DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

J.N.T.U.A COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PULIVENDULA

Design Thinking & Product Innovation-

II B.Tech- IISem
UNIT - I

Dr. Y.RAMESWARA REDDY

Asst. Professor ,
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
J.N.T.U.A COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PULIVENDULA.
 Unit-I
• Science to Engineering: Job of engineers,
engineering units and measurement, elements of
engineering analysis, forces and motion, energy,
kinematics and motion, conversion of linear
motion to rotary and vice versa, motion
transmission.
• Physics to Engineering: Application of Newton
laws, Pascal’s law, Bouncy, Bernoulli’s theorem,
Ohm’s law, and electrical induction in engineering
products.
• Physics to Engineering: Application of Newton
laws, Pascal’s law, Bouncy, Bernoulli’s
theorem, Ohm’s law, and electrical induction
in engineering products.
• While Newton’s laws of motion may seem obvious to
us today, centuries ago they were considered
revolutionary. Sir Issac Newton is considered one of
the most influential scientists of all time. His ideas
laid the foundation for modern physics. He built upon
his ideas put forth from the works of previous
scientists including Galileo and Aristotle.
• These laws of motion help us understand how
objects behave when they are standing still, when
moving and when forces act upon them. This
article is a description of Sir Isaac Newton’s Laws
of motion and a summary of what they mean.
 Brief History of Newton’s Laws
• Sir Isaac Newton introduced the three laws of motion
in 1687 in his book entitled “Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. While formulating the three
laws of motion, Newton simplified massive bodies to
mathematical points with no size or rotation. This
allowed him to ignore facts such as friction,
temperature, air resistance, material properties, etc.,
• This helped him concentrate solely on phenomena that were
described in terms of mass, length and time. Consequently,
the three laws cannot be used to describe precisely the
behaviour of large rigid or deformable objects; however, in
many cases, they provide suitably accurate approximations.
• Newton’s laws pertain to the motion of massive bodies in an
inertial reference frame, sometimes called a Newtonian
reference frame, although Newton himself never described
such a reference frame. An inertial reference frame can be
described as a 3- dimensional coordinate system that is
either stationary or in uniform linear motion. i.e., it is not
accelerating or rotating. He found that motion within such
an inertial reference frame could be described by three
simple laws.
• Newton’s laws pertain to the motion of
massive bodies in an inertial reference frame,
sometimes called a Newtonian reference
frame, although Newton himself never
described such a reference frame. An inertial
reference frame can be described as a 3-
dimensional coordinate system that is either
stationary or in uniform linear motion. i.e., it is
not accelerating or rotating. He found that
motion within such an inertial reference frame
could be described by three simple laws
 Newton’s First Law of Motion
• The first law of motion simply means that things
cannot start, stop or change direction all by
themselves. It requires some force from the outside
to cause such a change.
• This property of massive bodies to resist changes in
their state of motion is called inertia.
• Newton’s first law is also known as the law of inertia.
• Newton’s first law of motion states that “A body
at rest or uniform motion will continue to be at
rest or uniform motion until and unless a net
external force acts on it”.
• Suppose a block is kept on the floor, it will remain
at rest until we apply some external force to it.
• Also, we know that it takes us more effort or
force to move a heavy mass. This is directly
related to the property known as Inertia. Hence,
the first law of motion is also known as the law of
inertia.
 There are two conditions on which the 1st
law of motion is dependent:
• Objects at rest: When an object is at rest velocity
(v= 0) and acceleration (a = 0) are zero.
Therefore, the object continues to be at rest.
• Objects in motion: When an object is in motion,
velocity is not equal to zero (v ≠0) while
acceleration (a = 0) is equal to zero. Therefore,
the object will continue to be in motion with
constant velocity and in the same direction.
 What is an External Force?
• An external force is defined as the change in the
mechanical energy that is either the kinetic energy or
the potential energy in an object. These forces are
caused by external agents. Examples of external
forces are friction, normal force and air resistance.
 Let us Understand First Law of Motion by an
Example
• Let us take a block on a smooth surface. By smooth, we mean
that there is no friction acting on the surface. The block is at
rest, that is, it is not moving.
• Now, let us examine the forces acting on the block. The only
forces acting on the block are the force of gravity and the
normal reaction by the surface.
• There is no force acting on it in the horizontal direction. Since
the forces in the vertical direction are equal to each other in
magnitude, they cancel each other out, and hence there is no
external force on the block. Since this block is at rest, we can
say that it confirms Newton’s first law of Motion.
• Now, if we apply a constant force F on the block in a horizontal
direction, it will start moving with some constant acceleration,
in the direction of the applied force.
• Thus, the first law of motion is confirmed again.
• Note: Newton’s laws are valid only in inertial frames of
reference.
Newton’s First Law of Motion Examples in Daily
Life
• Wearing a seat belt in a car while driving is an example of
Newton’s 1st law of motion.
• If an accident occurs, or if brakes are applied to the car
suddenly, the body will tend to continue its inertia and move
forward, probably proving fatal. To prevent such accidents seat
belts are used which stops your body moving forward in inertia
avoiding danger.
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion

• “Force is equal to the rate of change of momentum. For a

constant mass, force equals mass times acceleration”.
• Newton’s second law of motion pertains to the behavior of
objects for which all existing forces are not balanced. The
second law informs us that the acceleration of an object
depends on two variables – the net force acting on the body
and the mass of the body.
• The acceleration of the body is directly proportional to force
and inversely proportional to the mass. As a result, when the
force acting on a body is increased, the acceleration increases.
Likewise, when the mass of the body is increased, the
acceleration decreases.
 Newton’s second law can be formally stated as
• The acceleration of an object as produced by a net
force is directly proportional to the magnitude of
the net force, in the same direction as the net force,
and inversely proportional to the mass of the
object.
• This statement is expressed in equation form as,
• a = Fnet/m
• The above equation is often rearranged to a more
familiar form as shown below. The net force is
equated to the product of the mass times the
acceleration.
 Application of Second Law
• The application of the second law of motion can be seen in
identifying the amount of force needed to make an object
move or to make it stop. Following are a few examples that
we have listed to help you understand this point:
• Kicking a ball
• When we kick a ball we exert force in a specific direction,
which is the direction in which it will travel. In addition, the
stronger the ball is kicked, the stronger the force we put on it
and the further away it will travel.
• Pushing a cart
• It is easier to push an empty cart in a supermarket than it is to
push a loaded one. More mass requires more force to
accelerate.
• Two people walking
• Among the two people walking, if one is heavier than
the other then the one weighing heavier will walk
slower because the acceleration of the person
weighing lighter is greater.
 Newton’s Third Law Of Motion
• Force is a push or pulls acting on an object resulting
in its interaction with another object. Force is a result
of an interaction. Force can be classified into two
categories:
• contact force such as frictional force and non-contact
force such as gravitational force.
• According to Newton, when two bodies interact, they
exerted force on each other and these forces are
known as action and reaction pair which is explained
in Newton’s third law of motion.
 Newton’s third law of motion states that
• When one body exerts a force on the other body, the
first body experiences a force which is equal in
magnitude in the opposite direction of the force
which is exerted.
• The above statement means that in every interaction, there is
a pair of forces acting on the interacting objects. The
magnitudes of the forces are equal and the direction of the
force on the first object is opposite to the direction of the
force on the second object.
 A variety of action-reaction pairs are evident in nature. We have
listed a few below and they are as follows:
• Propulsion of fish through water is an example of action-
reaction pair. A fish makes use of its fins to push water
backwards. This push serves to accelerate the fish forwards.
The size of the force on the water equals the size of the force
on the fish; the direction of the force on the water
(backwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the fish
(forwards).
• The flight of the bird is an example of action-reaction pair. The
wings of the bird push the air downwards. The air pushes the
air upwards.
• A swimmer pushes against the water, while the water
pushes back on the swimmer.
• Lift is created by helicopters by pushing the air down,
thereby creating an upward reaction force.
• Rock climbers pulling their vertical rope downwards
so as to push themselves upwards.
 Pascal’s law
• Consider the image given below. The column is filled with
water. The ends of each column A and B have been blocked by
a piston. If piston A is pressed, what do you think will happen
to piston B? Piston B is going to rise up. We have just applied
Pascal’s law to our fluid pressure.
 So what is Pascal’s law?
• “The external static pressure applied on a confined liquid is
distributed or transmitted evenly throughout the liquid in all
directions”.
• The static pressure acts at right angles to any surface in
contact with the fluid.
• Pascal also found that the pressure at a point for a static fluid
would be same across all planes passing through that point in
that fluid. Pascal’s law is also known as Pascal’s principle.
• F = PA
• Where,
• F is the force applied
• P is the pressure transmitted
• A is the cross sectional area
 Example of Pascal’s Law
• Let us understand the working principle of Pascal’s law with
an example.
• A pressure of 2000 Pa is transmitted throughout a liquid
column due a force being applied on a piston. If the piston has
an area of 0.1 m2, what is the force applied?
• This can be calculated using Pascal’s Law formula.
• F = PA
• Here,
• P = 2000 Pa = N/m2
• A = 0.1 m2
• Substituting values, we arrive at F = 200 N
 Applications of Pascal’s Law

• Hydraulic Lift: The image you saw at the beginning of this

article is a simple line diagram of a hydraulic lift. This is the
principle of working of hydraulic lift. It works based on the
principle of equal pressure transmission throughout a fluid
• (Pascal’s Law).
• The construction is such that a narrow cylinder (in this case A)
is connected to a wider cylinder (in this case B). They are
fitted with airtight pistons on either end.
• The inside of the cylinders are filled with an incompressible
fluid.
• Pressure applied at piston A is transmitted equally to piston B
without diminishing, on use of an incompressible fluid. Piston
B effectively serves as a platform to lift heavy objects like big
machines or vehicles.
• Few more applications include a hydraulic jack and hydraulic
press and forced amplification is used in the braking system of
most cars.
 Bouncy:
• What is Buoyancy?
• Buoyancy is the force that causes objects to float. It is the
force exerted on an object that is partly or wholly immersed
in a fluid. Buoyancy is caused by the differences in pressure
acting on opposite sides of an object immersed in a static
fluid. It is also known as the buoyant force. Buoyancy is the
phenomena due to Buoyant Force.
• We can define Buoyancy as:
• “The upward force applied by the fluid on the object or the
body when an object is put in or submerged in the fluid”.
• Unit:
• The unit of buoyant force is the Newton (N).
• When a body is in water, it displaces some amount of
water owing to its weight. The amount of displaced
water is computed by the object’s density which
relates to volume.
• The volume of a cricket ball and beach ball can be
same their different weight their density differs. The
steel solid block descends in water but the steel ship
does not.
• Therefore, the quantity of displaced water in the
upward direction is elucidated in terms of Buoyant
force. Let’s discuss the buoyancy force and its
formulation with diverse devices grounded on it.
 What is Buoyant Force?

• When an object is immersed in a liquid it experiences an

upward force known as Buoyant Force. This phenomenon of
experiencing an upward force is known as Buoyancy.
• It is as an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the
weight of an object immersed in a fluid. As we know, the
pressure in a fluid column increases with depth.
• Thus, the pressure at the bottom of an object submerged in
the fluid is greater than that at the top. The difference in this
pressure results in a net upward force on the object which we
define as buoyancy.
 Force of Buoyancy:
• When we submerge an object in a fluid, an upward force is
experienced by the object.
• This force is applied by the fluid on the object which makes it
to, rise up and is called the Force of Buoyancy. The scale of
this force is precisely equal to the amount or weight of the
liquid displaced.
 Center of Buoyancy:
• The point where the force of Buoyancy is applied or the point
on the object where the force acts are termed as the Center
of Buoyancy. It should be illustrated that the force of
buoyancy is a vertical force, and thus, the Center of Buoyancy
is the point situated on the centre of the gravity of the liquid
that is being displaced by the object submerged.
 Applications of Buoyancy
• It is due to buoyancy that human swimmers, fish, ships, and
icebergs stay afloat. Some applications of buoyancy are given
in the points below.
• Submarine:
• A submarine has a large ballast tank, which is used to control
its position and depth from the surface of the sea. A
submarine submerges by letting water into the ballast tank so
that its weight becomes greater than the buoyant force.
 Hot Air Balloon:

• The atmosphere is filled with air that exerts buoyant force on

any object. A hot air balloon rises and floats due to the
buoyant force. It descends when the balloon’s weight is higher
than the buoyant force. It becomes stationary when the
weight equals the buoyant force.
 Ship:
• A ship floats on the surface of the sea because the
volume of water displaced by the ship is enough to
have a weight equal to the weight of the ship. A ship
is constructed in a way so that the shape is hollow, to
make the overall density of the ship lesser than the
sea water. Therefore, the buoyant force acting on the
ship is large enough to support its weight.
 Fish:
• A certain group of fishes uses Archimedes’ principle to go up
and down the water. To go up to the surface, the fishes will fill
its swim bladder (air sacs) with gases (clever isn’t it?). The
gases diffuse from their own body to the bladder and thus
making the body lighter. This enables the fishes to go up
 What is Bernoulli’s Principle?
• Bernoulli’s principle states that
• “The total mechanical energy of the moving
fluid comprising the gravitational potential
energy of elevation, the energy associated
with the fluid pressure and the kinetic energy
of the fluid motion, remains constant".
 Bernoulli’s Principle Formula
• Bernoulli’s equation formula is a relation between
pressure, kinetic energy, and gravitational potential
energy of a fluid in a container.
• The formula for Bernoulli’s principle is given as:
• p + 1/2 ρ v2 + ρgh =constant
• Where,
• p is the pressure exerted by the fluid
• v is the velocity of the fluid
• ρ is the density of the fluid
• h is the height of the container
 Bernoulli’s Equation Derivation
• Consider a pipe with varying diameter and height through which an
incompressible fluid is flowing. The relationship between the areas of
cross sections A, the flow speed v, height from the ground y, and pressure
p at two different points 1 and 2 is given in the figure below.
 Assumptions:
• The density of the incompressible fluid remains constant at
both the points.
• Energy of the fluid is conserved as there are no viscous forces
in the fluid.
• Therefore, the work done on the fluid is given as:
• dW = F1dx1 – F2dx2
• dW = p1A1dx1 – p2A2dx2
• dW = p1dV – p2dV = (p1 – p2)dV
• We know that the work done on the fluid was due to conservation of
gravitational force and change in kinetic energy. The change in kinetic
energy of the fluid is given as:
• dK=1/2m2v22−1/2m1v12=1/2ρdV(v22−v12)
• The change in potential energy is given as:
• dU = mgy2 – mgy1 = ρdVg(y2 – y1)
• Therefore, the energy equation is given as:
• dW = dK + dU
• (p1 – p2)dV = 1/2ρdV(v22−v12) + ρdVg(y2 – y1)
• (p1 – p2) = 1/2ρ(v22−v12) + ρg(y2 – y1)
• Rearranging the above equation, we get
• p1+(1/2)ρv12+ρgy1=p2+(1/2)ρv22+ρgy2
• This is Bernoulli’s equation.
 Ohm’s law
• What is Ohm’s Law?
• Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference applied across its
ends, provided the temperature and other physical conditions
remain unchanged. Mathematically it can be represented as,
• Potential difference ∝ Current
• V∝I
• ( When the value of V increases the value of I increases
simultaneously)
• V = IR
• Where,
• V is Voltage in volts (V)
• R is Resistance in ohm (Ω)
• I is Current in Ampere (A
 How does Ohm’s Law work?
• Ohm’s Law describes the current flow through a resistance
when different electric potentials (voltage) are applied at each
end of the resistance.
• Since we can’t see electrons, the model or an analogy of
electric circuits used to help us understand circuits better is
the water-pipe analogy. Water flowing through pipes is a
good mechanical system that is analogous to an electrical
circuit.
• Here, the voltage is analogous to water pressure, the current
is the amount of water flowing through the pipe, and the
resistance is the size of the pipe.
• More water will flow through the pipe (current) when more
pressure is applied (voltage) and the bigger the pipe, (lower
the resistance).
 Different Applications of Ohm’s Law
• The main applications of Ohm’s law are:
• 1. To determine the voltage, resistance or
current of an electric circuit.
• 2. Ohm’s law is used to maintain the desired
voltage drop across the electronic
• components.
• 3. Ohm’s law is also used in dc ammeter and
other dc shunts to divert the current.
 Limitations of Ohm’s Law
• Following are the limitations of Ohm’s law:
• 1. Ohm’s law is not applicable for unilateral
electrical elements like diodes and transistors
as they allow the current to flow through in
one direction only.
• 2. For non-linear electrical elements with
parameters like capacitance, resistance etc the
voltage and current won’t be constant with
respect to time making it difficult to use Ohm’s
law.
 Electrical induction in engineering products:
• Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
• Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
consists of two laws. The first law describes
the induction of emf in a conductor and the
second law quantifies the emf produced in the
conductor. In the next few sections, let us
learn these laws in detail.
 Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction
• The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic
induction are based on a long series of experiments carried
out by Faraday and Henry. From the experimental
observations, Faraday arrived at a conclusion that an emf is
induced in the coil when the magnetic flux across the coil
changes with time. With this in mind, Faraday formulated his
first law of electromagnetic induction as,
• Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field,
an electromotive force is induced. If the conductor circuit is
closed, a current is induced which is called induced current.
Mentioned here are a few ways to change the magnetic
field intensity in a closed loop:
• By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.
• By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic
field.
• By changing the area of a coil placed in the
magnetic field.
• By moving a magnet towards or away from the
coil.
 Faraday’s Second Law of Electromagnetic
Induction
• Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction
states that
• The induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of
change of flux linkage.
• The flux is the product of the number of turns in the
coil and the flux associated with the
• coil.
• The formula of Faraday’s law is given below:
• ε=−N(Δϕ/Δt)
• Where,
• ε is the electromotive force
• Φ is the magnetic flux
• N is the number of turns
• The negative sign indicates that the direction of the induced
emf and change in direction of magnetic fields have opposite
signs.
• Additionally, there is another key law known as Lenz’s law that
describes electromagnetic induction as well.
 Applications of Faraday’s Law
• Following are the fields where Faraday’s law
find applications:
• 1. Electrical equipment like transformers work
on the basis of Faraday’s law.
• 2. Induction cooker works on the basis of
mutual induction which is the principle of
• Faraday’s law.
• 3. By inducing an electromotive force into an
electromagnetic flowmeter, the velocity of the
fluids is recorded.
 Lenz Law Definition
• The Lenz Law is reflected in the formula of Faraday’s law. Here
the negative sign is contributed from Lenz law.
• The expression is – Emf=−N(Δϕ/Δt)
• Where,
• Emf is the induced voltage (also known as
electromotive force).
• N is the number of loops.
• Δϕ Change in magnetic flux.
• Δt Change in time.
 Lenz Law Applications
• Lenz law applications are plenty. Some of
them are listed below-
• Eddy current balances
• Metal detectors
• Eddy current dynamometers
• Braking systems on train
• AC generators
• Card readers
• Microphones.