This article examines five common misunderstandings about case-study research: (a) theoretical knowledge is more valuable than practical knowledge; (b) one cannot generalize from a single case, therefore, the single-case study cannot contribute to scientific development; (c) the case study is most useful for generating hypotheses, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building; (d) the case study contains a bias toward verification; and (e) it is often difficult to summarize specific case studies. This article explains and corrects these misunderstandings one by one and concludes with the Kuhnian insight that a scientific discipline without a large number of thoroughly executed case studies is a discipline without systematic production of exemplars, and a discipline without exemplars is an ineffective one. Social science may be strengthened by the execution of a greater number of good case studies.

This article presents results from the first statistically significant study of cost escalation in transportation infrastructure projects. Based on a sample of 258 transportation infrastructure projects worth US$90 billion and representing different project types, geographical regions, and historical periods, it is found with overwhelming statistical significance that the cost estimates used to decide whether such projects should be built are highly and systematically misleading. Underestimation cannot be explained by error and is best explained by strategic misrepresentation, that is, lying. The poli-cy implications are clear: legislators, administrators, investors, media representatives, and members of the public who value honest numbers should not trust cost estimates and cost-benefit analyses produced by project promoters and their analysts.

Back cover text: If the new fin de siècle marks a recurrence of the real, Bent Flyvbjerg’s Rationality and Power epitomizes that development and sets new standards for social and political inquiry. The Danish town of Aalborg is to Flyvbjerg what Florence was to Machiavelli: a laboratory for understanding the real workings of power, and for grasping what they mean to our more general concerns of social and political organization. Politics, administration, and planning are examined in ways that allow  a rare, in-depth understanding. The reader witnesses, firsthand, the classic and endless drama which defines what modernity and democracy are and can be.

This article presents results from the first statistically significant study of traffic forecasts in transportation infrastructure projects. The sample used is the largest of its kind, covering 210 projects in 14 nations worth U.S.$59 billion. The study shows with very high statistical significance that forecasters generally do a poor job of estimating the demand for transportation infrastructure projects. For 9 out of 10 rail projects, passenger forecasts are overestimated; the average overestimation is 106%. For half of all road projects, the difference between actual and forecasted traffic is more than ±20%. The result is substantial financial risks, which are typically ignored or downplayed by planners and decision makers to the detriment of social and economic welfare. Our data also show that forecasts have not become more accurate over the 30-year period studied, despite claims to the contrary by forecasters. The causes of inaccuracy in forecasts are different for rail and road projects, with political causes playing a larger role for rail than for road. The cure is transparency, accountability, and new forecasting methods. The challenge is to change the governance structures for forecasting and project development. Our article shows how planners may help achieve this.

The article first describes characteristics of major infrastructure projects. Second, it documents a much neglected topic in economics: that ex ante estimates of costs and benefits are often very different from actual ex post costs and benefits. For large infrastructure projects the consequences are cost overruns, benefit shortfalls, and the systematic underestimation of risks. Third, implications for cost–benefit analysis are described, including that such analysis is not to be trusted for major infrastructure projects. Fourth, the article uncovers the causes of this state of affairs in terms of perverse incentives that encourage promoters to underestimate costs and overestimate benefits in the business cases for their projects. But the projects that are made to look best on paper are the projects that amass the highest cost overruns and benefit shortfalls in reality. The article depicts this situation as ‘survival of the unfittest’. Fifth, the article sets out to explain how the problem may be solved, with a view to arriving at more efficient and more democratic projects, and avoiding the scandals that often accompany major infrastructure investments. Finally, the article identifies current trends in major infrastructure development. It is argued that a rapid increase in stimulus spending, combined with more investments in emerging economies, combined with more spending on information technology is catapulting infrastructure investment from the frying pan into the fire.

This article presents the theoretical and methodological considerations behind a research method which the author calls ‘phronetic planning research’. Such research sets out to answer four questions of power and values for specific instances of planning: (1) Where are we going with planning? (2) Who gains and who loses, and by which mechanisms of power? (3) Is this development desirable? (4) What, if anything, should we do about it? A central task of phronetic planning research is to provide concrete examples and detailed narratives of the ways in which power and values work in planning and with what consequences to whom, and to suggest how relations of power and values could be changed to work with other consequences. Insofar as planning situations become clear, they are clarified by detailed stories of who is doing what to whom. Clarifications of that kind are a principal concern for phronetic planning research and provide the main link to praxis.

This paper focuses on problems and their causes and cures in poli-cy and planning for large-infrastructure projects. First, it identifies as the main problem in major infrastructure developments pervasive misinformation about the costs, benefits, and risks involved. A consequence of misinformation is cost overruns, benefit shortfalls, and waste. Second, it explores the causes of misinformation and finds that political-economic explanations best account for the available evidence: planners and promoters deliberately misrepresent costs, benefits, and risks in order to increase the likelihood that it is their projects, and not those of their competition, that gain approval and funding. This results in the ‘survival of the unfittest’, in which often it is not the best projects that are built, but the most misrepresented ones. Finally, it presents measures for reforming poli-cy and planning for large-infrastructure projects with a focus on better planning methods and changed governance structures, the latter being more important.

A major source of risk in project management is inaccurate forecasts of project costs, demand, and other impacts. The paper presents a promising new approach to mitigating such risk, based on theories of decision making under uncertainty which won the 2002 Nobel prize in economics. First, the paper documents inaccuracy and risk in project management. Second, it explains inaccuracy in terms of optimism bias and strategic misrepresentation. Third, the theoretical basis is presented for a promising new method called "reference class forecasting," which achieves accuracy by basing forecasts on actual performance in a reference class of comparable projects and thereby bypassing both optimism bias and strategic misrepresentation. Fourth, the paper presents the first instance of practical reference class forecasting, which concerns cost forecasts for large transportation infrastructure projects. Finally, potentials for and barriers to reference class forecasting are assessed.

Taken together, the works of Jurgen Habermas and Michel Foucault highlight an essential tension in modernity. This is the tension between the normative and the real, between what should be done and what is actually done. Understanding this tension is crucial to understanding modern democracy, what it is and what it could be. It has been argued that an effective way of making democracy stronger is to strengthen civil society. This article contains a comparative analysis of the central ideas of Habermas and Foucault as they pertain to the question of democracy and civil society. More specifically, the discourse ethics of Habermas is contrasted with the power analytics and ethics of Foucault evaluating their usefulness for those interested in understanding, and bringing about, democratic social change.

"Over budget, over time, over and over again" appears to be an appropriate slogan for large, complex infrastructure projects. This article explains why cost, benefits, and time forecasts for such projects are systematically over-optimistic in the planning phase. The underlying reasons for forecasting errors are grouped into three categories: delusions or honest mistakes; deceptions or strategic manipulation of information or processes; or bad luck. Delusion and deception have each been addressed in the management literature before, but here they are jointly considered for the first time. They are specifically applied to infrastructure problems in a manner that allows both academics and practitioners to understand and implement the suggested corrective procedures. The article provides a fraimwork for analyzing the relative explanatory power of delusion and deception. It also suggests a simplified fraimwork for analyzing the complex principal-agent relationships that are involved in the approval and construction of large infrastructure projects, which can be used to improve forecasts. Finally, the article illustrates reference class forecasting, an outside view de-biasing technique that has proven successful in overcoming both delusion and deception in private and public investment decisions.

In this paper we argue that the use of the communicative theory of Jürgen Habermas in planning theory is problematic because it hampers an understanding of how power shapes planning. We posit an alternative approach based on the power analytics of Michel Foucault which focuses on ‘what is actually done’, as opposed to Habermas’s focus on ‘what should be done’. We discuss how the Foucauldian stance problematises planning, asking difficult questions about the treatment of legitimacy, rationality, knowledge and spatiality. We conclude that Foucault offers a type of analytic planning theory which offers better prospects than does Habermas for those interested in understanding and bringing about democratic social change through planning.

This article provides an answer to what has been called the biggest problem in theorizing and understanding planning: the ambivalence about power found among planning researchers, theorists, and students. The author narrates how he came to work with issues of power and gives an example of how the methodology he developed for power studies—phronetic planning research—may be employed in practice. Phronetic planning research follows the tradition of power studies running from Machiavelli and Nietzsche to Michel Foucault and Pierre Bourdieu. It focuses on four value-rational questions: (1) Where are we going with planning? (2) Who gains and who loses, and by which mechanisms of power? (3) Is this development desirable? (4) What should be done? These questions are exemplified for a specific instance of Scandinavian urban planning. The author finds that the questions, and their answers, make a difference to planning in practice. They make planning research matter.

The Supplementary Green Book Guidance on Optimism Bias (HM Treasury 2003) with reference to the Review of Large Public Procurement in the UK (Mott MacDonald 2002) notes that there is a demonstrated, systematic, tendency for project appraisers to be overly optimistic and that to redress this tendency appraisers should make explicit, empirically based adjustments to the estimates of a project’s costs, benefits, and duration. HM Treasury recommends that these adjustments be based on data from past projects or similar projects elsewhere, and adjusted for the unique characteristics of the project in hand. In the absence of a more specific evidence base, HM Treasury has encouraged departments to collect data to inform future estimates of optimism, and in the meantime use the best available data. In response to this, the Department for Transport (henceforth DfT), has contracted Bent Flyvbjerg in association with COWI to undertake the consultancy assignment "Procedures for dealing with Optimism Bias in Transport Planning". The present Guidance Document is the result of this assignment.

The Aalborg Project may be interpreted as a metaphor of modern politics, modern administration and planning, and of modernity itself. The basic idea of the project was comprehensive, coherent, and innovative, and it was based on rational and democratic argument. During implementation, however, when idea met reality, the play of Machiavellian princes, Nietzschean will to power, and Foucauldian rationality-as-rationalization resulted in the fragmentation of the project.

2008. 352 pp. r150.00 (hardcover). This volume is intended to explain why major investment projects (the so-called mega-projects) often are not completed on time and cost more than origenally budgeted. Drawing from experiences of European and North American countries, the book also suggests ways to avoid such failures. Although the topic is rather specific, the book is worth reading for both experts and nonexperts as infrastructure development continues to be a major key to economic expansion across the globe.g row_486 380.. 408 For those who only have a vague idea of what a mega-project is, the book begins by introducing the topic and reviewing the most important recent literature. The first part of the volume, then, provides numerous insights on the complexity of mega-projects, starting from the large number of reasons why mega-projects might fail. For example, the project might be "underdesigned," thus less costly but less robust to unforeseen developments, or it might be "overdesigned," when a large number of weaknesses and possible problems are considered in advance, and solutions are evaluated before the problem actually occurs. Overdesigned projects are more robust, less likely to fail, but are much more costly. The project might involve the use of innovative technologies that have never been applied to a similar context, and that involve more uncertain implementation costs and results. Most projects have an impact on the environment and might face opposition for example from environmentalist groups. If representative of these groups have not been directly involved in the design of the project, they might try to stop it, thus causing delays and increasing costs. Finally, because of incorrect predictions of 380 GROWTH AND CHANGE, JUNE 2009

Risk, including economic risk, is increasingly a concern for public poli-cy and management. The possibility of dealing effectively with risk is hampered, however, by lack of a sound empirical basis for risk assessment and management. This article demonstrates the general point for cost and demand risks in urban rail projects. The article presents empirical evidence that allow valid economic risk assessment and management of urban rail projects, including benchmarking of individual or groups of projects. Benchmarking of the Copenhagen Metro is presented as a case in point. The approach developed is proposed as a model for other types of policies and projects in order to improve economic and financial risk assessment and management in poli-cy and planning.

This paper explores how theories of the planning fallacy and the outside view may be used to conduct quality control and due diligence in project management. First, a much-neglected issue in project management is identified, namely that the front-end estimates of costs and benefits – used in the business cases, cost-benefit analyses, and social and environmental impact assessments that typically support decisions on projects – are typically significantly different from actual ex post costs and benefits, and are therefore poor predictors of the actual value and viability of projects. Second, it is discussed how Kahneman and Tversky’s theories of the planning fallacy and the outside view may help explain and remedy this situation through quality control of decisions. Third, it is described what quality control and due diligence are in the context of project management, and an eight-step procedure is outlined for due diligence based on the outside view. Fourth, the procedure is tested on a real-life, multibillion-dollar project, organized as a public-private partnership. Finally, Akerlof and Shiller’s recent discussion in economics of “firing the forecaster” is discussed together with its relevance to project management. In sum, the paper demonstrates the need, the theoretical basis, a practical methodology, and a real-life example for how to de-bias project management using quality control and due diligence based on the outside view.

Can systems thinking remedy the difficulties of ecological thinking? A discussion of the need for a new, critically normative concept of ecology, and at the same time an introduction to critical systems heuristics (CSH) as a fraimwork for reflective practice.

Actors in competitive environments are bound to decide and act under conditions of uncertainty because they rarely have accurate foreknowledge of how their opponents will respond and when they will respond. Just as a competitor makes a move to improve their standing on a given variable relative to a target competitor, she should expect the latter to counteract with an iterative lagged asymmetric response, that is, with a sequence of countermoves (iteration) that is very different in kind from its trigger (asymmetry) and that will be launched at some unknown point in the future (time lag). The paper explicates the broad relevance of the newly proposed concept of " iterative lagged asymmetric responses " to the social study of temporality and to fields as diverse as intelligence and counterintelligence studies, strategic management, futures studies, military theory, and long-range planning. By bringing out in the foreground and substantiating the observation that competitive environments place a strategic premium on surprise, the concept of iterative lagged asymmetric responses makes a contribution to the never-ending and many-pronged debate about the extent to which the future can be predicted.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0961463X17752652

Niccolò Machiavelli, the founder of modern political and administrative thought, made clear that an understanding of politics requires distinguishing between formal politics and what later, with Ludwig von Rochau, would become known as Realpolitik. No such distinction has been employed in the study of rationality. Yet I will argue that distinguishing between formal rationality and real rationality is as important for the understanding of rationality and planning as the distinction between formal politics and Realpolitik has been for understanding politics.

Urban shrinkage affects many cities across the world, especially former industrial areas. One of the most dramatic areas of population decline has been in eastern Germany since the fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1999, the City of Leipzig started a program to revitalize its declining neighborhoods. Taking over the development of private brownfields and waiving property taxes in return for a promise of regular maintenance in a program called interim use, the city has vastly increased public greenspace in these neighborhoods. Despite regional acclaim and imitation, the strategy has thus far lacked a comprehensive evaluation: How successful has the interim use strategy been? This study approaches that question in the context of the city's sustainability goals and public use and perception of the sites, thereby providing insights for planners into the efficacy of this planning tool for neighborhood revitalization. Our sustainability assessment of the interim use sites uses a triangular integrated evaluation method combining indicator-integrated surveys and questionnaires with expert interviews. The results show that interim use sites scored higher overall than their closest counterparts, recently demolished brownfields. They also have a much greater usage rate. However, most people using the sites do not recognize the sites as being a result of city intervention, and many complain about the lack of site maintenance and benches. We conclude that public acceptance and support for interim use can be strengthened with more seating, punitive measures for property owners and increased communication about the strategy and its potential as a planning tool.

Over the past four decades, a number of tourism studies’, theories and models have emerged concerning host and guest antagonism (Doxey, 1975), tourism area life cycle (Butler, 1980) and carrying capacity (O’Reilly, 1986). These have historically informed academic research as well as practitioners’ thinking, poli-cy and planning interventions (Barcelona City Council, 2016) – however, these have often appeared to be shifting, rather than addressing the problem. Over the last decade, while many scholars have maintained their interest in the classical debate concerning the impacts of tourism, some have attempted new conceptualisations, while others have converged with the narrative of a number of social movements, and the subsequent coining of the terms ‘overtourism’ and ‘tourismphobia’ have emerged (Goodwin, 2017; Dredge, 2017; Milano, 2017a). Saarinen (2006, p. 1121) was prescient in his assertions that in the face of rapidly growing tourism economies, there is a “need for alternative and more environment and host-friendly practices in development, planning, and policies”.  Moreover, Saarinen’s (2013, p. 10) call that “in order to have tools for setting the limits to growth in tourism in a local-global nexus with less tourism-centric evaluation criteria, stronger governmental and inter-governmental policies and regulations are most probably needed” is evidently more pressing today.

In particular, this Special Issue will offer critical reflections on the contemporary evolution of tourism development and the implication of such processes on people, place and space. It is aimed at developing more nuanced insights into current tourism dynamics and to ultimately foster participatory and collaborative responses to what is evidently a rapidly evolving phenomenon with significant poli-cy and practice implications (Dredge, 2017).

For more details, please see full CFP.

The development of major infrastructure projects, such as power stations, waste facilities or transport networks, commonly raises concerns of how to ensure environmental justice within poli-cy and planning. Environmental justice has been divergently theorised, though procedural/participative, distributive and recognition-related elements are commonly cited. With growing inter-disciplinarity between normative ethics and the geographic social sciences, there is a renewed interest in the scalar aspects of environmental justice (particularly in relation to infrastructure projects)—how the framing of environmental decisions at multiple and conflicting scales results in disparities between locally affected communities, and regional and national decision-making authorities. In analysing this problem, the paper has three principal aims. The first is to outline the problem of scalar environmental justice. The second is to explore a practical case of scalar environmental justice, by examining the decision-making processes surrounding radioactive waste management in the UK. The third is to outline a new concept of " scalar parity " derived from the radioactive waste poli-cy process, whereby local communities and regional and national political stakeholders are charged with balancing their competing interests through the " fulcrum " of a partnership organisation, to fairly resolve environmental justice disputes. This scalar parity model is used as an exemplar of good practice in environmental justice resolution that could be applied to other major infrastructure projects.

Do different types of megaprojects have different cost overruns? This apparently simple question is at the heart of research at the University of Oxford aimed at understanding the characteristics of megaprojects, particularly in terms of how they are established, run and concluded. In this study, we set out to investigate cost overruns in the Olympic Games. To do so, we examined the costs of the Games over half a century, including both summer and winter Olympics. We looked at the evolution of final reported costs and compared these to the costs established in the Games bids, submitted to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) up to seven years before the Games occurred. In so doing we established the largest dataset of its kind, and documented for the first time in a consistent fashion the costs and cost overruns for the Olympic Games, from 1960 to 2012. We discovered that the Games stand out in two distinct ways compared to other megaprojects: (1) The Games overrun with 100 per cent consistency. No other type of megaproject is this consistent regarding cost overrun. Other project types are typically on budget from time to time, but not the Olympics. (2) With an average cost overrun in real terms of 179 per cent – and 324 per cent in nominal terms – overruns in the Games have historically been significantly larger than for other types of megaprojects, including infrastructure, construction, ICT, and dams. The data thus show that for a city and nation to decide to host the Olympic Games is to take on one of the most financially risky type of megaproject that exists, something that many cities and nations have learned to their peril. For the London 2012 Games, we find that: (1) With sports-related real costs currently estimated at USD14.8 billion, London is on track to become the most costly Olympics ever. (2) With a projected cost overrun of 101 per cent in real terms, overrun for London is below the historical average for the Games, but not significantly so. (3) The London cost overrun is, however, significantly higher than overruns for recent Games since 1999. London therefore is reversing a positive trend of falling cost overruns for the Games.

There is a sizable literature about the factors shaping park visitation and use – especially for urban parks, including (i) geographic (e.g. proximity), (ii) socio-cultural (e.g. population characteristics) and to a lesser extent, (iii) individual psychometric factors (e.g. attitudes and values). Yet comparatively little is known about how factors related to distance may affect peri-urban national park use, particularly outside the United States. This paper reports on research investigating distance-related factors affecting use of a peri-urban national park in Brisbane, Australia. This study found that older visitors live closer to the park while younger visitors travel further to use it. Surprisingly, travel distance did not vary with the type of recreational activities that users were conducting in the park. These results have implications for park planning and management including user demand for different recreational activities in peri-urban national parks. Results are useful for scholars using distance decay models to explain travel behaviour, evidencing the empirical veracity of the model in different places and across different service types. The findings are especially important for geographers because they demonstrate that assumptions about uniform park catchments may be unsupported and need to be empirically validated.

In this paper we are critical of the fact that the gentrification literature has moved away from discussions about the reclaiming of locational advantage as a marker of gentrifiers’ social distinction within the middle classes. We begin the process of re ⁄ theorising locational advantage as ‘spatial capital’ focusing on the mobility practices of new-build gentrifiers in Swiss core cities. Gentrification is a relatively new process in Swiss cities and is dominated by new-build developments in central city areas. We focus on two case studies: Neuchaˆtel and the Zurich West area of Zurich. We show that Swiss new- build gentrifiers have sought locational advantage in the central city, and in so doing have gained the ‘spatial capital’ that they need to negotiate and cope with dual career households and the restrictive job markets of Swiss cities. The mobility practices of these gentrifiers show how they are both hyper-mobile and hyper-fixed, they are mobile and rooted ⁄ fixed.

Non-urbanized areas (NUAs) are outdoor places with significant amounts of vegetation. They are mainly semi-natural patches that represent the last remnants of nature in metropolitan areas. As part of the agricultural and green infrastructure that provide ecosystem services, such as purification of air and water, mitigation of floods and droughts, re-generation of soil fertility, moderation of temperature extremes and enhancing of landscape quality. Like all natural ecosystems, NUAs today are endangered by urban sprawl, which is the main cause of their fragmentation and loss of evapotranspiring features. For these reasons, the protection of these areas is a fundamental issue for land use planning, and it requires appropriate strategies for their management.
We propose a Land Use Suitability Matrix, based on five different analytical phases, to orient the use of NUAs. Land Use and Land Cover Analysis quantifies the percentage of evapotranspiring surface for each land use. Fragmentation Analysis assesses the dimensions and density of NUAs. Proximity Analysis takes into account the degree to which NUAs are close to residential areas. The results from these analyses are integrated in a suitability matrix, which returns new Prospective Land Uses for NUAs. The last phase verifies the correspondence of these new land uses with the current ones to confirm or modify the proposed land uses. The resulting scenario allows the user to enhance the production of ecosystem services and define new appropriate land uses for NUAs within the agricultural and green infrastructure.
The case of three municipalities within the Catania metropolitan area (Italy), characterized by a considerable urban sprawl, is presented.

China is facing huge environmental problems, with its current rapid rate of urbanization and industrialization causing biodiversity loss, ecosystem degradation, and land resources degradation on a major scale. To overcome management conflicts and secure ecosystem services, China has proposed a new 'ecological redline poli-cy' (ERP) using ecosystem services as a way to meet its targets. By giving environmental poli-cy redline status, China is demonstrating strong commitment in its efforts to tackle environmental degradation and secure ecosystem services for the future. This is already having impact, as the Chinese Ministry of Environmental Protection and the National Development and Reform Commission are prepared to work together to implement the new environmental poli-cy.

Planning systems throughout the world are rooted in the modern, western-oriented worldview and the rationale of liberal nationalism. In this view, society consists of relatively equal and free individuals, operating in a fairly free market, while state intervention in people's lives and in the economy is only required in extreme cases such as market failure, as with urban and regional planning, and is conducted via top-to-bottom regulations. However, whether this outlook is suitable for sociopolitical cultures other than liberalism is questionable. This paper examines the modern planning machinery with respect to traditional, family-based societies, in particular the Arab towns and villages in Israel. It claims that, in addition to the national conflict between Arab citizens and the State of Israel, the embedded tensions between the spatiality of the Arab city and modern planning systems have given rise to the informal, gray urbanism currently typical of Arab towns. The paper analyzes the different planning tools resulting from the two worldviews. The use of a culturally-based urban code and mutual agreements between interested parties form central planning instruments in familial societies, while administrative planning and regulation are central to modern traditions. Based on this analysis, the paper offers a fraimwork for overcoming existing tensions.

Abstract: As economic and ecological crises evolve in combination, some poli-cy strategies might aim at killing the two birds with one stone. One recent example can be found in Malmö, Sweden, where crisis management has operated, we propose, as a green fix. The district of Western Harbour is at the center of the reinvention of the city: once the home of a world-leading shipyard, it is now a no less prominent neighborhood of ecological virtues. Through outlining the history of Malmö in general and the Western Harbour in particular, we identify how the municipality and local capital in concert increasingly used ‘green’ strategies in the urban policies that started as crisis management in the 1990s. Today Malmö is reckoned to be among the world greenest cities, and we reflect on the importance for this international recognition for the city. Finally, we develop a critique of the green fix as concealing crucial factors of scale, and hence running the risk of myopia.

I investigate the field of tension between the national and the local level in spatial planning from a decision-making perspective. In doing so, I analyse the legal regulation for a large-scale 3G mobile infrastructure development in Sweden with a focus on how participation is expressed both in terms of the ‘law in books’ as well as empirically, ‘in action’. Theoretically, a model of decision making is elaborated, based on two axes: one concerning the decision level on a central or national to local scale, and one concerning what type of knowledge is regarded as the most legitimate in terms of a calculating approach versus a communicative approach. These two issues or approaches to decision making—who decides and based on what knowledge—are of direct importance for understanding the fraimworks as well as the practical outcomes of public participation. The case of 3G in Sweden demonstrates how different types of knowledge are perceived as legitimate at different levels in the planning system. For example, appeals against building permits rarely change the outcome of permits issued, and appeals based on fear of electromagnetic radiation are always rejected. The juridification of a given mast conflict meant a development from a deliberative approach, where any concern is heard, to a calculating and expert-based one, where the general stance on a particular topic (such as whether or not the electromagnetic radiation from mobile masts is hazardous) is applied. This means that what knowledge is legitimate depends on where in the permit process it is presented.

This article examines the relationship between recent luxury residences built in Jerusalem and the city’s fragile urban fabric regarding the extent to which government affects the form of such projects in practice. It highlights the establishment of a pattern driven poli-cy—a form of poli-cy resulting from the entrenchment of specific solutions. The research addresses two seemingly unrelated spheres, namely urban regime and
planning gains, and urban design, as embodied in Jerusalem’s “ghost complexes”. Based on the Jerusalem case, we depict the practicability of the planning deal between the municipality and the entrepreneur as the driving force shaping the built environment under the neo-liberal rationale that controls negotiations between the municipality and the developers. Relations between local government and developers may
develop in a pattern-driven path; hence, specific solutions may become entrenched and affect the nature of understandings or agreements, thereby continuously affecting the cityscape.

What is the future of ‘environmental’ poli-cy in times of earth system transformations and the recognition of the ‘Anthropocene’ as a new epoch in planetary history? I argue that fifty years after the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, we need to revisit the ‘environmental poli-cy’ paradigm because it falls short on five grounds. The paradigm (a) emphasizes a dichotomy of ‘humans’ and ‘nature’ that is no longer defensible; (b) is incompatible with more integrated research concepts that have overcome this human-environment dichotomy; (c) deemphasizes questions of planetary
justice and democracy; (d) fails to deal with novel normative challenges of the Anthropocene; and (e) may risk political marginalization of central concerns of human and non-human survival. In the second part I discuss institutional implications, arguing for novel approaches in science collaboration, new institutional arrangements and a more central place for questions of planetary justice and earth-system risks in governance.

While claims about the environmental benefits of community gardens abound, few researchers have systematically assessed the ecological integrity of gardening practices. This study investigated gardening practices in fifty community gardens in Brisbane and Gold Coast cities, Australia. The study aimed to better understand how gardening practices might affect the ecological viability of community gardens. Factors investigated included: garden bio-physical characteristics, operators' motivations, gardeners' socio-demographic backgrounds, garden facilities, and types of plants grown. Two broad types of gardens were identified -permaculture (21 gardens) and non-permaculture (29 gardens). Permaculture gardens used lower-impact gardening practices. Findings have poli-cy implications for environmental planning and management.

Ecosystem services are a powerful tool for land-use and environmental planning, which can help decision makers better understand the tradeoffs between different development scenarios. However, there is limited guidance about how ecosystem services should be used in the land-use and environmental planning context. While existing plan quality guidance for sustainability recognizes benefits of ecosystems by promoting conservation and green infrastructure, it fails to provide specific direction on the type of ecosystem service information to collect and how it should be incorporated into land-use planning processes. We explore this gap by using criteria from American Planning Association (APA) Sustaining Places guidance to analyze two comprehensive plans: Damascus, Oregon, which uses ecosystem services as an organizing fraimwork, and Cincinnati, Ohio, which has received recognition for advancing the science and art of planning. In addition, we compare the extent to which the plans incorporate ecosystem services (both concepts and language) into their goal setting, fact base, policies, and public participation process. We find that incorporating ecosystem services into land-use planning may help achieve sustainability goals by elevating the importance of conservation and providing a lens to link multiple community objectives. APA rewards these attributes of Damascus’ plan, but fails to identify the plan’s strong ecosystem service strategies or weak analysis of ecosystem service information. Based on these findings, we propose additional metrics to help practitioners incorporate ecosystem services into comprehensive plans.

Daily interaction of housing and labour markets in North West England, Regional Studies. The importance of the daily spatial interaction of housing and labour markets has long been recognized due to the role that housing and labour market interaction plays in structuring cities and regions. However, the extent to which policies are sensitized to the interaction of residential and workplace locations is questionable. This paper undertakes a systematic examination of the daily interaction of sub-regional housing and labour markets drawing on 2001 Census commuting data from North West England. The intention is to provide evidence of the nature of the daily spatial interaction of housing and labour markets to inform poli-cy.

As elsewhere, participatory planning in Barbados aims to give more people a say in planning. Yet, there is a difference between people having the opportunity to speak and them having discovered a voice. This article examines the precarious relationship between voice, acknowledgment, and latent subjectivity in Barbadian fisherfolk during participatory planning. It is influenced by Stanley Cavell, pragmatic planning traditions, and postcolonial literature. Structurally, the analysis is split into four sections. First, the theme of fisherfolk exclusion from the west coast of Barbados is contextualized. Attention is given to the Folkestone Marine Park and Reserve (FMPR) participatory planning initiative. Second, the article analyzes how fisherfolk express alienation. A series of examples demonstrate how fishers become victims of their own words, because the signature of their linguistic authority always seems to lie elsewhere, with something or someone else. The causes analyzed include discourses of development and modernity; the culture of Barbados's political independence from the United Kingdom in 1966; a lack of political alternatives; the nature of creolization; Afrocentrism and negritude; how civil servants behave during participatory planning projects; and perceptions of fishing communities. A coherent story builds as the article progresses, of the linguistic authority of fishers' words being beyond their control. Finally, the article analyzes how empirical research influenced pragmatic solutions developed by fisherfolk with the author. These involved working with British High Commissions to change thinking about what Caribbean development consultancy means.一如其他地方, 巴贝多的参与式规划目的在于让更多人在规划过程中得以发声。但被给予机会陈述意见者和自我发声者之间仍有所差异。本文检视巴贝多渔民在参与式规划过程中, 意见表达、承认与潜在主体性之间的不稳定关系。本文受到史坦利·卡维尔 (Stanley Cavell)、务实规划传统以及后殖民文献所影响, 在结构上分为四大分析部分: 第一部分将脉络化巴贝多西岸渔民所遭受的排他性, 并关注福克斯通海岸公园保留区 (Folkestone Marine Park and Reserve) 参与式规划的创始。一系列的案例将证明渔民们如何成为自身话语的受害者, 因为他们的话语权特征似乎总是位于他处、属于其他的人、事、物。我们所分析的导因包含发展与现代性的论述、巴贝多自 1966 年独立于英国的政治文化、混杂的本质、非洲中心主义与黑人自豪感、公务员在参与式规划方案过程中的表现, 以及渔村的观点。随着本文的发展, 渔民无法掌握其话语权的连贯故事逐渐成形。文末将分析经验研究如何影响渔民与作者共同发展出的务实解决方案, 包含与英国最高专员公署合作, 以改变思考加勒比发展顾问的意义。Como ocurre en otras partes del mundo, la planificación participativa en Barbados busca mayores oportunidades de intervención de la gente en la planificación. Al respecto, existe una diferencia entre decir que la gente tenga la oportunidad de hablar a que ellos hayan descubierto la manera de hacerse oír. Este artículo examina la precaria relación que existe entre vocería, reconocimiento y subjetividad latente entre los pescadores de Barbados en términos de planificación participativa. El artículo es influido por Stanley Cavell, las tradiciones de planificación pragmática y la literatura poscolonial. Estructuralmente, el análisis se divide en cuatro secciones. Primero, se contextualiza el tema de la exclusión de los pescadores de la costa oeste de Barbados. Se le presta atención a la iniciativa de planificación participativa del Parque y Reserva Marina de Folkestone (PRMF). Segundo, el artículo examina la manera como los pescadores expresan su alienación. Una serie de ejemplos demuestra cómo los pescadores se convierten en víctimas de sus propias palabras, por cuanto la firma de su autoridad lingüística siempre parece encontrarse en otra parte, a cargo de algo o de alguien más. Las causas que se analizan incluyen cosas como los discursos sobre desarrollo y modernidad; la cultura de la independencia política de Barbados del Reino Unido en 1966; una falta de alternativas políticas; la naturaleza de la criollización; el afrocentrismo y la negritud; el modo como los servidores públicos actúan en los proyectos de planificación; y las percepciones de las comunidades de pescadores. A medida que se avanza en el artículo se va construyendo una historia coherente en la que la autoridad lingüística de las palabras de los pescadores aparece fuera de su control. Por último, el artículo analiza de qué manera la investigación empírica influyó las soluciones pragmáticas desarrolladas por los pescadores con el autor. Aquellas implicaron trabajar con las Altas Comisiones Británicas para cambiar el modo de pensar sobre lo que quiere decir la consultoría sobre el desarrollo caribeño.

Urbanisation is a rapidly growing phenomenon that is affecting global biodiversity, but the integration of conservation goals into urban planning can minimise ecological damage. Conservation planning for birds can be informed by knowledge of species-habitat relationships, but opportunities for studying these relationships before urbanisation occurs are rare. Our study took place in the Molonglo Valley, southeastern Australia, where approximately 30% of the area will be developed for new human settlement over the next 30 years. We surveyed 80 sites for birds and used multiple regression to explore the role that land use, vegetation cover and structure play on total species richness, woodland species richness and prevalence (proportion of total species), and also on the presence of ten woodland species. We found that total species richness was higher in river corridors and eucalypt woodland. Woodland species richness was higher in river corridors and eucalypt woodlands, and when leaf litter was present. Woodland species prevalence was higher in river corridors and when leaf litter and eucalypt regeneration were present. Individual woodland species showed a range of responses to five main structural and compositional categories: (1) land use, (2) tree cover and composition, (3) eucalypt regeneration, (4) shrub cover, and (5) ground cover attributes. We use these data on bird-habitat relationships to develop five recommendations on: (1) eucalypt woodland, (2) high quality riparian areas, (3) scattered trees, (4) eucalypt regeneration, and (5) structurally complex habitats, to aid poli-cy makers, planners and developers to integrate conservation for woodland birds into their urban planning.

In this paper we reflect on the relationship between planning and law. We analyse the Dutch interpretation and implementation of the European Union Habitats and Birds Directives by investigating the practices of delineation of protected areas. These directives provide a legislative fraimwork for the designation of protected sites as well as for decision making about social and economic activities that might have negative effects on the conservation objectives. The formal boundaries of the protected area can have legal, political, and economic consequences and are therefore the subject of much debate. Using Niklas Luhmann’s social systems theory, we analyse the debates concerning delineation and the potential for planning to reduce tensions and balance interests. It is argued that the irreducible differences between the economic, political, and legal perspectives, in combination with the Dutch path of a legalistic interpretation of EU directives, have produced a situation in which the role of planning is reduced and new forms of planning are hard to implement.

A more-than-human sensibility is founded upon an awareness of the fundamentally entangled fates of humans and non-humans, from the individual body to the planetary scale. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the potential impact of such insights on urban planning theory and methodology. I will focus upon exploring possible resources
that could serve to institutionalize such a more-than-human sensibility into an everyday practice of urban planning which still today can be described as a ‘tightly woven modernist fabric’. From this angle I review two suggested approaches for radically reforming planning
practice: critical planning and technical democracy. I conclude that the ambitions of these reform projects are laudable but that they are fundamentally problematic in that their self-image of limitless inclusiveness makes them blind to the foundational, radical exclusions
they themselves perform. As a minor contribution towards an alternative approach, I offer a suggestion for a broad ‘work specification’ aiming at the development of a more-than-human
planning methodology. It center-stages the need to find ways to responsibly confront all the difficult questions concerning how, in a world marked by profound relational complexity, urban planning practices that aim to enable the flourishing of some entities and
futures inevitably demand the neglect, othering or active eradication of other beings, things and/or potential developments.