Binomials are the word groups that are seen in the vocabulary of the Turkic since old times. Especially Old Uighur Turkic is rich in this respect. Among the modern Turkic languages, Tuvan has interesting characteristics in terms of binomial vocabulary. In this study, the term “ikileme” in Turkish, which is commonly used to name these expressions, and its scope have been discussed, and then the semantic features of the binomials are analysed in the case of Tuvan. Binomials in Turkic have been studied from various perspectives in several studies. However, it remains up-to-date with its various aspects starting from the terminology. In the studies on this topic in Turkey, the terms ikileme, ikizleme, yineleme, tekrar, hendiadyoin, koshma etc. are used to mark these expressions. Among them, the term ikileme is widely used and accepted. When we look at the definition of this word in the dictionaries, it is seen that the word is intertwined with the concept of “repetition”. But binomials stand as a different linguistic phenomenon than repetition/reduplication. In addition, it is seen that there is no coordination in the terms in the publications in Turkey with the terms in the international literature. Hendiadyoin and reduplication are mostly used terms in this context. These terms also represent different linguistic phenomenons than binomials. In the second and third section of our study, the terms used in the field and their scopes have been discussed comparatively and in conclusion, it is suggested that to name these expressions as “ikili sozler” in Turkish for the equivalent of the term binomials/binomial expressions. Binomials, in general, can be defined as phrases formed by two coordinated words in the same word class that come together with semantic relations. Then, on this theoretical ground, the semantic features of the binomials have been examined in the case of Tuvan. Since the words compose binomial structures combine with each other by some semantic relations, in this study, semantic features of the binomals have been analysed. We compiled the material in our study from the headwords in Tuvan dictionaries. Based on our material, we have classified these expressions semantically. According to this, meronymy, relating to the same conceptual field, synonymy and antonymy are determined as the major topics. When we look at the whole of these expressions, it is seen that the need to express a whole or concept together comes to the fore. Binomial expressions also show characteristic features in terms of both intralingual developments and relations with other languages or dialects. In this context, to mention to lexical and etymological features of the words create binomial structure stands as another side of the problem. For this reason, we mentioned the lexical and etymological characteristics of the binomials in the 4th part of our study. Considering their origins, it is seen that Mongolic borrowings are mostly found in the binomials in Tuvan. In terms of lexical features, as can be seen in other areas of the Turkic, some binomials in Tuvan can contain words that are not used alone. These may be words borrowed from other dialects or languages. Mongolic borrowings are mostly seen in this kind of binomials too.
Keywords: Turkic, Tuvan, binomaials, binomial expressions, hendiadyoin, reduplication

Öz: İkilemeler/ikili sözler, Türk dilinin söz varlığında eski devirlerden beri görülen söz öbekleridir. Özellikle Eski Uygur Türkçesi bu açıdan zenginlik taşır. Çağdaş Türk lehçelerinden de Tuva Türkçesi bu söz varlığı ögeleri bakımından dikkat çekici özellikler gösterir. Bu araştırmada “ikileme” terimi ve kapsamı tartışılmış; Tuva Türkçesi örneğinde ikilemelerin/ikili sözlerin semantik özellikleri incelenmiştir. “İkilemeler” şimdiye kadar çeşitli açılardan pek çok çalışmaya konu edilmiştir. Bununla birlikte, terim sorunundan başlayarak konunun üzerinde durulması gereken yönleri bulunmaktadır. Türkiye’de bu konuda yapılmış çalışmalarda söz konusu yapıların ikileme, ikizleme, yineleme, tekrar, hendiadyoin, koşma gibi terimlerle işaretlendikleri görülmektedir. Bunlardan ikileme, en yaygınlaşmış ve genel kabul görmüş olan terimdir. İkileme sözcüğünün sözlüklerdeki tanımına bakıldığında, konunun “tekrar” kavramıyla iç içe geçmiş olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Ancak, çeşitli anlam ilişkileriyle bir araya gelen eş görevli iki sözcüğün oluşturduğu söz öbekleri, tekrardan ayrı bir dil olgusuna işaret etmektedir. Ayrıca, Türkiye’de yapılan yayınlarda, bu yapıların uluslararası literatürdeki karşılığı için kullanılan terimlerde de tam bir örtüşme olmadığı görülmektedir. Bu bağlamda en çok kullanılan terimler hendiadyoin ve reduplication terimleridir. Ancak söz konusu terimler,esasında bu yapılardan ayrı dil olgularını ifade etmektedir. İncelememizin ikinci ve üçüncü bölümlerinde, alanda kullanılan terimlerin ve bunların kapsamlarının tartışması yapılmış; söz konusu yapıların ikili sözler (binomials/binomial expressions) olarak adlandırılması tercih edilmiştir. İkili sözler, genel olarak, çeşitli anlam ilişkileriyle bir araya gelen aynı türden ve eş görevli iki sözcüğün oluşturduğu söz öbekleri şeklinde tanımlanabilir. Ardından, bu teorik zeminde Tuva Tükçesi örneğinde ikili sözlerin semantik özellikleri incelenmiştir. İkili sözleri oluşturan sözcükler, çeşitli anlam ilişkileriyle bir araya gelmektedir. Bu nedenle incelemede ikili sözlerin semantik özellikleri üzerinde durulmuştur. İnceleme materyali, Tuva Türkçesine ait sözlüklerde madde başı olan sözler arasından derlenmiş; oluşturulan örneklem esasında bu sözler ayrıntılı bir semantik sınıflandırmaya tabi tutulmuştur. Buna göre; parça-bütün ilişkisi, aynı kavram ya da anlam alanına ait olma, yakın anlamlılık, zıt anlamlılık ilişkilerinin öne çıktığı tespit edilmiştir. Bu yapıların bütününe bakıldığında ise birlikte bir bütünü ya da kavramı ifade etme ihtiyacının öne çıktığı anlaşılmaktadır. İkili sözler, hem dil içi gelişmeler hem de başka diller veya lehçelerle ilişkiler bakımından da karakteristik özellikler gösterir. Bu bağlamda ikili yapıyı oluşturan sözcüklerin leksik ve etimolojik özellikleri de konunun üzerinde durulması gereken diğer bir yönüdür. Bu nedenle, incelemenin dördüncü bölümünde, ikili yapıyı oluşturan sözcüklerin leksik ve etimolojik özellikleri üzerinde de durulmuştur. Kökenlerine göre bakıldığında, Tuva Türkçesindeki ikili sözlerin bünyesinde en çok Moğolca alıntılar görülmektedir. Leksik bakımdan, Türk dilinin diğer sahalarında da görülebildiği gibi, Tuva Türkçesindeki bazı ikili sözlerin bünyesinde de tek başına kullanımı olmayan sözcükler bulunabilmektedir. Bunlar, başka lehçe ya da dillerden alıntı sözcükler olabilmektedir. Bu tür yapılarda da yabancı alıntı olarak en çok Moğolca sözcükler tespit edilmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Türk dili, Tuva Türkçesi, ikileme, ikili sözler, hendiadyoin, tekrar, yineleme

This article explores the iconicity of Total Reduplication (TR) and considers how iconicity is manifested in the reduplication of object, event, and attribute-denoting forms in Caribbean Creole (CC) languages. We argue that TR naturally lends itself to a “more of the same content” interpretation, but that iconicity is nevertheless compromised by restrictions on the eligibility of simplex forms as input for TR, arbitrary gaps in the interpretations available for reduplicated forms, and in the frequently attested secondary, affective connotations of the process. Additionally, we point out that the view that the presence of TR and other reduplicative processes in CC languages results from substrate transfer is difficult to maintain in light of the failure to find good parallels for these processes in relevant substrate languages. Thus, the presumed simplicity of iconicity disintegrates upon closer scrutiny.

The article examines series of Slavic denominations of potato containing reduplicated clusters of sounds. A hypothesis for sound-symbolic origin of the words is presented. Тhe following data were taken into account: the formal and semantic parallelism between words with reduplication expressing the same meaning, their formal and semantic variation, formal irregularities , contamination.

This study investigates the morphological processes of reduplication in the Ibibio language. Its objectives are to ascertain if construction morphology can account for reduplication in the Ibibio language, what word class can be reduplicate and how the reduplication occurs. This study adopts construction morphology as the theoretical framework and the data for the analysis was generated by introspection since the researcher is a native speaker of Ibibio and the standard Ibibio language was adopted. This study reveals that construction morphology can account for reduplication in the Ibibio language as data were analysed using the construction morphology. It also reveals that in the Ibibio language, nouns, adjectives, adverbs and numerals are reduplicated completely while verbs and some adjectives reduplicate partially taking the CV format as prefix(dá, dé, bó, kà, bé etc). The paper recommends that further theoretical researches should be carried out in reduplication in the Ibibio language and other morphological processes.

Pichi, an Afro-Caribbean English-lexifier Creole spoken on the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea, features four types of reiteration. Amongst them, reduplication and repetition can be distinguished on formal and semantic grounds. Reduplication is a derivational operation consisting of self-compounding and tone deletion. It is restricted to dynamic verbs and yields iterative, dispersive and attenuative meanings. Repetition occurs with all major word classes, renders more iconic meanings and is analyzed as semi-morphological in nature. A comparison with verbal reiteration in a cross-section of West African languages and two of its sister languages in the Caribbean allows the conclusion that Pichi reduplication reflects an areal pattern. I conclude further that Pichi reduplication is not exceptionally iconic nor specifically “creole” in nature.

Proto-Siouan-Catawban productively formed pluractionals from verb stems by full stem reduplication. Every branch of the family exhibits reflexes of this process, although these have often been affected by semantic extensions and morphological contractions. The semantic changes exhibited support the hypothesis that reduplication always starts out directly iconic and acquires other senses through cross-linguistically common semantic extensions or external influence. The morphological changes exemplify a natural lenition sequence:

full reduplication > partial reduplication > no reduplication

which, like phonetic lenition chains, can be used to aid historical reconstruction.

In contemporary morphology, morphologically complex words are assumed to have heads. Williams (1981) proposes the right-head rule (RHR), later modified by ). However, Owolabi (1995a argues that the head of Yorùbá complex words is the left-hand member contrary to Williams' proposal. He limits the assignment of head to only his Class I prefixes and does not assign heads to nouns which are derived by the attachment of class II prefixes. The work also raises the question as to whether or not all morphologically complex words in the Yorùbá language are headed. This work examines the structure of Yorùbá complex words such as compounds (especially those derived through desententialization), and reduplication, and those derived through the attachment of Owolabi's Class II prefixes. We attempt to assign heads to these complex words; we also re-analyze Owolabi's Class II prefixes and conclude that they actually consist of two morphemes each, following . This present work reveals that most of the Yorùbá morphologically complex words have their left-hand members as head. We propose a rule to account for the head in morphology.

Derivational recursiveness in Hebrew can either occur in double or multiple stems or in single stems. It can be expressed either by reduplication of the same words or consonantal roots, by the same phrasal constructions, or by repeated morphological processes. Double or multiple stems can be formed recursively in three ways: repetition of the same word; repetition of the same word with the addition of a particle; repetition in the construct state. One stem recursive word formation includes two basic categories: accumulative morphological devices (diminutive formation; adjectival formations; particle and adverbial formation; abstract word formations); consonantal root formations (secondary formation; reduplication). Except for particles and adverbial recursive formations, all the devices show a right edge preference. The various accumulative morphological devices follow a certain specific order: base or discontinuous root and pattern combination always precedes suffixation, and suffixes are ordered, too. Reduplication of the same words or consonantal roots often carries intensifying or diminutive connotations.

This paper analyses the process of partial reduplication in standard Malay. It has widely been claimed by previous Malay scholars that partial reduplication is a process of copying the initial syllable of the base. This paper argues that copying the initial syllable of the base is not actually how the reduplicative morpheme is copied. Based on the previous data from Farid (1980), Asmah (1981) and Zaharani (2000), this paper claims that partial reduplication is a process of copying the first onset in the initial syllable of the base, while the vowel is a reduced vowel [ə], whatever the vowel of the base is. Thus, the size of the reduplicative morpheme is a light syllable. The reduced vowel [ə] and the CV reduplicative morpheme emerge in SM partial reduplication can be accounted for by proposing the idea of the emergence of the unmarked, which is developed within Optimality theory (Prince & Smolensky, 1993).

Колева-Златева, Живка. Звукоизобразителността като източник на омонимия в българския език // За словото -нови търсения и подходи. Юбилеен сборник в чест на чл.-кор. проф. д.ф.н. Емилия Пернишка. 2016. София: Изд. на БАН, 59-68. Живка Колева-Златева ВТУ "Св. св. Кирил и Методий" ЗВУКОИЗОБРАЗИТЕЛНОСТТА КАТО ИЗТОЧНИК НА ОМОНИМИЯ В БЪЛГАРСКИЯ ЕЗИК Резюме: В статье дается теоретическое обоснование возможности возникновения омонимов от звукоизобразительных образований. Степень иконичности звукоизобразительных слов, которая не предполагает жесткой связи между формой и значением, и первоначальная диффузность их семантики рассматриваются как предпосылки для возникновения омонимов. На примере болгарского языка иллюстрируются случаи формального совпадения звукоподражательных и звукосимволических (образоподражатеьных) слов, разных звукосимволических слов и омонимии дивергентного типа, ведущей свое начало от звукосимволических образований. Ключевые слова: омонимия, звукоизобразителность, звукоподражание, звукосимволизм 1. Въведение

In this paper I discuss two types of total reduplication that prove to be productive in Contemporary German: real-X Reduplication (RXR) and Durative Reduplication (DR). The function of the former, RXR, is to restrict the meaning of a word to its prototypical content (cf. Buchbuch 'book-book; real book, not an e-book'). Based on corpus data I address the question whether we are dealing with reduplication or with compounding here. As a result it will become apparent that the process of RXR, while showing some parallels to compounding, lacks crucial characteristics of compounding and is therefore to be seen as a case of reduplication. The latter type of total reduplication, DR, involves the doubling of a bare, inflectionless verb stem, thus encoding durativity of the denoted event or activity (cf. grummel-grummel 'grumble-grumble, to be continuously grumbling'). Finally I sketch a path of diachronic development of the emergence of DR from ideophones.

Reduplication is found in almost every language (Inkelas, 2012, p. 378), and hence understanding it well is a priority for linguistic theory.  Yet common to much of the literature is a stated need for more empirical data for making valid cross-linguistic comparisons, and developing and testing associated theories (Urbanczyk, 2007, p. 492; Raimy, 2011, p. 11; Hurch & Mattes, 2009, pp. 303, 318).  This empirical gap is particularly salient for Australian Indigenous languages, with existing typologies displaying a lack of comprehensiveness in their coverage, and detail in their phonological analysis.

This thesis makes significant progress towards filling this gap, by establishing an empirical and methodological framework for the first comprehensive phonological typology of reduplication in Australian languages.  Specifically, the present study reports a detailed empirical survey of reduplication in 43 Australian languages, based on an initial survey of 276 sources, focusing on the phonological patterns and complex phenomena associated with the process in each language. 

The methodology employed sets the survey apart from similar typological studies, both through its exhaustive coverage of documented reduplicative forms within each language, and its finely grained, microvariate approach to documenting and describing the intricacies of each form.  This ensures the full breadth of complexities and idiosyncrasies are captured in each language, and enables more informative and effective comparison and analysis, both at the language level, and cross-linguistically.

The study makes two significant contributions to the study of reduplication.  Firstly, it sets out a comprehensive and finely-detailed inventory of the reduplicative forms, patterns and complex phenomena which exist in the surveyed languages, and assesses the resulting corpus to evaluate prominent claims and questions in the study of reduplication.  Secondly, it establishes a comprehensive and empirically meticulous methodological framework for surveying reduplication, based on highly detailed and consistently applied categorisations of the data.  This opens up the findings to researchers of all theoretical backgrounds, and prepares the language sample to be expanded exhaustively in the future.

Halk edebiyatı ürünleri arasında bulunan, söz varlığının zenginliğiyle göze çarpan ve dil
edinimi sürecinde etkili işlevi olan türlerden biri de masallardır. Anlatımı etkili hâle getirmek
ve canlı tutmak için kalıplaşmış ifadelerin, deyim, atasözü ve ikilemelerin etkin biçimde kullanıldığı
masallar, sözlü kültürün binlerce yıllık birikimini taşımakla birlikte, dil eğitimi sürecinin
de vazgeçilmezleri arasına girmişlerdir. Bu derece öneme sahip olan masalların söz varlığı, onları
okuyan ya da dinleyen bireylerin alıcı ve üretici söz varlığının da gizil gücüdür. Bu çalışma
İlköğretim Yüz Temel Eser içerisinde yer alan ve öğrencilerin karşılaşma, okuma ve dinleme
ihtimali en yüksek olan masal kitaplarının söz varlığını tespit etmek amacıyla yapılmıştır. Örneklem
olarak seçilen masallardaki bütün söz varlığı unsurları ile ortak bir havuz oluşturulmuş
ve burada yer alan kelime, özel isim, ikileme, deyim ve atasözleri ayrı ayrı tespit edilmiştir. Söz
varlığına ilişkin nicel veriler gösterilirken, sık kullanılan söz varlığı unsurları çalışmada listeler
hâlinde sunulmuştur. En sık kullanılan söz varlığı unsurlarının masal türüyle olan bağlantıları
tartışılmış, kelime listesinde yer alan fiillerin masalların tahkiyesinin oluşumundaki rolü değerlendirilmiştir.
Tespit edilen söz varlığı unsurlarından hareketle masalların, çocukların söz
varlığı gelişimine olan katkılarına da ayrıca değinilmiştir.

Among the works of folk literature, one of the literary genres which attracts attention with
its broad vocabulary and has an effective function in acquiring language is tale. Tales in which
phrases, proverbs, idioms and reduplications are used efficiently in order to make telling vivid
and effective carry the stocks of oral culture through thousands of years and are the essential
ones of language education process. The vocabulary of these tales that has a vital importance
is also a hidden power of receptive and productive vocabularies of those who read and listen to
them. This study aims to find out the vocabularies of the tales that have the highest possibility to
be met, read and listened by the students in 100 Basic Works. With all of the elements of vocabularies
in tale books chosen as samples, a common word pool has been established and every word,
special name, reduplication, idiom and proverb are fixed separately. In the study, the elements of
frequently used vocabulary are represented in lists, while the quantitative data of vocabulary are
given. The relationship with the most commonly used vocabulary with the tale type is discussed
and the role of the verbs in the vocabulary list on the formation of the tale fiction is also evaluated.
From the vocabulary elements that were found, the contribution of the tales to children’s
vocabulary development is also discussed.

In the present work I study m-reduplication as well as several other echo-reduplication constructions. M-reduplication can be exemplified by the Turkish construction kitap-mitap, and this phenomenon is found in languages as distant as Khalkha Mongolian, Bulgarian and Dargwa. This study was divided in three parts: in the first one I have discussed the area of m-reduplication, in the second one I determined some restrictions on its use, and in the last one I touched on some general questions of m-reduplication.
I have used various corpora built on the Sketchengine platform and a questionnaire to gather the necessary data.

In the Areal part the geographical distribution of m-reduplication has been discussed. Some necessary boundaries were drawn (for example, there are Balkan languages which possess this construction, such as Gagauz and Bulgarian, but some do not, such as Serbian and Albanian). I have also looked into the distribution of p-reduplication (an echo-reduplication model found in Central Asia alongside with m-reduplication) and s-reduplication (a similar echo-reduplication model). The distinction between productive and non-productive m-reduplication has also been discussed, and insertion of a (clitic) conjunction has been observed in several languages.

In the Descriptive part I have examined statistical and structural restrictions on the use of m-reduplication. Among other theses, a hierarchy of syntactic groups which can be reduplicated has been proposed, and the tendency of occurring in indefinite NPs has been observed. One of the tests that showed this tendency is that m-reduplication cannot appear in possessive phrases. I have also reported reduplication of indefinite pronouns in some languages of Caucasus. What is more, I have noticed that in the languages where the bare form of a noun takes ‘the general number’, as opposed to plural, m-reduplication is rarely marked for plurality. Another restriction that I have pointed out is the appearance of m-reduplication in colloquial language and not in the literary varieties. Various phonetic strategies of m-reduplication simplifying initial consonant clusters were discussed as well.
In the part that is called ‘General questions’ I have raised the question whether m-reduplication should be considered a derivational or an inflectional process. As the data suggest, m-reduplication shows both inflectional and derivational properties. I have also argued that m-reduplication is a direct morphological borrowing rather than an indirect one. Various pragmatic strategies of denoting similative plural were discussed. Next, I have determined several factors accounting for a wide geographical spread of m-reduplication. I identified factors like its dismissive semantics, ‘unconsciousness’ of its transfer during codeswitching and specific rules for application of m-reduplication, which are not tied to a morphological structure of a single language.

Using an autosegmental approach, this paper explores the entire range of processes connected with Grebo verb morphology. Tone, vowel harmony and nasality harmony are all present; some affixal processes are complex or involve reduplication. An appendix offers some speculations concerning the diachrony of Grebo verb roots.

Özet: Dillerde kelimelerin anlamını güçlendirmek için başvurulan yollardan biri olan ikilemelere Eski Uygur Türkçesinde de sıkça rastlanmaktadır. Eski Uygur Türkçesindeki ikilemeler incelendiğinde, bazı kelimelerin değişmesine rağmen aynı anlamın muhafaza edildiği görülür. Şöyle ki A, B ve C kelimeleri ele alındığında “A - B”, “A - C”, “B - A”, “B -
C”, “C - A”, “C - B” şekillerinde ikilemeler oluşturulabilmektedir. Bu çalışmada, bu şekilde yer değiştiren ikilemelerin tespiti ve tasnifi ortaya konarak bunlar üzerinden değerlendirmeler yapılacaktır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Eski Uygur Türkçesi, ikilemeler, yer değiştirme, ikileme grupları, köprü ikileme
ABSTRACT
Reduplications is one of the ways that referenced to strengthen the meaning of words in languages. Reduplications used frequently in Old Uighur Turkish and when these are research, despite the changes of some words, same meaning is seen that have been preserved. That is, for example, A, B, C words. These words can be created reduplications in forms of “A - B”, “A -C”, “B - A”, “B - C”, “C - A”, “C - B”. In this study, detection and classification of Old Uighur Turkish reduplications in this way will be explained; than these datas are evaluated.
Key Words: Old Uighur Turkish, reduplications, metathesis, reduplication groups, bridge reduplication

The chapter is a discussion of Georgian echo-word constructions (non-prototypical reduplication) as a linguistic encoding of ad hoc categories. Based on the empirical data (published texts, corpora, elicited examples), I present a classification of Georgian echo-word constructions into three types with their respective formal and semantic features. With respect to possible parameters of base/reduplicant combinations, such as (a) free/bound form, (b) kind and direction of copying, (c) meaning of resulting formation, the following three types were identified: Type 1: Turkish-like m-reduplication; Type 2: Initial C/cluster deletion; Type 3: Fossilized echo-pairs. Notwithstanding a type, they all, to a certain extent, participate in the encoding of ad hoc categories in Georgian.

The paper deals with Base/Reduplicant relationship in Kartvelian (South
Caucasian) echo-word constructions as a determining condition in their classification
with special reference to copying direction. Base/Reduplicant relationship is pivotal in
reduplicative processes because a resulting entity is built of the Base and the Reduplicant. Hence, two types of echo reduplication are identified: Type 1 - L > R (Base-initial)
and Type 2 – R > L (Reduplicant-initial). The data from the Kartvelian languages have
highlighted the necessity of subdivision of echo-pairs into different types. The classification pattern, adhered to in the present paper, may be applied to similar phenomena
cross-linguistically, provided that various types and/or sub-types occur in a language.

According to etymological dictionaries of Slavic languages there should not be any words of synesthetic sound symbolic origin (i.e. words with a direct linkage between their sound form and non-sound meaning) in these languages or their number should be very small. This fact, however, contradicts the typological assumption of primitiveness and universality of phonetically motivated words.
This book discusses two main points of the etymological analysis of words of synesthetic sound symbolic origin: (1) how to recognize them and (2) how to define the groups of cognates between them in Slavic languages. In the identification of synesthetic sound-symbolic words reduplication is regarded as a most reliable criterion. If a series of words which convey the same non-sound meaning contain reduplicated clusters of sounds, they could be continuants of a synesthetic sound symbolic etymon. In discussing the possibilities of defining the groups of cognates between these words following points are emphasized. Since the relationship between the continuants of the same phonetically motivated etymon cannot be established by phonetic laws and the continuants of different sound-symbolic origin in different languages and dialects can have the same or similar phonetic forms and convey the same meaning, the groups of cognates between these words cannot be defined with much confidence. Since similar reduplicated forms can be created as synesthetic sound symbolic denominations of different meanings, the blending of synesthetic sound-symbolic groups of cognates is possible during their evolution. There exist parallel forms with full and partial reduplication, which convey the same meaning of synesthetic sound-symbolic origin. This fact supports the hypothesis that partial reduplication is historically nothing else but a reduction of full re-duplication.

This paper has been further corrected and updated to 25 October 2024. As a  completely new account of Temiar phonology, morphology and syntax, it replaces my 1976 paper "An outline of Temiar grammar", and should be consulted instead of it. I have accordingly removed the 1976 account from this website. If you'd still like to have a copy, please send me a message, and I'll send it to you privately.

This is a grammatical sketch of the Papuan language, Amele (ISO 639-3 aey). The Amele people live in Madang Province, Papua New Guinea. The sketch follows the Role and Reference Grammar (RRG) model. There is an introduction to the Amele people and language, and there is an introduction to RRG theory. This includes a theory of lexical categories for RRG. There is a phonological sketch which describes the sound system of Amele. There are sections on the patterns of transitivity in the clause, the layered structure of the clause, lexical categories, the structure of RPs and PPs, information (focus) structure, complex sentences, anaphora, reported speech, and morphophonology. Typologically, Amele has head-last syntax and is head-marking. Nominative-accusative agreement is suffixed to the verb stem and up to four arguments can be marked on the verb. There is no passive construction. There are only two major lexical categories, nouns and verbs, with very little overlap between these categories. Amele has inalienably possessed nouns and serial verb constructions. Focus may be expressed morphologically and by incorporation of modifier elements into the verb word. Complex sentences include relative clauses, clausal coordination, clausal core subordination, clausal ad-core subordination, and clausal ad-clausal subordination. Amele has a complex switch-reference system which functions with subordinate and coordinate constructions. Anaphora includes reflexives, reciprocals, anaphora by omission, pronominal anaphora, and tail-head linkage. Amele distinguishes direct and indirect reported speech and these reported speech forms have different functions. The description of morphophonology follows the principles of Lexical Phonology.

According to etymological dictionaries of Slavic languages there should not be any words of synesthetic sound symbolic origin (i.e. words with a direct linkage between their sound form and non-sound meaning) in these languages or their number should be very small. This fact, however, contradicts the typological assumption of primitiveness and universality of phonetically motivated words.
The dissertation attempts to formulate the principles of etymological investigation of words of synesthetic sound symbolic origin and on their basis to show that this kind of words is not alien to Slavic languages. Two main points of the etymological analysis of words of synesthetic sound symbolic origin are discussed: (1) how to recognize them and (2) how to define the groups of cognates between them in Slavic languages. In the identification of synesthetic sound-symbolic words reduplication is regarded as a most reliable criterion. If a series of words which convey the same non-sound meaning contain reduplicated clusters of sounds, they could be continuants of a synesthetic sound symbolic etymon. In discussing the possibilities of defining the groups of cognates between these words following points are emphasized. Since the relationship between the continuants of the same phonetically motivated etymon cannot be established by phonetic laws and the continuants of different sound-symbolic origin in different languages and dialects can have the same or similar phonetic forms and convey the same meaning, the groups of cognates between these words cannot be defined with much confidence. Since similar reduplicated forms can be created as synesthetic sound symbolic denominations of different meanings, the blending of synesthetic sound-symbolic groups of cognates is possible during their evolution. There exist parallel forms with full and partial reduplication, which convey the same meaning of synesthetic sound-symbolic origin. This fact supports the hypothesis that partial reduplication is historically nothing else but a reduction of full reduplication.

This article gives an overview of general formal and functional properties of reduplication as well as their interpretation in different theoretical approaches. Special emphasis is put on reduplication as a productive and lexical means of word-formation. As it is a relatively marginal phenomenon in European languages and because reduplication theory has thus advanced primarily due to the examination of non-European languages, relevant data from many language families all around the world are adduced throughout the discussion. This broader scope notwithstanding, the article is rounded off by providing an outline of reduplication and word-formation specifically in the languages of Europe.

In this study, Turkish and Arabic reduplications are compared with respect to semantic characteristics and phonological copying. Similarities and differences of reduplications in these languages are identified, and the reduplications are then classified in phonetic and semantic terms. A type of word collocations known as itba:' , which were found in classical Arabic texts though they are currently obsolete, are also analyzed. The conclusions of the study are provided in the final section.

The study looks into the phenomenon of lexical cloning in the Russian language and provides a classification of the types of meaning that can be conveyed while using structures with this type of reduplication. The study is based on the corpus of examples collected from the Russian National Corpus, the ruTenTen Corpus in the Sketch Engine system, as well as written down examples from oral communication.
The paper is divided into two chapters: "Constructions with lexical clones in the context of linguistic research" and "Lexical cloning in the spoken language and on the Internet." The first chapter examines various approaches to the studied pattern: it focuses on lexical cloning as a type of syntactic reduplication, as well as on its place among related phenomena. It deals with existing descriptions of the structure of such constructions, and describes semantic and pragmatic aspects of their interpretation. Apart from that, existing papers on the reduplication in Russian are explored, in particular, the types of reduplication pointed out by the researchers, specific features of such patterns, etc.
The second part of the study is devoted to the analysis of the explored phenomenon in Russian. First, the methodology and the course of the research are discussed, then the study looks into the formal properties of the structures with lexical clones. After that, based on the analysis of the joint corpus and the types of meaning of lexical clones formulated in literature, a classification of different interpretation strategies is elaborated. 
Importantly, for the first time a key distinction between two types of meaning is made: the usages that give instructions concerning the intended way for the word to be understood (interpretational, or metalinguistic strategies) and those that refer to some extra-linguistic properties of the referent (descriptive strategies). After that, the chapter concentrates on contextual factors and specific contextual clues that affect the hearer’s preference for one or another way to interpret lexical clones.
The last section provides a comparison of lexical cloning with tautologies and other structures with identical constituents (structures like X kak X, X tak X etc.). In the conclusion of the paper, the results of the study are summed up and followed by a discussion of inferences and conclusions that can be drawn on the basis of the conducted research.

This thesis sets out to develop a constraint grammar for Ancient Greek within the framework of Optimality Theory that can economically and thoroughly account for the diversity of forms and patterns within the reduplicated categories of the verbal system. Analyzing the reduplicative morphemes to have a morphologically fixed vowel, I propose a constraint ranking that unites the patterns and ascribes the variation to differences in syllabification and alignment considerations. The exceptional patterns of the reduplicated presents and the enigmatic Attic Reduplication are explained as lexicalized archaisms generated by a minimally different constraint grammar of an earlier period of the language. This thesis thus seeks to integrate cutting-edge theoretical techniques with traditional historical methods to create a fully integrated account of reduplication in Ancient Greek, such that the conclusions drawn here may yield new insights not only into the synchronic state of Ancient Greek but also on the nature of reduplication in Proto-Indo-European.

This study deals with reduplication applying importance to its features of derivational morphology. It provides a semantic and morpho-phonological investigation of the qualities of the types of reduplication phenomena in Modern Turkish. Also, I offer a short introduction on the state of research.

This paper initiates with supplying a basic understanding of what reduplication means, providing its possible types, shapes, and functions typologically. Then, I classify Turkish cross-linguistically, before concentrating on the chief part of my analysis in the penultimate chapter, that is, morpho-semantic reflections on Turkish full and partial reduplication phenomena.

This thesis shows that the variability observed in hypocoristic truncation and reduplication in Spanish is predictable and, therefore, grammatical. It argues that the output structure of truncates and reduplicants is a compromise between phonological markedness and faithfulness, and that the two Prosodic Morphological processes under discussion do not differ from concatenative morphological processes in this respect. By adopting a transderivational approach, idiolectal variation can be explained through a fixed hierarchy of markedness constraints in which certain constraints regarding different faithfulness relations are indexed (e.g., input-truncate, base-truncate and truncate-reduplicant relations). Some constraints on faithfulness relations are placed in a lower level in the hierarchy with respect to others, thus giving rise to different degrees of Emergence of the Unmarked effects. While the unmarked structure of the prosodic word and the syllable is explained by means of constraints grounded on the Prosodic Hierarchy, the unmarked structure of the the segment is accounted for by constraints grounded on the particular Contrastive Hierarchy of the language.

The study provides evidence for phonetic motivation of some words from the vol. 8 of the Bulgarian etymological dictionary. The following data were taken into consideration: these words contain reduplicated clusters of sounds; there are formal and semantic parallelism between them and other words with reduplication expressing the same meaning; in some cases, formal and semantic variation as well as violation of phonetic laws can be observed.

This study presents a hypothesis about the etymology of Bulgarian kuker, kukeri pl. denoting men wearing costumes with bells on the belts and masks of animals, taking part in a traditional Bulgarian ritual to scare away evil spirits. The ritual takes place around New Year and before Lent.
When constructing the hypothesis, the following data were taken into consideration: (1) the variety of denominations of mummers, connected with their expressiveness, (2) the varying form of the word kukeri / kukiri / kukuri and the absence of palatalisation, (3) the wide range of Slavic and Baltic words with the same or similar varying forms denoting bad and good spirits, convexities, curvatures, small round objects, rotational movements, squatting, kneeling down etc., (4) the possibility to see a reduplication in the word – kV-kVR, (5) a large number of formal and semantic parallels, i.e. words with the same meanings and sound forms, containing reduplicated clusters of sounds. All these data lead to a conclusion that Bulg. kuker could have sound symbolic origin.