RIVERS

By Mr kelvin
The Hydrological Cycle
 The Hydrological Cycle
• The Hydrological Cycle is the continuous
movement of water on the Earth between
the land, sea and air. It is powered by the Sun.
• It can move as liquid water or water vapour . It
can be stored as water, water vapour or frozen
water (ice)
• It is a closed system which means no water is
added to or lost from it. It simply cycles round
again and again.
 The process of hydrological cycle
• Evaporation = when water turns
into water vapour and rises after
heating
• Condensation = when water
vapour turns back into water
droplets after cooling
• Transpiration = water vapour
given off by plants
• Precipitation = water in any form
that falls to earth
• Surface run off = water running
over the surface of the earth
• Groundwater flow= Water that
travels underground through rock
 The River/ Drainage Basin Cycle

Definitions Parts of a drainage basin

• The River/ Drainage Basin Cycle
• A drainage or river basin is an area of
land that is drained by a main river
and its tributaries (small rivers joining
the main river).
• A river flows through a drainage basin
from its source (start) to
its mouth (end)
• The edge of a drainage basin is known
as the watershed.
• A confluence is the point where two
rivers meet.
The drainage basin cycle is an open system- as water can be
added or taken away from it, into neighbouring river basins.
Look at the diagram of the drainage basin cycle below and
check you understand all the new terms on this diagram.
Interception = when water is stopped from
reaching the ground often by plants
Stem flow = when water travels down the
stem or trunk of a plant
Infiltration = when water soaks into the soil
surface
Percolation = When water moves downwards
through underground rocks
Through flow= water traveling sideways
through soil
How does a river change
from its source to mouth?
As a river travels through its drainage
basin, it changes. When you look at
the whole course of a river, we call this
a river’s long profile.

We split the river into three stages-

Upper, Middle and Lower Course and
they all look very different.
 River erosion
• Hydraulic Action
• This process involves the force of water
pushing air into the cracks of the beds
and banks which forces them apart
• Abrasion
• This is the process by which the bed and
banks are worn down by material in the
river (load).
• Attrition
• Material (the load) carried by the river
bump into each other and so are broken
down and smoothed
• Corrosion
• This is the chemical action of river
water. The acids in the water slowly
dissolve the bed and the banks.
 Erosional landforms
rapids, potholes and waterfalls
Potholes
Waterfalls
 Transportation of material
• • It is carried in four different ways by the
Once material has been
river depending on its size and the
eroded by the river, it is material is.
often carried along in the • 1) Traction = Boulders and pebbles are
rolled along the river bed at times of high
river itself. The materials discharge
that are carried by the river • 2) Saltation = Sand sized particles are
are known as a river’s load. bounced along the river bed by the flow of
water
• This load is all different sizes • 3) Suspension = Fine clay and sand
and shapes and materials. particles are carried along within the water
even at low discharges
Depending on the river’s • 4) Solution= Some minerals dissolve in
discharge (amount of water water such as calcium carbonate. This
requires very little energy.
in a river at a given time) , it •
can carry more or less load. • When a river loses energy it drops what it
is carrying. This is called deposition.
 meanders
• Meanders
• As a river moves through the
flatter land of the middle and
lower courses it develops large
meanders (bends). These
meanders constantly change
their shape and position.
However, if you looked at any
meander in a cross section,
they are very different from
one side to the other. We call
each side either the outside
bend or the inside bend.
As the water flows through a meander the
following things occur:
– Most water is directed towards the outside
of a bend
– This means it flows faster around the outside
bend
– It therefore has more energy and erodes the
outside bend
– This means it is deeper and has steeper
banks called a river cliff
– As most of the water is directed to the
outside bend, the inside bend has less water
– Less water means that it is shallower and
slower and therefore has less energy
– It therefore deposits (drops) material on the
inside bend
– This builds up to form a slip off slope
 Ox Bow Lakes
• C shaped lakes called Ox
Bow Lakes are formed
when meanders
continually erode
 Depositional features
• Deposition of material can also create some
specific features/landforms in a river’s course.
These include floodplains, levees and deltas.
• Floodplains and levees are formed in the middle
and lower course of a river
• Floodplains and leveés are formed by deposition in
times of river flood.
• The river’s load is composed of different sized
particles.
• When a river floods it deposits the heaviest of these
particles first. The larger particles, often pebble-
sized, form the leveés.
• Levees are raised banks right next to the river banks.
• As the water continues to flood futher away from
the river banks, the sands are deposited next, then
the silts and finally the lightest clays.
• This build up of sand, silt and clays leads to the
formation of a flat piece of land (floodplain) either
side of the river- just after the levees.
• Every time the river floods deposition builds up
the floodplain.
 Deltas
• Deltas are formed at the end of a river,
where the river meets the sea at its mouth.
• As large rivers approach the sea they have
the energy to carry large amounts of fine
material in suspension.
• When they reach the sea this slows their
velocity and they lose their energy.
• The fine material is then deposited into the
mouth of the river and can block the
channel.
• The river has to divide into a series of
smaller channels called distributaries tin
order to each the sea.
• Over time, the deposited material (sand
and silt) builds upwards and can break
through the river surface to form a delta.
• Deltas will only form where large amounts
of material are carried or the sea is calm.
River flooding
A river floods when it overflows.
Discharge = the amount of water in a
river at any time
Overbank full discharge is when the
level of water in the channel over tops
the banks and causes a flood.

The Himalayas sit to the north of

Bangladesh
The Brahmaputra and Ganges Rivers
come from India and have their lower
courses in Bangladesh
The Bay of Bengal (ocean) sits to the
south of Bangladesh
Earthquakes and Volcanoes

Hazards- what are they?

A hazard is when a dangerous situation or event happens close to
people, animals or property.
In this topic we will cover the natural hazards of earthquakes and
volcanoes; how they are formed, the damage they cause and how
they are managed.
The structure of the earth
• The outside of the planet earth is
called the crust. It is solid rock varying
in thickness (0-60km). There are two
types; oceanic and continental
• The Mantle is the widest section
(2900km) made of thick molten rocks
called magma
• The outer core is liquid nickel and
iron. with high pressure and
temperature
• The inner core is a solid nickel and
iron. very high pressure and a
temperature over 5500°c
• The crust is split into large pieces
called plates, which sit on top of the
mantle.
 a plate boundary
• If you pulled the earth’s
plates apart it would look
like this

• Each line along which two

plates meet is called a plate
boundary. If you plot these
lines on a map of the world
it looks like the map below.
 The plates don’t stay still! They move
around.
• When plates move at these boundaries- this
is called tectonics- But why do they move?
• When the plates move
and meet at plate
boundaries they cause
earthquakes and
• Convection currents takes place in the
mantle. volcanoes. That is why
• The cores heat makes the mantle rise in a
current
when you plot
• The current cools as it gets closer to the earthquakes and
surface
• It travels under the plates and pulls them volcanoes on a map,
•
with it.
When the current cools down more, the
the pattern mainly
convection current moves back down follows the plate
• There the temperature increases and the
current rises again. This repeats boundary lines.
 Describe the global distribution of
earthquakes and volcanoes
1.They are mostly along
plate boundaries ;(which
are regions of crustal
instability and tectonic
activity)
2.They are majorly on the
western coast
3.Some appear in areas
away from plate
boundaries
 Types of plate boundaries
• Due to the fact that • At a constructive plate boundary,
two plates move apart causing sea
convection currents floor spreading.
don’t always move the • As the two plates move apart,
magma rises to fill the gap and
same way, plates can creates new oceanic crust and
be pulled in different volcanoes.
directions, causing four • However, since the magma can
escape easily at the surface the
different types of plate volcano does not erupt violently
boundaries. • Earthquakes are also found at
• 1) Constructive plate constructive boundaries.
• An example of a constructive
boundary boundary is the Mid Atlantic ridge
 Destructive and collision
• 2) Destructive plate boundary • 3) Collision plate boundary

• A destructive plate boundary is found where a

continental plate meets an oceanic plate
• The oceanic plate descends under the • Collision boundaries occur when two
continental plate because it is denser. continental plates move together
• Once it sinks it melts and new magma is • This causes the material between them to
formed that escapes to the surface as buckle and rise up, forming fold mountains
volcanoes through the continental plate • The Himalayas are an example of fold
• Deep sea trenches are formed mountains.
• The continental plate folds into fold mountain • They have been formed by the African plate
colliding into the Eurasian plate.
 4) Conservative plate boundary
• Conservative plate boundaries
exist where two plates do not
directly collide but slide past
each other along a fault
(weakness).
• No volcanoes are found along
these plate boundaries
because magma can not
escpae, but earthquakes do
occur.
• An example of such a
boundary is the San Andreas
Fault in California, USA
 Earthquakes- Why do they happen?
• Earthquakes are vibrations • Focus = the point within the
caused by earth movements at crust from which an
plate boundaries. earthquake begins
• They can occur at all four major • Epicentre = the point on the
plate boundaries but the most surface directly above the
severe earthquakes are focus, where the earthquake
normally found is felt most strongly
at conservative and destructive
plate boundaries. • Shock waves / Seismic
• There are some key terms it is waves = Ripples of
important to know before you movement passing through
can give an explanation of why the earths crust which come
an earthquake occurs. out from the focus. They are
what causes the shaking
 Could you answer the following question?
• Explain how earthquakes are
caused (6m)
• * Two plates are trying to move
past each other
• * The plates become locked
• * Pressure builds as the plates
continue to try to move
• * Pressure is finally released and
the plates move suddenly (jolt)
• * This sends shockwaves through
the crust from the focus
• * Shockwaves are felt most
strongly at the epicentre on the
surface
• Earthquake strength is
judged using the Richter
Scale. A number is given
to each earthquake from
1-10 based on the
magnitude of a tremor
(how powerful it is) . This
is decided using an
instrument called
a seisometer.
 Volcanoes- What is a volcano?
• A volcano is a cone • What is a volcano like
shaped hill or mountain inside?
formed by magma from
the mantle being forced
through an opening or
vent in the Earth’s crust.
 Parts and types
• Magma chamber = the reservoir of • Even though volcanoes may
magma located deep inside a volcano
• Crater = the bowl shaped opening at the have similar features they
top of a volcano can often be very different
• Vent = the channel through the volcano shapes and have very
which allows magma within the volcano
to reach the surface different eruption styles.
• Secondary cone = an alternative route There are two main types of
that magma may take to reach the surface volcano that we will learnt
if the crater is blocked
• Layers of ash and lava= these build up about
with each eruption and the volcano grows
in size
• Lava flow = the name for magma ( molten • 1) Composite Volcanoes
rock) once it has reached the surface
• Eruption cloud= A mixture of ash, gas,
rocks and steam • 2) Shield Volcanoes
 Composite and shield volcanoes

• 1) Composite Volcanoes • 2) Shield Volcanoes

• – Found mainly at destructive plate
boundaries • – Found mainly at
• – Violent eruptions often with pyroclastic constructive boundaries or
flows
• – Thick viscous lava which moves slowly
hotspots
and can block the crater • – Gentle eruptions with lava
• – Steep sided volcanoes which build up
from the thick lava and ash. • – Runny basaltic lava which
moves fast and can travel
long distances from the
crater
• – Gentle sided volcanoes
which form from far flowing
lava.
•
 What makes volcanoes hazardous?
• Lava flow- molten rock which can
be thick, viscous and slow or fast
and runny
• Lahars – Mud slide caused by ash
mixing with either rain water or
melted ice/snow from the top of
the volcano
• Pyroclastic flows- Superhot (700
degrees) flows of ash and pumice
(volcanic rock) at speeds of over
500km/hr
•
• Volcanic bombs– large chunks of
solidified lava
 Why do volcanoes erupt?- The causes of
volcanic eruptions
• Volcanoes can erupt at both Constructive
plate boundaries and Destructive plate • Constructive plate
boundaries
boundary

• You need to be able to explain

the process that causes to volcanoes
erupting at each boundary
Destructive plate boundary
• Explain why a volcano erupts at a
destructive plate boundary (7m)
• An oceanic plate moves towards a
continental plate
• Oceanic plate moves under the
continental plate
• This is because the oceanic plate is
denser
• The oceanic plate melts because of the
friction and heat
• More magma is made
• Pressure builds up
• Because of the pressure magma forces
it way up through cracks in the
continental plate
• It erupts on the surface as a volcano
Managing tectonic hazards
When we use the term management, what we
really mean is making a response to try to
reduce the impacts that an earthquake or a
volcano will have.
There are three main responses that people
can take to manage a hazard
Prediction = Trying to find out when and
where an eruption/earthquake would occur
Preparation = Getting an area is ready for an
earthquake/ volcano so that it causes the least
damage/death as possible
Recovery = Helping to deal with the effects of
an earthquake/volcano after it has occurred
 structure
• The image below shows
some structural
features of an
earthquake resistant
building
 Field work PP4 WORK

• Can you put these processes in

the order they would come in a
field work investigation?
•
• Conclusion Planning and
organisation Data
Presentation Analysis
• Data Collection
• Fieldwork is when you go out and
collect data yourself to find out
the answer to a geographical
question.
• The order of a field work
investigation
 Choosing your sampling methods
• Once on your field work you need to ensure • Advantages and Disadvantages of Sampling:
your sampling method is appropriate • Advantages of Sampling:
• Sampling have various benefits to us. Some of the advantages are listed below:
• 1) Systemmatic sampling- using a regular • · Sampling saves time to a great extent by reducing the volume of data. You do not
interval or pattern go through each of the individual items.
• · Sampling Avoids monotony in works. You do not have to repeat the query again
• -For example. Asking a questionnaire to every and again to all the individual data.
7th person who passes or sampling at every 10 • · When you have limited time, survey without using sampling becomes impossible.
It allows us to get near-accurate results in much lesser time
metres along a line. • · When you use proper methods, you are likely to achieve higher level of accuracy
by using sampling than without using sampling in some cases due to reduction in
• 2) Random sampling monotony, data handling issues etc.
• This sampling involves selecting sample points • · By using sampling, you can get detailed information on the data even by
employing small amount of resources.
or people by using random numbers to avoid • Disadvantages of Sampling:
bias. • Every coin has two sides. Sampling also have some demerits. Some of the
disadvantages are:
• 3) Stratified sampling– It is sometimes • · Since choice of sampling method is a judgmental task, there exist chances of
advisable to ensure different groups or types biasness as per the mindset of the person who chooses it.
• · Improper selection of sampling techniques may cause the whole process to
are represented in your sample at the same defunct.
proportions as they exist in real life • · Selection of proper size of samples is a difficult job.
• · Sampling may exclude some data that might not be homogenous to the data that
• – For example if 30% of a town is young, 40% are taken. This affects the level of accuracy in the results.
• For example: It’s used in situations of highly sensitive topics like HIV Aids where
are working age and 30% elderly you could people will not openly discuss and participate in surveys to share information
sample 3 young, 4 working age and 3 elderly about HIV Aids.
• Not all the victims will respond to the questions asked so researchers can contact
people people they know or volunteers to get in touch with the victims and collect
information helps in situations where we do not have the access to sufficient
people with the characteristics we are seeking. It starts with finding people to
• DESCRIBE study.
 Designing Questionnaires
• A questionnaire should…..
• -Be quick and easy for the interviewee to answer • What is wrong with
• -Remind you of what to say at the start of each
questionnaire (polite request, why you are doing the questionnaire
•
it)
–Only have questions essential to
below?
your investigation
• -Questions should be short, simple and numbered • It is going to be used
• -Include mainly closed questions with set
responses with a tick box to investigate why
• -Not embarrass the interviewee (for example
asking what sex they are or their age!) You should
different age groups
•
visually estimate these things!
-End with a thank you for their help
are drawn to a tourist
• You should also always complete a pilot
questionnaire to iron out any mistakes. This is
resort for their
where you send out a few copies of your
questionnaire to some people to find out whether
holidays
it is easy to answer, whether some questions are
worded in a confusing way, and whether you have
made any mistakes
 A better questionnaire
• The answers
• – It asks the interviewee their age
and sex! Don’t embarrass them!
• – All the questions are open which
means it take longer for the
interviewee to answer and you may
not get the responses you need
• – The questions are not all clear
(e.g. do you like it?- Like what!?)
• – There are unnecessary questions (
e.g. how did you get here?)
• – The introduction and ending
comments are not polite and
detailed enough
 Actual Data Collection
• When you go out into the field and
collect data yourself , this is
called PRIMARY DATA
• . Surveys, observations,
experiments, questionnaire,
personal interview
• If you use data that has already
been collected nclude books,
personal sources, journals,
newspapers, websitess,
government records

• or compiled by somebody else this

is called SECONDARY DATA
 Measuring channel width and depth and
drawing a cross section of a river
• The width of a river (bank
full width)
• Take a tape measure and
two poles (sticks)
• Place one pole on each bank
• Stretch the tape measure
from bank to bank touching
the poles
• It should be kept as taut as
possible to be accurate.
• Record the width in metres
 The depth of a river
• Leave the width tape measure in
place
• Put a metre rule in the water,
every 1m, until it just touches the
bed of the river
• Measure depth of the water in
metres e.g. 0.25 for 25cm. so that
width and depth measurements
are the same units.
• Next measure depth from the bed
to the measuring tape- this gives
you bank full depth
• Repeat this every metre across the
river width
 Measuring velocity of a river
• The velocity of a river is the speed at which water flows along it in
a given time frame.
• It can be done digitally with a flow meter. They have a small
propeller which you place just under the surface of the water. A
small digital read out then gives the velocity of the river

• OR it can be done manually using a float, a tape measure and a

stop watch
• Measure out 10m down the river’s course using the tape measure
• One person stands at the upstream part of the tape measure with
a float
• One person stands at the downstream part of the tape measure
with stopwatch.
• A person with a stop watch tells the upstream person to release
the float and begins timing it (in seconds). They stop timing when it
reaches the end of the measured section.
• Write down the result
• Repeat the experiment 4 more times if possible. By averaging
several different reading a better result can by obtained.
• It is also a good idea to take the timings at several locations
ACROSS at the site you have chosen and take an average, as
sometimes velocity is different in the middle of the channell
compared to the sides. Once you have your timings , work out the
average time the float took to travel 10 metres.
• Then use the formula below to work out the velocity
• Velocity = distance /time taken
Measuring size and shape of river bed load
• If you want to compare the size and shape of river bed
load at various sites along a river’s course you would
need the following equipment.
• – Callipers
• – Ruler
• – Roundness Index Chart
• instructions
• 1)Systematically sample pebbles at each site- every
metre across channel do the following
• 2) At each point reach down with the index finger
extended and select the first pebble it touches.
• 3) Grip the length of the longest axis on this pebble
using the callipers and then take the pebble out leaving
the gap still between the callipers grips.
• 4) Measure the length of this gap in the callipers using a
ruler
• 5) Now repeat this process for the width of the pebble
• 4) Also assess each pebble for it’s roundness using a
roundness index chart.
• 5) Repeat this process at every metre you stop at across
the channel (depending on the size of the sample you
want and the width of the river you may need to select
more than one pebble for each metre)
 Using ranging poles to measure beach
gradient and completing a beach profile
• – A clinometer, A tape measure and Two
• The profile is just the ranging poles
shape of the beach • 1) Person A stands at the shoreline
• 2) The Person B stands a set number of
from the shoreline to metres from person A up to beach
(measure with a tape measure)
the back shore. • 3) Person A stands at the bottom of the
• The equipment slope with the clinometer at a set level on a
ranging pole
needed for this is • 4) Person B holds a second ranging pole at
the top of the slope
• 5) Person A sights the clinometers at the
same point on the ranging pole held by B
or from their eye level and reads off the
slope angle.
• 6) Angles going uphill are recorded as
positive (+) angles and downhill as negative
(-) ones.
 Evaluation
• Accuracy = The accuracy of each method • Some good ideas for
depends on the quality of the equipment
and the skill of the geographers taking improvements are….
the measurement. If the equipment is •
faulty, or the geographer makes a
– Making a sample size
mistake, the results may be inaccurate. larger to increase reliability.
• Reliability = The reliability often depends • – Repeating a method at
on the size of the sample / number of
times you repeated the method to either a different time of
ensure your results were not a one off. day or year to compare the
• 2) If it was accurate say why / If it was
not accurate say why
results.
• 3) How could the investigation have • – Improving accuracy by
been improved if it was done again? using digital equipment
• (think about how to improve accuracy,
reliability and whether any other ( e.g. a flow meter instead
hypotheses could have been tested) of a float and stop watch)
What tools can we use to carry out fieldwork?
 O460 pp2 map work
• 6 figure grid references
• To give a more exact 6
figure grid reference,
you must imagine that
the grid square is
divided into 100 little
squares.
• Like this!
 Giving compass directions
• Sometimes in the
exam , you will be asked
to give a compass
direction from one
place to another. You
should refer to compass
points from an 8 point
compass. Remember to
always give North or
South first
Giving bearings
• Sometimes you will be asked to
give a bearing. This involves
giving an angle and a compass
direction from one place (A) to
another (B). The instructions
below, outline how you would
do this. To measure the bearing
from A to B here is what you do
• Draw a North line going North
at A
• Draw a pencil line connecting A
to B. This acts as a guide for
your protractor
 Giving bearings
• 3. Place your protractor on A
and line up 0 with the North
line.
• 4. Read round clockwise until
you reach the line going to B.
There’s your Bearing! Don’t
forget to write it with three
figures (if the angle is only two
digits put a zero in front!).
• A to B = 080o
• 5. Then add a compass
direction at the end
• 080o NE
 Using a key and map symbols
• You are quite often
asked to use a map key
to identify the name of
a certain feature on a
map. Often symbols can
look very similar, make
sure you double check
each feature you look at
to check it matches with
the key
 What if you need to measure a curved
distance ? (e.g. a river or road)
• You simply need to use a
scrap of paper. You divide
up the curved line into small
straight sections and then
you pivot the paper
alongside the curved line,
marking off straight sections
on the paper’s edge. When
you have finished you do
the same as before, and
hold the whole distance up
against the scale line
 Height on a map: Contour lines and spot
heights
• Contour lines
• Contour lines are lines drawn on a map
connecting points of equal elevation
(height), meaning if you physically
followed a contour line, elevation would
remain constant. Contour lines show
elevation and the shape of the terrain.
They’re useful because they illustrate the
shape of the land surface —
its topography— on the map.
• Sometimes not every contour line has a
number of metres written on it for the
height of the land. If this is the case, you
need to look at the height of the lines
around it, and work it out from there in
spaces of 10 metres.
• In the picture above, the two missing
heights would be 20m and 40m.
 What can contours tell you about the
shape of the land?
• If the contours are close
together, you’re looking at
a steep slope.
• If the contours have wide
spaces in between — you
are looking at a gentle
slope.
• If there are no contours at
all– the land is flat.
• Look at the shape of
the valleys and hills on the
map above.
 Spot Heights
• Spot heights are much
easier to understand
than contour lines. They
are exactly the same as
they sound, they give
height (normally in
metres) for one
particular spot on the
map.
 Describing relief
• Relief is the geographical word used to describe the
shape of the land. Exam questions often ask you to • Have a go at
describe relief by looking at a map.
• If you get a question asking you to describe the relief of
an area, you should try to comment on the following
describing the relief
•
things:
– Give the actual height of the land, using contour lines
in the area below
or spot height to get exact figures
• – The slope of the land- is it gently sloping, steeply
sloping or flat?
• – Are there any features relating to relief that you can
describe e.g. valleys, mountains
• – Describe if the relief changes across the area you have
been asked to look at (e.g. the east of the area is flat,
but the west is steeply sloping)

• Solution
• There is a steep slope around shatoon moon due to
presence of closely packed contours
• The area around thornhill has a gentle slope due to
presence of sparsely packed contour lines
• The height of the area around shatton edge is 417meter
 Describing drainage
• Drainage is all about describing whether you can see
water and how it is flowing. In the exams you are • Have a go at
often asked to describe the drainage of an area.
• You should try to comment on the following things describing the
• – Are there any rivers or lakes present? (give names
of rivers and the direction they are flowing) drainage in the area
• – Are there lots of rivers (high drainage density) or
just a few (low drainage density) ? below
• – Is there any evidence of underground water – such
as springs or wells?
• – Have humans altered the drainage in anyway? E.g.
straightened channels or dams

Answers
1.There is river Noe that flows from west to east
2. The are has high drainage density due to presence of
many rivers
3. Use the key to identify any well or spring and gives its
location using grid figure( 4 or 6)

4.
 Describing land use on a map
• Land use simply means what land is used •
for!
This map extract shows
an area which has the
main land use of farming.
You can tell this by the
fact that throughout the
map extract there are
several named farms
with large areas of land
around them used either
• So if you are trying to describe land use in for their crops or
an area from a map or photograph, you livestock (e.g. New Fm /
simply state what that piece of land is
used for by looking at it closely. Heath Fm
 Settlement Site
• You should also be able to tell why a
settlement was situated on a particular
site
• If you look at the settlement of Luscott
Barton on the map extract above, you
should be able to use your knowledge
of why settlers chose their sites for
original settlements to pick out the key
reasons for its location
• For example
• – It is located near to a water source –
Knowl Water
• – It is located next to a small area of
woodland- Building supplies and fuel
• – It is located on a small hill- for
defence
 Settlement function
• Settlement function
• You should already know from
studying settlement that settlement
function is the main purpose of a
settlement (E.G. TOURISM)
• Settlements normally have a
number of functions but one may
be more important than the others.
• You should be able to work out the
function of a settlement, by looking
at the area surrounding it on a map
• Use the flow chart below to help
you figure out the settlement
function of the following map
extract
Identifying human and physical features in
a photograph
• This is one of the easiest type of
questions you can get on your
paper! You may be asked to pick out
the features of a photograph/area.
• A feature is a certain characteristic
of a landscape that you can see
• A physical feature is something
natural e.g. a cliff, a stream, wave
cut platform
• A human feature is something
made by humans e.g. road, bridge
• See if you can describe out the
human and physical features of the
photography below, then scroll
down for the answers
 The Answers
• Physical Features • Human Features
• – Long stretch of beach on the left
hand side of the photo • – Mainly an urban area
• – Large waves arriving on beach (could • – Settlement built along
be destructive)
• – Inland lake or lagoon to the right had
the beach between the
side of the photograph lagoon and the sea
• – River is winding down towards the • – Settlement is made up of
lagoon from the top of the photograph
• – Small area of forest/woodland seen
high rise buildings
above the lagoon • – These high rise buildings
• – Mountains see in the background of may be hotels
the photograph
• – Jetties/Piers can be seen
going into the lagoon
 Scatter graphs
• These are used for when you want to
compare the relationship between two
sets of data
• The scatter graph shows how the two
sets of data are related
• When plotting a scatter graph,
remember to keep all the points plotted
the same size and shape. You must also
make sure that your line of best fit, is
as close to all the points as possible.
• When interpreting a scatter graph, state
what the relationship is and how strong
it is
• e.g. There is a strong positive
correlation between how many cups of
coffee Mrs Conrad drinks and how tired
she is.
 Food Production

• Agriculture is any type

of farming that
happens (normally to
produce food
• There are several
different ways in which
agriculture can be
classified by
 Agricultural System
• People often say that a farm operates as a
system. A system has inputs, processes and
outputs.
•
•
•
• Inputs are things which are put into the
farming system such as labour, capital
(money), seeds and livestock. These can be
split into physical and human inputs.
• Processes are the things which are done on
the farm such as planting, milking, harvesting
• Outputs are the things which come out of the
farm at the end of the system such as milk,
eggs, meat, crops and capital profit (money
made)
• There are many possible inputs, processes and
outputs in a farming system. Look at the
diagram below to see some examples of some.
 A case study of large scale commercial farming
Canadian Wheat Farming

• Wheat farming in Canada is large

scale and commercial
• What does this mean?
• Large scale- means it happens over a large
area
• Commercial– means the farmer sells their
output to make a profit
•
• You need to know….
• Physical inputs – the things nature provides
to allow farming to happen successfully in
this particular region
• Human inputs- the things people provide to
allow farming to begin successfully here
• Processes – anything that farmers or
machines DO to farm/create the produce
• Outputs- anything which is
created/produced by the farm
Case Study: Food Shortages in North and
South Sudan
• Solutions to food shortages- Food Aid and The Green
Revolution
•
• FOOD AID
• According to Action Aid ( a charity), there are three types
of Food aid.
• 1) Relief food aid-which is food delivered to people when
their is a crisis
• 2) Programme food aid- which is given to governments for
sale on local markets
• 3) Project food aid- which is when charities target specific
groups of people in a country who need help with food
production to try to help them long termFood aid is vital
to many communities in Africa, Asia and South America.
However, there are problems with it.
• – Sometimes if programme food aid is sent to a country,
this can undermine the food being sold at local markets
by local farmers
• – Food aid is very expensive due to transport costs
• – Food aid has been criticized for not helping
communities to solve their food shortages long term ( e.g.
it only helps them for a short period and they become
dependant on it)
 THE GREEN REVOLUTION in India
• In the 1960’s a certain group of farming • Negatives
improvements were nicknamed the
Green Revolution. These included • – High inputs of fertilisers
setting up the High Yielding Varieties are needed which is costly
Seed Programme (HVP) in India from
1966-67. It provided Indian farmers with to farmers
hybrid varieties of wheat, rice, maize • – HVP seeds are often more
and millet which were drought resistant
and responded really well to fertilizers. susceptible to disease
• Positives • – More machinery on farms
• – HVP seeds yielded 2-4 times more crop has meant more
than traditional seeds
• – Farmers incomes have increased so unemployment for farm
more machinery can be bought for workers
farms
• – Some HVP Crops have less
• – Diet of rural communities is more
varied taste
 Industry

• Industry is a form of • An example of an

commercial activity industrial system-
(money making). Textiles manufacturing
• Industrial Systems
 Factors affecting the location of industries
• Even though all industries can be
seen as a system, they can be very
different. Industry can be…..
• Large scale or small scale- depending
on the size of the factory/plant and
numbers employed
• Heavy or light- Depending on the
wieght of the finished product
• National or
Transnational- Depending on
whether the industries operations
stay in one country or are spread
across several countries
• Depending on the type of industry,
different factors must be considered
about where to locate the industry
 CASE STUDY: NIKE manufacturing in
Indonesia- Where and why?
• Nike trainers and clothes are sold and • Why is Indonesia an ideal location for
worn throughout the world. Nike is a Nike’s manufacturing industry?
typical transnational corporation (TNC). • – Cheap labour costs (workers in
Its headquarters are in the USA, where Indonesia will work for relatively low pay)
all the major decisions and research take • – Easy transport to large markets in Asia (
place, yet its sports shoes are Malaysia, China, Japan)
manufactured in many countries around
• – Flat land in Jakarta and other locations
the world.
such as Bandung to build large factories
• Nike’s main activities are in South-East
• – Raw materials Rubber needed for
Asia, and up until recently it
trainers and cotton needed for textiles is
manufactured many of its trainers in
available from other Asian countries near
South Korea. In the late 1980’s labour
by such as Malaysia
costs in South Korea rose, so Nike
decided to move production to Indonesia • – Government incentives- The
where costs were lower. government of Indonesia has made it
easier for large TNCs to set up in
• Nike employs 30,000 employees across
Indonesia , by offering grants to set up in
several factories in Indonesia including
locations with high unemployment.
factories in its capital Jakarta.
 High Tech Industry
• High-technology industry uses the
most advanced technology to make
products (computerised systems etc)
• They involve a highly-skilled
workforce and its products require a
high proportion of research and
development.
• High-technology industry is
relatively footloose since access to
raw materials is not very important.
The ‘raw materials’ that are required
are usually lightweight electronic
components.
• Look at the table below which shows
an industrial system for High Tech
Industry
 Tourism

• What is tourism?
• Tourism is defined as travel away
from your home environment, for
leisure, holidays and to visit friends
and family. A tourist is the person
making the trip. Since 1950, internatio
nal tourist arrivals hav
• grown from around 30 e
million to 700 million
• How has tourism grown? in 2005. In 2012 that n
umber had increased
to 980 million! Tourism
• When we refer to the fact the is the world’s largest
industry, generating b
tourism has grown, what we illions of $ a year!
actually mean is the number
of international tourist arrivals has
increased. This just means the
number of people making a tourist
trip in a year.
Why has tourism grown so much?
• 1. people income have
risen over time so they
have money to spend on
holidays
• 2.cheaper flights
• 3.increasing ways to book
holiday destinations e.g
online booking sites
• 4.increasing migration
means people travel back
to visit their relatives
 effects of tourism
• The positive and negative effects of
tourism
•
• Tourism can be good and bad for a
destination depending on how you
look at it. Look at the points below
which give the positive and negative
effects of tourism split into the
following categories…
• Economic effects= an effect on
business, jobs or the economy
• Social effects = an effect on people
and their cultures
• Environmental effects = an effect on
nature
effects of tourism
CASE STUDY: The benefits and problems of
tourism in Jamaica
• Benefits of tourism to Jamaica • Problems of tourism to Jamaica
• – Contributed $1.2 billion to the • – 25% of tourist workers have
economy no job from May-November in
• – Indirect economic benefits are at rainy season when there are
almost $3.8 billion
less tourists
• – 92,000 people employed directly
in tourism • – There is a lot of traffic
• – Revenue from tourism helps the congestion and litter at popular
government fund healthcare and destinations
education • – Water is often in short supply
• – Roads and airports have been due to the heavy use from the
improved tourist industry
• – Three National Parks set up- • – Clashes between tourists and
funded by tourist entry tickets to
locals
conserve wildlife
 How can tourism be made more
sustainable?
• Sustainable Eco-
tourism: A form of
tourism where people
visit an area but their
holiday does little harm
to the environment and
can help local people
 Key principles
• MINI CASE
• The resort should STUDIES: SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
cause little to no harm • Below are three mini case studies of eco
tourist resorts which we looked at. Each
to the environment bullet point represents one thing that
the resort does to stick to the principles
• Local people should of sustainable ecotourism
not be negatively • Morgan’s Rock, Nicaragua
• Water heated by solar panels
affected • Lighting is sympathetic to animals
• Local people should • No air conditioning or mini bar
• Farm produces 70% of food used in
be part of the resort resort
and benefit from it • Nature reserve protects the wildlife
• Plant trees in reserve
• Local guides are employed by the hotel
 Energy and water

• How has the world’s energy

consumption grown?
• Energy consumption just
means how much energy we
are using each year to
power our houses, factories,
businesses and vehicles
• The graph below shows how
world energy consumption
has grown dramatically since
1940.
 Energy is taken from two types of energy
source:
• 1) Renewable energy • 2) Non-renewable
sources = resources that energy sources=
can be easily replaced resources that can be
or renewed (will not used up and cannot be
run out – sustainable) replaced (will run out)
• These include- Hydro • These include – Coal
Electric Energy, Wind energy, Natural Gas
Energy, Solar energy, energy, Oil energy and
Geothermal energy and Nuclear energy
Biofuels
How much of each energy source do we
use across the globe?
• The vast majority of our
energy comes
from fossil fuels ( Coal,
Natural Gas and Oil)
• Only around 14% comes
from renewable energy
sources
How does this differ depending on where
you are in the world?
• Make notes
What do you have to consider when
locating power stations?
Water – A very important resource
• Water is important to us
because it is used in so
many ways across the
planet. Even though the
planet is covered in
water across so many
oceans and seas, we can
only use a very small
percentage of it, as
97.5% of it is salty and
not fresh!
What are the main uses of water?
• Most of the world’s • MEDCs such as the UK
water is used for one of and LEDCs such as
3 purposes Malawi tend to use
• 1- Domestic = for use in their water for different
houses purposes. Look at the
• 2- Agricultural = for use pie charts below.
by farming
• 3- Industrial = for use
by any industry
Use of water in MEDCs such as the UK and
LEDCs such as Malawi
 write a good comparison of water uses
between the two countries?
• A good comparison of the pie charts by a
• Take each water use Year 11 student
in turn and compare • MEDC’s like the UK use most of their
water on industry whereas LEDCs such as
the countries together Malawi use a very small amount of water
on industry.
• –Use words such as • For example the UK uses 75.4% on
most, least •
industry whereas Malawi only uses 5%.
LEDC’s use most of their water on
• –DON’T just describe agriculture whereas MEDCs such as the
UK use a very small amount of water on
each countries % industry.
• For example Malawi uses 80.1% on
separately agriculture whereas the UK only uses 2.9%
• In both Malawi and the UK domestic is the
• – Use % from the pie second largest use of water with 14.9% in
charts Malawi and 21.7% in the UK.
 Water shortages- Water Stress
• Why are there water • What impact does water shortage
shortages? have on an area and its people?
• – Capital (Windhoek) of Namibia often
• – In Botswana 97% of water suffers from water shortages and as
evaporates from the Okavango more people get tapped water the
Delta in dry season problem will escalate
• – Most rivers in Namibia are • – Tourism suffers as there is no water
for showers or drinking in resorts
seasonal and run dry in dry
• – Traditional buildings using reeds
season. from the delta as building materials is
• – In dry season the water table becoming less common If the delta
drops after use. runs dry, fishing could be reduced
leading to a food shortage
• – The population is growing in • – There are already conflicts between
both countries and so the the countries about water usage
situation will get worse. which could escalate.
 Water management
• Wells and bore holes
• Water • This is where people dig down underground to
management is reach the water table where underground
water is stored in aquifers. Water is taken out
where an area tries to •
from the well either using a bucket or pump.
Dams and reservoirs
increase or maintain • This consists of building a wall across a river
and storing water behind this wall in a large
its clean water supply man made lake called a reservoir. This water
can then be used from the reservoir when it is
using various schemes needed.
• Desalination plants
• These are used at the coast. Salty sea water is
taken into these plants , and the salt is removed
so that it can be used as fresh water.
• Water management such as dams and
desalination plants are often too large
scale and expensive for rural areas in LEDCs,
where a smaller scale and less expensive
method would be better.
 Development

• Development is about how a • Measuring Development

country is growing
• Measuring development
economically and giving
people better living standards is difficult.
and quality of life. • Most MEDCs have areas
• Some countries are more of poverty in the same
developed than others. way that most LEDCs have
• MEDC= More economically richer areas/people.
developed countries
• NIC = Newly industrialised
country
• LEDC = Less economically
developed countries
Development level is difficult to judge!
The map below shows the current HDI
rank of all countries in the world.
Remember the higher the number, the
more developed the country.
What indicators does the UN use to create
the HDI rank?
Key Question: Why are some places more
developed than others?
• Some key reasons for wealth inequality between countries are:
• 1. Colonisation- if countries have been colonised in the past,
their resources may have been exploited by the old colonial
power to make them rich.
• 2.Debt- If countries are in debt, then the government income is
used to pay back this debt each year, rather than develop their
country further
• 3.Political corruption- If governments are corrupt then money
does not often make its way to the people or is not used to
develop the country. Instead it is squandered by the
government.
• 4.Slave trade- The slave trade took men and women from
African countries to be used as slaves in America, this
contributed to making America richer, but did not help the
African countries from which the slaves came
• 5.War- If a country is at war, money is spent on the war itself ,
rather than on developing the country.
• 6.Natural hazards- If hazards such as earthquake strike a country
often, it must use money to continually rebuild itself, rather than
developing further.
• 7.Few raw materials- Without raw materials and resources,
money can not be made through exports to other countries
• 8.Unfair trade- If countries are victims of unfair trade, they do
not get a fair price for their products
• 9.Extreme climates- Extreme cold or extreme heat makes living
conditions difficult and therefore survival and development is
that much harder.
 Classifying Employment
• One way for people and a
country to develop is through
employment
opportunities. Employment is
just another way of saying jobs.
• Every job or employment
opportunity is within one
industry. Industry is just a form
of commercial activity (money
making)
• There are 4 different types
• Can you name the four
types/sectors?
 Can you split the following jobs into the
correct industry sector?
• Miner Carpenter
(joiner- furniture maker)
Mechanic
• ICT consultant Fisherman
Scientific researcher
• Factory worker Ship builder
Hairdresser
• Shop worker Teacher
Farmer
• Builder Oil rigger
Carpenter (repairs)
• Chef Mechanic
Medical researcher
• Premiership footballer
Employment Structures- What are they?

• Each country will have

different % of people
employed in each
industrial sector
This is called
their employment
structure. It normally
combines tertiary and
Quaternary into one
sector.
Why are employment structures different in
MEDCs, LEDCs and NICs?
Triangular graphs to show employment
structures
• This type of graph
allows you to see the %
of primary, secondary
and tertiary
employment in one
country by looking at
the placement of a dot
on the graph (A and B
on the graph above)
 READING TRIANGULAR GRAPHS
• You read them by looking at the
three different sides. Start with
the Primary Side and move down
to where it says 0 (the baseline).
Use the arrow to help you
establish which lines to look at
and which way to move. In this
case it is the horizontal lines
moving up the triangle (see Fig
2a)
• Move up to the line that A is
resting on. It shows that country
A has 70% employed in Primary
employment
• Do the same with Secondary and
Tertiary sides of the triangle. Look
at the correct side. Move to look
where the 0 baseline is, then look
at the arrow to see which way to
move (Fig 2b and Fig 2c).
• Move to the line that A is resting
on. It shows that country A has…
• 20 % in Secondary 10% in
Tertiary
• Can you do the same for country
B?
• B has 10 % Primary 75%
Secondary 15 % Tertiary
 PLOTTING TRIANGULAR GRAPHS
• To plot points on a triangular graph you need
to use a ruler. Here is an example of how you
would do this for place A on the table below
• 1) Find the 0 baseline for the primary sector
and lie your ruler across it
• 2) Move your ruler up at the same angle as
the 0 line to where 5 % would be and draw a
line across
• 3) Find the 0 baseline for the
secondary sector and lie your ruler across it
• 4) Move your ruler up to where 65 % would
be and draw a line across
• 5) Find the 0 baseline for the tertiary sector
and lie your ruler across it
• 6) Move your ruler up to where 30 % would
be and draw a line across
• 7) Where you three lines cross this is where
point A should be placed
Globalisation- The shrinking world
• Globalisation is the
process by which the
world is becoming
increasingly
interconnected.
• We now communicate,
trade, travel and share
each other’s cultures
more easily around the
world.
positive and negative impacts of
globalisation?
 Population

• What is birth rate, death rate and

natural change?
• For example: Germany
• Birth rate = the number of people born • Birth rate = 8 per 1000
each year per 1000 people
• Death rate= the number of people who • Death rate = 10 per
die each year per 1000 people
•
1000
If you work out the natural
change. This will tell you if a country’s • Natural change
population is getting bigger or smaller!
• Natural change= Birth rate- death rate calculation 8-10 =
• If you get a + number this means the minus 2
country’s population is growing –
Natural increase • Germany has a natural
• If you get a – number this means the decrease of -2 (per
country’s population is shrinking-
Natural decrease 1000)
Why do some countries have different
birth or death rates?
 The impact of HIV/ AIDS on population in
Botswana
• HIV is the human immunodeficiency
virus which causes AIDS. HIV is a slow
virus which takes years to show
symptoms and it invades white cells in
the blood. This means your body is
unable to fight illnesses
• Today the virus is spread in the
following ways
• exchange of body fluids during sexual
intercourse:
• contaminated needles in drug use:
• contaminated blood transfusions:
• from mother to child during pregnancy.
• AIDS in the leading cause of death in
Botswana. Currently 38% of Botswana
is thought to be infected with HIV.
 Impacts of AIDS
• Labour supply is reduced ( less
people are able to work as they fall
sick)
• – Country’s development is
slowed as less people can contribute
to the economy
• – Large numbers of orphaned
children as parents die
• – Education suffers as teachers
are unable to work if they have
contracted HIV
• – Higher infant mortality as the
disease can be passed from mother
to child in pregnancy
• – Increase in poverty
 The Demographic Transition Model
The Demographic Transition Model states • Stage 1- When a country is not developed at all
that countries go through 5 stages of • – Birth rate and death rates are both very high but fluctuating
• – High birth and death rates cancel each other out – so population
population growth size stays low and steady
• Stage 2- When a country begins to develop
• – Death rates begin to drop as a country develops (medical care
and sanitation improve)
• – Birth rates still remain high
• – This means birth rate is much higher than death rate so
population begins to grow rapidly
• Stage 3- When a country develops further
• – Death rates remain low
• – Birth rates begin to drop ( contraception is more available,
women are empowered)
• – The population still grows ( as birth rate is still higher than
death rate)
• – Population growth begins to slow as birth rate drops
• Stage 4- When a country is developed
• – Both birth and death rates are now low
• – Low birth and death rates cancel each other out – so
population size stays steady
• Stage 5- When a country is most developed
• – Both birth and death rates are still low
• – Birth rate drops further ( cost of having children is higher/
women focus on careers)
• – Death rate is now higher than birth rate and so population
begins to drop
 Population Pyramids
• A population pyramid is
a graph which shows
the population
structure of a country
• Population structure is
the % of people in
different age groups
and of different genders
in a country’s
population.
 What can a population pyramid tell you
about a population?
• It gives us information about birth
and death rates as well as life
expectancy.
• A population pyramid tells us how
many dependants there are. There
are two groups of dependants; young
dependants (aged below 15) and
elderly dependants (aged over 65).
• Dependants rely upon
the economically active for economic
support.
• Many LEDCs have a high number
of young dependants, whilst many
MEDCs have a growing number
of elderly dependants.
 Dependency ratio
• Dependency ratio tells us
how many economically
active members of the
population there are,
supporting the
dependants. The higher
the dependency ratio,
the more dependants
compared to
economically active there
are in a region.
Population pyramids for each stage of the
demographic transition model
 Ageing and Young Populations
• An ageing population is
a country where a large
proportion of the
country is over 65
• Germany has an ageing
population with 22% of
people over 65
 problems
• Why does Germany have an • What problems does an ageing population bring?
• Less economically active people working so less taxes
ageing population? for the government
• German life expectancy = 80 years • The government has to spend more of its money on
pensions for retired people
• People are living longer due to • More money needs to be spent on healthcare and
healthier life styles and improved housing for elderly residents
medical care • Germany has the world’s 18th largest population, but
by 2050 it is expected to have only the world’s 25th
• The average number of children for largest with the majority of the population being
older than 50
a German woman to have in her
life time is 1.4 children. • How could Germany address the problems of an
• This means they have a low birth ageing population?
• Retirement age has been raised from 60 to 67 so that
rate, which means the number of the government doesn’t have to pay out pensions for
elderly people to young people is so long
growing. • The government is encouraging people to take out
their own private pensions and set up savings for
• Women are choosing careers over their retirement
having large families • They are encouraging immigration of young people of
working age to fill jobs.
 A young population
• A young population is a
country where a large
proportion of the
country is under 15
• Malawi has a young
population with 49% of
people over 15
 Young population
• • 2. What problems does a young population bring?
Why does Malawi have a young
• Large numbers of children means the government
population? struggles to provide school places, medical care and
housing for children
• Lack of access to contraception in
• Poverty
Malawi means birth rates are • The government cannot afford to pay for
high vaccinations for all the children
• Children often end up without education
• AIDs is a huge problem leading to • Less taxes are received by the government as there
high death rates of adults- are not as many economically active
leaving many children behind •
• 3. How could Malawi overcome the problems of a
• Women lack power in marriage young population?
and therefore often have little • Charities such as the Malawi Education Project have
been set up to try to provide education for children
choice about how many children to ensure they are able to get skilled jobs when they
they want are older.
• Women have been encouraged to set up small
• Children are needed to help work businesses to empower them and enable them to
to bring in money for the family support themselves- leading to less children being
born
 Overpopulation, Under population and
Optimum population
• These three phrases as • Under population: In some
linked to the size of a countries there aren’t
population and the enough people in a country
amount of resources to exploit the resources
they have in a country to
• Optimum population: In
help the country make
some countries there are more money.
just the right amounts of • Over population: In some
people to exploit the countries there are too
resource they have in a many people for the
country. amount of resource in a
country
Australia – An underpopulated country
• Australia has only 20 million • Solving the problem of
people spread over 7.5 million
km2.. It is an underpopulated
under population
country. • Give benefits to people
• Problems of under population having children
• Many areas are empty and the • Relax visa rules so
resources are not being fully
exploited. more immigrants can
• The country is not developing get citizenship
as fast as it could • Expand economy to
economically.
attract migrants
• Not enough people to fill key
skilled jobs (teachers, doctors)
Nigeria – An overpopulated country
• Nigeria has over 140 million people
and 70% of these live on less than $1
a day. It is an overpopulated country.

• Problems of over population

• Depletion of natural resources

• Increased air and water pollution
• Shortage of food and water
• Lack of essential services (health,
education)
• Overcrowding
• Inadequate sanitation
• High crime rates
• Traffic congestion
Population policies

Anti- Natal Policy Case Study: China’s one

child policy
When was the policy introduced? 1979
Why was the policy needed?
•China’s population grew rapidly after 1949
•This population boom was undoubtedly increased
by Chairman Mao Zedong’s instruction to the
nation in the 1950s and 1960s to go and have as
many children as possible.
•Hundreds of millions of extra children were born
in a baby boom that sent the birth rate soaring to
5.8 children per couple, a level unsustainable by
China’s natural resources of food, water and
energy.
•So in 1979 a one child policy was introduced
• What is the policy and how is it What are the consequences of the policy?
enforced? Negative
• Each couple could only have one child (in Consequences
•Chinese officials fear that
some areas these rules were different) Positive their families will be
• Two babies were permitted in many areas Consequences unable to provide financial
•Chinese officials say and social support for their
in the countryside that the one-child elderly relatives in
• Couples who complied with the rule policy has been retirement. One child
successful in being left to care for two
received a certificate, child benefits and a preventing at least parents and four
lump sum on retirement. 300 million births grandparents is known as
•China has seen a the “4-2-1” problem
• State officials who have more than one huge economic •The one child has often
child automatically lose their jobs, a heavy growth been spoilt and led to the
punishment. •Thirty years after the creation of “little
policy was imposed, emperors”, children who
• Breaking the one-child rule would result in China’s actual birth are often arrogant and
a heavy fine, or confiscation of property rate has reduced to lacking in social skills.
1.8 children per •There is a gender
• Some women have been forced to have couple imbalance, as couples use
abortion or be sterlised if they break the legal and illegal means to
ensure that their only child
rule is a son. There are 117
men to each 100 women
in China
A Pro Natal Policy Case Study: Singapore-
“Have 3 or more if you can afford it!”
How the government
Reasons why A Pro
has encouraged
Natal Policy Case Study: Singapore- “Have 3 or more if you can afford it!”
Singapore needs a pro-
people to have more
natal policy
children
•The government has
promised to give tax
•Each Singaporean couple
rebates to couples who
only has an average of 1
have more than two
child in their lifetime
children (give some of
their taxes back to them)

•Singapore has one of the

•Couples who have more
world’s lowest birth rates
than two children could
and if this stays the same
get up to $10,000 cash
its population will decline
incentives!
(get smaller)
•Abortion is common-
•Paid maternity leave has
around one quarter of
been increased from 8
pregnancies are
weeks to 12 weeks
terminated
•Shorter working hours
•Divorce rates are rising have been introduced to
and traditional family give single people more
values are strained time to go out and find a
partner
•Singapore is currently
the 5th richest country in
the world. The
•Nursery places have
government is worried
been made cheaper
economic growth will slow
down if population
declines
•26% of Singapore’s •Spacious flats have
population is made up of been offered to couples
foreign nationals ( e.g. with more than two
from UK or USA) children

•Parents want high

standards of living for
their children so they
work longer and have
fewer babies