crops (enset and coffee)
 Their indigenous governance led by the Mote (king)

14
 Cont. . .
*worked in consultation with council of elders called Songo.
*Songo discussed on any agenda and submitted their
decisions to the Mote for approval
 their cultural and ritual leader was the Woma
* Woma elected based on peacemaking role, bodily
perfection, oratorical ability, wisdom and caution.
*as a man of peace, couldn't participate in war/cattle raiding
*offering sacrifices to spirits.
*performed other rituals; circumcision and marriage.
 They were divided into generation-sets called Luwa.
*had five grades each lasting for eight years.

15
 Cont. . .
*These are; Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa & Mogissa
*Candidates received a five-month military training and war
songs like gerarsha under the gaden & his deputy Ja’lawa.
*The gaden settled disputes
 Another important institution of them is Seera.
*governing social life based on their moral code, halale (the
ultimate truth) to judge the right and wrong.
*people abide by the unwritten principle of halale to avoid
curse or ostracization by the society.
Gedeo
 Contradictory traditions exist regarding their origin.
 The dominant tradition relates the ancestors of the Gedeo to
Daraso, older brother of Gujo (father of Guji). 16
 Cont. . .
 Accordingly, the seven major Gedeo clans descended
from the seven sons of Daraso.
 The clans were grouped in two houses;
1. the shole batte (senior house)
2. the sase batte (junior house)

17
 Cont. . .
 economy was based on the cultivation of enset.
Konso
 Among the ancient peoples of the region who speak affa
Konso (Konso language)
 literal meaning of the term is “heavily forested hill/ area.”
 one of the earliest human settlement sites in the world,
attracted researchers interested in human evolution
 Agricultural- intensive agriculture
*specialized agricultural technology.
*combined crop production with cattle breeding, bee keeping
and craftworks.

18
 Cont. . .
*soil conservation techniques notably the construction of
terraces, which proved helpful to convert rugged and hilly
areas into permanent cultivation.
 lived in walled villages (paletas) w/h were further divided
into wards called Kanta till late 19th
 There was no central authority
 Each village was ruled by a council of elders called
hayyota, elected through direct participation of male
 Membership to the council was not hereditary but
rotated every eighteen years.
 At the core of the socio-political organization of the Konso
appear to be the clan or lineage group and generation set,
Tselta
19
 Cont. . .
5.5.4. Peoples and States in Southwestern Part
Wolayta
 first emerged as a state in the 13th century.
 before the emergence of Wolayta as a political unit,
the area was inhabited by; Badia, Badiagadala and
Aruja.
 The state flourished in the late 18th and early 19th
centuries due to successful wars that the Wolayta
fought against their neighbors and the material,
human and territorial gains thereof.

20
 Cont. . .
 At the apex of the social and political hierarchy was the
Kawo (king), assisted by a council of advisors.
 From the 13th to the late 19th centuries, two successive
dynasties ruled Wolayta: the Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre.
 Founded in the 13th century by Motalami, the Wolayta-
Malla seems to have ruled until the end of the 15th century.
 then superseded by the Tigre dynasty, so called because it
was supposedly founded by Tigreans
 The land is known for its fertility and moderate climate,
with green vegetation cover for the most part of the year.
 All land was nominally owned by the king who granted it
to his dependents.
21
 Cont. . .
Kafa
 According to traditions, this powerful kingdom emerged
in the 14th century.
 Around mid 17th c, the state had come to prominence.
 The ruling Minjo dynasty and the medieval kingdom of
Ennarya had close contact.
 The Oromo expansion might have forced the ruling house
of Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb which as a result
brought Christianity and the royal title tato to Kafa.
 economy was based on the cultivation of enset on peasant
farms supported by trade.
 peasants rendered free labor service and tilled royal
estates 22
 Cont. . .
 From the 17th to the 18th centuries, the kingdom expanded
to Bonesho, Mashengo, Maji, Nao, She and Chara.
 the top administrator of the kingdom was the Tato
- assisted by a council of seven advisors called Mikrecho.
- The Mikrecho worked to moderate the power of the king
and pacifying roles in succession.
 notable seats; Bonga and Andarcha, 7 miles to southeast.
 had a tradition of digging deep trenches called Kuripo as
defensive barrier.
 Gojeb served as natural protection against external
invasion.
Yem
23
 Cont. . .
 eastern banks of Gibe or to northeast of the Kafa kingdom.
 economy combined agriculture, trade and crafts.
 Initially, an indigenous dynasty called Dida or Halmam-
Gamma ruled Yem from its palace in Dudarkema/Zimarma
near Oya, in the vicinity of Bor Ama Mountain.
 the top political leader, the Amno (king)
-A state council of 12 members named Astessor with its
chairperson Waso assisted the Amno
 Erasho were the provincial governors and they were
responsible for digging ditches called bero and erecting
nearly fifty-meter wooden or iron pillars at the center of
the kingdom around Brisi Bita so that the war father, the
Nomiaw, could patrol the surroundings.
24
 Cont. . .
 Special messengers, Wosi carried orders from Amno down
to district chiefs, Gagna and vice versa.
 In the 14th century, the last King Oyokam/Amo Dasha was
overthrown by people from the north who founded a new
dynasty called Mowa (Howa) with its center at Angari.
 In the 19th century, the neighboring state of Jimma Abba
Jifar tried to control the Yem
Gamo
 inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo and Abaya to the
Gughe Mountain and beyond.
 landscape divided into: geze (highland) & bazo (lowland).
 The first mention of them in written records dates back to
the 15th c in the praise songs of king Yishak (r.1413-30).
25
 Cont. . .
 The highlands were densely populated
 the lowlands were served as hunting fields.
 indigenous laws called the Woga defined land-use
 formed natural resource mgt system that governed
everything from interpersonal r/ships to conservation and
preservation of pasture, forest, soil, water.
 enset subsistence of highlands while maize and sweet
potato were staple food crops in the lowlands
 Craft making, pot making, tanning and metalworking
 had indigenous knowledge and technologies to
manufacture tools and weapons, traditional musical and
funeral instruments, weaving colorful textiles etc.
26
 Cont. . .
 16th - 19th c, they lived in scattered settlements &
organized in different communities called dere.
 The dere were politically autonomous villages (units)
shared three essential features.
1) had kawo (hereditary ruler) who also offered sacrifices and
symbolized the unity of the people.
2) every dere had its own initiates called halaqa and;
3) every dere had its own assembly (dubusha), where
communal matters were discussed and disputes solved.
 Access to politico-ritual status was made possible through
initiation or election and baira, a system of seniority.
A. initiation or election the dulata (assembly) elected married
men to positions 27
 Cont. . .
*Election to halaqa, huduga or maga office was open to all
married men
*The dulata had an institutional authority to give decisions
on different social, political and many other important matters
*The assembly had power to impose sanctions on who
committed serious crimes or violated the community’s social
regulations and cultural values.
B. the baira, was ascribed and largely based on genealogical
seniority according to primogeniture.
*The baira (senior) of the clan had a privilege over lineage
*The baira made animal sacrifice on behalf of their juniors
*The senior sacrificer of the dere is the kawo.
Dawuro 28
 Cont. . .
 mountainous and plateau at the central, and lowland and
plain at Gojeb and Omo river basins.
 Their livelihood based on mixed agricultural activities.
 Their language is Dawurotsuwa
 inhabited by three major clans; Malla, Dogolla and Amara
which altogether were regarded as Gok’as or K’omos.
 home for people that came from neighboring Omotic
states such as Wolayta, Gamo, Gofa, and Kafa and from
places like Gondar, Gojjam, Tigray and Shewa.
 A political alliance through royal marriages facilitated
the movement of people from neighboring territories
 By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a big
state between the Gojeb and Omo rivers and Kafa in29 the
 Cont. . .
 rulers of the Kawuka dynasty, Kati Irashu and Kati Halala
-Kati Halala was the grandson of the king of Kafa.
-During his reign, Dawuro incorporated Konta.
-known for his stone fortifications
Ari
 Omo River basin had been home to Ari, Dasenech,
Tsemayi, Erbore, Hamer, Surma, Meniet, Nyangatom, Bodi,
Male, …
 Economic; sedentary agriculture, pastoralism handcrafts.
 Their language is called Araf, Omotic language family.
 The people were sedentary agriculturalist.
 organized into ten independent clan based chiefdoms
30
 Cont. . .
 Hereditary clan chief Babi headed each chiefdoms.
-was entitled with both political and ritual authorities
-assisted by officially appointed prominent figures; Godimis
(religious leaders), Zis (village heads) & Tsoikis (intelligence
agents).
5.5.5. Peoples and States in the West
Berta and Gumuz
 The earliest record dates from the 16th century.
 speak Berta language, tonal language in Nilo Saharan
 Gumuz are mentioned by Scottish explorer James Bruce.
 He noted them as hunter with bows and arrows
 speak the Gumuz language, belongs to Nilo-Saharan
31
 Cont. . .
 Islamic influence had been strong on the Berta and other
Nilotes b/s of trade & social contacts with northern Sudan.
Anywa
 inhabited areas along Pibor, Sobat, Gila, Akobo, Agwei,
Oboth, Baro, and Alwero Rivers on the western borderlands
of the present-day Gambella.
 They speak Dha-anywaa, Nilo- Saharan
 each village ruled under a chief Kuaari helped by nobles,
Nyiye.
- they managed the distribution of farm and grazing fields
- settled disputes with the community.

32
 Cont. . .
 engaged in small scale cultivation, fishing and hunting.
 practiced Christianity and traditional religion.
Nuer
 lived in areas extended the Bahr el-Ghazal and the Upper
Nile regions of the Sudan.
 Since the 19th c, they had been largely settled in the plains
of Gambella along Sobat & Baro Rivers & parts Sudan.
 cattle breeding supplemented by crop production
 had age-set system combining social & political functions.
Majang
 Settled on the escarpment highlands to the Baro plains.
 Linguistic evidence relates their origin to the Boma plateau
in South Sudan. 33
 Cont. . .
 By mid 20th c, their settlement extended to areas near
Dembi-Dollo in the north.
 practiced shifting cultivation and animal husbandry, bee
keeping, hunting and fishing.
The Kunama (Baza)
 one of the ancient inhabitants of western Eritrea on the
Gash and Tekkeze Rivers and in today’s northwestern and
western Tigray.
 al-Ya‛qubi in 872 A.D. mentions the kingdom of Baza,
which is a self-designation of the Kunama.
 had a customary institution called sanga-anene mandated
with the administration of the society.
34
 Cont. . .
 other responsibilities include;
-granting asylum to new comers in their compounds
-performing rituals as part of reconciliation process in case of
homicides.
 transmitted hereditarily from the eldest brother to the next
born through matrilineal line.
 The mainstay of their economy is mixed agriculture.
 Signs of past practices of terraced agriculture are still
visible
5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint
5.6.1. The Gondarine Period
A. Political Developments
35
 Cont. . .
 started during the reign of Sartsa Dengel
 He established royal camp at Enfranz in 1571.
 Emperor Susenyos centered at; Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and
Azazo.
 Gondar was founded in 1636
 Gondar achieved its glory during reigns: Fasiledas (r.1632–
67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706).
1. the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion
2. The establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to
solve problems stemming from power rivalry.
3. Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a separate
quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem.
36
 Cont. . .
4. Iyasu I;
A. reformed land tenure system
B. introduced a system of land measurement in Begemder,
taxes, and customs, and
C. revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
 The period after him was characterized by:
1. Political instability
2. faction
3. intrigue
4. Poisoning of reigning monarchs
 involvement of the Oromo in the imperial court and the
army: Wubit Amito VS Etege Mentwab
37
 Achievements of the Gondarine Period
 Gondar designated as center of Ethiopian renaissance:
-repeat the splendors of Aksum and Lalibela.
-Gondar became the center of state administration, learning,
commerce, education, art, and crafts for more than two
centuries
1. Architecture
 castles, bridges, residences, bath, library, towers,
fortifications and churches
2. Painting:
 wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood,
ornaments, weapons and other accessories

38
 Cont. . .
 The churches built by Queen Mentwab were known for their
beautiful paintings, cross and art works.
3. Literature:
 The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great
number of manuscripts.
 the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian
Saints and the Litanies, many other kinds of illuminated
manuscripts
 its traditional medicine, music and poetry.
4. Trade and Urbanization
 Gondar was a commercial center that connected long
distance trade routes of the southern region with Massawa
and Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan border. 39
 Cont. . .
 Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange.
 Daily markets were commonly held in the city.
 became residences of foreign communities like Indians,
Greeks and Armenians
 The city had estimated 60,000-70,000 population.
 served as religious center of Christians, Muslims and Bete-
Israel.
 Many of the Orthodox churches served education centers,
teaching aqwaqwam, and liturgical chanting
5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
 actual political power was in the hands of d/t regional lords
 Lasted from 1769 to 1855
 Ras Mika’el was a king-maker who attempted to dominate 40
 Cont. . .
 coalitions of lords of Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta & Wollo
defeated him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771.
 The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords
ruled were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta,
Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa.
 When compared to each other the “Yejju dynasty” was the
leading power during the period with the center at Debre-
tabor.
 Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as the
founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
 The period of Zemene Mesafint was brought to an end by
Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a series of battles that lasted
from 1840s to 1855.
41
 Cont. . .
Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
 absence of effective central government;
 the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
 the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern
Ethiopia rivalry and competition among regional lords to
assume the position of king-maker;
 establishment of fragile coalitions to advance political
interests;
 EOC was unable to play its traditional role of unifying the
state due to doctrinal disputes;
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended “closed-door” policy
UNIT SIX:
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS & EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF42