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Chapter 2 - Introduction

The document discusses the structure of atoms, highlighting Bohr's atomic model and the concepts of valence and conduction bands. It explains the differences between insulators, conductors, and semiconductors, detailing intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors along with their types. Key terms related to atomic structure and semiconductor properties are also defined.

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4 views20 pages

Chapter 2 - Introduction

The document discusses the structure of atoms, highlighting Bohr's atomic model and the concepts of valence and conduction bands. It explains the differences between insulators, conductors, and semiconductors, detailing intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors along with their types. Key terms related to atomic structure and semiconductor properties are also defined.

Uploaded by

Imjusttryingtohelp
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Introduction

Introduction
- Atom is believed to consist of a central nucleus surrounded by orbiting
electrons.
- The electrons each have a negative electrical charge of 1.602 x 10 -19
coulombs
Bohr’s Atomic Model:
Using Planck’s Quantum Theory, Bohr made the following postulates :
1. The atom has a massive positively-charged nucleus;
2. The electrons revolve round their nucleus in circular orbits, the centrifugal
force being balanced by the electrostatic pull between the nucleus and
electrons;
3. An electron cannot revolve round the nucleus in any arbitrary orbit but in
just certain definite discrete orbits.
4. While revolving in these permitted stationary (or stable) orbits, the electron
does not radiate out any electromagnetic energy.
5. The atom radiates out energy only when an electron jumps from one orbit
to another.
Valence and Conduction Bands
- The outermost electrons of an atom i.e. those in the shell furthermost from
the nucleus are called valence electrons and have the highest energy or
least binding energy.
- The band of energy occupied by the valence electrons is called the valence
band and is, obviously, the highest occupied band. It may be completely
filled or partially filled with electrons but never empty.
- The next higher permitted energy band is called the conduction band and
may either be empty or partially filled with electrons. In fact, it may be
defined as the lowest unfilled energy band. In conduction band, electrons
can move freely and hence are known as conduction electrons. The gap
between these two bands is known as the forbidden energy gap.
Insulators, Conductors, Semi-conductors
a. Insulators - Stated simply, insulators are those materials in which valence
electrons are bound very tightly to their parents atoms, thus requiring very
large electric field to remove them from the attraction of their nuclei. Valence
Electrons > 4

b. Conductors - Put in a simple way, conducting materials are those in which


plenty of free electrons are available for electric conduction. The total current
in such conductors is simply a flow of electrons. Valence Electrons < 4

c. Semi-conductors - A semiconductor material is one whose electrical


properties lie in between those of insulators and good conductors. Valence
Electrons = 4
Atomic Binding in Semi-Conductors
- Semiconductors like germanium* and silicon, have crystalline structure.
Their atoms are arranged in an ordered array known as crystal lattice. Both
these materials are tetravalent i.e. each has four valence electrons in its
outermost shell. The neighboring atoms form covalent bonds by sharing four
electrons with each other so as to achieve inert gas structure (i.e. 8 electrons
in the outermost orbit).
Types of Semi-Conductors
Intrinsic Semiconductors
-An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor
material in its extremely pure form.

-Common examples of such semiconductors are : pure germanium and silicon


which have forbidden energy gaps of 0.72 eV and 1.1 eV respectively. The
energy gap is so small that even at ordinary room temperature, there are
many electrons which possess sufficient energy to jump across the small
energy gap between the valence and the conduction bands.
Extrinsic Semiconductors
- Those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or doping
agent or dopant has been added in extremely small amounts (about 1 part
in 108 ) are called extrinsic or impurity semiconductors.

The usual doping agents are :


1. pentavalent atoms having five valence electrons (arsenic, antimony,
phosphorus) or
2. trivalent atoms having three valence electrons (gallium, indium,
aluminium, boron).

Pentavalent doping atom is known as donor atom because it donates or


contributes one electron to the conduction band of pure germanium. The
trivalent atom, on the other hand, is called acceptor atom because it
accepts one electron from the germanium atom
Depending on the type of doping material used, extrinsic semiconductors can
be sub-divided into two classes : (i) N-type semiconductors and (ii) P-type
semiconductors.

a. N-type Extrinsic Semiconductor - This type of semiconductor is obtained


when a pentavalent material like antimony (Sb) is added to pure germanium
crystal.
Depending on the type of doping material used, extrinsic semiconductors can
be sub-divided into two classes : (i) N-type semiconductors and (ii) P-type
semiconductors.

b. P-type Extrinsic Semiconductor - This type of semiconductor is obtained


when traces of a trivalent like boron (B) are added to a pure germanium
crystal.
Important Terms
Nucleus – central portion or core of the atom.
Electron – Very small negatively charged particle.
Proton – Positively charged particle contained in the nucleus of an atom.
Neutron - Particle with no electrical charge, contained in the nucleus of an
atom.
Shell - Path of electron orbiting around nucleus.
Atomic weight - Approximately the total number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom.
Atomic number - The number of protons or orbiting electrons in an atom.
Positive ion - Atom that has lost an electron.
Negative ion - Atom that has gained an electron.
Hole - Absence of an electron where one could exist.
Energy level of shell - Amount of energy required to extract a particular
electron from its atomic shell.
Electron volt (eV) - Energy required to move one electron through a
potential difference of one volt.
Important Terms
Energy band - Group of energy levels that may be occupied by electrons.
Conduction band - Energy band of electrons that have escaped from atomic
orbits.
Valence band - Energy band of electrons that are in normal atomic orbits.
Forbidden gap - Energy band at which electrons normally do not exist.
Charge carrier - Electron or hole.
Doping - Addition of impurity atoms to change electrical characteristics of
semiconductor material.
Donor atoms - Impurity atoms which release additional electrons within
semiconductor material.
Acceptor atoms - Impurity atoms which release additional holes within
semiconductor material.
p-type semiconductor - Semiconductor that has been doped with acceptor
atoms.
n-type semiconductor - Semiconductor that has been doped with donor
atoms.
Intrinsic - Name given to undoped semiconductor, or to material doped
Important Terms
Extrinsic - Name given to doped semiconductor material.
Majority carriers - Type of charge carriers which are in the majority in a
given material (electrons in n-type, holes in p-type).
Minority carriers - Type of charge carriers which are in the minority in a
given material (holes in n-type, electrons in p-type).

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