T I ME - SAVER STANDARDS

FOR LANDSCAPE ARCH I TECTURE :

DES I GN AND CONSTRUCT I ON DATA
Second Ed i t i on

CO - ED I TORS

Char l es W. Har r i s
N i cho l as T. D i nes

ASS I STANT ED I TOR

Ky l e D . Brown

McGr aw-H i l l Pub l i sh i ng Company

New York " Wash i ng ton , D .C . " Auck l and " Boga t a ' " Caracas " L i sbon
London " Madr i d " Mex i co Ci ty " M i l an - Mont rea l " New De l h i " San Juan
S i ngapore - Sydney - Tokyo - Toronto
L i brary of Congress Ca t a l og i ng- i n-Pub l i ca t i on da t a ava i l ab l e on reques t

Copyr i gh t U 1998 by McGraw-H i l l , Inc . Al l r i ghts reserved . Pr i nt ed in the Un i t ed St a t es of

Ame r i ca . Excep t as perm i t t ed unde r t he Un i t ed St a t es Copyr i gh t Ac t of 1976 , no par t of
th i s pub l i ca t i on may be reproduced or d i s t r i but ed in any f orm or by any means , or s tored
in a da t abase or ret r i eva l sys t em, w i t hou t the pr i or wr i t t en perm i ss i on of t he pub l i sher .

234567890 QKP / QKP 9021098

DES I GN & PRODUCT I ON

Susan G i e rman-C l a r k / Suzan i Des i gn

Je f f Pot t er / Pot t er Pub l i sh i ng Stud i o

DESIGNERS Linsey Kelch (chief ) , Mary Franz, Robin Bethke,

St eve How l and , Susan Po t t er

Ded i ca t i on

T
h i s second ed i t i on is ded i ca t ed to the
memor y of the l ate Dr . A l ber t Fe i n ,
who was i ns t rument a l in br i ng i ng the
Ed i tors and McGr aw-H i l l toge ther to crea t e
t he f i rst ed i t i on . He was a champ i on of
Landscape Arch i t ec ture and possessed a
broad v i ew wh i ch encompassed both i ts
soc i a l purpose and the t echno l ogy requ i red
to g i ve f orm to i ts v i s i on . He was a h i stor i -
an , a men tor , a co l l eague , and a f r i end .
 Tab l e o f Con t en t s

Forewa rd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Pre f ace . . . . . . . . . . . xv i
Pre f ace to the F i rst Ed i t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv i i
Acknow l edgmen t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi i i
Cont r i butors and Rev i ewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - . . xv i x

D I V I S I O N 1 0 0 Processes
SECT I ON 110

Cons t ruc t i on Documen t s 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-2

2 .0 Cons t ruc t i on Documen t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 110-2
3 .0 Spec i f i ca t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . - . . . . . 110-10
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-10

SECT I ON 130

S i t e Cons t ruc t i on Ope r a t i ons 1 0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-2

2 .0 Cont rac tor ' s Respons i b i l i t i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-2
3 .0 Si te Prepara t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . 130-5
4 .0 Si te I mprovemen t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-B
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-16

D I V I S I ON 200 St andards and Gu i de l i nes

SECT I ON 210

Spa t i a l S t anda rds 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240-2

2 .0 App l i ca t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240-3
3 .0 Commun i t y P l ann i ng Da t a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240-21
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240-21

SECT I ON 220

Ene rgy and Resour ce Conse rva t i on

1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 220-2
2 .0 Si te Ana l ys i s and Assessmen t . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 220-2
3 .0 Si te Deve l opmen t and Layou t . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 220-3
4 .0 B i oc l i ma t e Fundamen t a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 220-5
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220-13

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

Vill

Ou t door Access i b i l i t y 1 .0 Int roduc t i on and Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240-2

2 .0 I mpor t an t Des i gn Concep t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240-2
3 .0 Des i gn Cons i dera t i ons for Accommoda t i ng D i sab i l i t i es . . . . . . . 240-2
4 .0 Des i gn E l emen t s and De ta i l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240-6
5 .0 Access i b l e Recrea t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240-15
Agenc i es and Organ i za t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240-24
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240-24
r

Na t ura l Haza rds : Ea r t hquakes 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252-2

2 .0 Causes of Ea r t hquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252-2
3 .0 Measur emen t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252-2
4 .0 Ef f ec ts of Ear thquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252-2
5 .0 Assess i ng Ea r t hquake R i sks And Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252-6
6 .0 Land P l ann i ng , Des i gn & Cons t ruc t i on in Se i sm i c Zones . . . . . . 252-7
Sources of Techn i ca l In forma t i on and Ass i s t ance . . . . . . . . . . . 252-11
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252-11

Na t ura l Haza rds : Lands l i des and Snow Ava l anches

1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253-2
2 .0 Lands l i des . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253-2
3 .0 Snow Ava l anches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253-12
Sources of Techn i ca l In forma t i on and Ass i s t ance . . . . . . . . . . . 253-16
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253-16

Na t ura l Haza rds : Land Subs i dence

1 .0 Genera l Cons i dera t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254-2
2 .0 Subs i dence Caused by Sur f ace or Int erna l Load i ng . . . . . . . . . . 254-3
3 .0 Subs i dence Caused by Remova l of Subsur f ace Ma t er i a l s . . . . . . 254-4
4 .0 Subs i dence in Perma f ros t Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254-7
5 .0 Subs i dence Caused by Co l l aps i ng or Hydrocompac t i ve So i l s . . . 254-8
6 .0 Subs i dence Caused by Organ i c So i l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254-8
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254-8

Na t ura l Haza rds : Expans i ve So i l s

1 .0 Gene ra l Cons i dera t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255-2
2 .0 Es t i ma t i on of Haza rd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255-3
3 .0 Loss Prevent i on and Reduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255-4
Sources of Techn i ca l In forma t i on and Ass i s t ance . . . . . . . . . . . . 255-9
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255-9

D I V I S I ON 300
Techn i ques

S i t e Gr ad i ng 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320-2

2 .0 St andards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320-2
3 .0 Grad i ng Concep t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320-6
4 .0 Grad i ng Cr i ter i a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320-13
5 .0 Ea r t hwork Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320-24
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320-32

T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

SECT I ON 330
S t o rmwa t e r Managemen t 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330-2
2 .0 Des i gn I n f orman t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330-2
3 .0 S t ormwa t e r Des i gn I ssues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330-3
4 .0 Des i gn Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330-5
5 .0 Runo f f Ca l cu l a t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330-9
6 .0 Conveyance Techn i ques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330-27
7 .0 Storage Techn i ques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330-34
8 .0 F l ow Con t ro l Techn i ques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330-40
9 .0 F i l t rat ion Techn i ques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330-44
10 .0 Inf i l t rat ion Techn i ques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330-45
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330-49
.
~Iwl PIP"

Pedes t r i an C i r cu l a t i on 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340-2

2 .0 Phys i ca l Charac t er i s t i cs of the Pedes t r i an . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340-3
3 .0 Spa t i a l St andards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330-5
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330-10

SECT I ON 341
B i cyc l e C i r cu l a t i on 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341-2
2 .0 Types of Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341-2
3 .0 Pr i mary Types of B i keways . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341-2
4 .0 Rou t e Se l ec t i on and P l ann i ng . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341-3
5 .0 Des i gn Cr i ter i a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341-4
6 .0 Des i gn E l emen t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341-9
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341-15

Veh i cu l a r C i r cu l a t i on 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342-2

2 .0 Des i gn Cont ro l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342-3
3 .0 Roadway Des i gn E l emen t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342-7
4 .0 Park i ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342-18
5 .0 Pavemen t s and Curbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342-20
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342-26

D I V I S I O N 4 0 0
St ruc tures

Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410-2

2 .0 Se l ec t i on Cr i ter i a for Re t a i n i ng St ruc tures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410-6
3 .0 E l emen t s o f Re t a i n i ng St ruc tures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410-7
4 .0 Types of Re t a i n i ng St ruc tures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410-10
5 .0 Mechan i cs and Des i gn Ca l cu l a t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410-17
6 .0 Dra i nage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410-22
7 .0 Ma i n t enance Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410-23
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410-23

Sma l l Dams 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420-2
2 .0 Purposes of Dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420-2
3 .0 Se l ec t i on o f Dam S i te . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420-2
4 .0 Types of Dams and Se l ec t i on Cr i ter i a . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420-4
5 .0 Stab i l i ty Ana l ys i s of Grav i t y Dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420-10
6 .0 Des i gn of Ma j or Componen t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420-14
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420-20

T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

SECT I ON 440' 010
Sur f ac i ng and Pav i ng 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 440-2
2 .0 Bas i c Componen t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 440-2
3 .0 Pavemen t Des i gn Cr i ter i a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 440-10
4 .0 Ma t er i a l s Se l ec t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 440-14
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440-14

Fences , Sc reens , and Wa l l s 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450-2

2 .0 Cons t ruc t i on Me t hods and De ta i l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450-5
G l ossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450-15
Agenc i es and Organ i za t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450-16
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450-17

SECT I ONr , ~

Wood Decks and Boa rdwa l ks 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460-2

. . . . . . . . . . .
2 .0 Pr i nc i p l es of Cons t ruc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460-2
. . . . . . . . . . .
3 .0 Ma t er i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460-6
. . . . . . . . . . .
4 .0 S i z i ng Wood Membe r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460-7
. . . . . . . . . . .
5 .0 Cons t ruc t i on De t a i l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 460-15 . . . . .
G l ossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460-21
Agenc i es and Organ i za t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460-21
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460-21

SECT I ON

Pedes t r i an Br i dges 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470-2

2 .0 Des i gn Cons i dera t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470-2
3 .0 Br i dge Cons t ruc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470-2
4 .0 Typ i ca l Des i gns for Shor t -Span Foo tbr i dges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470-18
5 .0 Typ i ca l Des i gns for Pre f abr i ca t ed Br i dges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470-20
6 .0 Prob l ems of Erec t i ng Br i dges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470-21
7 .0 Ma i n t enance of Br i dges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470-21
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470-24

D I V I S I O N
5 0 0 I mprovemen t s
SECT I ON 510,
S i t e Furn i t ure and Fea t ur es 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510-2
2 .0 Des i gn De t e rm i nan t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510-2
3 .0 Des i gn Cons i dera t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510-6
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510-6

Rec rea t i ona l and Ath l e t i c Fac i l i t i es

1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 520-2
2 .0 Cour t Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 520-4
3 .0 F i e ld Spor t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 520-4
4 .0 Track and F i e l d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 520-4
5 .0 Mu l t i purpose Ath l e t i c F i e l d Comp l exes . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 520-8
6 .0 Wa t e r -Based Fac i l i t i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520-12
7 .0 W i n t e r Spor t s Ac t i v i t i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520-17
8 .0 Spec i a l Courses and Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520-19
9 .0 Camp i ng and P i cn i ck i ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520-21
10 .0 Range Spor t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520-23
11 .0 Spec t a tor Fac i l i t i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520-24
12 .0 Spec i a l Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520-24

T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 13 .0 To t Lot s and P l aygrounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520-25
Recrea t i on and Spor t s Organ i za t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520-26
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520-27

SECT I ON 530
Poo l s and Foun t a i ns 1 .0 H i s tory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530-2
2 .0 Purpose of Wa t e r D i sp l ays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530-2
3 .0 Wa t e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530-2
4 .0 Wa t e r Ef f ec ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530-3
5 .0 Con t a i ners and St ruc tures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530-11
6 .0 Ope ra t i ng Sys t ems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530-16
7 .0 Equ i pmen t and P i p i ng Se l ec t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530-20
8 .0 Foun t a i n L i ght i ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530-24
9 .0 Cont ro l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530-28
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530-30

SECT I ON
Ou t doo r L i gh t i ng 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 540-2
2 .0 Te rm i no l ogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 540-2
3 .0 Gene ra l Des i gn Pr i nc i p l es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 540-3
4 .0 Lamp Charac t er i s t i cs and L i ght D i st r i but i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 540-6
5 .0 Low Vo l t age Sys t ems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540-14
6 .0 Recommended Leve l s of I l l um i na t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540-14
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540-14

SECT I ON 550
P l an t s and P l an t i ng 1 .0 Int roduc t i on and Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 550-2
2 .0 Des i gn Cr i ter i a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 550-2
3 .0 Assess i ng Ex i st i ng Vege t a t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550-5
.
4 .0 P l ant i ng P l ans , Deta i l s , and Spec i f i ca t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 550-6
5 .0 Managemen t St ra t eg i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550-13
6 .0 Spec i a l i zed P l ant i ng St ra t eg i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550-13
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550-20

D I V I S I ON 600 Spec i a l Cond i t i ons

SECT I ON 610
Roo f and Deck Landscapes 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610-2
2 .0 Prot ec t i on of the Roo f and St ruc ture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610-2
3 .0 Spec i a l Prov i s i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610-3
4 .0 Se l ec t i on of Ma t er i a l s and Me t hods of Anchor i ng . . . . . . . . . 610-10
5 .0 Poo l s and Foun t a i ns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610-10
6 .0 Prov i s i on for Ut i l i t i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610-11
7 .0 Sa f e t y and Secur i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610-12
8 .0 Ma i n t enance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610-12
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610-15

SECT I ON
I n t e r i or Landscapes 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .. . . . 620-2
2 .0 Phys i ca l Requ i remen t s of P l ant s . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .. . . . 620-2
3 .0 Techn i ques to Mee t Phys i ca l Requ i remen t s . . .
. . . . . . . . .. . . . 620-5
4 .0 Des i gn Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .. . . . 620-9
5 .0 P l ant Pa l e t t e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620-10
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620-13

T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture

D i s t urbed Landscapes 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640-2
2 .0 Rec l ama t i on Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640-2
3 .0 Prot ec t i on o f Soi l , Wa t e r Qua l i t y ,
and Ad j acen t Und i s t urbed Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640-4
4 .0 Landshap i ng and St ra t i graphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640-11
5 .0 Sur f ace Cond i t i on i ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640-12
6 .0 P l ant i ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640-17
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640-19

Sound Con t ro l 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660-2

2 .0 Phys i cs of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660-2
3 .0 No i se . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660-3
4 .0 No i se Es t i ma t i ons and Ca l cu l a t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660-3
5 .0 No i se Cont ro l St andards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660-5
6 .0 Cont ro l o f No i se -Ou t doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660-5
7 .0 Des i gn Pr i nc i p l es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660-8
8 .0 Des i gn App l i ca t i on (Case Stud i es) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660-10
9 .0 Ma i n t enance Cons i dera t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660-13
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660-16

D I V I S I O N
Si te Ut i l i t i es

Wa t e r Supp l y 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710-2

2 .0 St andards and Cr i ter i a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710-2
3 .0 Sources of Wa t e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710-5
4 .0 Cons t ra i nt s on We l l Deve l opmen t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710-11
5 .0 Groundwa t e r F l ow Ana l ys i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710-14
6 .0 We l l Recha rge Area Ana l ys i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710-15
7 .0 Reservo i r Des i gn Cons i dera t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710-16
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710-19

Sewage D i sposa l 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720-2

2 .0 Descr i pt i on o f Sewage Sys t em Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720-2
3 .0 Sys t em A l t erna t i ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720-2
4 .0 Des i gn o f Sept i c Tanks and Leach i ng Sys t ems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720-7
5 .0 Aerob i c Sys t ems w i th Sur f ace Inf i l t rat ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720-13
6 .0 Aerob i c Sys t ems w i th Evapot ransp i ra t i on Sys t ems . . . . . . . . . . 720-15
7 .0 Aerob i c Sys t ems w i th Sur f ace Wa t e r D i scharge . . . . . . . . . . . . 720-15
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720-16

Rec rea t i ona l Wa t e r Bod i es 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740-2

2 .0 Eva l ua t i ve Cr i ter i a for Recrea t i ona l Wa t e r Bod i es . . . . . . . . . . . 740-2
3 .0 Sw i mm i ng Wa t e rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740-2
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740-6

I r r i ga t i on 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750-2

2 .0 Wa t e r Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750-2
3 .0 Des i gn Cr i ter i a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750-3
4 .0 Types of I r r i gat i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750-6
5 .0 App l i ca t i on and Des i gn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750-8

T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 6 .0 Hydrau l i cs Eng i neer i ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750-8
7 .0 Spr i nk l er I r r i gat i on Sys t em (Des i gn Procedure ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 750-11
8 .0 Dr i p I r r i ga t i on (Des i gn Procedure ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750-18
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740-19

D I V I S I O N
Ma t er i a l s
t
So i l s and Aggr ega t es 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810-2
2 .0 So i l Cl ass i f i ca t i on Sys t ems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810-2
3 .0 So i l Proper t i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810-7
4 .0 Aggrega t es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810-13
Agenc i es and Organ i za t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810-14
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810-14

Aspha l t 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 820-2

2 .0 Aspha l t Cemen t or B i nder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 820-2
3 .0 Aggrega t e for Aspha l t Pavemen t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 820-3
4 .0 Aspha l t Pav i ng M i x tures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 820-7
5 .0 Pr i nc i p l es o f Aspha l t Pavemen t Des i gn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820-10
6 .0 Th i ckness Des i gn of Aspha l t Pavemen t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820-11
7 .0 M i sce l l aneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820-22
Agenc i es and Organ i za t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820-24
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820-24

" SECT I ON 830

Conc r e t e 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830-2
2 .0 Cemen t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830-3
3 .0 Aggrega t e for Conc re t e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830-3
4 .0 Adm i x t ures for Conc re t e . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830-4
5 .0 Wa t e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830-5
6 .0 Prepara t i on and P l acemen t of Conc re t e . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830-5
G l ossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830-15
Agenc i es and Organ i za t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830-20
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830-20

T I ON 840

Masonr y 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840-2

2 .0 C l ay Masonr y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840-2
3 .0 Conc re t e Masonr y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840-7
4 .0 St one Masonr y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840-9
5 .0 Mor t a r and Re i n f orcemen t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840-15
6 .0 C l ean i ng Masonr y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840-21
G l ossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840-21
Indus t ry Assoc i a t i ons and Agenc i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840-21
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840-24

Wood 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850-2

2 .0 Lumbe r Cl ass i f i ca t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850-9
3 .0 St anda rd Lumbe r D i mens i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850-12
4 .0 Spec i a l Produc t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850-13
5 .0 Prot ec t i ve Trea t men t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850-19
Agenc i es and Organ i za t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850-21
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850-21

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

AV

SECT I ON 860
Me t a l s 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860-2
2 .0 Me t a l s Used in Cons t ruc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860-3
3 .0 Me t a l Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860-10
4 .0 Common Me t a l Produc t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860-10
5 .0 We l ded Jo i nts & Symbo l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860-14
Agenc i es and Organ i za t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860-14
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860-15

P l as t i cs and G l ass 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870-2

2 .0 Pl ast i cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870-2
3 .0 G l ass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870-6
Agenc i es and Organ i za t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870-7
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870-8

MON ' 884 '

Geo t ex t i l es 1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880-2
2 .0 Bas i c Func t i ons of Geot ex t i l es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880-2
3 .0 Geot ex t i l e Ma t er i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880-3
4 .0 Proper t i es of Geot ex t i l es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880-3
5 .0 Cr i ter i a for Se l ec t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880-4
6 .0 Si te App l i ca t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880-4
Re f erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880-8

D I V I S I O N 9 0 0 De t a i l s and Dev i ses

1 .0 Int roduc t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
900-2 . . . . . . .
2 .0 Des i gn Cr i ter i a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
900-2 . . . . . . .
3 .0 Un i t Cos t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
900-2 . . . . . . .
4 .0 Ene rgy and Resource Conserva t i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
900-2 . . . . . . .
5 .0 Ma i n t enance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
900-2 . . . . . . .
910 : Pav i ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910-1
911 : Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911-1
912 : Jo i nts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912-1
913 : D i v i ders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913-1
914 : Ath l e t i c and Game Sur f aces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914-1
915 : Curbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915-1
916 : St eps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916-1
917 : Ramps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917-1
918 : Fences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918-1
919 : Wa l l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919-1
920 : Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920-1
921 : Sea twa l l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921-1
922 : L i ght i ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922-1
923 : P l ant i ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923-1
924 : Dra i ns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924-1
925 : Swa l es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925-1
926 : Poo l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926-1
927 : Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927-1

APPEND I X: METR I C CONVERS I ON GU I DEL I NES

I NDEX
I LLUSTRAT I ON SOURCE NOTES

T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 For eword

T
he pub l i ca t i on of th i s handbook represent s an h i stor i c opmen t . th i s book is a na tura l ou t grow t h of h i s l ongs t and i ng inter -
even t for the prof ess i on of l andscape arch i t ec ture . By est in l andscape cons t ruc t i on , wh i ch was f i rst i nf l uence by
scope and organ i za t i on , i t prov i des a broad pract i ca l de f i - Prof essor O t t o Schae f f er of t he Un i vers i t y of I l l inoi s and l a ter by
n i t i on of wha t l andscape arch i t ec ture is as an app l i ed ar t Prof essor Wa l t e r L . Chambe r s of the Ha rva rd Gradua t e Schoo l of
and sc i ence . The da t a and s t andards i t cont a i ns demons t ra t e how Des i gn . Har r i s en l i st ed t he he l p of Prof essor N i cho l as T. D i nes of
and whe r e the prof ess i on i nt erconnec t s w i th the e f for ts of many the Depa r t men t of Landscape Arch i t ec ture and Reg i ona l P l ann i ng ,
spec i a l i sts f rom d i f f erent sc i ences and t echno l og i es . In th i s way i t is Un i vers i t y of Massachuse t t s , in organ i z i ng , comp i l i ng , and ed i t i ng
a book for the future as much as i t is for the present ; i t recogn i zes ma t er i a l for the handbook .
the need for mor e i n t e rdependence be t ween the var i ous prof es-
Two bas i c abi l i t i es we r e needed for the success fu l comp l e t i on of
s i ons as spec i f i c t asks become l arger and mor e comp l i ca t ed .
th i s handbook . They we r e the ab i l i ty to pe rsuade a l arge numbe r
The ini t i a l i dea for th i s handbook was conce i ved by Je r emy of prac t i t i oners and academ i cs to cont r i but e and / or rev i ew ma t e r -
Rob i nson , former l y a sen i or ed i tor at McGraw-H i l l , who saw t he ial for the var i ous sec t i ons and t he ab i l i ty to organ i ze th i s mass i ve
grow i ng na t i ona l and i nt erna t i ona l i mpor t ance of l andscape arch i - amoun t of i n forma t i on i nto a use fu l overa l l f orma t . The t ask t ook
t ec ture and the need for such a handbook on des i gn and con- l onger and much mor e persona l e f for t and f unds than the ed i tors
s t ruc t i on da t a . I t wou l d be no t on l y for l andscape arch i t ec ts bu t p l anned . Because both ed i tors are t eachers , t hey shou l d be p l eased
a l so for arch i tec ts , p l anners , eng i neers , conserva t i on i s t s , l and tha t th i s handbook wi l l prov i de a way to con t i nue the i r " t each i ng "
deve l opers , l andscape cont rac tors , and others who are conce rned l ong a f ter they have ended the i r present academ i c careers .
w i th our na tura l env i ronmen t and how i t is mod i f i ed . The l ate Dr . H i deo Sasak i
A l ber t Fe i n , a consu l t i ng ed i tor for l andscape and l andscape arch i -
t ec ture a t McGraw-H i l l , brough t the concep t to Prof essor Char l es
La fayet te , Ca l i forn i a
Har r i s of the Ha rva rd Gradua t e Schoo l of Des i gn . Prof essor Har r i s 9987
has spen t mos t of h i s career t each i ng l andscape arch i t ec ture w i th
an ear l y and con t i nu i ng i nterest in l and p l ann i ng , des i gn , and deve l -

T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 Pre f ace

T
h i s second ed i t i on of T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape D i mens i ons and quant i t i es have been conve r t ed to me t r i c va l ues
Arch i t ec ture : Des i gn and Cons t ruc t i on Da t a has been w i th US un i ts in paren theses whe reve r poss i b l e . Sof t convers i on
expanded and re -des i gned to of f er eas i er access to mor e ru l es app l y to manu f ac t ured produc t s and propr i e t ary c l earances ,
i n f orma t i on on l andscape des i gn and cons t ruc t i on and hard convers i ons app l y to genera l p l ann i ng gu i de l i nes round-
processes . The Ed i tors have st r i ven to crea t e a common t echn i ca l ed to the neares t 5 mm . Conve rs i on ru l es se t for th by the Na t i ona l
f r amewor k for the prof ess i ons of l andscape arch i t ec ture , arch i t ec- Inst i tute o f Bu i l d i ng Sc i ence have been added to the Append i x
ture , eng i neer i ng , and p l ann i ng , by expand i ng and emphas i z i ng a l ong w i th o ther da t a on me t r i c prac t i ces in des i gn and cons t ruc -
the core cons t ruc t i on con t en t of t he prof ess i on . Si te Cons t ruc t i on t i on .
Ope ra t i ons has been added to descr i be the procedures and equ i p-
Spec i f i c f i gure re f erences are c i ted a t the end of the book , and
men t requ i red to bu i l d on the l and f rom the cont rac tor ' s perspec -
genera l re f erences are c i t ed a t the end of each sec t i on . Al l da t a
t i ve ; Spa t i a l St andards has been rev i sed to emphas i ze human- sca l e
shown is for pre l i m i nary p l ann i ng and des i gn on l y , and is not
d i mens i ons in the l andscape , w i th prov i s i ons for sma l l , med i um ,
i n t ended to serve as a subst i tut e for i n f ormed prof ess i ona l j udg-
and l arge-sca l e cu l tura l se t t i ngs ; A new sec t i on on Ene rgy and
men t requ i red of spec i f i c s i te c i rcums t ances . In al l ma t t ers i nvo l v-
Resource Conserva t i on focuses on bo t h s i te p l ann i ng and des i gn
i ng pub l i c hea l th and sa fety , agency author i t i es or appropr i a t e
approaches wh i ch promo t e appropr i a t e b i oc l i ma t i c responses ; S i te
prac t i c i ng prof ess i ona l s shou l d be consu l t ed .
Dra i nage has been fo l ded i nto S t ormwa t e r Managemen t w i th
emphas i s on bes t managemen t prac t i ces and wa t e r qua l i ty ; P l ant s Cha r l es W. Har r i s , FASLA
and P l ant i ng now i nc l udes expanded cove rage of xer i scape pr inc i - Prof essor o f Landscape Arch i t ec ture , Emer i tus
p l es , na t i ve p l ant assoc i a t i ons , and urban st ree t t ree deta i l
Ha r va rd Un i vers i ty , Cambr i dge , Massachuse t t s
advances ; and l ast ly, De ta i l s and Dev i ces has expanded cove rage
of new CAD de ta i l s deve l oped by the Ed i tors for T i me -Save r
S t anda rds Landscape Cons t ruc t i on De t a i l s on CD . Promo t i ng
respons i b l e resource conserv i ng des i gn and cons t ruc t i on prac t i ces N i cho l as T. D i nes , FASLA
rema i ns a pr i me ob j ec t i ve of the second ed i t i on , con t i nu i ng t he Prof essor of Landscape Arch i t ec ture and Reg i ona l P l ann i ng
or i g i na l a i m of t he f i rst ed i t i on . In many i nst ances , m i n i mum st an- Un i vers i t y o f Massachuse t t s , Amhers t , Massachuse t t s
dards are accompan i ed by a r ecommended s t andard wh i ch may
serve a broade r ob j ec t i ve .

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 Pr e f ace t o t he f i rst ed i t i on

T
i me -Save r St anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture : Des i gn Many of t he s t andards shown in th i s book are cons i dered t o be
and Cons t ruc t i on Da t a is a book abou t bu i l d i ng on the m i n i ma l . The reader is urged t o cons i der us i ng mor e op t i ma l s t an-
l and , a comprehens i ve process tha t i nvo l ves severa l e l e- da rds for spec i f i c s i tua t i ons . Cont r i butors we r e asked to i nc l ude
men t s : (1) i nt erac t i on w i th ex i s t i ng na tura l and cu l tura l bo t h " l ow- t ech " and " h i gh- t ech " s t andards and da t a . I t is expec t -
sys t ems , (2) dependence upon bo t h s i te-spec i f i c and equ i pmen t - ed tha t t he reader wi l l adap t the da t a as necessary for a spec i f i c
spec i f i c des i gn and cons t ruc t i on t echn i ques , and (3) the use o f a app l i ca t i on . Re f erences have been c i ted a t t he end of mos t sec t i ons
w i de range of ma t er i a l s and dev i ces . f rom wh i ch mor e de t a i l ed da t a may be ob t a i ned . The reader is
rem i nded tha t the da t a shown in th i s book canno t be cons i dered a
The book covers some 50 top i cs , each compr i s i ng a separa t e subs t i tut e for i n f ormed j udgmen t based on care fu l cons i dera t i on of
sec t i no and grouped i nto n i ne d i v i s i ons . They are l i nked toge ther a l l aspec t s o f a spec i f i c prob l em . In al l cases whe r e pub l i c hea l th
by a sys t em o f cross- re f erences . For examp l e , when the top i c of a and sa f e t y are i nvo l ved , an author i t y on tha t prob l em shou l d be
sec t i on requ i res show i ng a var i e ty of a l t erna t i ves for one deta i l ,
consu l t ed .
such as a curb , the reader is shown on l y a f ew gener i c t ypes w i th-
in the sec t i on . Add i t i ona l examp l es are cove red unde r the appro- Cha r l es W. Har r i s , FASLA
pr i ate head i ng in D i v i s i on 900 : De t a i l s and Dev i ces . Prof essor o f Landscape Arch i t ec ture , Emer i tus
The top i cs represen t ed w i th i n th i s handbook are bu t a sma l l por - Ha rva rd Un i vers i ty , Cambr i dge , Massachuse t t s
t i on o f the pot ent i a l range of top i cs tha t dese rve t rea t men t . Severa l
o ther top i cs have a l ready been i dent i f i ed and some have rece i ved
pre l i m i nary work , bu t for reasons of space , t i me , and o ther factors , N i cho l as T. D i nes , FASLA
they cou l d no t make it i nto th i s ed i t i on . Reade rs are i nv i ted to sug- Prof essor o f Landscape Arch i t ec ture and Reg i ona l P l ann i ng
ges t top i cs and cont r i butors for poss i b l e i nc l us i on in l ater ed i t i ons . Un i vers i t y o f Massachuse t t s , Amhe rs t , Massachuse t t s
A dua l sys t em of measuremen t s , U .S . s t andard and me t r i c , has
been i nc l uded for many sec t i ons . The me t r i c da t a , whe r e shown ,
has been subord i na t ed to the U .S . un i ts .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

Acknow l edgmen t s

T
he Ed i tors w i sh t o acknow l edge w i th gra t i tude those who e Susan G i e rman-C l a rk and Jef f Pot t er for ou t s t and i ng ass i s-
cont r i but ed new work , rev i sed prev i ous work , or who t ance , coopera t i on , and l eadersh i p in t he f ina l book des i gn and
rev i ewed and cor rec t ed subm i t t ed dra f ts . Each cont r i bu- l ayout .
tor , sec t i on ed i tor , t echn i ca l wr i ter , and rev i ewer is l i sted at
e Lor i K i ss i nger , Ju l i e Ne t z l ey , Sarah Gronqu i s t , Megan Gardner ,
the beg i nn i ng of each sec t i on .
and Ma r k F i sher for ear l y l ayout des i gn , ed i t i ng , and adm i n i s t ra t i ve
Assemb l i ng an an t ho l ogy of me t hods , s t andards , and t ech- cont r i but i ons .
n i ques requ i res research and a f ree exchange of i deas be t ween
e X i aox i n Zhang , Vesna Maneva , Dou Zhang , Y i ng Wang ,
many prof ess i ona l d i sc i p l i nes . The research of f i ce for the second
Hongb i ng Tang , and Am i t Proth i for CAD draw i ng and scann i ng .
ed i t i on was generous l y prov i ded by the Depa r t men t of Landscape
Arch i t ec ture and Reg i ona l P l ann i ng a t t he Un i vers i t y of e Dav i d Kv i nge , Ka t Hardes t y , Ka t hy Cr ewe , G i nny Leonard ,
Massachuse t t s in Amhe r s t . Spec i a l thanks go t o Dr. Me i r Gross , and Rob Ma l one for scann i ng , graph i cs , and ed i t i ng f ina l dra f ts .
Depa r t men t Head , for h i s enthus i as t i c suppor t and to Dr . Robe r t
He l gesen , Dean of the Co l l ege of Food and Na tura l Resources , The prof ess i ona l of f i ces of Sasak i Assoc i a t es , Inc . o f Wa t e r t own ,
who t hrough h i s suppor t of the Depa r t men t , i nd i rec t l y he l ped t he and The Berksh i re Des i gn Group of Nor t hamp t on prov i ded t echn i -
pro j ec t reach i ts conc l us i on . O t he r depa r t men t a l adm i n i s t ra t i ve ca l resources and prof ess i ona l consu l t a t i on . Wa l l ace , Rober t s , and
ass i s t ance was ab l y prov i ded by Da l e Mor row. Todd , Inc . of Ph i l ade l ph i a , prov i ded va l uab l e ass i s t ance in secur i ng
CAD f i l es for cons t ruc t i on documen t s prepared by the i r of f i ce and
The Ed i tors con t i nue to acknow l edge the gene rous suppor t shown in Sec t i on 110 .
of f ered by The Ha rva rd Gr adua t e Schoo l of Des i gn wh i ch prov i d-
ed space and ass i s t ance for the f i rst ed i t i on , and a l so to t he many The Ed i tors w i sh to fur ther acknow l edge the l eadersh i p and sup-
H . G .S . D . a l umn i and the i r f i rms for the i r suppor t and ass i s t ance . por t ex t ended to t he pro j ec t by the McGr aw-H i l l Pub l i sh i ng
Company and espec i a l l y the pub l i sher , Syb i l Parker , pas t ed i tor , Joe l
The Ed i tors w i sh to spec i f i ca l l y t hank the fo l l ow i ng i nd i v i dua l s Ste i n, and present ed i tor Wendy Lochne r for the i r v i s i on, encour -
groups , and organ i za t i ons : agemen t , and t rust .
e Ky l e D . Brown , Ass i s t ant Ed i tor and Techn i ca l Wr i ter , for h i s Last l y , we w i sh to t hank our f ami l i es who once aga i n grac i ous l y
ex t raord i nary organ i za t i ona l abi l i ty, h i s unde rs t and i ng of i n forma - made remarkab l e ad j us tmen t s to a l l ow th i s wor k t o be car r i ed to
t i on t echno l ogy , and for h i s i nva l uab l e cr i t i ca l perspec t i ve . i ts conc l us i on .
e Je f f B l ankensh i p , for manag i ng the pro j ec t CAD work , for
ass i st i ng in of f i ce managemen t , and for his t echn i ca l wr i t i ng and
ed i t i ng cont r i but i ons . Cha r l es W . Ha r r i s and N i cho l as T. D i nes

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 CONTR I BUTORS
AND REV I EWERS

T
he fo l l ow i ng cont r i butors , t echn i ca l wr i ters , and rev i ewers M i chae l Kuk l a Gene Schr i cke l
gave many years of e f for t in gene ra t i ng the subs t ant i ve Dav i d Kv i nge , ASLA John Dud l ey Scruggs , FASLA
par t of th i s book . The rev i ewers we r e se l ec t ed because t hey
R i chard Lakut i s Brad ford G . Sears , FASLA
t oo we r e exper t s or expe r i enced prof ess i ona l prac t i t i oners w i t h
Robe r t LaRocca Kev i n Shan l ey
regard to a spec i f i c top i c .
G . H . Lee , ASLA St ephen W. Sm i th
W i l l i am Agnew Kenne t h DeMay , AI A Ge ra rd Le i der , ASLA A l ex Sor tun
Domen i co Annese , FASLA Pau l D i bona Henry H . L i ede James M . Sousa , RE .
Amy Anse l l A l ber t D i e t z Edwa rd Mac l eod , ASLA Chr i s topher J . Stohr
Rober t Arms t rong M i chae l Domf e l d Pe t er F. Mar t ecch i n i , P.E . Robe r t D . Sykes , ASLA
D . Ly l e At en , FASLA Dav i d M . DuTo t , ASLA Roge r B . Mar t i n , ASLA The Arch i t ec t s Co l l abora t i ve
Kenne t h E . Basse t t , FASLA Tunce r B . Ed i l E . Byron McCu l l ey Ma r c The i sen
V i c tor Bax t er Phi l l ip El l is Chr i s topher Menge Br i an Tr i mb l e
Char l es Burger , ASLA G l en Er i ckson James D . Mer t es , Ph . D . Susan Tubbes i ng
Je f f rey D . B l ankensh i p Rober t C . Fager , ASLA Dav i d M i t t l est adt , ASLA Lou i s F. Twardz i k
Ka th l een Bogask , ASLA Robe r t T. Fer rar i , RE . Jacque l yn L . Monday M i chae l Van Va l kenburg ,
Je f f rey D . Brauer Ga ry M . F i shbeck , ASLA Pa t r i ck Mu l l a l y , ASLA FASLA
J . Brooks Breeden , ASLA O l i n Fra l i ck R i chard Myr i ck t Vo l l me r Assoc i a t es
St even Brosnan A l an Fu j i mor i , ASLA Na t i ona l Haza rds Research and Wa l l ace , Rober t s and Todd
Ky l e D . Brown John F. Fur l ong , ASLA App l i ca t i ons In forma t i on Dr . Doug l as S . Way , ASLA
Dan i e l Bub l y , P.E ., A I CP Megan Ga rdne r Cen t e r 1 . R . Wea r
Pa t r i ck Buck l ey Sa rah Na t he Eugene Wes t
Jay Gr aham , ASLA
Ernes t L . Buck l ey Dav i d Grah l man , RE . Kev i n A . Ne l son G i l ber t Wh i t e t
Robe r t Newman Ch i en-Cheng Wu , ASLA
Laura Burne t t , ASLA Sarah Gronqu i s t
Tess Canf i e l d , ASLA Hans W i l l i an Hagen , RE . Thomas Os l und , ASLA Thomas W i r th , ASLA
Kev i n M . Car l , ASLA Varou j i an Hagop i an Gordon Osmundson , ASLA Er i ch O . W i t t i g
E l l en Car l sen Ne l son Hamme r , ASLA Theodor e Osmundson , FASLA J i m Wr i gh t
Kr i san Os t e rby -Benson Ma r k J . Zar r i l lo, FASLA
Ne i l Cavanaugh St ephen Hamwey , RE .
R i chard Cha i x , ASLA Don H i l derbrandt , FASLA George Pa t ton t , FASLA R i chard Zo i no
Ter ry Cheek M i chae l Ho l l and Fred H . Pe t erson Robe r t Zo l om i j , ASLA
Rona l d Ch i a r amon t e James E . Hough Robe r t N . P i ne Laurence Zue l ke , FASLA
Mon t y L . Chr i s t i ansen John Hoope r St eve J . Pou l os
W i l l i am L . C l arke , ASLA An t hony Hun t He rman G . Prot ze tdeceased .
Dav i d C l ough Kay Hu t mache r ASLA Robe r t Prouse , IALD , IES
Rodney Cob i Jack D . Ives Gay l an Rasmussen , ASLA
Ter rance Reckord , ASLA
John Cop l ey , ASLA H . Row l and Jackson
Pe t er Coxe Edwa rd Jane l l i , ASLA Dr . Edwa rd F. Reden t e
Dr . Ph i l i p J . Crau l Dr . Dav i d Johnson V i ncen t R i co

James Cur t i s , ASLA I l se Jones , FASLA A l ber t J . Rut l edge , FASLA

Ange l a Danad j i eva Jay L . Jorgensen , ASLA Thomas Ryan , ASLA
Ma r k Darno l d , RE . Robe r t H . Jouber t John P.S . Sa l men , AI A
M i chae l Dav i dsohn Ken Ki l l i an M i chae l Sard i na , ASLA
A l ton P. Dav i s , Jr. Wa l t e r Kehm , FASLA Sasak i Assoc i a t es , Inc .
Tob i as Dayman Ga ry Ko l l er Herber t R . Schaa l , FASLA
N i e l Dean , ASLA Gr eg Kop i schke , ASLA Hors t Schach , FASLA

Dave DeAnge l i s St even H . Kosma t ka Dan i e l L . Schodek

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

T I ME - SAVER STANDARDS
FOR LANDSCAPE ARCH I TECTURE :
DES I GN AND CONSTRUCT I ON DATA
Second Ed i t i on
Processes
a SECT I ON I

Cons t ruc t i on Documen t s

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
N i cho l as T. D i nes
Techn i ca l Wr i t e r :
Je f f rey D . B l ankensh i p
Rev i ewe rs :
Tom Ryan
Ha rgr eaves Assoc i a t es
Cambr i dge , Massachuse t t s

Ne l son Hamme r
Hamme r Des i gn
Cambr i dge , Massachuse t t s

The i l l ust ra t i ons f or th i s sec t i on

we r e supp l i ed by Sasak i Assoc i a t es , Inc . ,
Wa t e r f own , Massachuse t t s and
Wa l l ace Robe r t s and Todd ,
Ph i l ade l ph i a , Pennsy l van i a .

CONTENTS N
C
1 .0 Int roduc t i o , Rough Gr ad i ng P l an En l a rgemen t s
1 .1 Gene l a l F i n i sh Gr ad i ng Road Prof i l es and Sec t i ons
1 . 2 Examp l e Pro j ec t Cen t ra l Ind i anapo l i s Insta l l at i on o f Si te I mprovemen t s Shop Draw i ngs
Wa t er f ron t P l ant i ng and Seed i ng U

2 . 0 Cons t ruc t i on Documen t s

2 . 3 Dr aw i ng Organ i za t i on
Record (As-Bu i l t ) Draw i ngs
O
3 . 0 Spec i f i ca t i ons
Shee t In forma t i on
2 .1 Purpose
Pr i mary Dr aw i ngs Re f erences C
Lega l Respons i b i l i t i es
Cos t Es t i ma t es
Add i t i ona l Draw i ngs O
Cove r or I ndex Shee t
2 .2 Cons t ruc t i on Ope ra t i ons Repr esen t ed U
Ex i st i ng Cond i t i ons
by Dr aw i ngs
Demo l i t i on P l an L
Pre l i m i nary Survey i ng
Si te Prepara t i on P l an
Tree Prot ec t i on , Tempor a r y N
Cond i t i ons , Eros i on Cont ro l , and
Layou t and Ma t er i a l s P l an c
Gr ad i ng and Dra i nage P l an O
Transp l an t i ng
C l ear i ng , Grubb i ng , and Demo l i t i on
P l ant i ng P l an and De t a i l s U
Ut i l i ty P l an
Topso i l St r i pp i ng and Stockp i l i ng
Si te De t a i l s and Sec t i ons

T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 110 - 2
Landscape Archi tecture , Const ruct ion procedures for fabr i cat ion, and the appl i ca-
1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON Document s & Pro j ect Managemen t t ion of products and mater i a l s .
1 .1 Genera l Const ruct ion draw i ngs prov i de the cont rac-
Al t & Wi t z ig Eng ineer ing, Inc . : tor wi th informat ion concern i ng l inear and
The product i on of l andscape const ruct ion Geotechn i ca l Eng ineer ing aer ial d imens ions , vo l umes , and the loca-
draw i ngs (wh i ch, together wi th the speci f i - Cl a i re Benne t t Assoc i ates, Inc. : Consu l tant t ion of proposed e l ements (st ructures,
cat ions, const i tute const ruct ion, or con- Landscape Archi tect t rees, etc .) . The draw i ngs shou l d be coordi -
t ract , document s) is the cu lminat ion of a nated wi th the spec i f i cat ions so that the
systemat i c des ign process and beg ins the CSO : cont ractor has enough informat ion to con-
si te deve l opment i mp l ementa t i on or con- El ect r i ca l Eng ineer ing st ruct the proj ect f rom the data shown .
st ruct ion phase of proj ect admini st rat ion . Dann Pecar Newman & K l e i man :
Rea l Estate and Loca l Coord i nat i on 2 .2 Cons t ruc t i on Opera t i ons
1 .2 Examp l e Pro j ec t : Cent ra l Represent ed by Draw i ngs
Ind i anapo l i s R i ver f ront F ink Rober ts & Pet r ie, Inc . :
Survey i ng and Ut i l i ty Eng ineer ing In actua l pract ice, the informat ion on each
The fo l lowing const ruct ion draw i ngs have draw i ng is t rans l ated by the cont ractor into
been executed and furn i shed by Wa l l ace Gray and Pape , Inc . : var ious operat ions, invo l v ing equ i pment
Rober ts and Todd of Ph i l ade lph i a , Archaeo l ogy and personne l . In ef fect , each draw i ng rep-
Pennsy l van i a . These const ruct ion docu- J .F. New & Assoc i ates, Inc . : resents a c lass of operat ions in the f ield .
ments are based on the or igina l master pl an We t l and and Wi ldl i fe Assessment The draw i ngs are therefore organ i zed by
deve l oped by Sasak i Assoc i ates, Inc ., of const ruct ion act ivi ty . Severa l di f ferent oper -
Wa t er town , Massachuset ts as shown in the Pf lum, K l ausme i er & Gehrum Consu l tants : at ions are norma l l y carr ied out s imu l tane-
Transpor tat ion Eng i neer
aer ial perspect i ve at the f ront of this sec- ous l y dur ing the const ruct ion of a proj ect .
t ion . They represent the scope of work Jacob Assoc i ates, Inc . Proj ect const ruct ion is not a l inear process ;
most genera l l y assoc i ated wi th l arge water - Trai l Des i gn it more resemb l es a ne twork of s imu l tane-
f ront p l ann ing proj ects . Al though the f ig- RLR Assoc i ates : ous act ivi t ies .
ures per ta in to a spec i f ic case study, they S i gnage and Graph i cs
can serve as a genera l mode l for other s im- The const ruct ion act ivi t ies assoc i ated
i lar proj ects (F igures 110-1 through 110-6) . wi th si te const ruct ion (as br ief ly d i scussed
2 .0 CONSTRUCT I ON be l ow) are :
The master p l an for the n ine-mi l e corr i - DOCUMENTS 1 . Pre l iminary survey ing
dor of the Wh i t e Ri ver that f lows through 2 . Tree protect ion, temporary cond i -
the Ci ty of Indi anapol i s was des i gned to 2 .1 Purpose t ions, eros ion cont rol , and t rans-
t ransform the urban reaches of the r iver in essence , const ruct ion document s are
pl ant ing
into a uni fy ing spat ial system, forg ing new graph i c and verba l inst ruct ions to a con- 3 . Cl ear ing, grubb ing, and demo l i t ion
l inks be tween the down town and the r iver 4 . Topsoi l st r ipping and stockpi l ing
and reconnec t i ng the c i t i zens of t ractor for the purpose of b i dd i ng and con- 5 . Rough grad i ng
st ruct ing a proposed des ign . Draw i ngs are
Ind i anapo l i s w i th a l ong-neg l ec ted draf ted to sca l e so that a cont ractor can 6 . F inish grad i ng
resource . To protect the down town f rom readi ly assess the spat ial re l at ionships of 7 . Insta l lat ion of si te i mprovements
the r iver 's per iodi c f looding, mass i ve l evees proposed obj ects to each other and to 8 . Pl ant ing and seed i ng
and f lood wa l l s had been const ructed . exist ing known points in order to easi ly lay-
These barr iers, however , had the unwant ed Pr e l i m i na r y Sur vey i ng:
out the des ign . Spec i f i cat ions inc lude
ef fect of di v iding the ci ty . To mi n i mi ze this deta i l ed descr ipt ions of (1) genera l cond i - The cont ractor ver i f ies the ma j or d i men-
separat ion and create a publ i c amen i ty , the sions, roadway geomet ry , proper ty bound-
t ions, (2) spec ia l prov i s ions, (3) mater i a l s,
master pl an proposed the const ruct ion of (4) quant i t i es, and (5) informat ion on ar ies, const ruct ion l imi t l ine, stockpi l ing
cont i nuous publ i c access trai ls a l ong both instal lat ion . (Refer to 3 .0 Spec i f i cat ions in areas, and other hor i zonta l measurement s .
C banks of the r iver. These r iver f ro i t prome- this sect ion for more informat ion on spec i -
O nades were des i gned to l ink down town Tr ee Pro t ec t i on , Tempo r a r y Cond i t i ons ,
f i cat ions .)
Indi anapol i s wi th exist ing recreat iona l corr i - Eros i on Con t ro l , and Tr ansp l an t i ng:
dors to the nor th and south, tak ing the i r Lega l Respons i b i l i t i es :
Al l t rees so des i gnated on the draw i ngs are
O des ign cues f rom the var i ed urban contexts As forma l lega l cont ract documents , con- wrapped or enc losed accord ing to the spec-
abut t i ng the r iver . Ma j or pub l i c open
spaces at key locat ions a long the r iver f ront st ruct ion draw i ngs mus t be accurate . i f icat ions to protect them f rom root or bark
C promenades were inc luded to enhance the D i screpanc i es (er rors and omi ss ions) damage . Some t rees may be temporar i l y
O be tween the proposed work and the exist - t ransp l anted to avo id const ruct ion damage .
connect i on be tween the r iver and the adj a-
cent urban center. ing condi t ions, or be tween the const ruct ion Eros ion cont rol measures are emp l oyed to
3 draw i ngs and the spec i f icat ions, shou l d be prevent si l t ing of st reams and dra ins and
i are usua l l y regu l ated by Env i ronmenta l
u7
CONSULTANT CRED I TS: kept to an abso l ute m i n i mum .
C Sasak i Assoc i ates, Inc . : Protect ion Agency spec i f i cat ions .
Pl ann ing, Archi tecture , Landscape Cos t Es t i ma t es:
O C l ea r i ng , Grubb i ng , and Demo l i t i on :
V Archi tecture , Urban Des ign, Const ruct ion drawi ngs , together wi th the
Transpor tat ion Pl ann ing, Civi l spec i f icat ions, are used by cont ractors to Al l t rees, shrubs, rock outcrops , slabs, st ruc-
Eng ineer ing, and Env i ronmenta l est imate costs for b i dd i ng purposes . The tures, and ut i l i ty l ines wi thin the proj ect
Serv i ces spec i f i cat ions spel l out in detai l the type area that are to be abandoned or moved
Wa l l ace Rober ts and Todd : and quant i ty of mater i a l s to be used, the
Ti me-Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
are des i gna t ed on the draw i ngs for remova l grade , the cont rac tor prepares al l subgrade and t he wea r i ng sur f aces (concre t e ,
by the con t rac tor. sur f aces to rece i ve f ounda t i on foot i ngs and aspha l t , br i ck , e t c .) .
subbase ma t er i a l for be l ow- and on-grade
Topso i l St r i pp i ng and Stockp i l i ng: s t ruc tures . Trench i ng for ut i l i ty l i nes a l so F i n i sh Gr ad i ng:

The cont rac tor r emoves al l topso i l w i th i n occurs at th i s s t age . The t op e l eva t i ons of The pro j ec t is s t aked ou t and resurveyed to
the grad i ng l imi ts and stockp i l es the soi l in manho l es and dra i ns are se t a t the i r est ab l i sh t he f i n i shed geome t ry and t he e l e-
wha t eve r areas wi l l be conven i en t for approx i ma t e grades w i t hou t f ina l br i ck va t i ons of wa l ks , roads , and o ther edges .
future respread i ng a t the comp l e t i on o f the course sh i ms or r i ms . The paved areas are then graded to f i ner
pro j ec t . At the comp l e t i on of the rough grad- to l erances , and base ma t er i a l is i nsta l l ed .
i ng , al l ext er i or sur f aces are cut or f i l l ed to Topso i l is spread ove r the rough grades in
Rough Gr ad i ng: the p l ant ed areas to w i th i n a to l erance of ±
spec i f i ed rough-grade to l erances [± 150 to
By b l ast i ng , t rench i ng , back f i l l i ng, and cut - 300 mm (6 to 12 in) ] . They are t hen ready 25 to 75 mm (1 to 3 in) .
t i ng and f i l l ing to the proposed new sub- for f ina l grad i ng pr i or to p l ac i ng the topso i l

N
C
O

U
O
0
c
O_

L
N
C
O
U
O

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 F i gur e 110 -2 . Demo l i t i on p l an .
Schedu l e o f demo l i t i on :
TO BE REMOVED TO REMA I N

s t ruc tures 11 n
p l an t ma t er i a l i] 1-1

s i te furn i sh i ngs o E1

V1 ut i l i t i es o C7

C
rock ou t crops I1

N c l ear i ng and grubb i ng I C

V
O Inst a l l a t i on of S i te I mprovemen t s : 2 . 3 D r aw i ng Organ i za t i on address and phone numbe r
0 The cont rac tor insta l l s f i xtures , benches , The cont rac tor mus t fu l l y unde rs t and the
Da t e
Dr awn by :
C
pavemen t s , s t eps , t rash recept ac l es , tota l package of i n forma t i on present ed and Checked by :
O
p l ant ers , equ i pmen t , and f in i sh amen i t i es . i ts organ i za t i on be fore any s i ng l e opera t i on
u
Rev i s i on b l ock
can occur . Job numbe r
i P l an t i ng and Seed i ng:
Shee t I n f orma t i on :
Shee t numbe r
The cont rac tor p l ant s t rees , shrubs , and 2. Border w i th appropr i a t e space for
C o ther p l ant ma t er i a l s ; mu l ches and edges The fo l l ow i ng i n forma t i on is of t en f ound b i nd i ng shee t s

V Nor t h a r row
O
beds ; and har rows , rakes , cond i t i ons , fer t i l - on al l shee t s in the package : 3.
i zes , and seeds or sods l awn areas . 1 . Ti t l e b l ock : 4. Wr i t t en and graph i c sca l e
Shee t t i t le 5. Reg i s t ra t i on sea l
For a mor e de t a i l ed d i scuss i on of con- 6. Appropr i a t e l egend , no t es and l abe l s
Cl i ent ' s name
r s t ruc t i on processes , re fer to Sec t i on 130 . Name of consu l t i ng f i rm(s) , l ogo , 7. Re f erences to copyr i ght
r
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 C

O
F i gur e 110 -3 . Layou t and ma t e r i a l s p l an .
C
Ex i s t i ng s i te f ea tures , pavemen t s , st ruc tures , ma j or p l an t - r equ i r ed monumen t pos i t i ons O
ma t er i a l s and t opogr aphy o Bu i l d i ngs and o ther s t ruc tures
Proper t y l i nes w i th bear i ngs and d i st ances , easemen t s , se t - - f l oor e l eva t i ons no t ed
L
backs , ma t ch l ines , l i mi t of cont rac t l i nes and benchma r ks - l oca t ed by d i mens i ons f rom the co l umn l i ne or four
Bor i ng l oca t i ons w i th cross- re f erence to l ogs da t i on to the s i te l ayout base l ine
C
- Roads , pa rk i ng and serv i ce areas l oca t i ng. - show ove rhang i ng f l oors and roo f l i nes O
- cen t e r l i ne sta t i ons , bear i ngs , d i s t ances , Ou t door l i ght i ng l oca t i ons U
curve da t a , e t c. O t he r s i te f ea tures :
- i n t e rsec t i on rad i i -wa l l s , wa l ks , s t eps
- l o t d i mens i ons re f erenced to road cent er l i ne -benches and p l ant ers
- t ra f f i c ma r k i ng l oca t i ons , sta l l s

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

C
N

3
u
0 F i gure 110-4 . Grad i ng and dra i nage p l an .
0 u Proper t y l ines , ma t ch l ines , l i mi t o f cont rac t and benchma r k
C Al l s i te f ea tures i nc l ud i ng: roads , park i ng , wa l ks , wa l l s , steps , e t c.
O Ex i s t i ng con t ours and spot grades
u 1- 1 Proposed grad i ng i nc l ud i ng:
- h i gh po i nts , l ow po i nt s , r i dge and swa l e cent er l i nes and grades
i - spo t e l eva t i ons a t a l l changes o f grad i ent , wa l k ends and i n l e ts
- spo t e l eva t i ons a t t op and bo t t om o f a l l wa l l s , s t eps and r amps
C - f l oor e l eva t i on for eve ry access l eve l o f each s t ruc ture
O
Subsur f ace dra i nage ne t wor k
V
Ex i s t i ng bu i l d i ng , aux i l i ary s t ruc tures and t rees to be re t a i ned
o Prot ec t i on for t rees tha t w i l l be a f f ec t ed by grad i ng
[7 Cu t and f i l l ca l cu l a t i ons and / or prof i l es
r
r
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
F i gur e 110 -5 . S i t e de t a i l s
and sec t i ons. N
0 Ear thwork sec t i ons C
o Pavement s , curbs and edg i ngs G)
C She l ters , decks
o Screens , wa l l s and steps U
Furn i sh i ngs and fea tures O
0 Ut i l i t i es
o P l ant insta l l at ion C
O

C
O
V
O

T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture

110 -8
For c l ar i ty, a se t of cons t ruc t i on docu- t i ons p l an . The da t e o f the survey shou l d be Ca re shou l d be t aken to coord i na t e the
men t s is typ i ca l l y separa t ed i nto the fo l l ow- cur rent enough to ensure tha t the survey is grad i ng p l an w i th bu i l d i ng e l eva t i on dr aw-
i ng draw i ng se ts : st i l l va l i d . The nor th a r row shou l d be i ngs , f in i sh f l oor e l eva t i ons , and al l ut i l i ty
l abe l ed as t rue or magne t i c nor th , s i nce d i s- draw i ngs in order t o avo i d be l ow-grade
Pr i mary draw i ngs : crepanc i es be t ween t he t wo can vary by as conf l i c ts . The l imi t of grad i ng is usua l l y
Pr i mary draw i ngs f ound in typ i ca l packages much as 20 degrees or more , depend i ng on i nd i ca t ed by the no-cut /no- f i l l l ine .
i nc l ude : geograph i c l oca t i on .
P l ant i ng P l an and De t a i l s:
1 . Cove r or i ndex shee t Demo l i t i on P l an :
2 . Ex i st i ng cond i t i ons (F i gure 110-1) P l ant i ng p l ans mus t accura t e l y show the
3 . Demo l i t i on p l an (F i gure 110-2) The i n forma t i on on a demo l i t i on p l an is l oca t i ons of al l proposed p l ant ma t er i a l s
4 . Si te prepara t i on p l an o f t en over l a i d the ex i s t i ng cond i t i ons p l an (d i f f erent i a t ed graph i ca l l y f rom ex i s t i ng
5 . Layou t (d i mens i on i ng) and ma t - and shows t he i t ems to be demo l i shed , p l ant ma t er i a l s to rema i n) , the i r names ,
er i a l s p l an(F i gure 110-3) r emoved , re l oca t ed , or t ransp l an t ed in s i zes , and any o ther charac t er i st i cs tha t wi l l
6 . Grad i ng and dra i nage p l an (F i gure order to prepare the s i te for new cons t ruc - ass i st the des i gner in spec i f y i ng the prec i se
110-4) t i on (F i gure 110-2) . t ype of spec i men requ i red . A p l ant l ist , or
7 . P l ant i ng p l an and de ta i l s schedu l e , i nd i ca t i ng the quant i t y , bot an i ca l
8 . Ut i l i ty p l an Si te Prepara t i on P l an : name ( i nc l ud i ng genus , spec i es , and var i -
9 . Si te de ta i l s and sec t i ons (F i gure Th i s shee t i l lust rates the proposed deve l op- ety) , common name , s i ze (he i ght , spread ,
110-5) ca l iper , e t c .), spac i ng , and spec i a l requ i re-
men t ( in a l ine dr aw i ng on l y) and i nd i ca t es
t he l oca t i on o f s tockp i l i ng areas , t rees to be men t s (mu l t i s t em, f i rst branch he i ght , e t c .)
Add i t i ona l draw i ngs: is norma l l y i nc l uded on the p l an . (Re f er to
r emoved and th i nned , l imi t of the wor k
Sec t i on 550 : P l ant s and P l ant i ng , for mor e
Add i t i ona l draw i ngs f ound in some pack - l ine, emp l oyee park i ng and cons t ruc t i on
ages i nc l ude : road access , eros i on cont ro l me t hods , con- i n forma t i on .)
1 . P l an en l a rgemen t s (F i gure 110-6) cre t e t ruck washou t areas , s t ag i ng areas , Landscape cont rac tors wi l l use the p l ant
2 . Road prof i l es and sec t i ons s torage areas , s tockp i l e areas , t rees to be l ist to de t e rm i ne t he quant i t i es for each
3 . Shop draw i ngs prot ec t ed , and l oca t i on o f dewa t e r i ng var i e ty un l ess d i rec t ed to do o therw i se . A
4 . Record (as bui l t ) draw i ngs t renches or cons t ruc t i on s i l tat ion ponds . no t e on the draw i ng or a c l ause in the spec-
i f i cat i ons shou l d sta te tha t the p l an sha l l
Cer t a i n draw i ngs may requ i re mu l t i p l e Layout and Ma t er i a l s P l an :
shee t s for l arge , comp l i ca t ed pro j ec t s , t ake precedence ove r the l ist in t he even t of
depend i ng on the pro j ec t area , draw i ng The l ayout p l an (F i gure 110-3) shows the a d i screpancy .
sca l e , and shee t s i ze . proposed deve l opmen t supe r i mposed on
Typ i ca l i t ems on p l ant i ng p l ans and de ta i l s
t he ex i s t i ng cond i t i ons p l an . The proposed
i nc l ude :
Cover or Index Shee t : des i gn is l oca t ed hor i zont a l l y on t he ground
1 . Proper t y l ines, ma t ch l ines, and l imi t
by us i ng bear i ngs and d i st ances , st a t i on
The cover shee t d i sp l ays the pro j ec t t i t le, i ts of cont rac t
of fsets , and coord i na t e po i nt s . Ma t er i a l s
sponsor , the consu l t ant s ' names , an i ndex are i dent i f i ed, and keys to de ta i l s and 2 . Bu i l d i ngs and ove rhangs
to draw i ngs by t i t le and shee t numbe r , a 3 . Paved areas , t er races , and wa l l s
b l owup p l ans are i nd i ca t ed . I t is f rom th i s
pro j ec t l oca t i on map , and some t i mes a 4 . Sur f ace and sub-sur f ace ut i l i t i es
dr aw i ng tha t quant i t i es o f ma t er i a l s are ca l -
graph i c key to the draw i ng symbo l s . 5 . Loca t i on and s i ze o f ex i s t i ng p l ant
cu l a t ed by the cont rac tor .
ma t er i a l
Ex i st i ng Cond i t i ons P l an : Grad i ng and Dra i nage P l an : 6 . Loca t i on , t ype , and s i ze of proposed
An ex i s t i ng cond i t i ons p l an (F i gure 110-1) p l ant ma t er i a l
The grad i ng p l an (F i gure 110-4) enab l es 7 . Areas to rece i ve seed or sod
is norma l l y a reproduc t i on of a reg i st ered
the cont rac tor to est ab l i sh ver t i ca l cont ro l s 8 . P l ant i ng l ist or schedu l e
survey p l an for t he s i te , dr awn to or sp l i ced
for t he l oca t i on o f al l s i te and bu i l d i ng e l e- 9 . Ex i st i ng and proposed t opogr aphy
i nto t he s t andard shee t s i ze of the wor k i ng men t s , based on the i r re l a t i onsh i p to ex i st -
draw i ng se t . I t is th i s shee t tha t f orms t he 10 . Loca t i on of decora t i ve l i ght i ng
ing, i dent i f i ab l e e l eva t i ons or bench ma r ks . f i xtures
bas i s for the hor i zont a l cont ro l s present ed E l eva t i ona l i n forma t i on is norma l l y prov i d-
in the l ayout p l an and the ver t i ca l cont ro l s 11 . I r r i gat i on ( i f not par t of the ut i l i t i es
ed by bo t h spo t e l eva t i ons and con t our p l an)
shown on the grad i ng p l an . Th i s p l an
l ines .
shows the proper t y bounda ry l ine l engths Ut i l i ty P l an:
and bear i ngs , t he tota l acres , the topo- Sur f ace dra i nage is an i ntegra l par t of a
graph i c con f i gura t i on i l l ust rated w i th con- grad i ng p l an . The l oca t i ons and r i m e l eva - Depend i ng on the sca l e and comp l ex i t y ,
tours and s i gn i f i cant spot e l eva t i ons , al l t i ons of st ruc tures rece i v i ng s t orm runof f the numbe r of draw i ngs unde r th i s genera l
ex i st i ng st ruc tures , t he vege t a t i on (by t ype shou l d be i nd i ca t ed on t he grad i ng p l an head i ng wi l l vary w i th each pro j ec t .
and s i ze) , ut i l i t i es, easemen t s , ad j acen t even i f comp l e t e subsur f ace ut i l i ty i n forma -
Typ i ca l i t ems on ut i l i ty p l ans and deta i l s
roads , a geode t i c or DPW survey gr i d a t t i on is prov i ded on a separa t e s i te ut i l i ty
p l an , s i nce th i s i n forma t i on is bas i c to the i nc l ude :
150 or 300 m (500 or 1000 f t ) st a t i ons , a
1 . S t ormwa t e r dra i nage : sur f ace and
l oca t i on map , and , in some cases , bor i ng s i te grad i ng. I f a separa t e s i te ut i l i ty p l an is
condu i t sys t em
ch l , i . not prov i ded , the i nver t e l eva t i ons and p i pe
2 . Subdra i nage : t i le f i e lds, foot i ngs ,
s i zes , t ypes , and l oca t i ons shou l d a l so be
The sca l e , da t e , and nor th a r row-wh i ch etc .
i nc l uded .
are requ i red in a l l p l an draw i ngs- are o f par - 3 . Sewe r age : san i t ary sewe r and sept i c
t i cu l ar i mpor t ance to the ex i s t i ng cond i - sys t ems

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

F i gur e 110 - 6 . P l an en l a rgemen t s .
F1 Loca t i on of f ea tures avo i d conf l i c ts w i th other bur i ed ut i l i t ies, P l an En l argement s :
o D i mens i ons and to ensure suf f i c i ent cove r .
P l an en l a rgemen t s (F i gure 110-6) are used
o Grad i ng
Si te De t a i l s and Sec t i ons : as needed to show deta i l des i gn l ayout s in
Ma t er i a l pa t t ern
cour t yards or ent rances , e t c . They can
P l ant i ng The s i te de ta i l s (F i gure 110-5) convey spe- show d i mens i ons , grad i ng , ma t er i a l pa t -
11 Re l a t i on to overa l l p l an c i f ic me t hods o f cons t ruc t i on to the con- tern , p l ant i ng , e t c . For cons t ruc t i on purpos-
t rac tor . The manne r in wh i ch th i s is es , the sca l es of these b l owups are typ i ca l - N
ach i eved is o f t en t hrough sec t i ons , usua l l y l y 1 : 200 ( ' /16" = 1 ' -0" or 1 " = 20 ' -0" ) , or C
4 . Wa t e r d i st r i but i on : dr i nk i ng , i r r iga- dr awn to a sca l e of f rom 1 : 10 to 1 :20 (1 /2" N
t ion, fount a i ns , and f i re cont ro l 1 : 100 C/ s " = 1 ' -0" or 1" = 10 ' -0" ) .
= 1 ' -0" to 1 1 /2" = 1 ' -0" ) . (See Tab l e 110-1
5 . El ect r i ca l l ayout : l i ght i ng and out l e ts Me t r i c vs . Cus t oma ry Sca l es and Ra t i os) . Road Prof i l es and Sec t i ons:
6 . Bur i ed cab l es : t e l ephone , e l ect r i ca l , V
Though no t necessary , i t is he l pfu l t o group O
opt i c , cab l e TV, e t c . de ta i l s o f l i ke sub j ec t s toge ther , such as Road prof i l es show a prof i l e sec t i on a l ong
7 . Spec i a l was t e dra i ns : chem i ca l / ac i d , the roadway cent er l i ne and des i gna t e f i n i sh
pavemen t s , wa l l s , and sta i rs . Bes i des he l p-
pe t ro l eum, e t c . and ex i s t i ng grades at 10 t o 100 m (50 to C
i ng cont rac tors to l oca t e deta i l s , th i s shows
8 . S t eam and hea t l i nes : p i pes , expan- 100 f t ) st a t i ons a l ong tha t l ine . The hor i - O
the d i f f erences be t ween s i mi l ar sec t i ons
s i on jo ints , and hea t cab l es mor e v i v i d l y. (Re f er to D i v i s i on 900 : De ta i l s zont a l (H) sca l e is usua l l y the same as tha t
9 . Fue l l ines : na tura l gas and pe t ro l eum of the p l an , and the ver t i ca l (V) sca l e is 3
and Dev i ces , for mor e i n forma t i on on con- i
s t ruc t i on de ta i l s .) exagge ra t ed a t l east 4 :1 but mor e com-
In prac t i ce , ut i l i ty p l ans are mos t of t en mon l y 10 :1 [1 : 500 (1" = 50 ' )H and 1 : 50
dr awn on ha l f tone grad i ng p l ans so tha t C
As w i th the accompany i ng p l ans , the (1 " = 5 ' )V] . The prof i l e shee t shows t he O
ex i st i ng cond i t i ons , hor i zont a l l ayout , and
ver t i ca l d i mens i ons are shown . Ut i l i ty p l ans
de ta i l s wor k in concer t w i th t he spec i f i ca- l oca t i on and l ength of : U
t i ons to prov i de comp l e t e da t a to t he con- 1 . Al l ver t i ca l parabo l i c curves
mus t be coord i na t ed w i th o ther draw i ngs in t rac tor . The i n forma t i on supp l i ed by the 2 . Hor i zont a l curves by symbo l
order to avo i d conf l i c ts w i th ma j or p l ant i -
spec i f i ca t i ons shou l d not be i nc l uded in the 3 . Supere l eva t i on
ngs or i mpor t an t ha rd-sur f aced areas de ta i l s . 4 . H i gh and l ow po i nt s
( future ma i n t enance requ i rement s) , to

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 110 - 10

5 . Top of curb
6 . Bo t t om of gut t er l ines Tab l e 110 -1 . METR I C VS . CUSTOMARY SCALES AND RAT I OS

Shop Dr aw i ngs: Me t r i c Sca l es Cus t oma ry Ra t i o Cus t oma ry Sca l es

Shop draw i ngs are prov i ded by the con- 1 :4 3 " = l ' -O "
1 :5
t rac tor when requ i red by t he des i gner . In
some cases a mor e e f f i c i ent and econom i ca l 1 : 10 1 : 18 1 1 / 2 " =V- 0 "

so l ut i on may be ar r i ved at i f the cont rac tor 1 : 12 1 " =1 ' -0 "

is g i ven l a t i tude in t he des i gn of spec i a l f ea- 1 : 16 3 / 4 " =1 ' -0 "
1 : 20
tures requ i r i ng exper i enced cra f t smansh i p .
The l andscape arch i t ec t has f ina l approva l 1 : 24 1 / 2 " =V- 0 "

ove r shop draw i ngs be fore t he ma t er i a l s 1 : 50 1 : 48 1 / 4 " =V- 0 "

are ordered .
1 : 100 1 : 96 118 " =1 ' _0 "

Record (As-Bu i l t ) Dr aw i ngs: 1 : 200 1 : 92 1 / 16 " =1 ' -0 "

O f t en , in order to proper l y ma i n t a i n a pro- 1 : 500 1 : 384 1 / 32 " =V- 0 "

j ec t a f ter cons t ruc t i on , a se t of record 1 : 480 1 " =40 ' -0 "

draw i ngs are crea t ed tha t show the des i gn
1 : 600 1 " =50 ' -0 "
as i t was ac tua l l y bu i l t . The cont rac tor is
requ i red to keep t rack of al l changes and 1 :1 000 1 : 960 1

amendmen t s to t he or i g i na l cons t ruc t i on 1 :1 200 1 " =100 ' -0 "

documen t s so t he l andscape arch i t ec t can
12000 1 :2 400 1 " =200 ' -0 "
crea t e an of f i c i a l record of the bu i l t pro j ec t .
1 :5 000 1 :4 800 1 " =400 ' -0 "

3 . 0 SPEC I F I CAT I ONS 1 :6 000 1 " =500 ' 0 "

1 : 10 000 1 : 10 560 6 " =1 m i l e

The i mpor t ance of we l l -wr i t t en spec i f i ca-
1 : 12000 1 " =1000 ' -O "
t i ons for a des i gn pro j ec t canno t be over -
emphas i zed . The spec i f i ca t i ons presen t 1 : 25 000 1 : 21 120 3 " =1 m i l e
de t a i l ed i n f orma t i on on the ma t er i a l s 1 : 24 000 1 " =2000 ' -O "
requ i red , t he f abr i ca t i on procedures , and
1 : 50 000 1 : 63 360
the app l i ca t i on of produc t s and ma t er i a l s .
They est ab l i sh the scope of the wor k and 1 : 100 000 1 : 126 720 1 / 2 " =1 m i l e
c l ear l y spe l l ou t t he cr i ter i a for a l t er i ng the
Sour ce R .S . Means , How t o Es t i ma t e w i t h Me t r i c Un i t s.
scope ( change orders , de l e t i ons , e t c .) . The
draw i ngs es t ab l i sh t he d i mens i ons and
i dent i fy the ma t er i a l s t o be used , and the
spec i f i ca t i ons est ab l i sh the procedura l and
REFERENCES Ne l i scher , Maur i ce (ed .) Handbook o f
pe r f ormance s t andards requ i red to con-
Landscape Arch i t ec tura l Cons t ruc t i on , 2nd
st ruc t the des i gn as shown on t he dr aw-
Ambrose , James , John W. Macgu i re , ed ., Landscape Arch i t ec tura l Founda t i on ,
i ngs .
and Ha r ry Pa rke r. S i mp l i f i ed S i te Wash i ng t on , DC , 1985.
A ma j or source o f genera l cons t ruc t i on Eng i neer i ng for Arch i t ec t s and Bu i l ders ,
Ramsey / S l eepe r John Ray Hoke , Jr.
spec i f i ca t i ons is the Cons t ruc t i on Spec i f i ca- 2nd ed ., W i l ey , New York , 1991 .
rA (ed. ) . Arch i t ec tura l Graph i c St andards , 8th
t i ons Inst i tute (CSI ) . D i v i s i on 2 (S i t e-work)
C DeCh i a ra , Joseph , Lee Koppe l man . ed ., W i l ey , New York , 1994 .
N is reproduced in Tab l e 110-2 . T i mesave r St andards for Si te P l ann i ng , 2nd
ed., McGraw-H i l l , New York , 1984 .
V Lynch , Kev i n , and Ga ry Hack. S i te
O P l ann i ng , 3d ed., M I T Press , Cambr i dge ,
MA , 1984 .
C
O
u
L
N

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

Tab l e 110 - 2 . CONSTRUCT I ON SPEC I F I CAT I ON I NST I TUTE : D I V I S I ON 2 - S I TEWORK

D I V I S I ON 2: S I TE CONSTRUCT I ON Vi t r i f i cat ion

02050 BAS I C SI TE MATER I ALS AND METHODS -190 Bi o l og i ca l Processes

-055 So i l s Aerob i c Processes

-060 Aggrega t e Anaerob i c Processes
-065 Cemen t and Concre t e B i o-Remed i a t i on

Aspha l t Cemen t -195 Remed i a t i on So i l Stab i l i za t i on

Hydrau l i c Cemen t
02200 SI TE PREPARAT I ON
P l ant -M i xed B i tum i nous Concre t e
-210 Subsur f ace Inves t i ga t i on
Recyc l ed P l ant -M i xed B i tum i nous Concre t e
Bor i ng and Exp l ora tory Dr i l l ing
-070 Geosyn the t i cs
Core Dr i l l ing
Geocompos i t e Edge Dra i ns
Geophys i ca l Invest i ga t i ons
Geocompos i t e In-P l ace Wa l l Dra i ns
Groundwa t e r Mon i tor i ng
Geogr i ds
Se i sm i c Invest i ga t i on
Geot ext i l es
St andard Pene t ra t i on Tes t i ng
-080 Ut i l i ty Ma t er i a l s
Test Pi ts
Hydran t s
-220 Si te Demo l i t i on
Manho l es
Bu i l d i ng Demo l i t i on
Me t ers
M i nor Si te Demo l i t i on for Remode l i ng
Ut i l i ty Boxes
Se l ec t i ve Si te Demo l i t i on
Va l ves
-230 Si te C l ear i ng
-090 Jo i nt Ma t er i a l
C l ear i ng and Grubb i ng
02100 SITE REMED I AT I ON
Se l ec t i ve C l ear i ng
-105 Chem i ca l Samp l i ng and Ana l ys i s
Se l ec t i ve Tree Remova l and Tr i mm i ng
-110 Excava t i on , Remova l , and Hand l i ng of Haza rdous Ma t er i a l s
Sod St r i pp i ng
-115 Unde rground Storage Tank Remova l
St r i pp i ng and Stockp i l i ng of Soi l
-120 Of f -S i t e Transpor t a t i on and D i sposa l
Tree Prun i ng
-125 Drum Hand l i ng
-240 Dewa t e r i ng
-130 Si te Decon t am i na t i on
-250 Shor i ng and Underp i nn i ng
-140 Landf i l l Cons t ruc t i on and Storage
Founda t i on Grout i ng
-145 Groundwa t e r Trea tmen t Sys t ems
Gr i l l ages
-150 Haza rdous Was t e Recovery Processes
Need l e Beams
Ai r and S t eam St r i pp i ng
Shee tp i l i ng
Soi l Vapor Ext rac t i on
Shor i ng
Soi l Wash i ng and F l ush i ng
S l ab j ack i ng
-160 Phys i ca l Trea tmen t
Soi l Stab i l i zat i on
Coagu l a t i on and F l occu l a t i on
Underp i nn i ng
Reverse Osmos i s
Vi brof l ot a t i on and Dens i f i ca t i on
So l id i f i cat ion and Stab i l i za t i on
-260 Excava t i on Suppor t and Prot ec t i on
-170 Chem i ca l Trea tmen t
Anchor T i ebacks
Chem i ca l Prec i p i ta t i on
Co f f erdams
Ion Exchange
Cr i bb i ng and Wa l ers
Neut ra l i za t i on
Ground Freez i ng
-180 The rma l Processes
Re i nforced Ear th
Inc i nera t i on
Slur ry Wa l l Cons t ruc t i on
The rma l Desorpt i on

T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

110- 1 2
So i l and Rock Anchor s S l ope Pav i ng

-280 Gr ade Ad j us t men t and Abandonmen t o f Ex i s t i ng M i sce l l aneous Syn t he t i c Eros i on Con t ro l and Revege t a t i on
St ruc tures
Ma t s
-285 Rebu i l t M i sce l l aneous St ruc tures
Tur f Re i n f or cemen t Ma t s
-290 S i t e Mon i t or i ng
Wa t e r Cour se and S l ope Eros i on Pro t ec t i on

02300 EARTHWORK -380 Scour Pro t ec t i on

-310 Gr ad i ng -390 Shore l i ne Pro t ec t i on and Moo r i ng St ruc tures

F i n i sh Gr ad i ng Br eakwa t e rs

Rough Gr ad i ng Gro i ns

-315 Excava t i on and F i l l Je t t i es

Back f i l l Ma l es

Bor row Excava t i on Reve t men t s

Compac t i on Excava t i on Seawa l l s

Fi l l
02400 TUNNEL I NG , BOR I NG , AND JACK I NG
Tr ench i ng
-410 Tunne l Excava t i on
-325 Dr edg i ng
Comp r essed A i r Tunne l i ng
-330 Embankmen t
Muck D i sposa l
Armor i ng
Rock Excava t i on - Dr i l l and B l as t
Ea r t h Dams
Rock Excava t i on - Tunne l Bor i ng
So i l Embankmen t
Mach i ne (TBM)
-335 Subgr ade and Roadbed
Sof t Ground Sh i e l d-Dr i ven Tunne l i ng
Pr e -wa t e r i ng o f Excava t i on Ar eas
-420 In i t i a l Tunne l Suppor t Sys t ems
Recond i t i on i ng
Pre f abr i ca t ed St ee l Tunne l L i n i ngs
Subgr ade Mod i f i ca t i on
Rock Bo l t i ng
-340 So i l St ab i l i za t i on
St ee l R i bs and Lagg i ng
Aspha l t So i l St ab i l i za t i on
-425 Tunne l L i n i ngs
Cemen t So i l St ab i l i za t i on
Cas t - i n-P l ace Conc r e t e Tunne l L i n i ngs
Geo t ex t i l e So i l St ab i l i za t i on and Laye r
Precas t Conc r e t e Tunne l L i n i ng
Sepa ra t i on
-430 Tunne l Grou t i ng
L i me S l ur ry So i l St ab i l i za t i on
Ea r t h St ab i l i za t i on Chem i ca l Grou t i ng
L i me So i l St ab i l i za t i on
Rock Seam Pressure Grou t i ng
Pressure Grou t i ng So i l St ab i l i za t i on
Tunne l L i ne r Grou t i ng
-360 So i l Tr ea t men t
-440 I mme r sed and Sunken Tube Tunne l s
Roden t Con t ro l
-441 M i c ro t unne l i ng
Te rm i t e Con t ro l
-442 Cu t and Cove r Tunne l s
Vege t a t i on Con t ro l
-443 Tunne l Leak Repa i rs
-370 Eros i on and Sed i men t a t i on Con t ro l
-444 Sha f t Cons t ruc t i on
Cemen t Conc r e t e Pav i ng for S t r eam Beds
-445 Bor i ng or Jack i ng Condu i t s
Eros i on Con t ro l B l anke t s and Ma t s

Gab i ons 02450 FOUNDAT I ON AND LOAD - BEAR I NG ELEMENTS

-455 Dr i ven P i l es
Geogr i ds

Geo t ex t i l e Sed i men t a t i on and Eros i on Con t ro l Cas t - i n-P l ace Conc r e t e P i l es

Compos i t e P i l es
Mu l ch Con t ro l Ne t t i ng

Paved Ene rgy D i ss i pa tors Conc r e t e D i sp l acemen t P i l es

R i prap and Rock L i n i ng Conc re t e - F i l l ed St ee l P i l es

Dr i ven P i l e Load Tes t s

Rock Bar r i ers

Rock Bas i ns Dr i ven P i l e Repa i rs

Rock Ene rgy D i ss i pa tors Precas t Conc r e t e P i l es

T i me - Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Ar ch i t ec t ur e

 Pres t ressed Conc r e t e P i l e Mon i t or i ng We l l s

Shee t P i l es Recha rge We l l s

St ee l H P i l es Tes t We l l s

T i mbe r P i l es Wa t e r Supp l y We l l s

Un f i l l ed Tubu l a r St ee l P i l es We l l Abandonmen t

-465 Bor ed P i l es -530 San i t a ry Sewe r age

Auge r Cas t Grou t P i l es Gaug i ng St a t i ons

Bor ed and Auge r ed P i l e Load Tes t s Packaged Pump i ng St a t i ons

Bor ed and Auge r ed P i l e Repa i rs Packaged Li f t St a t i ons

Bor ed and Auge r ed Tes t P i l es San i t ary C l eanou t s

Bor ed and Be l l ed Conc r e t e P i l es San i t ary Sewage Sys t ems

Bor ed and Socke t ed P i l es San i t ary Sewe r Manho l es , F r ames , and Cove r s

Bor ed Fr i c t i on Conc r e t e P i l es Sewage Co l l ec t i on L i nes

Dr i l l ed Ca i ssons Sewage For ce Ma i ns

Dr i l l ed Conc r e t e P i ers and Sha f t s S i t e San i t ary Sewage L i nes

Uncased Cas t - i n-P l ace Conc r e t e P i l es -540 Sep t i c Tank Sys t ems

-475 Ca i ssons Dr a i nage F i e l d

Box Ca i ssons Gr ease In t ercep tor

Excava t ed Ca i ssons Sand F i l ter

F l oa t i ng Ca i ssons Sept i c Tank

Open Ca i ssons S i phon Tank

Pneuma t i c Ca i ssons -550 P i ped Ene rgy D i s t r i bu t i on

Shee t ed Ca i ssons Ch i l l ed Wa t e r D i s t r i bu t i on

-480 Founda t i on Wa l l s Ho t Wa t e r D i s t r i but i on

Anchor ed Wa l l s L i qu i d Pe t ro l eum Gas D i s t r i but i on

Conc r e t e Cr i bb i ng Na t ur a l Gas D i s t r i but i on

Manu f ac t ur ed Modu l a r Wa l l s O i l D i s t r i but i on

Mechan i ca l l y St ab i l i zed Ear th Wa l l s S t eam D i s t r i but i on

Me t a l Cr i bb i ng -570 Process Ma t e r i a l s D i s t r i bu t i on St ruc t ures

Pe rmanen t l y Anchor ed So l d i e r -Beam Wa l l s -580 E l ec t r i ca l and Commun i ca t i on St ruc t ures

S l ur ry D i aphr agm Founda t i on Wa l l s An t enna Towe r s

So l d i e r -Beam Wa l l s L i gh t i ng Po l es and S t anda rds

-490 Anchor s Transm i ss i on Towe r s

Rock Anchor s Unde rground Duc t s and Manho l es

-495 I ns t rumen t a t i on and Mon i t or i ng Ut i l i ty Po l es

Founda t i on Pe f orm , i nce i ns t rumen t a t i on -590 S i t e Ground i ng

02500 UT I L I TY SERV I CES 02600 DRA I NAGE AND CONTA I NMENT

-510 Wa t e r D i s t r i bu t i on -610 P i pe Cu l ve r t s

C i s t erns -620 Subdr a i nage

D i s i n f ec t i on o f Wa t e r D i s t r i but i on Founda t i on Dr a i nage P i p i ng

F i re Pro t ec t i on Geocompos i t e Dra i ns

Hydr an t s Geo t ex t i l e Subsu f ace Dr a i nage F i l t ra t i on

S i t e Wa t e r P i pe Unde rdr a i n and Pavemen t Base Dra i n

Va l ves Re t a i n i ng Wa l l Dr a i nage P i p i ng

Wa t e r Supp l y Subgr ade Dra i ns

-520 We l l s Tunne l Dr a i nage P i p i ng

Ex t rac t i on We l l s Unde rs l ab Dr a i nage P i p i ng

T i me - Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Ar ch i t ec t ur e

 110 - 14
-630 S t orm Dr a i nage Ca t ch Bas i ns , Gra t es , and F r ames Top Ba l l ast

Comb i na t i on S t orm Dr a i n and Unde rdr a i n -730 Aggr ega t e Sur f ac i ng

In l e ts C i nde r Su f ac i ng

S t orm Dr a i nage Manho l es , F r ames , and Cove r s Crushed S t one Su f ac i ng

S t orm Dr a i nage P i pe and F i t t i ngs -740 F l ex i b l e Pavemen t

Wa t e r De t en t i on Chambe r s Aspha l t -Rubbe r and Rubbe r Mod i f i ed B i t um i nous Pavemen t

-640 Cu l ve r t s and Manu f ac t ur ed Cons t ruc t i on Ath l e t i c B i t um i nous Pavemen t

Conc r e t e Ar ch Bur i ed Br i dge B i t um i nous Conc r e t e Pavemen t

Me t a l P i pe - Ar ch Cu l ve r t s Co l d M i x B i t um i nous Pavemen t

Me t a l P l a t e Cu l ve r t s F i be r -Mod i f i ed B i t um i nous Pavemen t

Precas t Re i n f orced Conc r e t e Ar ch Cu l ve r t s Po l yme r -Mod i f i ed B i t um i nous Pavemen t and Rubbe r i zed
aspha l t
Precas t Re i n f orced Conc r e t e Box Cu l ve r t s
Road M i x B i t um i nous Pavemen t
Precas t Re i n f orced Conc r e t e R i g i d F r ame
S t one and Sp l i t -Mas t i c B i t um i nous Pavemen t
Cu l ve r t s
750 R i g i d Pavemen t
-660 Ponds and Rese rvo i rs
Con t i nuous Re i n f orced Cemen t Conc r e t e Pavemen t
Coo l i ng Wa t e r Ponds
Exposed Aggr ega t e Pavemen t
D i s t r i but i ons Reservo i rs
P l a i n Cemen t Conc r e t e Pavemen t
F i re Pro t ec t i on Rese rvo i rs
Powe r Compac t ed Conc r e t e Pavemen t
Leach i ng P i ts
Pres t ressed Re i n f orced Cemen t Conc r e t e Pavemen t
Pond and Rese rvo i r Cove r s
Re i n f orced Cemen t Conc r e t e Pavemen t
Pond and Rese rvo i r L i ners
Ro l l e r -Compac t ed Conc r e t e Pavemen t
Re t en t i on Bas i ns
-755 Cemen t Conc r e t e Shou l de rs
Sewage Lagoons
-760 Pav i ng Spec i a l t i es
St ab i l i za t i on Ponds
Co l d P l ast i c Pavemen t Ma r k i ngs and Legends
-670 Cons t ruc t ed We t l ands
Curb Cu t Ramps
02700 BASES , BALLASTS , PAVEMENTS , AND APPURTENANCES Pa i n t ed Tra f f i c L i nes and Ma r k i ngs
-710 Bound Base Cour ses Pavemen t Jo i nt Sea l an t
Aggr ega t e -B i t um i nous Base Cour se Pavemen t Ma r k i ngs
Aggr ega t e -Cemen t Base Cour se Ra i sed Pavemen t Ma r ke r s
Aspha l t -Tr ea t ed Pe rmeab l e Base Cour se Snow Me l t i ng Cab l es and Ma t s
B i t um i nous Conc r e t e Base Cour se S t amped Pa t t e rn Conc r e t e Pavemen t

Cemen t St ab i l i zed Open Gr aded Base Cou r se Tac t i l e Wa rn i ng Su f aces

Cemen t Tr ea t ed Cour ses -770 Curbs and Gu t t e rs
N
Co l d-Recyc l ed B i t um i nous Base Cour se B i t um i nous Conc r e t e Curbs
C
Hydrau l i c Cemen t Conc r e t e Base Cour se Cemen t Conc r e t e Curbs
Lean Conc r e t e Base Cour se Cemen t Conc r e t e Gu t t e rs and Curbs
L i me Trea t ed Cour ses Gu t t e rs
L i me - F l y -Ash Trea t ed Cour ses S t one Curbs
P l a i n Cemen t Conc r e t e Base Cour se S i mu l a t ed S t one Curbs
Unbound Base Cour ses and Ba l l as t s -775 S i dewa l ks
û Aggr ega t e Subbase -780 Un i t Pave rs
L Aggr ega t e Base Cour se Aspha l t B l ock Pave rs
N
Cr acked and Sea t ed Por t l and Cemen t Br i ck Pave rs
C
O Conc r e t e Base Cour se I n t er l ock i ng Precas t Conc r e t e Pave rs
Rubbe r i zed Por t l and Cemen t Conc r e t e Precas t Conc r e t e Pave rs

Base Cour se Pr essed Pave rs

Sub-Ba l l as t S t one Pave rs

T i me - Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Ar ch i t ec t ur e

 -785 F l ex i b l e Pavemen t Coa t i ng and M i c ro-Sur f ac i ng -860 Sc r een i ng Dev i ces

Cape Sea l Jet B l as t Bar r i ers

Ch i p Sea l Sc r eens and Louve rs

Fog Sea l Sound Bar r i ers

La t ex -Mod i f i ed Emu l s i on -870 S i t e Furn i sh i ngs

M i c ro-Sur f ac i ng B i cyc l e Racks

Sand Sea l Pre f abr i ca t ed P l an t ers Sea t i ng

Sandw i ch Sea l Tab l es

S l ur ry Sea l Trash and L i t t er Recep t ors

Sur f ace Tr ea t men t -875 S i t e and St ree t She l t ers

-790 Ath l e t i c and Rec rea t i ona l Sur f aces Bus S t op She l t ers

Baseba l l F i e l d Sur f ac i ng -880 P l ay F i e l d Equ i pmen t and St ruc t ures

Mu l t i -Purpose Cour t Sur f ac i ng Ath l e t i c or Recrea t i ona l Sc r een i ng

Res i l i ent Ma t t i ng P l ayground Equ i pmen t

Syn t he t i c Grass Su f ac i ng P l ay St ruc tures

Syn t he t i c Runn i ng Track Sur f ac i ng Tenn i s Cour t W i ndbr eake r s

Tenn i s Cour t Su f ac i ng -890 Tra f f i c S i gns and S i gna l s

-795 Porous Pavemen t Pos t -Moun t ed S i gns

S t ruc t ur e -Moun t ed S i gns

02800 SI TE I MPROVEMENTS AND AMEN I T I ES
Tra f f i c S i gna l Suppor t s and Equ i pmen t
-810 I r r i ga t i on Sys t em
-895 Ma r ke r s and Monumen t s
Agr i cu l tura l I r r i ga t i on Sys t em
Bounda r y and Survey Ma r ke r s
Dr i p I r r i ga t i on Sys t em

Lawn Spr i nk l er Sys t em 02900 PLANT I NG

-815 Foun t a i ns -905 P l an t s , P l an t i ng , and Tr ansp l an t i ng

-820 Fences and Ga t es -910 P l an t Prepa ra t i on

Cha i n L i nk Fences and c , ate , , B l anke t s

Ornamen t a l Me t a l Fences and Ga t es Forms and St ab i l i zers

P l ast i c Fences and Ga t es Hydro -Punch i ng

W i r e Fences and Ga t es Ma t s

Wood Fences and Ga t es Mu l ch i ng

-830 Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s Ne t t i ng

Cas t - i n-P l ace Conc r e t e Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s So i l Prepa ra t i on

Int er l ock i ng B l ock Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s St akes

Masonr y Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s Topso i l

Precas t Conc r e t e Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s -915 Shrub and Tr ee Tr ansp l an t i ng

T i mbe r Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s -920 Lawns and Gr asses

-840 Wa l k , Road , and Pa r k i ng Appur t enances Hydro -Mu l ch i ng

Conc r e t e Med i an Bar r i er P l ugg i ng

Cr ash Bar r i ers Seed i ng and So i l Supp l emen t s

De l i nea t ors Sodd i ng

Fende r s Spr i gg i ng

Gu i de Ra i l St o l on i z i ng

I mpac t At t enua t i ng Dev i ces -930 Ex t er i or P l an t s

Me t a l Med i an Bar r i ers Ground Cove r s

Pa r k i ng Bumpe r s P l ant s and Bu l bs

Tra f f i c Bar r i ers Shrubs

-850 Pre f abr i ca t ed Br i dges Trees

T i me - Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Ar ch i t ec t ur e

 110- 16
-935 P l an t Ma i n t enance Roadbed Mod i f i ca t i on

Fer t i l i z i ng -975 F l ex i b l e and B i t um i nous Pavemen t Re i n f or cemen t and Cr ack and

Jo i n t Sea l an t s
L i m i ng
Fabr i c Re i n f or cemen t f or B i t um i nous Pavemen t
Mow i ng
Po l yme r Mod i f i ed Aspha l t Jo i nt and Cr ack Sea l i ng
Prun i ng
St r ess -Absorb i ng Memb r ane
Wa t e r i ng
St r ess -Absorb i ng Memb r ane Int er l ayer
-945 P l an t i ng Accessor i es
-980 R i g i d Pavemen t Rehab i l i t a t i on
Landscape Edg i ng
Cemen t Conc r e t e Bonded Ove r l ays
Landscape T i mbe r s
Cemen t Conc r e t e D i rec t Par t i a l l y Bonded Ove r l ays
P l an t ers
Cemen t Conc r e t e Pavemen t Recyc l i ng
Tree Gr a t es
Cemen t Conc r e t e Unbonded Ove r l ays
Tree Gr i ds
Conc r e t e Pavemen t Jack i ng and S l ab j ack i ng
02950 SI TE RESTORAT I ON AND REHAB I L I TAT I ON Conc r e t e Pavemen t Pa t ch i ng
-955 Res t ora t i on o f Unde rground P i p i ng Fu l l Dep t h Pa t ch i ng
Grou t i ng Unde rground P i p i ng and Un i t s
Gr i nd i ng o f Conc r e t e Pavemen t
Re l i n i ng Unde rground P i p i ng and Un i t s Groov i ng o f Conc r e t e Pavemen t
Sea l i ng Unde rground P i p i ng and Un i t s Jo i nt C l ean i ng and Resea l i ng
-960 F l ex i b l e Pavemen t Sur f ac i ng Recove r y
Jo i nt Rehab i l i t a t i on
Pavemen t M i l l i ng and Pavemen t Co l d P l an i ng
Par t i a l Dep t h Pa t ch i ng
-965 F l ex i b l e and B i t um i nous Pavemen t Recyc l i ng Pavemen t -Shou l de r Jo i nt Resea l i ng
Cemen t -Based B i t um i nous Pavemen t Base Cour ses S l ab St ab i l i za t i on
Co l d In-P l ace Recyc l ed B i t um i nous Pavemen t Cour ses Subsea l i ng and St ab i l i za t i on
Fu l l -Dep t h Rec l a i med B i t um i nous Pavemen t Base Cour ses -990 St ruc t ure Mov i ng
Ho t In-P l ace Recyc l ed B i t um i nous Pavemen t Cour ses " Source : Cons t ruc t i on Spec i f i cat ion Inst i tute .
Ho t In-P l ace Recyc l ed Sur f ace Cour se Ove r l ays

I IA
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V

T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 SECT I ON

S i t e Cons t ruc t i on
Ope r a t i ons

CRED I TS
Sec t i on Ed i tor :
N i cho l as T. D i nes

Rev i ewe r :
Ma r k J . Zar r i l l o , FASLA
Symmes , Ma i n i , and McKee Assoc i a t es
Cambr i dge , MA

N
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N
CONTENTS
1 .0 Int roduc t i on P l an d i screpanc i es O
1 .1 Gene r a l L i m i t -o f -Work L i ne F i n i sh Gr ad i ng C
1 .2 Ope ra t i ons Ob j ec t i ves 3 .2 S i t e C l ear i ng 4. 4 Pav i ng and Sur f ac i ng O
1 .3 Cont rac tor ' s Perspec t i ve Gene ra l Demo l i t i on Aggr ega t e Base P l acemen t
Wea r i ng Sur f ace P l acemen t V
1 .4 Common Wor k Sequence Se l ec t i ve Demo l i t i on
C l ear i ng and Grubb i ng 4. 5 Si te Furn i sh i ngs i
2 .0 Cont rac tor ' s Respons i b i l i t i es 3 .3 Topso i l St r i pp i ng and Stockp i l i ng 4. 6 P l ant i ng Inst a l l a t i on N
2.1 B i d Prepara t i on Trees C
2. 2 Pr i c i ng 4 . 0 Si te I mprovemen t s Shrubs O
2. 3 Pro j ec t Organ i za t i on 4 .1 Ea r t hwor k Groundcove rs and He rbaceous P l ants V
Seed i ng and Sodd i ng
2. 4 F i na l C l ean-up , Inspec t i on , and Cu t Ope ra t i ons N
Paymen t Fi l l Ope ra t i ons Re f erences
Punch Li st Types o f Fi l l N
Mechan i c ' s L i ens 4 .2 Dra i nage and Ut i l i t i es
St ruc tures
3 .0 S i t e Prepara t i on
3.1 Pre l i m i nary Layou t , Survey
E l ect r i ca l and Te l ecommun i ca t i on L i nes
I r r i ga t i on Sys t ems M
and St ak i ng 4 .3 Gr ad i ng

T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 130-2
1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON of d i sturbance . F igure 130-2 i l lust rates how 6 . Deve l op the si te accord ing to pl ans
a des ign is super i mposed on an exist ing and spec i f i cat ions (execute work) .
1 .1 Genera l l andscape to create cont ract work zones 7 . Rece i ve f ina l inspect ion and cl ient
and protected areas . Spec i a l care is typica l - approva l (punch l ist) .

S
i te const ruct ion may be v i ewed as an ly requi red at the junct ions of si te and 8 . Execute f ina l cont ract i tems ( f inal
invasive procedure ak in to biologi ca l st ructure and where the new l andscape c l ean-up, mechan i c ' s l ien wa i vers ,
surgery. I t requi res the des igner and mee ts the ex i st ing condi t ions . f inal inspect ions, f inal payment , and
the cont ractor to have ful l know l edge of cer t i f icate of occupancy) .
the si te's vi tal systems , and to have access 1 .4 Common Wor k Sequence
to a broad ar ray of techniques, equ i pment , 2 .0 CONTRACTOR ' S
and mi t igat ing st rategi es to ef fect ive ly inte- Mos t si te const ruct ion fol lows a common
sequence star t ing wi th the cont ractor 's bid RESPONSI BI L I TI ES
grate the proposed changes wi th the si te's
exist ing inf rast ructure and i ts natura l sys- submi t ta l and end i ng w i th f inal inspect ion .
The exact sequence wi l l vary wi th c l imate 2 .1 B i d Prepara t i on
t ems . Thi s sect ion addresses the procedures
and equ i pment requi red to execute si te zone , soi l , and vegetat i ve cover , and local The cont ractor must f i rst prepare a bid for
work wi th spec ia l focus on the sequent i a l l aws and customs . However , aspects of the proposed work based upon a thorough
steps common l y found in most l ight to each step occur in most instances . The fol - rev i ew of the const ruct ion document s
med i um duty si te const ruct ion proj ects . l ow i ng po ints br ief ly summar i ze the wh i ch are typica l ly d i v ided into four par ts :
process : 1 . Work i ng Draw i ngs- Sca l ed graph i c
1 .2 Opera t i ons Ob j ec t i ves 1 . Def ine the proj ect scope and the pl ans and sect ions represent ing the pro-
degree of si te intervent ion requi red posed si te deve l opment , and conta in ing
Si te const ruct ion operat ions are sequenced ( l ight , med i um, or heavy) . l imi ted wr i t ten notes . Quant i t i es are
to insure ef f ic ient and systemat i c use of 2 . Exami ne the exist ing si te cond i t ions to est imated f rom the indi cated d i men-
equ i pment and l abor wi th the a i m of: ident i fy f ragi le zones or areas requi r - sions . Layout and grad i ng data is suf f i -
1 . Protect ing ident i f i ed si te resources as ing extens i ve mi t igat ion (wet l ands , c ient ly deta i l ed to a l low di rect t ransfer
requ i red by pl ans and regu l atory endangered spec i es, ma ture spec i men of the pl an geome t ry to the const ruc-
author i t i es . t rees, poor soi ls, bed rock or boulders, t ion si te . (Refer to Sect ion 110 :
2 . Coord i nat i ng var ious bui lding t rades hazardous wastes , etc .) . Const ruct i on Document s for more
and const ruct ion processes . 3 . Prepare a deta i l ed quant i ty take-of f informat ion) .
3 . Ma i nta i n i ng safe work i ng condi t ions and deve l op a const ruct ion st rategy 2 . Spec i f i cat ions- Wr i t ten descr ipt ions of
to l imi t l iabi l i ty and prevent injury. (mater i a l s quant i ty l ist , equ i pment the work to be accomp l i shed . They
4 . El iminat ing de l ays and mater i a l waste mobi l i zat ion and l abor crew requi re- prov ide qua l i ty standards establ i shed
so the proj ect can be comp l e ted wi th- ments , f inal cost est imate , and t i me by regu l atory agenc i es, i ndependent
in t ime and budge t const ra ints . l ine char t ) . test ing agenc i es, and product manu-
5 . De l i ver ing comp l e t ed work as spec i - 4 . Execute a pre l iminary l ayout survey to facturers . Spec i f i cat ions may be wr i t -
f ied in accordance wi th cont ractua l conf i rm a l i gnment and d i mens i ona l ten to descr ibe spec i f ic const ruct ion
agreements . accuracy wi th regard to exist ing si te me thods , or they may descr ibe des i red
hazards to be avo i ded or assets to be out comes or per formance requi re-
1 .3 Cont rac tor ' s Perspec t i ve protected . Ad just p l an wi th cl ient ments , a l lowing a degree of lat i tude as
The cont ractor 's v i ew of a proposed des ign approva l if requi red . to me thod of execut ion .
is di f ferent f rom that of the des igner 's . 5 . Prepare the si te for new const ruct ion 3 . Genera l Cond i t i ons- Requ i rements
Whereas the des igner tends to v i ew the (si te preparat ion) .
proj ect in terms of mater i a l f inishes, and
f inal outcomes , it is the responsibi l i ty of the
cont ractor to reverse eng i neer the proj ect
(wi th the a id of deta i ls and prof i les) to env i - The cont ractor 's ma i n responsibi l i ty is to execute the cont ract work in a safe, techni -
s ion how the si te must be prepared to cal ly competent , and ef f icient manner .

0 rece i ve the new des ign . F igure 130-1a .

i l lust rates a des igner 's v i ew of a typica l Al l si te const ruct ion work is governed by the Cont ract Documents wh i ch consist
of: work i ng drawings, speci f icat ions, genera l condi t ions, and the agreement form .
IC des ign wh i ch emphas i zes f ini shed sur face
O e l evat ions and ver t i ca l and hor i zonta l 2 . A bid pr ice is est imated based upon the cost of imp l ement ing al l of the prov isionof
U d i mens i ons . F igure 130-1b . i l lust rates a the work i ng drawings and speci f icat ions wi thin the f ramework of the genera l con-
cont ractor 's ana l ys i s of the same des ign di t ions and the agreement .
i
wi th emphas i s on the subgrade e l evat ions
tA requi red for al l roads, wa l ks , plazas, piers,
C 3 . Bid pr ices based on careful physical ana lysis of the si te and related technica l
O foot ings, t ree pi ts, etc . The cont ractor 's repor ts may resul t in t 5% uni t pr ice accuracy. Poor si te data can cause si te prepa-
U v i ew env i s ions the subgrade as e i ther the rat ion uni t pr ice swings of up to t 20% .
N bot tom of a cut operat ion, or the top of a
fi l l operat ion . In e i ther event , al l such sur - 4 . Si te access and fragi l i ty, magn i tude of mater i a l quant i t ies, and const ruct ion t ime
faces mus t be st ructura l ly prepared to cre- per iod ava i lable determine the const ruct ion st rategy requi red .
ate a un i form subgrade pr ior to ma j or
t rench ing and backf i l l ing . The cha l l enge to 5 . Before f inal payment may be made , a f inal inspect ion must be passed, and
both des i gner and cont ractor is to accom- mechan i cs l ien af f idavi ts must be submi t ted .
M
r pl ish this cent ra l task wh i l e l imi t ing the area

Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Archi tecture

F i gure 130-1 a . A t yp i ca l des i gn cross sec t i on emphas i z i ng f i n i shed sur f ace e l eva t i ons .

C
O
cid

17..

C
O
+;
cr

C
O
V

O
F i gure 130-1 b . A cont rac tor ' s ana l ys i s of t he same des i gn w i t h emphas i s on t he subgr ade e l eva t i ons . M
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 wh i ch u l t i ma t e l y de t e rm i nes the comp l e -
t i on da t e .

Us i ng PERT ana l ys i s on a da i l y bas i s , the

ne t wor k can be t racked and ad j us t ed
week l y so tha t the comp l e t i on da t e can
rema i n on t arge t . F i gure 130-4 represent s a
pro j ec t bar based upon the PERT d i agram .
The cr i t i ca l pa th is i dent i f i ed by shaded
bars . I f the shaded t asks are no t comp l e t ed
on- t i me , the pro j ec t comp l e t i on da t e wi l l
be m i ssed . Pro j ec t managemen t can com-
pensa t e when cr i t i ca l t asks are de l ayed
t hrough one or mor e of the fo l l ow i ng
opt i ons :
1 . Secure add i t i ona l l abor .
2 . Sh i f t ex i st i ng l abor f rom l ess cr i t i ca l
F i gur e 130 -2 . A des i gn may be " surg i ca l l y " i ns t a l l ed w i t h i n an ex i s t i ng l and- t asks .
scape . C i rc l ed j unc t i ons o f new and o l d requ i re spec i a l des i gn a t t ent i on . 3 . Add or d i ver t equ i pmen t .
4 . Wor k ove r t i me .
5 . Use mu l t i p l e sh i f ts .
for execut i ng t he cont rac t w i th regard 2 . 3 Pro j ec t Organ i za t i on Such ac t i ons wi l l resu l t in h i gher costs ,
to i nsurance cove rage l imi ts, bonds ,
Once the quant i t i es and wor k scope are wh i ch may need to be of fse t by st r i v i ng to
f i e ld change orders , and al l o t he r s i m-
es t ab l i shed , a t i me - l i ne s t ruc ture is ach i eve opt i m i s t i c comp l e t i on t i me for l ess
i lar adm i n i s t ra t i ve aspec t s . cr i t i ca l t asks .
4 . Agr eemen t Form-A l ega l l y b i nd i ng des i gned to accoun t for al l s i te cons t ruc t i on
t asks wh i ch are requ i red to comp l e t e the
documen t endorsed by the owne r and 2 . 4 F i na l C l ean -up , I nspec t i on , and
pro j ec t . Us i ng h i stor i ca l records and proba -
the cont rac tor wh i ch sea l s and in i t i ates Paymen t
the cont rac t . I t cont a i ns a comp l e t e l ist bi l i ty f ac tors , an opt i mi st i c , pess i mi st i c , and
mos t probab l e t i me a l l otment is ass i gned to The l ast opera t i on on a cons t ruc t i on pro j ec t
of b i d i t ems , the i r respec t i ve quant i -
each t ask . The t asks are ar rayed in a is the f ina l c l ean-up . The cont rac tor mus t
t ies, and the un i t pr i c i ng for each i t em
w i th a pr i ce prov i s i on for add i ng or sequen t i a l d i agr am based upon the r emove al l cons t ruc t i on debr i s , t empora ry
Progr am Eva l ua t i on Rev i ew Techn i que f enc i ng , dra i nage f i xtures , equ i pmen t ,
de l e t i ng a spec i f i c i t em a f ter cons t ruc -
(PERT) , or the mor e s t ra i ght f orwa rd ma t er i a l s , and l eave the s i te in " move - i n "
t i on in i t i at ion .
Cr i t i ca l Pa t h Me t hod (CPM) to accoun t for cond i t i on . Be fore f ina l paymen t may be
A b i d pr i ce is es t i ma t ed based upon the the beg i nn i ng and end of each task , and to made , a f ina l i nspec t i on mus t be passed ,
cos t of i mp l emen t i ng al l of the prov i s i ons of i nd i ca t e wh i ch t asks can occur s i mu l t ane - and mechan i cs l i en a f f i dav i ts mus t be sub-
the work i ng draw i ngs and spec i f i ca t i ons ous l y and wh i ch requ i re l i near sequenc i ng . m i t t ed .
w i th i n the f r amewor k of the genera l cond i -
F i gure 130-3 i l l ust rates a typ i ca l CPM
t i ons and t he agr eemen t . The b i d pr i ce rep- Punch L i st :
d i agram for t he cons t ruc t i on of a bu i l d i ng .
resent s the cont rac tor ' s cos t summa r y for:
1 . Prepar i ng the s i te to rece i ve the des i gn The ini t ia l s i te prepara t i on t asks are execut - F i na l i nspec t i on requ i res t he cont rac tor to
N ed in a l i near f ash i on wh i l e o ther t asks sat i sfy al l o f the requ i remen t s of the gener -
e l emen t s .
C 2 . Furn i sh i ng and i nsta l l i ng al l ma t er i a l s beg i n and end a t i n t ermesh i ng i nterva l s . al cond i t i ons , i nc l ud i ng i nspec t i on of spec i f -
O The goa l of such a t i me l ine is to d i scover ic i t ems on a punch l ist . The c l i ent ' s agen t is
as spec i f i ed .
the ne t work of t asks upon wh i ch a l l o ther requ i red to ver i f y comp l i ance and to
3 . Prov i d i ng the necessary equ i pmen t
L t asks depend . Th i s is ca l l ed t he cr i t i ca l pa th
O and l abor c rews for the requ i red per i -
CL od of t i me . and represent s the sequence of even t s
4 . Ope r a t i on ove rhead expenses and
prof i t .
C
O The cont rac tor mus t prepare the s i te to rece i ve the proposed des i gn by us i ng appro-
2 . 2 Pr i c i ng
u pr i ate equ i pmen t for the pro j ec t s i ze wh i l e prot ec t i ng na tura l resources .

L S i te wor k has many var i ab l es wh i ch requ i re

s i te visi ts and care fu l s tudy o f s i te da t a (sur - Si te c l ear i ng is the f i rst s t ep in prepar i ng the si te for new const ruc t i on . I t encom-
N veys , ut i l i t i es, soi l repor ts , bor i ng da t a , passes vege t a t i on remova l and st ructura l demo l i t i on as spec i f i ed on the con-
C st ruc t i on draw i ngs .
O e t c.) . Un i t pr i ce es t i ma t es based on such
V scrut i ny may resu l t in a reasonab l y h i gh
2 . Be fore any ear thwork grad i ng may commence , al l organ i c ma t t er mus t be c l eared
accuracy of ± 5% . Mos t b i d pr i ces a l l ow for
O and grubbed f rom the const ruc t i on zone so tha t subgrades may be proper l y pre-
un f oreseen cont i ngenc i es and can range in
pared .
accuracy f rom t 5 to 20% . The re is of t en a
cor re l a t i on be t ween unamb i guous cont rac t
3 . Topso i l is typ i ca l l y st r i pped to a dep th of 100-150 mm (4-6 in) and stockp i l ed for
documen t s and accura t e b i d pr i ces , due to
l ater use as a grow i ng med i um for p l ants and embankmen t stab i l i z ing grasses .
M grea t er cont rac tor con f i dence in da t a accu-
racy.

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

F i gur e 130 -3 . A t yp i ca l CPM d i agr am f or t he cons t ruc t i on o f a bu i l d i ng. The in i t i a l s i te prepara t i on t asks are execu t ed in a
l i near f ash i on wh i l e o ther t asks are s i mu l t aneous .

approve accep t ance be fore f ina l paymen t is d i na t es (corners or co l umn center l i nes) , spec i f i ca t i on to preven t damage f rom
i ssued . cent er l i nes and edges o f ex t ens i ve park i ng compac t i on , i nc i s i on, or i mpac t abra
lots, or o ther con t i nuous p l anes (such as s i on . Se l ec t ed vege t a t i on is o f t en dug },
Mechan i cs L i ens: a th l e t i c f i e lds , e t c .) . Al l d i screpanc i es and moved to a t empora ry nursery for i
be t ween p l ans and s i te l oca t i on are record- l a ter p l ant i ng (Re f er to Sec t i on 550 : (D
Al l mechan i cs l i ens mus t be cer t i f i ed as
ed and repor t ed to the des i gner for amend - P l ants and P l ant i ng for fur ther i nfor - fl-
be i ng pa i d be fore the cont rac tor rece i ves
men t and adm i n i s t ra t i ve change order i f ma t i on) .
f ina l cont rac t paymen t s and is re l eased
requ i red .
f rom pe r f ormance bond ob l i ga t i ons . Th i s 3 . 2 S i t e C l ea r i ng p
prot ec t s the c l i ent f rom any future c l a i m o f L i m i t o f Wor k L i ne :
non-paymen t for serv i ces due to f unds he l d Si te c l ear i ng is the f i rst s t ep in prepar i ng the Û
back by the cont rac tor . Once amended , the fo l l ow i ng st eps are s i te for new cons t ruc t i on . I t encompasses i
common l y fo l l owed : vege t a t i on remova l and st ruc tura l demo l i -
1 . The l imi t of wor k l ine is s t aked to t i on as spec i f i ed on the cons t ruc t i on draw-
N
3 . 0 S I TE PREPARAT I ON
es t ab l i sh the d i s turbed area per i me t er . i ngs . O
3 .1 Pr e l i m i na r y Layou t Sur vey and Th i s mos t of t en requ i res per i me t er
Gene ra l Demo l i t i on :
V
S t ak i ng : ant i -s i l ta t i on bar r i ers and f i l ters to be
p l aced at l ow po i nt s to preven t con-
P l an D i sc repanc i es: Al l des i gna t ed st ruc tures such as ex i st i ng
s t ruc t i on s i te run-of f f rom con t am i na t - bu i l d i ngs , pavemen t s , curbs , wa l l s , f ences ,
The proposed des i gn is pre l i m i nar i l y i ng ad j acen t l and and s t reams .
anc i l l ary s i te s t ruc tures , bur i ed ut i l i ty
s t aked ou t on the s i te to l oca t e al l key con- 2 . Spec i men t rees and vege t a t i ve masses bas i ns , p i pes and condu i t s , are typ i ca l l y
t rol po i nt s such as road t raverse po i nt s-of - des i gna t ed for prot ec t i on on the p l ans
r emoved f rom the new cons t ruc t i on zone . M
i nt ersec t i on (PI 's) , proposed bu i l d i ng coor - are s t aked ou t and secured as pe r I f loca l regu l a t i ons perm i t , se l ec t ed foot -

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 130 - 6

Se l ec t i ve C l ear i ng : Se l ec t i ve c l ear i ng re fers

I SM t o the remova l of i nd i v i dua l l y ma r ked t rees
JAN FEB
or t rees spec i f i ed as hav i ng a par t i cu l ar
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 161718192021 22 D24M2627262930311 2 3 1 4 5 6 7 e 91011 12131415 16171619 20 21 222324226272a
d i ame t e r such as 75 mm (3 in) or l ess . Th i s
S i t e Layou t is common l y done to open an area for
. S i t e C l ea r access , or to l essen compe t i t i on for l arger
=Gr ade S i t e t rees w i th i n a fores t s t and .
. Excava t e F i rs t Ha l f Foo t i ngs
Tree and S t ump D i sposa l : I t is common
Sewe r L i ne
prac t i ce to pass woody p l ant ma t er i a l ,
Wa t e r L i ne
i nc l ud i ng grubbed s t umps t hrough a heavy
E l ec t r i c Feede r Condu i t wood ch i pper for use as on-s i t e mu l ch l ater
. Pour F i rs t Ha l f Conc r e t e in the cons t ruc t i on process . Th i s crea t es a
. Excava t e Second Ha l f Foo t i ngs va l uab l e organ i c resource and e l i m i na t es
_Pour Second Ha l f Conc . Foo t i ngs
hau l i ng f ees .
Mason r y Wa l l s W 5 .0 . G .
3 . 3 Topso i l S t r i pp i ng and
S i t e F i ne Gr ade
S t ockp i l i ng
Mas. Wa l l s t o j o i s t Bea r i ngs

5ack f i l l S l ab on Gr ade
Topso i l is typ i ca l l y s t r i pped to a dep t h of
F] Se t H . H. F r ame
100-150 mm (4-6 in) and s tockp i l ed for
l a ter use as a grow i ng med i um for p l ant s .
Ac t i v i t y Ba r / Ea r l y Da t es Hang H .H . Door
Al l of the area w i th i n the l i m i t -of -work l ine
Cr i t i ca l Ac t i v i t y 6 .0 . 0. P l umb i ng Rough- I n
wh i ch is to be re -graded mus t be s t r i pped .
J Progr ess Ba r 5 .0 . G. E l ec t r i ca l Rough- I n In areas prev i ous l y compac t ed by vege t a -
Prep f or 5 .0 . 0. t i ve c l ear i ng and demo l i t i on act i v i t i es , the
0 P l ace Conc. 5 .0 .G . so i l is scar i f i ed to l oosen the i mbedded top-
- Se t Roo f Jo i s t s & Deck soi l be fore i t is r emoved .
Insta l l w i nd . . .
Equ i pmen t requ i red for s t r i pp i ng is
I Back f i l l Bu i l d i ng Ex t er i or
de t e rm i ned by the area s i ze and the push
Curb and Gu t t e r or hau l d i s t ances . The re are three bas i c
t ypes of equ i pmen t and severa l var i a t i ons
F i gur e 130 -4 . A pro j ec t ba r d i agr am based upon a PERT d i agr am show i ng of each t ype wh i ch are common l y
beg i nn i ng and end i ng t i mes o f a l l t asks . The cr i t i ca l pa t h is shaded. emp l oyed :

Bu l l dozers : These are caterp i l l ar t rack

i ngs , basemen t s , and bas i ns may be f i l l ed C l ear i ng and Grubb i ng: moun t ed t rac tors w i th broad f ront moun t -
and bur i ed as per spec i f i ca t i on . Rubb i sh ed b l ades wh i ch st r ip by push i ng the soi l
hand l i ng and dump f ees may be proh i b i t i ve Be fore any ea r t hwork grad i ng may com- forward at a cont ro l l ed dep t h . Bu l l dozers
mence , al l organ i c ma t t e r mus t be r emoved come in a var i e ty of s i zes , bu t are genera l -
for sma l l sca l e pro j ec ts . Re -cyc l i ng of o l der
f rom the cons t ruc t i on zone so tha t sub- ly no t econom i ca l when the push d i s t ance
st ruc tures and ma t er i a l s may be a mor e
gr ades may be proper l y prepa red . is ove r 60 000 mm (200 f t ) . The cos t per m 3
econom i ca l l y sound a l t erna t i ve .
Vege t a t i on is f i rst r emoved to prepare for of ear th moved for a hau l d i s t ance o f 90
Se l ec t i ve Demo l i t i on : topso i l s t r i pp i ng and s tockp i l i ng . The con- 000 mm (300 f t ) may be 3 to 4 t i mes
t rac tor typ i ca l l y v i s i ts the s i te to ver i fy veg- grea t er t han for a hau l d i s t ance of 30 000
Con t am i na t ed St ruc tures : Al l chem i ca l l y e t a t i ve cover dens i ty , topography , access i - mm (100 f t ) due to l oss of e f f i c i ency.
con t am i na t ed s t ruc tures and ma t er i a l s bi l i ty, and soi l hydro l ogy to de t e rm i ne the Bu l l dozers are used on mos t l ight to med i -
mus t be r emoved f rom the s i te and d i s- bes t me t hod for remov i ng vege t a t i on w i th- um-s i zed cons t ruc t i on s i tes, or may be used
posed o f in an approved fac i l i ty accord i ng in the spec i f i ed cons t ruc t i on zone . Al l tur f , on l arger s i tes w i th i r regu l ar or rest r i c ted
to regu l a tory spec i f i ca t i ons , to i nsure tha t weeds , shrubs , and t rees , are c l eared and
IC opera t i ng d i s t ances . F i gure 130-5 i l lust rates
the con t am i na t i on is con t a i ned and mi t i - s t umps are grubbed ou t of t he ear th us i ng
O a typ i ca l stee l t rack bu l l dozer common l y
ga t ed . Remova l of con t am i na t ed s t ruc tures spec i a l i zed equ i pmen t for l arge si tes, and used for sma l l sca l e s t r i pp i ng and excava -
u and soi l can be ve ry cost l y . S i tes suspec t ed hand l abor for sma l l s i tes . Tab l e 130-1 cor - t i on .
of con t am i na t i on mus t be t horough l y test -
i re l ates c l ear i ng me t hod (equ i pmen t ) , vege -
ed pr i or to des i gn to de t e rm i ne the feas ib i l - Scrapers : These come in a var i e ty of
t a t i on t ype , and c l ear i ng area s i ze for l ight ,
C i ty or appropr i a t eness of deve l opmen t med i um , and heavy vege t a t i ve cove r . I t is types , but al l are essent i a l l y mo t or i zed b i ns
O wh i ch scoop the soi l v i a a cut t i ng b l ade at
Saw or Torch Cu t t i ng: Por t i ons of ex i st i ng bes t t o preserve as many l arge con t i guous
V t ree and shrub groups as poss i b l e to bo t h the bo t t om of t he b i n . So i l is forced i nto t he
pavemen t s or s i te wa l l s wh i ch are be i ng car ry i ng b i n f rom the bo t t om and requ i res
N enhance env i ronmen t a l qua l i ty , and to
ex t ended or amended are typ i ca l l y sawn to
reduce s i te prepara t i on cos t . Heavy c l ear i ng h i gh torque and l ow speed powe r . Mos t
prov i de a c l ean j o i nt be t ween new and o l d
[400 mm (16 in) d i ame t e r t rees] is o f t en un i ts are pushed by t rack bu l l dozers .
wor k . Me t a l st ruc tures may requ i re torch
mor e t han tw i ce the cos t of l ight c l ear i ng E l eva t i ng scrapers are equ i pped w i th cha i n
cut t i ng to prevent bend i ng dur i ng genera l
[150 mm (6 in) d i ame t er t rees] dr i ven padd l es wh i ch scoop t he soi l i nto t he
demo l i t i on act i v i ty.
M car ry i ng b in, there fore requ i r i ng l ess powe r
and no bu l l dozer ass i s t ance . Scrapers wor k

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 130- 7

Tab l e 130 - 1 . AREA CLEAR I NG EQU I PMENT SELECT I ON

L i gh t C l ea r i ng , Vege t a t i on up t o 50 mm (2 i n) D i ame t e r

Knock i ng the Incorpora t i on of

Uproo t i ng Cu t t i ng Vege t a t i on At Vege t a t i on Vege t a t i on
Vege t a t i on or Above Ground Leve l to the Ground i nto t he So i l

Sma l l areas Bu l l dozer b l ade , axes , Axes , mache t es , Bu l l dozer b l ade Mo l dboa rd p l ows ,
4 .0 hec t ares grub hoes , and ma t tocks brush hooks , grub hoes d i sc p l ows , d i sc har rows
(10 acres) and ma t tocks , whee l -
moun t ed c i rcu l ar saws

Med i um areas Bu l l dozer b l ade Heavy -du t y s i ck l e mowe r s Bu l l dozer b l ade , Mo l dboa rd p l ows ,
40 hec t ares (up to 40 mm (1 112 " ) d i a .], rotary mowe rs , f l a i l - type d i sc p l ows , d i sc har rows
(100 acres) t rac tor -mount ed c i rcu l ar rotary cut ters , ro l l ing
saws ; suspended rotary mowe r s brush cut t ers

Large areas Bu l l dozer b l ade , Ro l l i ng brush cut ter , Undercut t er w i th di sc ,

400 hec t ares root rake , grubber , f l a i l - type cut ter , anchor cha i n mo l dboa rd p l ows ,
(1 , 000 acres) root p l ow , anchor cha i n dr awn be t ween t wo craw l er d i sk p l ows , d i sk ha r rows
dr awn be t ween t wo t ractors , ra i ls
craw l er t ra i l ers, ra i ls

i n t e rmed i a t e C l ea r i ng , Vege t a t i on 75 t o 200 mm (2-8 i n)

Incorpora t i on of
Cu t t i ng Vege t a t i on At Knock i ng the Vege t a t i on Vege t a t i on
Uproo t i ng Vege t a t i on or Above Ground Leve l to the Ground i nto the So i l
Sma l l areas Bu l l dozer b l ade Axes , crosscut saws , Bu l l dozer b l ades Heavy -du t y di sc p l ow ;
4 .0 hec t ares powe r cha i n saws , d i sc har row
(10 acres) whee l -moun t ed c i rcu l ar saws

Med i um areas Bu l l dozer b l ade Powe r cha i n saws , Bu l l dozer b l ade , ro l l ing Heavy -du t y di sc p l ow ,
40 hec t ares t rac tor -mount ed c i rcul ar saws brush cut ter [up to 125 mm d i sc har row
(100 acres) mowe r [up to 100 mm (5 in) d i ame t er ] , rotary
(4 in) d i ame t er ]
Large areas Shear i ng b l ade , ang l i ng Shear i ng b l ade Bu l l dozer b l ade , Bu l l dozer b l ade w i th
400 hec t ares ( t i l ted) , bu l l dozer b l ade , (ang l i ng or V- t ype) f l a i l - type rotary cut ter , heavy-du t y ha r row
(1 , 000 acres) rakes , anchor cha i n anchor cha i n
dr awn be t ween t wo
craw l er t ractors , root p l ow

Heavy C l ea r i ng , Vege t a t i on 200 mm (8 i n) D i ame t e r or La rge r

Cu t t i ng Vege t a t i on At Knock i ng t he Vege t a t i on

Uproo t i ng Vege t a t i on or Above Ground Leve l to t he Ground

Sma l l areas Bu l l dozer b l ade Axes , crosscut saws , Bu l l dozer b l ade

4 .0 hec t ares powe r cha i n saws
(10 acres)

Med i um areas Shear i ng b l ade , ang l i ng Shear i ng b l ade (ang l i ng Bu l l dozer b l ade
40 hec t ares ( t i l ted) knockdown beam , or V- type) , t ree shear [up to
(100 acres) rakes , t ree s t umpe r 650 mm (26 in) so f twood ;
350 mm (14 in) hardwood] ,
shear i ngb l ade -powe r saw
comb i na t i on
Large areas Shear i ng b l ade , ang l i ng Shear i ng , b l ade (ang l i ng Anchor cha i n w i th ba l l dr awn
400 hec t ares ( t i l ted) , knockdown beam , or V- t ype) shear i ng b l ade- be t ween t wo craw l er t rac tors
(1 , 000 acres) rakes , t ree s tumper , powe r saw comb i na t i on
anchor cha i n w i th ba l l
dr awn be t ween t wo
craw l er t rac tors
'Th i s tab l e sugges t s equ i pmen t requ i rement s for Light , Intermed i a te , and Heavy Cl ear i ng . The produc t i v i ty of the equ i pmen t wi l l depend upon the dens i ty and the type of growth .

T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 130- 8
in con t i nuous l oop cyc l es sk i mm i ng soi l
f rom the excava t i on zone and depos i t i ng i t
v i a a be l l y hoppe r in a l i near s tockp i l e for -
ma t i on . These mach i nes requ i re suf f i c i ent
maneuve r i ng room to be e f f ec t i ve and eco-
nom i ca l . F i gure 130-6 i l lust rates t wo com-
mon scraper t ypes : a . bo t t om moun t ed
scraper b l ade , b . e l eva t i ng padd l e moun t ed
scraper b l ade . F i gure 130-7 i l l ust rates the
me t hods o f push l oad i ng scrapers .
Powe r Shove l s : A l so used for genera l
excava t i on , these mach i nes are o f t en used
to st r ip embankmen t s or to reach areas t oo
na r row for o ther mach i nes. They mus t be
used in comb i na t i on w i th a t ruck hau l er .
F i gure 130-8 i l lust rates a typ i ca l powe r
shove l .
Tab l e 130-2 shows soi l compac t i on
caused by d i f f erent equ i pmen t .
F i gur e 130 - 5 . A t yp i ca l s t ee l t r ack bu l l doze r common l y used f or sma l l t o
4 . 0 S I TE I MPROVEMENTS med i um sca l e s t r i pp i ng and excava t i on .

4 .1 Ea r t hwor k
Af t er a s i te has been c l eared and s t r i pped
of i ts organ i c soi l hor i zon , i t is prepared for
genera l excava t i on . Typ i ca l l y , t op and bot -
t om of s l ope grade s t akes are se t to ind i -
ca t e to opera tors whe r e embankmen t cut s
beg i n and whe r e embankmen t f i l ls are to
end . Ea r t hwork opera t i ons are d i v i ded i nto
cut , f i l l , t rench i ng , and bu l k excava t i on .
Ear th is moved to crea t e p l a t forms for new
cons t ruc t i on of a l l roads , bu i l d i ngs , park i ng ,
or open l awn areas . Subgrades are genera l -
ly se t be fore t rench or bu l k basemen t exca -
va t i on occurs . Wo r k is schedu l ed to avo i d
l ong hau l s or excess i ve mu l t i p l e hand l i ng .
F i gure 130-9 and Tab l e 130-3 i l lustate the a . Bc
typ i ca l change in soi l vo l ume dur i ng ear th-
t /1 mov i ng opera t i ons . Tab l e 130-4 i l lust rates
C t he i dea l shove l ou t pu t of bank un i ts per
O hour . I f soi l is su i tab l e , soi l f rom cut areas is
p l aced d i rec t l y in ad j acent f i l l areas us i ng
i t he l argest p i ece of equ i pmen t poss i b l e .

ô F i gure 130-10 i l lust rates a typ i ca l cut and

f i l l d i agram show i ng t he top-o f -cu t s t ake
and bot tom-of - f i l l s t ake l a id ou t in a pre-
C l i m i nary survey.
O
Cu t Ope ra t i ons :

Cu t opera t i ons l owe r the subgrade so tha t

i t may be prepared to rece i ve pavemen t
C bases or topso i l for p l ant ed areas . Scrapers
O may be used for l arge areas and deep cuts ,
V a l ong w i th bu l l dozers to shape embank
0) men t s . A l t hough cut s l opes may repose at
1 :2 in mos t soi ls, a 1 :3 or 1 :4 s l ope is much b. E l eva t i ng padd l emoun t ed scraper b l ade
mor e st ab l e over t i me , and requ i res l ess
expens i ve ma i n t enance (mow i ng) opera -
t i ons (See Tab l e 130-5 for typ i ca l ang l e of F i gur e 130 - 6 . Common sc r ape r t ypes .
i~ repose va l ues of excava t ed so i l s) . Long
s l opes may requ i re bench t er rac i ng for sta-

T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 130-9
P i pe and Pi t Trench i ng : Trench i ng for
Tab l e 130 -2 . SO I L COMPACT I ON GU I DE BY EQU I PMENT TYPE (UN I F I ED
ut i l i t i es is usua l l y accomp l i shed by a back -
SO I L CLASS I F I CAT I ON )
hoe , wh i ch has a norma l reach of 1 800
mm (6 f t ) . Ex t ens i ve or heavy du t y t rench-
Max i mum D r y Dens i t y i ng may emp l oy a l arger powe r hoe [2 400-
compac t i on Equ i pmen t * Mod i f i ed Proc t o r
3 000 mm (8-10 f t ) reach] , or a whee l or
So i l I
Type Recommended
bSu i t ab/
le fg1cm 3 t 3 cha i n t rencher . Cha i n t renchers have an
GW VR , VP PH , SW , SP, GR , CT 2 . 00-2 . 24 125-140 excava t i on capac i t y of 38-380 m 3 (50-500
GP VR , VP PH , SW , SP, GR , CT 1 . 76-2 . 24 110-140
yd ' ) per hour , depend i ng on mode l t ype .
Large t renches requ i re s l i p- form brac i ng to
GM VR , PH , SP VP , SW , GR , CT 1 . 84-2 . 32 115-145
prevent t rench wa l l co l l apse and are back -
GC PH , SP SW , VR , VP, TF , GR , CT 2 . 08-2 . 32 130-145 f i l l ed i mmed i a t e l y a f t er each p i pe segmen t
sw VR , VP PH , SW , SP, GR , CT 1 . 76-2 . 08
is l a id . Bas i n s t ruc ture p i ts are usua l l y dug
110-130
dur i ng th i s opera t i on . F i gure 130-12 i l lus-
SP VR , VP PH , SW , SP, GR , CT 1 . 68-2 . 16 105-135
t ra t es a backhoe show i ng t rench i ng and
sm VR , PH , SP VP , SW , GR , CT 1 . 60-2 . 16 100-135 l oad i ng capab i l i t i es . Tab l e 130-6 i l lust rates
s t andard cyc l es per hour for hydrau l i c back -
Sc PH , SP SW , VR , VP , TF , GR , CT 1 . 60-2 . 16 100-135
hoes .
ML PH , SP TF , SW , VR , VP, GR , CT 1 . 44-2 . 08 90 - 130
P i ers and pos t s : Arch i t ec tura l p i ers may
CL PH , SP TF , SW , VR , GR , CT 1 . 44-2 . 08 90 - 130
be dug by backhoe i f foot i ngs are requ i red .
OL PH , SP TF , SW , VR , GR , CT 1 . 44-1 . 68 90 - 105 I f p i ers are co l umna r concre t e and se t in
MH PH . SP TF , SW , VR , GR , CT 1 . 28-1 . 68 80 - 105 cy l i ndr i ca l f i ber forms , ho l es may be dug by
powe r auge r up to 600 mm (24 in) in d i am-
CH TF , PH , SP VR , GR , SW 1 . 44-1 . 84 90 - 115
e t er. El ect r i ca l condu i t t renches may be dug
OH TF , PH , SP VR , GR , SW 1 . 28-1 . 76 80 - 110 a f ter f i xture p i er f orms are se t to avo i d co l -
Pt Compac t i on no t prac t i ca l l aps i ng , us i ng a cha i n bucke t na r row
t rencher . Pos t ho l es for f ences and l i ght
" Symbo l s :
deck i ng are typ i ca l l y dug by manua l pos t -
CT = Cr aw l e r Trac t or 9-27 me t r i c t ons (10-30 tons)
ho l e d i ggers or hand ope ra t ed powe r
SW = Smoo t h Whee l 3-14 me t r i c t ons (3-15 t ons) auge rs .
GR = Gr i d Ro l l er 5-14 me t r i c t ons (5-15 t ons) Rock Remova l : Sound p l ann i ng seeks to
TF = Tamp i ng Foo t 5-27 me t r i c t ons (5-30 t ons) avo i d rock remova l due to cos t and geo l og-
i ca l d i s turbance . The presence and dens i t y
PH = Pneuma t i c Ro l l er 9-45 me t r i c t ons (10-50 t ons)
of rock is de t e rm i ned by se i sm i c wave
VP = V i bra t i ng P l a t e <1 me t r i c t on (<1 t on) ve l oc i ty read i ngs . Read i ngs above 2 500
SP = Segmen t ed Pad 5-27 me t r i c t ons (5-30 tons) m / sec (8 , 000 f t / sec) usua l l y i nd i ca t e
remova l by b l ast i ng . Read i ngs be l ow tha t
VR = V i bra t i ng Ro l l er 3-22 me t r i c t ons (3-25 tons)
thresho l d i nd i ca t e remova l by mechan i ca l
Source: S, W Nunna l l y , Cons t ruc t i on Me t hods and Managemen t r i pp i ng. I f b l ast i ng is requ i red , regu l ar l y
spaced ho l es are dr i l l ed to crea t e a weak
p l ane and exp l os i ve charges are se t w i th i n N
bi l i ty (Re f er to Sec t i on 320 : Grad i ng tha t excava tor t racks and b l ade st r i a t i ons t hem . B l ast i ng areas are usua l l y cove red C
Techn i ques for fur ther i nforma t i on) . run para l l e l t o the s l ope to preven t inf i l t ra- O
w i t h heavy stee l cab l e mesh f abr i cs i nter -
t i on or cap i l l ary wa t e r f rom accumu l a t i ng in woven w i th rubber t i res to cont a i n f rag- cd
I f a bu i l d i ng is to be cons t ruc t ed in a cut i
ruts unde r the f i n i sh pavemen t base . men t s dur i ng exp l os i on . R i pp i ng is accom-
zone , the area sur round i ng the proposed
bu i l d i ng s i te is gr aded to rough subgrade Foo t i ngs and Founda t i ons : Excava t i on p l i shed w i th a hydrau l i c stee l r i pp i ng kn i f e !Z
pr i or to foot i ng excava t i on t o m i n i m i ze the for foot i ngs and f ounda t i on wa l l s requ i re moun t ed on the rear of a t rack bu l l dozer .
cos t of excess i ve t rench i ng or bu l k excava - suf f i c i ent space for f orm wor k p l acemen t R i pp i ng is mor e econom i ca l and sa f er t han C
t i on . We l l po i nt s or cur t a i n dra i ns may be and remova l . The base of the excava t i on b l as t i ng . O
requ i red to l owe r the wa t e r t ab l e dur i ng
cons t ruc t i on . Tes t p i ts and bor i ngs dur i ng
shou l d ex t end a t l east 600-900 mm (2-3 f t )
beyond the f ounda t i on wa l l d i mens i on .
F i l l Ope r a t i ons : u
3
ear l y exp l ora t i on usua l l y i nd i ca t e the pres- Al l areas des i gna t ed to rece i ve f i l l are typ i - L
Excava t i on s i de s l opes are usua l l y se t at 2 :1,
ence o f ground wa t e r . F i gure 130-11 but in s t ab l e so i l s may be 1 :1 . The bu l k of ca l l y scar i f i ed (sur f i c i a l l y roughened) to cre-
shows new subgrades in genera l cut pr i or excava t i on is execu t ed w i th powe r equ i p- a t e a mechan i ca l bond be t ween t he sub-
O
to bu i l d i ng f ounda t i on excava t i on . men t , but hand d i gg i ng is o f t en emp l oyed
for se t t i ng the foot i ng t o crea t e a un i f orm
grade and the new f i l l . Fi l l is sys t ema t i ca l l y
p l aced in spec i f i ed l ayers or l i f ts [150-300
V
Pavemen t s : The subgrade unde r pave -
and nea t bear i ng sur f ace . Bu l l dozers may mm (6-12 in) ] and compac t ed by appropr i - 4-0
men t s mus t be un i form, f ree o f ruts or
be used for sma l l st ruc tures , but powe r a t e mach i ne ry . Scrapers may p l ace t he soi l
depress i ons , and s l oped to dra i n .
shove l s are mor e common . (Re f er to Tab l e in accura t e l i f ts by se t t i ng d i scharge ra te
Spec i f i ca t i ons typ i ca l l y re f er to accep t ab l e
sag to l erances in h i gh qua l i ty cons t ruc t i on .
130-2 for equ i pmen t capac i t i es .) and b i n b l ade he i ght , and are the mos t eco- 0
Large park i ng lots requ i re care to i nsure
nom i ca l me t hod for execut i ng l arge area
f i l ls . Trucks may depos i t p i l es wh i ch requ i re
M

T i me -Saver S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 130- 1 0

F i gur e 130 -8 . Powe r shove l .

are typ i ca l l y used as p i pe and per fora t ed

dra i n bedd i ng respec t i ve l y . Backf i l l ma t er i a l
shou l d cont a i n gradua t ed par t i c l e s i zes and
not cont a i n l arge stones , wh i ch cou l d cre-
a t e a i r pocke t s .
St ruc tura l Fi l l : St ruc tura l f i l l typ i ca l l y is
p l aced unde r bu i l d i ng f l oor s l abs and
requ i res very s t r i ngent p l acemen t and com-
pac t i on . I t cons i sts of graded aggrega t e
base ma t er i a l p l aced in 150 mm (6 in) l i f ts,
and v i bra t ed and ro l l ed to ach i eve 95%
dens i t y. For reasons of cos t and stabi l i ty,
such st ruc tura l f i l ls shou l d not exceed 900
mm (3 f t ) in common c i rcums t ances .

4 . 2 Dr a i nage and Ut i l i t i es

P l acemen t of san i t ary and s t orm sewe r

bas i ns and p i pes beg i n a f ter cut and f i l l
opera t i ons are comp l e t ed so tha t out f a l l s
may be connec t ed to subsequen t bu i l d i ng
F i gur e 130 -7 . Me t hods o f push l oad i ng sc r ape r s.
dra i ns , s i te cur t a i n dra i ns , and o ther t em-
porary dewa t e r i ng and cons t ruc t i on runof f
C spread i ng by bu l l dozer to the spec i f i ed l i f t ro l l ers are i ne f f ec tua l on non- cohes i ve soi l s . f i l ter ing sys t ems . Ca r e mus t be t aken t o
O i nsure tha t new l y bur i ed p i pes have suf f i -
dep t h . Th i s l at ter me t hod is typ i ca l for l ight Typ i ca l l y 4-6 passes are requ i red to ach i eve
t o med i um cons t ruc t i on . Each l i f t mus t be the appropr i a t e compac t i on dens i t y (So i l c i ent soi l cove r in those areas sub j ec t to
i
heavy veh i cu l ar t raf f i c . Mos t th i n wa l l (stee l
N compac t ed to ach i eve t he spec i f i ed dens i t y spec i f i ca t i ons wi l l vary. F i gure 130-14 i l lus-
Q o f 95% so tha t the ra te o f inf i l t rat ion and t ra t es an ar ray of v i bra t i ng rol l ers . and po l yme r ) p i pes requ i re 750 mm (30 in)
bear i ng capac i t y wi l l resemb l e tha t o f of soi l cove r to preven t crush i ng . At th i s
Types o f F i l l : s t age in cons t ruc t i on , subgrades may be
" und i s turbed ear th . " Th i s opera t i on is a l so
O ca l l ed " cont ro l l ed f i l l p l acemen t " and is Gene ra l Fi l l : Gene ra l f i l l is usua l l y subso i l 300-450 mm (12-18 in) be l ow f i n i sh
repea t ed unt i l the new subgrade e l eva t i on grades . Al l dra i n bas i ns requ i re cont ro l l ed
t aken f rom on-s i t e cut and mus t be st ruc-
is ach i eved . So i l t ypes de t e rm i ne the back f i l l s to preven t l atera l sh i f t i ng in veh i c-
tura l l y su i t ab l e to avo i d d i f ferent i a l set t l e-
L me t hod used for compac t i on . men t or excess i ve swe l l i ng . Good s i te u l ar pavemen t s . Mos t bas i n p i ts are dug
N w i th a powe r hoe (Re f er to subsec t i on 2 . 5 :
C l ay So i l Compac t i on : Cohes i ve so i l s des i gn ba l ances cut and f i l l and avo i ds s i tes
C P i pe and Pi t Trench i ng) .
such as c l ays and l oams are common l y w i th unsu i t ab l e cons t ruc t i on so i l s (Re f er to
O
U compac t ed us i ng a t rac tor dr awn sheeps- Sec t i on 320: Grad i ng Techn i ques for i nfor - St ruc tures :
ma t i on on ba l anc i ng cut and f i l l ) .
foot ro l l er. H i gh dens i t y compac t i on for
Bas i ns : San i t ary and s t ormwa t e r bas i ns
these so i l s requ i res 8 - 12 passes . F i gure Tr ench and Founda t i on Back f i l l : requ i re concre t e foot i ngs , typ i ca l l y p l aced
130 - 13 i l lust rates a sheeps f oo t compac t or. Back f i l l i ng of p i pe and f ounda t i on t renches d i rec t l y on excava t ed subgrade , un l ess soi l s
Granu l a r So i l Compac t i on : Granu l a r requ i res cont ro l l ed l i f ts and care fu l com- requ i re add i t i ona l prepara t i on . Dep t h of pi t
0 so i l s mus t be ro l l ed and v i bra t ed us i ng stee l
pac t i on to avo i d d i f ferent i a l se t t l ement and excava t i on mus t be care fu l l y ca l cu l a t ed
M or rubbe r t i re rol l ers, s i nce sheeps f oo t
t rench wa l l s l ump . Sands and aggrega t es

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 130- 1 1
Tab l e 130 -3 . TYP I CAL SO I L WE I GHT AND VOLUME CHANGE CHARACTER I ST I CS "

Un i t We i gh t
[ kg / m3 ( I b / cu yd) ]

Loose Bank Compac t ed Swe l l (%) Sh r i nkage (%) Load Fac t o r Sh r i nkage Fac t o r

C l ay 1 370 (2310) 1 780 (3000) 2225 ( 3750 ) 30 20 0 . 77 0 . 80

Common 1 471 (2480) 1839 ( 3100 ) 2047 ( 3450 ) 25 10 0 . 80 0 . 90

ea r t h

Rock 1 815 (3060) 2729 ( 4600 ) 2 106 (3550) 50 -30** 0 . 67 1 . 30**

(b l as t ed)

Sand 1 697 (2860) 1 899 (3200) 2 166 (3650) 12 12 0 . 89 0 . 88

and grave l

' Exac t va l ues vary w i th gra i n si ze di st r ibut ion, mo i sture , compac t i on , and other factors . Tests are requ i red to de t erm i ne exac t va l ues for a spec i f i c soi l .
**Compac t ed rock is l ess dense than when i n-p l ace.

Source: S . W. Nunna l l y , Cons t ruc t i on Me t hods and Managemen t , 1993 .

f rom f i n i sh gra t e r i m e l eva t i on to accoun t sha l l owes t l ast ) to avo i d conf l i c ts when ut i l - the t op of the p i pe s tone be fore the t rench
for : i t i es cross pa ths . On occas i on , sewe r l ines is back f i l l ed to the sur f ace (Re f er to Sec t i on
1 . Modu l a r precas t or masonr y un i t may be l a id w i th broad hor i zont a l arcs to 880 : Geot ex t i l es for mor e i nforma t i on) .
d i mens i ons . avo i d d i srupt i ng t ree s t ands . Ca re shou l d F i gure 130-15 i l lust rates a typ i ca l cha i n
2 . Inver t e l eva t i on of the ex i t dra i n . be t aken to ma i nt a i n des i gn s l ope and to t rencher for l ight condu i t s and sma l l p i pes .
3 . Sump dep t h i f c l ean-ou t cav i t y is prov i de for c l ean-out capab i l i ty. I t is com-
i nc l uded . Headwa l l s and Endwa l l s : Bo t h st ruc-
mon prac t i ce to l ay p i pe f rom t he out f a l l
back to the h i gh po i nt to prevent the p i pe tures are essent i a l l y re t a i n i ng wa l l s requ i r -
P i pes : We l l p l anned s i te des i gn seeks to i ng a foot i ng to ma i nt a i n cons t an t p i pe
t rench f rom f i l l ing w i th e i ther ra i n wa t e r or
comb i ne ut i l i ty cor r i dors to m i n i m i ze s i te i nver t e l eva t i on in f ros t - thaw reg i ons and
inf i l t rat ion wa t e r dur i ng cons t ruc t i on oper -
d i srupt i on and con f i ne future repa i r act i v i - shr i nk -swe l l so i l s . Headwa l l s typ i ca l l y
a t i ons . Per fora t ed dra i n p i pe t renches are
t i es to a manageab l e por t i on of the s i te . I t requ i re the swa l e i nver t to be f l ush w i th the
f requent l y l i ned w i th a f abr i c separa tor t o
is bes t to p l ace p i pes and condu i t s in p i pe i nver t and may requ i re a s tone or con-
preven t f i nes f rom en t er i ng t he s tone
ascend i ng order of dep t h (deepes t f i rst and cre t e apron to preven t unde rm i n i ng due to
dra i nage med i um . The fabr i c is fo l ded ove r

Tab l e 130 - 4 . I DEAL SHOVEL OUTPUT [ Bm 3 / h (BCY / h) ] `

Shove l D i ppe r S i ze [ m 3 ( yd3 ) ]

0 . 57 0 . 75 0 - 94 1 - 13 1 - 32 1 - 53 1 . 87 2 . 29 2 . 62 3 . 06 3 . 51 3 . 82
Type o f Ma t e r i a l ( 3 /4) (1) (1 1 /4) (1 1 /2) (1 3/4) (2) (2 3 /2) (3) (31 / 2) (4) (41 / 2) (5)
N
Mo i s t l oam or 126 157 191 218 245 271 310 356 401 443 485 524
sandy c l ay (165) (205) 1250) (285) (320) (355) (405) (465) (525) (580) (635) (685) 0
Sand and 114 153 176 206 229 252 298 344 386 424 459 493
grave l (155) (200) (230) (270) (300) (330) (390) (450) (505) (555) (600) (645) L
Common ea r t h 103
(135)
134
(175)
161
(210)
183
(240)
206
(270)
229
(300)
271
(355)
310
(405)
348
(455)
390
(510)
428
(560)
463
(605)
a
0

C l ay , t ough , ha rd 84 111 138 161 180 203 237 275 310 344 375 405
(110) (145) (180) (210) (235) (265) (310) (360) (405) (450) (490) (530) C
0
Rock , we l l -b l as t ed 73 96 119 138 157 176 210 245 279 313 348 382
(95) (125) (155) (180) (205) (230) (275) (320) (365) (410) (455) (500)

Common excava t i on 61 80 99 119 138 153 187 222 256 291 321 352 >r
w i t h rock (80) (105) (130) (155) (180) (200) (245) (290) (335) (380) (420) (460)
Vi l l
C l ay , we t , and 54 73 92 111 126 141 176 206 237 264 294 321 _
st i cky (70) (95) (120) (145) (165) (185) 0
V
(230) (270) (310) (345) (385) (420)

Rock , poor l y 38 57 73 88 107 122 149 180 206 233 260 287
b l as t ed (50) (75) (95) (115) (140) (160) (195) (235) (270) (305) (340) (375) 0
*Based on 100% e f f i c i ency ,90° sw i ng , op t i mum depth of cut , mater i a l l oaded into hau l un i ts a t grade l eve l . Based on PCSA da t a.
- Idea l Shove l output of bank un i ts (B) per hour [Bm3 / h (Byd3/h) ] by bucke t si ze .

Source : S . W. Nunna l l y , Cons t ruc t i on Me t hods and Managemen t .

M
r
T i me - Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Ar ch i t ec t ur e
 F i gur e 130 -9 . Typ i ca l so i l vo l ume change dur i ng ea r t hmov i ng ope r a t i ons .

turbu l ence . Endwa l l p i pe i nver ts are typ i ca l -

ly he l d 150 mm (6 in) above the swa l e
i nver t to a l l ow f ree f l ow of wa t e r i nto the
swa l e . The swa l e requ i res a s tone or
masonry apron to absorb d i scharge and
preven t eros i on .
Inf i l t rat i on and De t en t i on Ponds : These
st ruc tures are of t en cons t ruc t ed us i ng bu l l -
dozers , bu t in we t so i l s , may requ i re
drag l i nes or hydrau l i c beam bucke t excava -
t i on . Mos t reg i ons requ i re spec i a l perm i t s
when work i ng nea r we t l ands . Ca r e shou l d
be t aken to i nsure tha t s i l tat ion is kept to
m i n i mum dur i ng cons t ruc t i on and tha t we i r
st ruc tures are secure l y f i xed to ear then
dams to preven t breach i ng dur i ng heavy
F i gur e 130 - 10 . A t yp i ca l cu t and f i l l d i agr am show i ng t he t op-o f - cu t s t ake l oads (Re f er to Sec t i on 420 : Sma l l Dams ,
and bo t t om-o f - f i l l s t ake . for deta i l s of ear th dams ) .

E l ec t r i ca l and Te l ecommun i ca t i on L i nes :

Loca l codes requ i re spec i f i c dep t hs for each

C t ype of ut i l i ty. Typ i ca l l y , e l ect r i ca l l ines mus t
O be bur i ed to a dep t h of a t l east 600 mm (2
f t ) and r igid condu i t mus t be used unde r al l
L paved areas ( roads , dr i ves , p l azas) . I f pave -
d men t base is except i ona l l y deep , condu i t s
0 are o f t en p l aced a f t er the aggrega t e pave -
men t base is i nsta l l ed to preven t damage to
C the condu i t due to the rough grad i ng
O se t f i n i sh subgr ade .
requ i red to
Te l ecommun i ca t i on l ines requ i re separa t i on
i f rom e l ect r i ca l l ines to avo i d magne t i c f i e ld
4-0 i nt er f erence (Consu l t l oca l codes) .
C
O I r r i ga t i on Sys t ems :
V I r r i ga t i on l ines, hav i ng the sha l l owes t dep t h
N [300-450 mm (12-18 in) ] , are of t en one of
the l ast ut i l i t i es i nsta l l ed . Some i r r i ga t i on
N sys t ems are se t a f t er sodd i ng or seed i ng to
F i gur e 130 -11 . New subgr ades i n gene r a l cu t pr i or t o bu i l d i ng f ounda t i o i
i nsure prec i se p l acemen t o f r i ser heads .
excava t i on .
M Spec i a l i zed na r row t rench i ng equ i pmen t is

r used for m i n i ma l d i s turbance . Shrub bub-

T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 F i gur e 130 - 13 . A sheeps f oo t com
pac t or used f or co l l o i da l so i l s.

F i gur e 130 -12 . A backhoe show i ng t r ench i ng and l oad i ng capab i l i t i es .

b l ers may be i nsta l l ed pr i or to p l ant i ng. Rough Gr ad i ng:

Int erna l soaker sys t ems are i nsta l l ed a f t er
topso i l p l acemen t and f i n i sh grad i ng , bu t Rough grad i ng occurs a f ter al l cut and f i
opera t i ons have es t ab l i shed approx i ma t e
be fore seed i ng or sodd i ng . Va l ve boxes
e l eva t i ons for proposed subgrades , accord F i gur e 130 - 14 . Typ i ca l v i br a t i ng
shou l d be l oca t ed on h i gh ground to avo i d
i ng to dr aw i ng deta i l s , cross sec t i ons , an( ro l l ers f or gr anu l a r so i l s .
mo i s ture inf i l t rat ion . Loca l prac t i ces are
spec i f i ca t i ons . Typ i ca l l y , bu l l dozers , roa(
h i gh l y var i ab l e (Re f er to Sec t i on 750 :
graders , and hand l abor is requ i red to pre
I r r i ga t i on for mor e i nforma t i on) .
c i se l y se t edges and to crea t e un i forn
4 .3 Grad i ng s l opes . Grad i ng unde r s l abs and pavemen
s t ruc tures requ i res prec i s i on w i th i n 15 mn
Grad i ng opera t i ons prepare the s i te to (1 / 2 in) . Tab l e 130-7 i nd i ca t es subgrad i
rece i ve pavemen t s , p l ant i ngs , and al l o t he r dep t h unde r var i ous f i n i sh sur f aces .
s i te i mprovemen t s (Re f er to Sec t i on 320 :
S i te Grad i ng for fur ther i nforma t i on) . The F i n i sh Gr ad i ng:
s i te is surveyed to se t f i n i sh l ayout and
F i n i sh grad i ng re f ers to the f ina l p l acemen
grad i ng s t akes . St akes are of fse t f rom road
of topso i l be t ween pavemen t s and st ruc
cent er l i nes and pavemen t edges so as not
ture . So i l dep ths vary by p l ant i ng t ype
to i nt er f ere w i th subsequen t cons t ruc t i on
Typ i ca l l y th i s is accomp l i shed a f t er ma j o
opera t i ons . Gr ade s t akes are typ i ca l l y of fse t
p l ant i ng of t rees and al l o ther act i v i t i e
300-600 mm (2-3 f t ) f rom proposed pave -
wh i ch requ i re hau l i ng have been comp l e t
men t edges . Grad i ng i nvo l ves t wo phases ;
ed .
rough grad i ng and f in i sh grad i ng . F i gur e 130 -15 . Typ i ca l cha i n t r enche r
f or l i ght condu i t s and sma l l p i pes.
 F i gur e 130 - 18 . Hand ope r a t ed
F i gur e 130 - 16 . Geo t ex t i l e f abr i c sepa r a t or app l i ca t i on equ i pmen t .
v i bra t i ng p l a t e powe r compac t o r.

Tab l e 130 -5 . TYP I CAL ANGLE OF

REPOSE VALUES OF EXCAVATED
SO I L .

Ma t er i a l Ang l e of Repose (deg)

C l ay 35
Common ear th , dry 32

Common ear th , mo i s t 37
Grave l 35

Sand , dry 25

sand , mo i s t 37
F i gur e 130 - 17 . Typ i ca l mo t o r gr ade r used t o smoo t h ou t compac t ed f i l l a r eas
and subbase ma t e r i a l . Source ; S . W. Nunna l l y , Cons t ruc t i on Me t hods and
Managemen t , 1993 .

4 . 4 Pav i ng and Sur f ac i ng Aggr ega t e Base P l acemen t :

Pavemen t st ruc tures common l y cons i st of a Roads and Park i ng Lot s : Aggr ega t e is
N p l aced on the prepa red subgrade us i ng t he
C base course and a wea r i ng course . The
O base course is usua l l y a prepared aggrega t e l argest dump t ruck poss i b l e , and spread by
l ayer wh i ch ex t ends beyond the f in i sh bu l l dozer or road grader to ach i eve 150-
i pavemen t edge for dra i nage and suppor t . 200 mm (6-8 in) l i f ts . Veh i cu l ar pavemen t s Wa l ks and P l azas : L i gh t pedes t r i an
The aggrega t e base may a l so serve as a of t en requ i re a subbase and base course to pavemen t s common l y use a s i ng l e course
base for var i ous t ypes o f edg i ng and curb- prov i de proper suppor t for the f i n i sh pave - aggrega t e base wh i ch is usua l l y spread by
i ng (Re f er to Sec t i on 440 : Sur f ac i ng and men t . Recyc l ed pu l ver i zed pavemen t s hand and v i bra t ed w i th a f l at p l a t e v i bra t -
C Pav i ng for mor e i nforma t i on) . Al l areas des- m i xed w i t h aggrega t es o f t en prov i de an i ng powe r compac t or a f ter pav i ng edges or
O i gna t ed as ha rdscape on the p l ans rece i ve on-s i t e resource f rom the demo l i t i on oper - f orms are se t . Un i t pavers o f t en requ i re
l ayers of gr aded aggrega t e ma t er i a l as a t i on . Aggrega t e subbases are ro l l ed and edg i ng to be se t on t op of the aggrega t e
U
spec i f i ed . The ma t er i a l may range f rom compac t ed us i ng the me t hod descr i bed for base and a t t ached w i th l ong me t a l sp i kes .
i st ruc tura l f i l l . Interna l grade s t akes may be S i nce bases are typ i ca l l y 100-150 mm (4-6
st ruc tura l s i l i ca sands to crushed processed
t /1 s tone . In c l ay soi l s, a f abr i c separa tor may se t in l arge paved areas to c l ear l y ma r k f in- in) th i ck , t he ma t er i a l is p l aced in a s i ng l e
C i sh and subbase grades for equ i pmen t l i f t and compac t ed w i th 3-5 passes . P l aza
be p l aced on the subgrade to re i nforce the
O
base to gua rd aga i ns t subgrade de f orma - opera tors . Conc re t e or s tone curb i ng may pavemen t s sub j ec t to serv i ce veh i c l e l oad-
V
t i on and l atera l subbase creep . A spec i a l l y be se t on the prepared subbase , in ant i c i - i ng may requ i re an aggrega t e subbase
N pa t i on of the aggrega t e base course and
equ i pped t rac tor w i th a w i de rol l d i spenser course for grea t er s t rength . In such an
N is used for l arge i nsta l l a t i ons (Re f er to the f i n i sh pavemen t course . F i gure 130-17 event , a dense graded aggrega t e subbase is
F i gure 130-16) . i l lust rates a typ i ca l road grade r. Base course used to suppor t a th i nner sand or dense
aggrega t e is spread on the subbase course , gr ade aggrega t e base course . Conc re t e

M ro l l ed and compac t ed . f orms are se t and un i t pave r edg i ng is

r i nsta l l ed in ant i c i pa t i on of the f i n i sh pave -

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 130 - 1 5

Tab l e 130 -6 . STANDARD CYCLES PER HOUR FOR HYDRAUL I C BACKHOES

Mach i ne S i ze
Med i um Excava t o r. La rge Excava t or :
Sma l l Excava t or : [0 . 94-1 . 72 m3 Ove r 1 . 72 m3
Type o f ma t e r i a l Whee l Tr ac t or [0 . 7S m3 (1 yd3) ] (1 1 / 4-2 1 / 4 yd3] ] (2 1 / 2 yd3)
Sof t
(sand , grave l , l oam) 170 250 200 150
Ave rage
( common ear th , sof t c l ay) 135 200 160 120
Ha rd ( tough c l ay, rock) 110 160 130 100
Source : S . W. Nunna l l y , Cons t ruc t i on Me t hods and Managemen t , 1993 .

men t sur f ac i ng . F i gure 130-18 i l lust rates a The si l i ca sand ma i nt a i ns i ts vo l ume and heavy t ree ba l l s wi l l have so l id bear i ng and
hand ope ra t ed v i bra t i ng p l a t e powe r com- par t i c l e s i ze dur i ng pro l onged per i ods of wi l l not des t roy any f in i sh wor k . On occa -
pac tor . l oad i ng and v i bra t i on . s i on , l arge spec i men t rees or prev i ous l y dug
and hee l ed- i n ex i s t i ng t rees wi l l be p l ant i ng
Wea r i ng Sur f ace P l acemen t : Spec i a l or Propr i e t ary Sur f aces : Porous
w i th i n future bu i l d i ng cour t yards or o ther
pavemen t s , or propr i e t ary ath l et i c fac i l i ty
Pavemen t ad j acent to ma j or p l ant i ng areas cons t r i c t ed access po i nt s . Cont rac tors may
sur f aces of t en requ i re spec i a l i zed equ i p-
may requ i re l arge t rees and shrubs to be use on-s i t e cranes used for stee l erec t i on to
men t and c rews for i nsta l l at i on . Ac tua l
p l ant ed be fore f ina l wea r i ng sur f aces are move these l arger spec i men i nto pos i t i on
sequence can vary f rom j ob to j ob .
i nsta l l ed, to avo i d damage f rom t rucks or very ear l y in the cons t ruc t i on process . Trees
A l l owances shou l d be made for mach i ne ry p l ant ed so ear l y in t he pro j ec t mus t rece i ve
d i gg i ng equ i pmen t . Cer t a i n o t he r s i te access to avo i d damage to f i n i shed por -
i mprovemen t s such as l i ght po l es , s i gns , or spec i a l prot ec t i on i f ad j acent to bu i l d i ng
t i ons .
s i te scu l pture , e t c . may requ i re i nsta l l at i on erec t i on act i v i t i es (Re f er to Sec t i on 550 :
pr i or to pavemen t p l acemen t to avo i d P l ant s and P l ant i ng for mor e i n forma t i on) .
4 . 5 S i t e Furn i sh i ngs
unnecessary l oad i ng .
S i te furn i sh i ngs is a genera l ca t egory tha t Tr ees :
Aspha l t : Roads composed of aspha l t encompasses i nsta l l at i on o f mos t above Trees p l ant ed ear l y in the process mus t be
usua l l y are i nsta l l ed in t wo courses . The ground f i xtures and des i gn e l emen t s such p l aced w i th a grade s t ake to i nsure tha t t he
base course is p l aced on a prepared aggre - as l i ght f i xtures , f ences and ga t es , s i gns ,
t ree ba l l wi l l a l i gn w i th t he f ina l topso i l or
ga t e base wh i ch of t en has been pene t ra t ed benches , dr i nk i ng fount a i ns , road and p l aza f i n i sh grade , and tha t t op soi l or
w i th a hea t ed aspha l t oi l to i nsure proper park i ng appur t enances , e t c . I t may i nvo l ve
mu l ch be p i l ed a round the exposed t ree ba l l
adhes i on of the aspha l t base cour se to the connec t i ng propr i e t ary f i xtures to prev i ous- to preven t dry i ng be fore f in i sh grad i ng
aggrega t e (Re f er to Sec t i on 820 : Aspha l t ly w i red concre t e p i ers , a t t ach i ng benches
occurs . I t is common prac t i ce to p l ant l arge
for spec i f i c i n forma t i on) . to s l abs or p i ers , bo l t i ng gua rd ra i ls on t o t rees d i rec t l y on the t ree p i t bo t t om to pre-
prev i ous l y se t posts , or i nsta l l i ng k i osks , ven t se t t l emen t . I t is bes t t o be 25-50 mm
Conc re t e: Mos t concre t e pav i ng requ i res
c l ocks or i n forma t i on boo t hs . The ex t en t of (1-2 in) h i gher t han f in i sh grade . Tree p i ts
re i nforc i ng stee l mesh or bars to be p l aced
th i s opera t i on is de t e rm i ned by the scope shou l d be a t l east 600-900 mm (2-3 f t )
be t ween f orm edges . For max i mum
s t rength , the stee l re i nforc i ng shou l d be and comp l ex i t y of t he des i gn . w i de r t han the t ree ba l l . Mos t p l ant s wi l l
l i f ted of f of the aggrega t e base by means of grow mor e v i gorous l y i f g i ven mor e root
4 . 6 P l an t i ng I ns t a l l a t i on grow i ng med i um , espec i a l l y pavemen t
me t a l cha i r c l ips, t ak i ng care tha t stee l
rema i ns cove red by a t l east 50 mm (2 in) of As s t a t ed prev i ous l y , t he sequence of p l ant - bound t rees .
concre t e . Shee t s of we l ded w i re mesh i ng is h i gh l y dependen t on s i te spec i f i c c i r -
Shrubs :
shou l d l ie st ra i ght and f l at . Pr emo l ded or cums t ances . Genera l l y , l arge t rees are
st ra i ght expans i on j o i nt f i l ler shou l d be p l ant ed a f ter subgrades have been se t and Shrubs , un l ess very l arge , are usua l l y p l ant ed
p l aced in f ormwor k to i so l a te s l abs and aggrega t e bases have been p l aced so tha t j ust pr i or to f in i sh grad i ng and seed i ng so as
wa l ks every 7 500 mm (25 f t ) (Re f er to l arge equ i pmen t used to un l oad and move
Sec t i on 830 : Conc re t e for mor e i n forma -
t i on) .
Tab l e 130 -7 . SUBGRADE DEPTH UNDER VAR I OUS F I N I SH SURFACES .
Un i t Pavers and St one : I t is cr i t i ca l tha t
un i t pavers be p l aced on an adequa t e l y
F i n i sh Ma t e r i a l Dep t h t o Subgr ade
prepared aggrega t e base be t ween secured
edge rest ra i ners to preven t l atera l creep Topso i l ( tur f ) 150 mm (6 in)
dur i ng l oad i ng over t i me . For comme rc i a l P l ant i ng Beds 200-450 mm (8-18 in)
and dr i veway app l i ca t i ons , i t is common
Wa l ks and Pa t i os 200-300 mm (8-12 in)
prac t i ce to use a dense grade aggrega t e
subbase and a 25-50 mm (1-2 in) h i gh si l i - Dr i veways and Park i ng 300-375 mm (12-15 in)
0
ca con t en t sand se t t i ng bed to serve as a
proper suppor t s t ruc ture for un i t pavers .
Roads and Serv i ce Dr i ves 375-500 mm (15-20 in)
Mr
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 130- 16
not to inter fere w i th bu i l d i ng pa int ing, s i gn
insta l l at ion, l ight f i xture a t t achments , etc .

Ground Covers and Herbaceous P l ants: Af ter a si te has been prepared for new const ruct ion, the execut i on of the si te des i gn
beg i ns .
Des i gna t ed p l ant i ng beds are usua l l y edged
and amended to rece i ve groundcovers and Ear thwork opera t i ons are d i v i ded into cut , f i l l , t rench ing, and bu l k excava t i on .
herbaceous p l ants . Pract i ces vary by reg i on ,
but mu l ch is of ten p l aced on beds f i rst to 2 . At the end of cut and f i l l opera t i ons subgrades may be 300-400 mm (12-18 in)
cont ro l weeds and to ma i nt a i n mo i sture , be l ow f inish grades .
then ground cover p l ant i ngs are p l aced
through the mu l ch . Herbaceous borders 3 . P l acement of san i tary and s torm sewer bas i ns and p i pes beg i n af ter cut and f i l l
of ten do not spec i fy mu l ch , and bu lbs , and operat i ons are comp l e t ed so that out fa l ls may be connec t ed to subsequent bui ld-
perenn i a l s are p l ant ed di rect l y in the soi l . ing dra ins, si te cur ta in dra ins, and other t emporary dewa t er i ng and const ruct i on
runof f f i l ter ing syst ems .
Seed i ng and Sodd i ng:
4. Typi ca l ly, e lect r ica l l ines mus t be bur i ed to a depth of at l east 600 mm (2 f t) wh i l e
Large Sca l e Si tes : Si tes w i th comp l ex i r r igat ion l ines are be tween 300 and 450 mm (12-18 in) deep .
ear th grad i ng typi ca l l y wi l l requ i re a f ina l
dress i ng of the subgrade to insure proper 5 . Grad i ng operat ions prepare the si te to rece i ve pavements , pl ant ings, and al l other si te
dra i nage and adhes i on of the new topso i l i mprovement s (Refer to Sect ion 320: Si te Grad i ng for more informat ion) .
a f ter i t is dumped and spread . Large pro-
j ects may use a scraper to p l ace the topso i l
on the subgrade and t ractor graders to
smoo th and rake the soi l in prepara t i on for REFERENCES
seed i ng. Fee , Sy l v i a Ho l l man. Means Landscape
Sma l l to Med i um Sca l e Si tes : Af ter Est i mat i ng, . R. S. Means Company , Inc ,
rough grad i ng has been re f i ned and scar i - K i ngston , MA , 1987.
f i ed, topso i l is dumped and spread w i th a Lynch , Kev i n, and Gary Hack. Si te Pl an-
bu l l dozer to the des i red depth , and f ine n i ng, 3rd ed ., M I T Press, Cambr i dge , MA ,
raked to remove al l stones , c l umps , and 1984 .
l arge organ i c ma t t er . The tur f areas are Nunna l l y , S. W. Const ruc t i on Me t hods and
seeded or sodded as spec i f i ed . At this Managemen t , Prent i ce-Ha l l , Inc., Eng l e-
po int , al l edges and pavemen t s have usua l - wood Cl i f fs, NJ , 1993 .
ly been insta l l ed and tur f areas are carefu l -
ly hand raked to ach i eve a cons i stent and R i ngwa l d , R i chard C. Means Heavy Con-
st ruct ion Handbook , R. S. Means Com-
nea t j unc t i on w i th ad j acent pavemen t s and
pany , Inc., K i ngston , MA 1993 .
p l ant i ng beds .
S i ddens , R. Scot t . Wa l ker ' s Bu i l d i ng Est i -
Spec i a l Cond i t i ons : In f ine soi ls, swa l es ma tor ' s Re f erence Book , 23rd ed., Frank R.
are of ten l ined w i th sod i mmed i a t e l y af ter Wa l ker Company , Lisl e, IL, 1989.
topso i l is p l aced to prevent eros i on of bare
soi l . In heavy dut y c i rcumstances , jute ma t -
t i ng is stap l ed over seeded embankmen t s ,
C espec i a l l y those sub j ec t to per i od i c f l ood i ng
cd ad j acent to l arge swa l es or r i vers banks .
i St eep banks may be hydro-seeded us i ng
C sa tura ted paper mu l ch , or b l own-on s t raw
mu l ch to ho l d seed and promo t e mo i s ture
re tent i on . These spec i a l t rea tments may
C requ i re a shi f t in norma l procedure to
C
accommoda t e equ i pmen t and access

C
C
V
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tJ'1

M
r
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
S t anda rds and
Gu i de l i nes
 SECT I ON

Spa t i a l St andards

CRED I TS

Con t r i bu tor :
N i cho l as T. D i nes , FASLA
CAD Dr aw i ngs :
Dou Zhang
Techn i ca l Rev i ew :
Vo l l me r Assoc i a t es
New York , NY

CONTENTS
1 .0 I n t roduc i -
2 .0 App l i ca t i ons
2 .1 Human Spa t i a l Se t t i ngs
to
Ergonom i c Measur emen t s
Per i phera l V i s i on L
Int i ma t e Ga rden Sca l e
2 . 2 Veh i cu l ar D i mens i ons and Spa t i a l C
Requ i remen t s
Au t omob i l es
N
Pa rk i ng and Maneuve r i ng Pa t t erns
Pa rk i ng D i mens i ons
Trucks and Transpor t
Boa t s and Docks
3 . 0 Commun i t y P l ann i ng Da t a d
Re f erences

!V
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 1 . 0 I NTRODUCT I ON

Human spa t i a l s t andards are der i ved f rom

e rgonom i c and cu l tura l da t a and vary w i de -
l y across cu l tures and l and-use se t t i ngs .
St andards are of t en es t ab l i shed to prov i de :

1 . M i n i ma l sa f e t y c l earances
( e rgonom i c / l ega l )

2 . Perce i ved user comf or t (psycho l og-

i ca l /perceptua l )

3 . Ce remon i a l protoco l (cu l tura l / r i tua l )

4 . Aes the t i c cho i ce (persona l / cu l tura l )

Mos t " norma t i ve " s t andards requ i re cu l -

tura l ad j us t men t be fore be i ng app l i ed to a
par t i cu l ar des i gn se t t i ng . Cu l tura l s t andards
F i gur e 210 -1 . E l emen t s o f spa t i a l enc l osur e : f l oor , wa l l , canopy , mod i f i ed by
are o f t en re f er red to as t he " h i dden d i men-
t i me , l i ght , c l i ma t e , and i n t ens i t y o f ac t i v i t y .
s i on , " and a t t i mes may cont rad i c t st r i ct l y

Vi
i

cd
N

F i gur e 210 -2 . S t and i ng adu l t ma l e and f ema l e d i mens i ons . (Anthropome t r i c da t a prov i ded by Henry Drey fuss Assoc i ates) .

N
T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 phys i ca l or e rgonom i c requ i remen t s .
D i mens i ons i nd i ca t ed in th i s sec t i on are pr i -
mar i l y Nor t h Ame r i can and may no t app l y
in al l c i rcums t ances .

2 . 0 APPL I CAT I ONS

2 .1 Human Spa t i a l Se t t i ngs

Human spat i a l and d i mens i ona l requ i re-

men t s , der i ved f rom l and-use i nt ens i ty and
cu l tura l se t t i ng , may be conceptua l i zed as
" space - t i me env i ronmen t s . " Such env i ron-
men t s are s t ruc tured by enc l os i ng f loor ,
wa l l , and canopy e l ement s , and are mod i -
f i ed by t i me , l ight , c l i ma t e , and i nt ens i ty o f
act i v i ty. F i gure 210-1 i l l ust rates the e l e-
men t s o f spat i a l enc l osure in the ou t door
env i ronmen t as t hey re l ate to human per -
cept i on (Re f er to Sec t i on 340 : Pedes t r i an
C i rcu l a t i on for mor e de t a i l ed cove rage o f
perceptua l f ac tors) .

Ergonom i c Measu r emen t s :

Typ i ca l l y e rgonom i c da t a accoun t s for age ,

sex , and s i ze as i nd i ca t ed by percent i l e
rank i ng . F i gure 210-2 , der i ved f rom da t a
prov i ded by Henry Drey fuss Assoc i a t es ,
i nd i ca t es cr i t i ca l ma l e and f ema l e s t and i ng
pos i t i on d i mens i ons requ i red for the des i gn
o f human env i ronmen t s and ar t i f ac ts .
M i n i mum d i mens i ons deve l oped for arch i -
t ec tura l i nter i or env i ronmen t s requ i re mod -
i f i cat ion when app l i ed to ext er i or space .
Genera l l y , mor e ext er i or space is needed to
F i gur e 210 -3 . Pa t i o d i n i ng r equ i r emen t s . C i rcu l a t i on space shou l d be f ac tored i nto
accommoda t e mos t human act i v i t i es com-
spa t i a l des i gn .
mon l y assoc i a t ed w i th i nter i or app l i ca t i ons ,
such as d i n i ng , wa l k i ng in a ha l l way , and
s i t t i ng in a group , because behav i or and
sca l e percept i on are a l t ered by the con t ex t
o f sky and v i sta . M i n i mum pa t i o or deck
space requ i red for ext er i or d i n i ng may be
40 to 60% grea t er than tha t wh i ch is m i n-
i ma l l y requ i red for i nter i or d i n i ng . As i l lus-
t ra t ed in F i gure 210-3 , a 3 000 x 3 000 mm
(10 x 10 f t ) d i n i ng room when p l aced on a
pa t i o se t t i ng typ i ca l l y requ i res a 3 600 x
3 600 mm o r 3600x4500mm( 12x12
f t or 12 x 15 f t ) ext er i or f l oor area to avo i d N
f ee l i ng " c r amped " by the l esser d i mens i ons
wh i l e in the openness of t he ou t doors . L

Pe r i phe r a l V i s i on : C

F i gure 210-4 i l lust rates t he typ i ca l re l a t i on-

N
sh i p be t ween the human eye l eve l he i ght
and the perce i ved f l oor p l ane . Common l y , RI
the f l oor p l ane is be l ow t he ver t i ca l cone -
of -v i s i on (28° ) for a d i s t ance of 4 t i mes the
ave rage eye l eve l he i gh t of 1 500-1 650
a
F i gur e 210 -4 . Pedes t r i an pe r i phe r a l v i s i on zone. The ver t i ca l cone of v i s i on mm (5 to 5 f t -6 in) . In o ther words , a f l oor
resu l ts in a per i phera l f l oor d i s t ance of 6 000-6 600 mm (20-22 f t ).
r
p l ane d i s t ance of 6 000-6 600 mm (20-22
f t ) is typ i ca l l y w i th i n a pedes t r i an ' s per i ph-
era l v i s i on zone . The ver t i ca l cone -o f -v i s i on N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 na r rows cons i derab l y as ve l oc i ty i ncreases
(Re f er to Sec t i on 342 : Veh i cu l ar C i rcu l a t i on
and Sec t i on 340 : Pedes t r i an C i rcu l a t i on for
add i t i ona l i n forma t i on) .

Int i ma t e Garden Sca l e:

F i gure 210-5 i l lust rates typ i ca l ver t i ca l and
hor i zont a l c l earances f ound in sma l l ga rden
se t t i ngs . A l t hough these d i mens i ons vary
w i de l y due t o loca l prac t i ces and persona l
taste , the t ab l e shows genera l c l earances
requ i red for mob i l i ty , sa fety , and ma i n t e -
nance cons i dera t i ons (Re f er to Sec t i on 240 :
Ou t door Access i b i l i ty for mor e spec i f i c da t a
on un i versa l des i gn cons i dera t i ons) .
F i gures 210-6 t hrough 210-11 i l lust rate
spa t i a l d i mens i ons requ i red for var i ous
common human act i v i t i es .

2 . 2 Veh i cu l a r D i mens i ons and

Spa t i a l Requ i r emen t s

Veh i cu l ar spat i a l and d i mens i ona l requ i re-

men t s va ry by veh i c l e t ype , l and-use se t -
F i gur e 210 -5 . Typ i ca l ver t i ca l and hor i zon t a l ga rden c l ea r ances . Branches and
hang i ng v i nes are usua l l y pruned to a l l ow abou t 2 100 mm (7 f t ) ver t i ca l c l earance and t i ng , and movemen t pa t t ern (Re f er to
abou t 1 500 mm (5 f t ) hor i zont a l c l earance on a 600-900 mm (2-3 f t ) w i de pa t h . Sec t i on 342 : Veh i cu l ar C i rcu l a t i on for i nfor -
ma t i on on road w i d th and r i ght o f way ) .
These spat i a l s t andards re l y mor e heav i l y
on phys i ca l da t a , bu t a l so i nc l ude
a l l owances for cu l tura l se t t i ngs and psycho-
l og i ca l expec t a t i ons . F i gure 210-12 i l lus-
t ra t es the con t ex tua l e l emen t s tha t g i ve
sca l e to the pedes t r i an and veh i cu l ar l and-
scape . Spa t i a l s t andards mus t accommo -
da t e the i nt erm i ng l i ng of bo t h l arge veh i -
c l es and pedes t r i ans . Sa f e se tbacks and
c l earances mus t be prov i ded to prot ec t
pedes t r i ans , p l ant i ngs , s t ruc tures , l i ghts
and other e l emen t s of the des i gned env i -
ronmen t , wh i l e prov i d i ng adequa t e
maneuve r i ng room for var i ous t ypes of
veh i c l es .

F i gur e 210 - 6 . M i n i mum queu i ng d i s t ances .

i
Cu
C
Cu

0 F i gur e 210 - 7 . W i d t h r equ i r emen t s f or se l ec t ed pedes t r i an ac t i v i t i es.

N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
F i gur e 210 - 8 . Pedes t r i an wa l kway
w i d t h and he i gh t r equ i r emen t s .

u7
i
û
C
M
N

IZ

0r
F i gur e 210 - 9 . Sea t ed f i gures . N
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 F i gure 210-11 . Cove r ed s t a i rway and r amp ver t i ca l c l earances .

F i gure 210-10 . Ch i l d ' s d i mens i ona

propor t i ons f or ages 5, 7, and 9 .

CL F i gure 210-12 . E l emen t s of t he pedes t r i an and veh i cu l ar l andscape . Sca l e var i -

N a t i on in this l andscape type is ex t reme . Ta l l commerc i a l bu i l d i ngs , l arge t rees, l arge t rucks
and t rans i t veh i c l es , l ights, and s i gns mus t co-ex i st w i th human sca l ed wa l ks and cor r i dors.

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T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
F i gur e 210 - 13 . Au t o pa r k i ng e l emen t s and t yp i ca l spa t i a l d i mens i ons . Typ i ca l l y p l ant i ngs , l and form, screens , and s t ruc tures
are used to crea t e a mor e hosp i t ab l e t rans i t i on f rom au t o to pedes t r i an pa t h .

Pedes t r i ans move f rom veh i c l es to pa th-

ways w i th i n park i ng lot se t t i ngs . F i gure
210-13 i l lust rates t he typ i ca l des i gn e l e-
men t s and spat i a l s t andards wh i ch may be
emp l oyed in park i ng area des i gn . The da t a
i nd i ca t es m i n i mum to l erances based on
veh i c l e s i ze and mechan i cs , and a l so po i nt s
to r ecommended d i mens i ons and con f i gu-
ra t i ons . Genera l l y , park i ng pavemen t
shou l d be m i n i m i zed , a l l ow i ng s t orm wa t e r
runof f to be i nt er rupt ed by vege t a t i ve
growt h in order to s l ow ve l oc i t i es and a l l ow
c l eans i ng and inf i l t rat ion (Re f er to Sec t i on
330 : S t ormwa t e r Managemen t for mor e
de t a i l ed i n forma t i on) . Dra i nage ob j ec t i ves
may suppor t v i sua l ob j ec t i ves by break i ng
up the mass o f hard sur f ace area t hrough
the use o f l and f orm and p l ant i ng .

Au tomob i l es :
F i gure 210-14 and the accompany i ng char t
i nd i ca t es key d i mens i ona l da t a by veh i c l e
t ype . Rea r ove rhang and bo t t om c l earance N
ang l es are espec i a l l y no t ed because t hey
a f f ec t m i n i mum d i s t ances of st ruc tures and
p l ant i ngs to park i ng lot curbs , and to max -
i mum r amp d i f f erent i a l s respec t i ve l y.
F i gures 210-15 and 210-16 i l lust rate over -
cd
hang and degr ee of s l ope re l a t i onsh i ps . N
Rea r ove rhang is genera l l y l arger than f ront
overhang , and for des i gn purposes , rear
ove rhang prov i des the mor e conserva t i ve cà
d i mens i on to de t e rm i ne m i n i mum se tbacks . d
I t is common prac t i ce to a l l ow for a 1 500
mm (5 f t ) ove rhang. Park i ng lots des i gned
D
F i gur e 210 - 14 . Veh i cu l a r d i mens i ons by t ype . a . Typ i ca l au tomob i l e , b . Sma l l p i ck- to accommoda t e spec i a l veh i c l es such as
r
up t ruck , c. Large van . (Re f er to t ab l es on veh i cu l ar d i mens i ons .) l arger t rucks , recrea t i ona l veh i c l es , and
N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 Veh i cu l a r D i mens i ons

Type Leng th Wi dth He i gh t Rear Ove rhang Ou t e r Rad i us Inner Rad i us

L W H RO R R1

Subcompac t s 3 530 to 4 470 1 5S0 to 1 72S 1 270 to 1 39S 1 140 6 045 3 275
) (191-1011 ) (10 ' -9" )
(11 ' -7" to 14 ' -8" ) (5' -1 " to 5' -8" ) (4' -2" to 4' -7" ) (3' -9

Compac t s 4 215 to 4 670 1 675 to 1 72S 1 320 to 1 420 1 295 6 550 3 610
(13 ' -10" to 15 ' -4" ) (5' -6" to 5' -8" ) (4' -4" to 4' -8" ) (4' -3 ) (21 ' -6" ) (11 ' -10" )

M i ds i ze 4 570 to 5 080 1 700 to 1 830 1 270 to 1 450 1 320 6 830 6 835

(15 ' -0" to 16 ' -8" ) (5' -7" to 6' -0" ) (4' -2" to 4' -9" ) (4' -4" ) (22 ' -5" ) (12 ' -7" )

Large Cars 4 620 to 5 610 1 725 to 2 030 1 39S to 1 520 1 345 7 010 3 835
(15 ' -2" to 18 ' -5" ) (5' -8" to 6' -8" ) (4' -7" to 5' -0" ) (4' -5" ) (23 ' -0" ) (12 ' -7" )

Large P i ck-up 4 820 to 6 150 1 9S5 to 2 060 1 750 to 1 930 1 320 7 620 4 265
) )
(15 ' -10" to 20 ' -2" ) (6' -5" to 6' -9" ) (5' -9" to 6' -4" ) (4' -4" ) (25' -0 (14 ' -0

boa t t ra i l er assemb l i es , shou l d be des i gned to a l l ow for ove rhang c l earances and snow m i n i mum 18 290 mm (60 ' ) curb to curb
accord i ng l y to preven t damage to p l ant i ngs remova l in co l d c l i ma t es . An ove rhang m i n- park i ng modu l e .
or o ther st ruc tura l e l emen t s . i mum of 1 500 mm (5 f t ) shou l d be a l l owed
F i gure 210-25 a i l lust rates a typ i ca l dou-
a t al l back -up spaces to a l l ow for a var i e ty
Inter i or and ext er i or radi i of the des i gn b l e l oaded s i ng l e a i s l e pu l l - through park i ng
of veh i c l e types , i nc l ud i ng occas i ona l ser -
veh i c l e are essent i a l for the des i gn of turn- lot common l y f ound in recrea t i on pu l l -of f
v i ce or de l i very vans .
a round and ar r i va l l oops to i nsure suf f i - park i ng areas . Such lots are a sa f er a l t erna-
c i ent pavemen t w i d t hs and f ront , s ide , and Pa rk i ng D i mens i ons: t i ve to road shou l der park i ng , and a f ford an
rear ove rhang c l earances . F i gure 210-17 oppor tun i t y to screen the park i ng w i th l and
i l l ust rates the l oca t i on of the R1 ( i nter i or ) F i gure 210-24 i l lust rates bas i c park i ng lot f orm and p l ant i ngs . As i nd i ca t ed in the
and the R (exter i or ) turn i ng rad i us and d i mens i ons requ i red of perpend i cu l ar and draw i ng , p l ant s and s i gns mus t be se t -back
re fers to the t ab l e in F i gure 210-14 . The ang l ed park i ng . Ca rs parked perpend i cu l ar 15 000 mm (50 f t) at ent rances and ex i ts to
door sw i ng typ i ca l l y requ i res 1 115 mm (3 to the t rave l a i s l e y i e l ds the mos t e f f i c i ent avo i d obscur i ng dr i ver v i s i on . A 9 000 mm
numbe r of cars per ha (acre) s i nce i t (30 f t ) buf f er be t ween the road and park-
f t -8 in) .
requ i res l ess space . The l east e f f i c i ent park- i ng lot edge is des i rab l e , but shou l d be a t
Pa rk i ng and Maneuve r i ng Pa t t erns : i ng resu l ts f rom 30° ang l e l ayout s , wh i ch l east 4 800 mm (16 f t ) w i de to prov i de
are typ i ca l l y used on l y when the i r is insuf f i - room for screen p l an t i ng or f enc i ng .
F i gures 210-18 t hrough 210-23 i nd i ca t e c i ent l atera l d i mens i on for o t he r op t i ons.
d i mens i ona l requ i remen t s of common Park i ng lot l ength shou l d be de t e rm i ned by
The accompany i ng t ab l e i nd i ca t es t he sta l l wi dth p l us hand i cap pa rk i ng
park i ng and serv i ce access maneuve rs for a d i mens i ona l re l a t i onsh i p be t ween sta l l a l l owances . Add i t i ona l park i ng may be
range o f veh i c l e t ypes and s i zes . Each s i te w i d t h and back -up a i s l e w i d t h . As the sta l l added to ou t er edges as shown , but wi l l
requ i res care fu l ana l ys i s to des i gn the mos t w i d t h nar rows , the a i s l e w i d t h mus t w i den
appropr i a t e pa t t ern for a par t i cu l ar c i rcum- resu l t in f ewe r p l ant i ng opt i ons . F i gures
to compensa t e . Typ i ca l sta l l d i mens i ons for 210-25 b, and c i l lust rate o ther var i a t i ons
s t ance . These examp l es are mean t to serve s t andard 90° park i ng are 2 740 x 5 485 mm
as po i nt s of depar ture for des i gn . The f ig- of s i ng l e a i s l e park i ng , bu t examp l e " c " is
(9 x 18 f t ) and are common l y used in a the l east des i rab l e due to poor c i rcu l a t i on
ures a l so i nd i ca t e cr i t i ca l se tbacks requ i red

C
4.0

ct i

F i gur e 210 - 15 . Recommended ove rhang c l ea r ance f or veh i cu l a r pa r k i ng l ot s . A gene rous s t anda rd o f 1 500 mm (5 f t ) w i l l
accommoda t e back - i n maneuve rs and wi l l prot ec t t rees , and s t ruc tures . Co l d c l i ma t es may requ i re mor e space to accommoda t e snow
remova l .

N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
F i gure 210-16 . Common s l ope and veh i cu l ar r amp c l ea rance da t a .

F i gure 210-17 . Int er i or (R1) and

Ext er i or (R) turn i ng rad i us l oca t i on ,
w i t h t yp i ca l door sw i ng va l ues (Re fer
to tab l e i n F i gure 210-14) .

N
i

C
RS
N

ct i

F i gure 210-18 . D i mens i ons and turn i ng rad i i for ar r i va l and drop-o f f fac i l i ty
0!M
N
T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 F i gure 210-19 . Cu l -de -sac d i mens i ons and f orms .

N
L

cd
F i gure 210-20 . Turna round a t ga rage w i th para l l e l approach to door and adequa t e space t o maneuve r .
Q

r
N
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
F i gure 210-21 . Turna round a t ga rage door requ i r i ng mu l t i p l e maneuve r s due t o i nadequa t e space .

i
c~t
'G
C
cd
N

' i gure 210-22 . St ra i ght - i n ga rage en t rance w i t h m i n i mum rad i us back -ou t apron. 0r
N
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 F i gure 210-23 . St ra i ght - i n ga rage en t rance w i th l arge rad i us back -ou t apron
t o se rve as gues t pa rk i ng space .

N
L
«S
'C
C

CL

r F i gure 210-24. Pa rk i ng l ot d i mens i ons for va r i ous sta l l w i d t hs and ang l es . (Adapt a t i on cour t esy of Vo l l mer Assoc i a tes).
N
T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 210-13
Tab l e 210 - 1 . AREA SPACE STANDARDS AND PARK I NG RAT I OS FOR Tab l e 210 - 1a . PARK I NG RAT I OS FOR
OUTDOOR SPORTS FAC I L I T I ES
OUTDOOR SPORT FAC I L I T I ES

Spor t Sugges t ed M i n i mum

AREA SPACE STANDARDS (based upon popu l a t i on) pa r k i ng f or no rma l use
Spor t Fac i l i t i es pe r 1 , 000 popu l a t i on No t es
1 / target
Archery
Mu l t i cour t M i n i mum 1 + 1/2 , 000- l i ght 25-50% 1 .5 mi l e max i mum rad ius
Badm i n t on 2/ cour t
Handba l l M i n i mum 1 + 1 / 5 , 000-10 000
Baseba l l 15+ / d i amond-p l ayer
1 / 10 000
Baseba l l 20 / d i amond-spec t a tor
Vo l l eyba l l 1 / 2 , 000 to 1 / 3-4 , 000 commun i t i es 10 000+

M i n i mum 1-2 + 1/2 , 000- l i ght 25% commun i t i es over 500 Bow l i ng , l awn 2 / green l ane
Shuf f l eboard
Croque t 2/ cour t
Baske tba l l 1 goa l / 500 commun i t i es unde r 3 , 000
" 1 goa l / I , 000 + one ful l cour t commun i t i es over 3 , 000 Go l f 8 / green
1 acre / 5 , 000 persons
Go l f 1 /prac t i ce t ee
Croque t 1/2 , 000- l i ght 25%
Footba l l , touch 10/ f i e l d
Horsehoe M i n i mum 2 + 1/2 , 000- l i ght 25-50 I commun i t y over 500
Horseshoes 1 / cour t
Sof tba l l M i n i mum 1 + 1/3 , 000- l i ght 50% commun i t y over 1 , 000
Trap shoot i ng 2 / range
Li t t l e l eague 1 / 10 000
M i n i mum 1 + 1/4 , 000- l i ght 25% Shuf f l eboard 2 / cour t

Baseba l l 1 / 3 , 000 Sof tba l l 15 / d i amond

M i n i mum 1 + 1/6 , 000- l i ght 50% commun i t y over 1500
1 / 30 000 Tenn i s , deck 2 / cour t
1 / 6 , 000 commun i t y 1 mi l e max i mum rad ius
Tenn i s , l awn 2 / cour t
Footba l l soccer M i n i mum 1 + 1 / 5-15 , 000 6 / cour t
Vo l l eyba l l
" M i n i mum 1 + 1 / 8 , 000 for footba l l
2 acres / 1000
1 / 80 , 000

Tenn i s M i n i mum 1 + 1/2 , 000- l i ght 50-76% commun i t y 0 .67 mi l es rad i us

1 / 1 , 0000
112 , 000
1500 S. F. /p l ayer
1 acre /5 , 000

Ath l et i c f i e ld Approx i ma t e 20 acres

1/5 , 0000- l i ght ed 1-2 mi l es or 20 m i nut es
accommoda t e 200 peop l e / acre

c
N

CL

N
T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 F i gure 210-25 a. Doub l e l oaded s i ng l e a i s l e pu l l - through pa rk i ng l ot .

F i gure 210-25 b. S i ng l e l oaded a i s l e pu l l - through pa rk i ng lot w i t h sma l l p l an t

bu f f er .

N
i
cd
C
cd
N

a
IA
F i gure 210-25 c. Doub l e l oaded s i ng l e a i s l e dead- end pa rk i ng lot . No t rec-
ommended for h i gh t urnove r l ots . Use on l y i n ut i l i tar i an app l i ca t i ons .

N
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 when ful l and shou l d be used on l y for ut i l -
i tar i an park i ng . St ree t en t rance rad i us is Tab l e 210 -2 . AREA REQU I REMENTS FOR PLAYGROUNDS
typ i ca l l y 4 500-6 000 mm (15-20 f t ) . Sma l l AND SPORTS AREAS
curb rad i us a t park i ng sta l l s is typ i ca l l y
1 000-1 500 mm (3-5 f t ) . Type of equ i pmen t Ar ea pe r un i t Capac i t y in Sugges t ed numbe r
or a rea m2 ( f2) numbe r s of t o be i nc l uded
F i gures 210-26 a , b, c, d, and e , i l lust rate users
var i ous adap t a t i ons o f 90° park i ng pa t t erns
and show the advan t ages of add i ng p l ant i - Appara tu s
ngs , drop-o f f zones , and screen i ng . F i gure Sl ide 42050)
210-26 a . y i e l ds a park i ng ra te of 62 Hor i zonta l bars 17080) 4 3**
cars / ha (152 cars / ac) bu t resu l ts in a bar ren
Hor i zonta l l adders 35 (375) 8 2**
unwe l com i ng env i ronmen t l ack i ng in
pedes t r i an amen i t i es . F i gure 210-26 b . Trave l ing r ings 58(625) 6 1
adds p l ant i ng i s l ands a t park i ng row ends , G i ant st r ide 114 (1,225) 6 1
prov i d i ng grea t er turn i ng c l earances and
p l ant i ng oppor tun i t i es . F i gure 210-26 c . Sma l l j ung l egym 17(180) 10 1

y i e l ds 45 cars / ha (112 cars / ac) and is com- Low sw i ng 14050) 1 4*

mon l y used as a me t hod for organ i z i ng H i gh sw i ng 23(250) 1 6*
dra i nage , pedes t r i an c i rcu l a t i on , l i ght i ng,
and p l ant i ng in l arge lots . P l ant i ng i s l ands Ba l ance beam 9000) 4 1

shou l d be as w i de as poss i b l e (6 000-9 000 See-saw 9000) 2 4

mm (20-30 f t )] to a l l ow for max i mum t ree Med i um j ung l egym 46(500) 20 1
root space and for w i n t er snow c l ear i ng
whe r e requ i red . F i gure 210-26 d . is of t en M i sce l l aneous equ i pmen t and areas
used in i nforma l se t t i ngs to capture ex i s t i ng
Open space for games
p l ants or ear th f ea tures such as rock out - (ages 6-10) 929 (10 , 000) 80 1*
crops or l and forms , and a l so to emphas i ze
sma l l er park i ng un i ts (The i nse t shows an Wad i ng poo l 279 (3,000) 40 1*

a l t erna t i ve conf i gura t i on) . F i gure 210-26 e . Handcraf t , qui et games 149 (1,600) 30 1*
y i e l ds 59 cars / ha (145 cars / ac) , has a h i gh Outdoor theater 186 (2,000) 30 1
pot ent i a l for " captur i ng " ex i st i ng t rees in
Sand box 28(300) 15 2
r andom pa t t erns t hroughou t a l arge park-
i ng lot , and may fac i l i tate snow c l ear i ng by She l ter house 232 (2 , 500) 30 1 t

a l l ow i ng mor e l atera l p l ow i ng movemen t s

than l i near curb i ng sys t ems . Spec i a l sp or ts areas
Soccer f ield 3344 (36 , 000) 22 1
Trucks and Transpor t.
P l ayground baseba l l 1858 (20 , 000) 20 2
Si te des i gn requ i r i ng access and l oad i ng o f
Vol l eyba l l cour t 260 (2 , 800) 20 1
f re i ght and mass t rans i t veh i c l es mus t pro-
v i de sa f e and e f f i c i ent opera t i ng space , Basketba l l cour t 348 (3 , 750) 16 1
us i ng t he l east amoun t of pav i ng sur f ace Jump i ng pi ts 111 (1 , 200) 12 1
a l l owab l e t o d i m i n i sh runo f f vo l umes .
Padd l e tenni s cour ts 167 (1,800) 4 2=
Accura t e da t a regard i ng veh i c l e s i zes , turn-
i ng radi i , and maneuve r i ng pa t t erns is Handba l l cour ts 98 (1,050) 4 2
essent i a l to accomp l i sh these t wo ob j ec - Tether tenni s cour ts 37(400) 2 2'
t i ves .
Horseshoe cour ts 56(600) 4 2
F i gures 210-27 t hrough 29 i l lust rate Tenn i s cour ts 669 (7,200) 4 2$
d i mens i ona l requ i remen t s for open and
St ra i ghtaway t rack 669 (7 , 200) 10 i t (A
c l osed f re i ght l oad i ng docks w i th emphas i s
on veh i c l e s i zes and turn i ng rad i i . Landscap i ng 557 (6 , 000) i
Max i mum he i ght s , w i dths , and l engths Paths, c i rculat ion, etc . 650 (7 , 000)
va ry by l oca l and s t a t e author i t y. C
' M i n i mum des i rab l e .
Conven t i ona l semi t ra i l ers ave rage 16 760
' ` One or al l of these un i ts may be om i t t ed i f p l ayground is not used in con j unc t i on w i th a schoo l .
mm (55 f t ) in l ength , 4 115 mm (13 f t 6 in)
in he i ght , and 2 435 mm (8 f t ) in w i d th . t May be omi t t ed i t san i tary faci l i t ies are supp l i ed e l sewhere .

Max i mum he i ght is 4 420 mm (14 f t 6 in) . t may be om i t t ed if space i f l imi ted .

Th i s da t a is i mpor t an t for the des i gn of Source.: F rom Arch i tec tura l Sys t ems Commun i t y P l ann i ng.
br i dge and serv i ce access r amp c l earances .
N
The ave rage l oad i ng f l oor he i gh t a t the
l oad i ng dock is 1 270 mm (4 f t 2 in) .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 F i gure 210-26 a . Doub l e l oaded mu l t i p l e a i s l e pa rk i ng. F i gure 210-26 b . Var i a t i on of (a . ) add i ng drop-o f f and
Us i ng a l l pe r i me t e rs for park i ng , th i s scheme y i e l ds t he end p l ant i ng i s l ands .
h i ghes t numbe r o f sta l l s pe r ha (ac) , bu t resu l t s i n a ha rsh
env i ronmen t .

i
C
tu

ct f

cd
11
N
F i gure 210-26 c. Sepa ra t i on o f pa rk i ng bays by p l ant i ng F i gure 210-26 d . Skewed bays a l l ows ex i s t i ng p l ant s t o
st r i ps . P l an t i ng s t r i p w i d t hs mus t a l l ow f or roo t grow t h and snow be cap t ured t hrough prope r grad i ng and adds t o reduc -
t i on of con t i guous pavemen t expanses .
r i n co l d zones .

N
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
F i gure 210-26 e. Random p l ant i ng beds a l l ow for broade r a reas of p l ant i ng med i um for t rees and grea t er snow
c l ear i ng f r eedom i n co l d zones .

i
cd
C
«f
N

cd
F i gure 210-27 . C l osed and open f re i ght l oad i ng dock d i mens i ons . 0-
(A

0r
N
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 F i gure 210-28 . Space requ i remen t s and d i mens i ons of t rac tor t ra i l ers and se l ec t ed l arge veh i c l es .

'D
i

C
Cu

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N

0
N
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 'C
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F i gure 210-29 . Turn i ng rad i i for buses and sem i t ra i l ers .
N
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 F i gure 210-30 . Ma i n t enance and
spec i a l i zed veh i c l e d i mens i ons .

V1
L

:Z

N
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
F i gur e 210 -31 . Range o f sa i l boa t t ypes t yp i ca l l y encoun t e r ed i n coas t a l and l a rge l ake reg i ons .

F i gure 210-30 i l lust rates var i ous ma i n t e - need to be i ncreased by 25 to 50% to

nance and o ther spec i a l i zed veh i c l e s i zes re f l ect loca l cond i t i ons . Such s t andards are
and spa t i a l requ i remen t s . Th i s da t a is sub j ec t to grea t reg i ona l var i a t i on .
i mpor t an t to ant i c i pa t e space needs o f
ma i n t enance and s i te cons t ruc t i on opera - REFERENCES
t i ons .
Lynch , Kev i n and Ga ry Hack. S i te P l ann i ng ,
Boa t s and Docks :
3rd . ed ., M I T Press , Cambr i dge , MA , 1984 .
Ma r i na deve l opmen t and dock fac i l i t i es Panero , Ju l i us and Ma r t i n Ze In i k , Human
may accommoda t e boa t s f rom 4 265 mm D i mens i ons and Inter i or Space . Wh i t ney
(14 f t) to 24 380 mm (80 f t ) . F i gure 210-31 L i br a ry o f Des i gn , New York , 1979 .
i l lust rates the range of sa i l boa t t ypes typ i -
ca l l y encoun t e red in coast a l and l arge l ake Ramsey / S l eepe r , John Ray Hoke , Jr. (ed. ) .
Arch i t ec tura l Graph i c St andards , 8th ed . ,
se t t i ngs . F i gure 210-32 i l lust rates the com-
W i l ey , New York , 1994.
ponen t s and d i mens i ons of s l ips and ca t -
wa l ks as i nd i ca t ed by the da t a t ab l e . F i gure
210-33 i l lust rates a typ i ca l boa t l aunch i ng
r amp and i nd i ca t es bas i c des i gn cr i ter i a .

3 . 0 COMMUN I TY PLANN I NG
DATA

The area s t andards shown in Tab l es 210-1

t hrough 210-4 are der i ved f rom se l ec t ed
ex i s t i ng commun i t i es in Nor t h Ame r i ca .
They prov i d i de " genera l s t andards " wh i ch
may serve as a bas i s of compa r i son for
p l ann i ng purposes . For very ac t i ve commu -
n i t i es and user groups , these s t andards may

N
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T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 F i gure 210-32 . Boa t s l i ps and ca t -
wa l k d i mens i ons . (Re f er to tab l e) .

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T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
Tab l e 210 -3 . LAND AREA REQU I REMENTS FOR COMMUN I TY FAC I L I T I ES

Ne i ghborhood Popu l a t i on
Type of 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
deve l opment persons persons persons persons persons
275 550 825 1100 1375
fami l i es fami l i es fami l i es fami l i es fami l i es

One or Tao- f am i l y Deve l opmen t s

Area i n com ponent use s
Acres in schoo l si te 1 .20 1 .20 1 .50 1 .80 2 .20
Acres in p l ayground 2 .75 3 .25 4 .00 5 .00 6 .00
Acres in park 1 .50 2 .00 2 .50 3 .00 3 .50
Acres in shopp i ng center 0 .80 1 .20 2 .20 2 .60 3 .00
Acres in genera l
commun i t y faci l i t ies` 0 .38 0 .76 1 .20 1 .50 1 .90

Aggrega t e area
Acres : total 6 .63 8 .41 11 .40 13 .90 16.60
Acres per 1000 persons 6 .63 4 .20 3 .80 3 .47 3 .32
Square feet per fami l y 1050 670 600 550 530

Mu l t i f am i l y Deve l opmen t '

Area in componen t uses

Acres in school si te 1 .20 1 .20 1 .50 1 .80 2 .20
Acres in p l ayground 2 .75 3 .25 4 .00 5 .00 6 .00
Acres in park 2 .00 3 .00 4 .00 5 .00 6 .00
Acres in shopp i ng center 0 .80 1 .20 2 .20 2 .60 3 .00
Acres in genera l
commun i t y faci l i t ies' 0.38 0 .76 1 .20 1 .50 1 .90

Aggre ga t e area
Acres : total 7 .13 9 .41 12 .90 15 .90 19 .10
Acres per 1000 persons 7.13 4 .70 4 .30 3 .97 3 .82
Square feet per fami l y 1130 745 680 630 610
Note : This table combines the recommended or assumed values.
W i th pr ivate lot area of less than 00 acre per fami ly ( for pr ivate lots of acre or more park area may be omi t ted) .
®Al lowance for indoor social and cul tural faci l i t ies (church, assembl y hal l , etc.) or separate heal th center , nursery school , etc .
'Or other deve lopment predominant ly wi thout pr ivate yards .
Source: Adapted f rom Arch i t ec t ura l Systems Commun i ty P l ann i ng

i. .

C
Cu

cd
cd
CL

F i gur e 210 - 33 . Boa t l aunch i ng r amp des i gn cr i t er i a .

PV

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 Tab l e 210 - 4 . PARK I NG SPACES REQU I RED FOR VAR I OUS LAND USES

Use o f s i t e and / o r bu i l d i ng M i n i mum numbe r o f pa r k i ng spaces r equ i r ed

Res i den t i a l

S i ng l e f am i l y homes 2 . 0 / dwe l l i ng un i t

Mu l t i f am i l y :

Ef f i c i ency 1 . 0 / dwe l l i ng un i t

One and t wo bedrooms 1 . 5 / dwe l l i ng un i t

Thr ee and mo r e apa r t men t s 2 . 0 / dwe l l i ng un i t

Dorm i tor i es , soror i t i es , f ra t ern i t i es 0 . 5/un i t s

Ho t e l s and mo t e l s 1 . 0 / dwe l l i ng un i t

Comme r c i a l

O f f i ces and banks 3 . 0 / 1000 s . f . GFA

Bus i ness and pro f ess i ona l serv i ces 3 . 3 / 1000 s . f . GFA

Comme r c i a l recrea t i ona l fac i l i t i es 8 . 0 / 1000 s . f . GFA

Bow l i ng a l l eys 4 . 0/ a l l ey

Reg i ona l shopp i ng cen t ers 4 . 5 / 1000 s . f . GFA

Commun i t y shopp i ng cen t e rs 5 . 0 / 1000 s . f . GFA

Ne i ghborhood cen t ers 6 . 0 / 1000 s. f . GFH

Res t auran t s 0 . 3 / sea t

Educa t i ona l

E l emen t a ry and j un i or h i gh schoo l s 1 . 0 / t eache r and sta f f

H i gh schoo l s and co l l eges 1 . 0 / 2-5 s t uden t s

Med i ca l

Med i ca l and den t a l of f i ces 1 . 0 / 200 s . f . GFA

Hosp i t a l s 1 . 0 / 2-3 bed

Conva l escen t & nurs i ng homes 1 . 0 / 3 bed

Pub l i c Bu i ld i ng

Aud i t or i ums , thea t ers , s t ad i ums 1 . 0 / 4 sea t s

Museums and l i brar i es 1 . 0 / 300 s . f . GFA

Pub l i c ut i l i t i es and of f i ces 1 . 0 / t wo emp l oyees

Rec r ea t i on

Beaches 1 . 0 / 100 s . f .

Sw i mm i ng poo l s 1 . 0 / 30 s. f .

Ath l e t i c f i e l ds and cour t s 1 . 0 / 3000 s . f .

i 1 . 0/ acre
Go l f courses

G I ndus t r i a l

Indus t r i a l manu f ac t ur i ng 1 . 0 / 2-5 emp l oyees

N

Chu r ches

Chur ches 1 . 0 / 4 sea t s

' The da t a was der i ved f rom ex i st ing cond i t i ons in Nor th Amer i ca. Spec i a l cond i t i ons i nc l ud i ng l oca l codes and requ i rement s
may be qu i te d i f ferent and shou l d be used whe re appropr i a t e . Study of comparab l e types of l and uses nearby or in other
s imi l ar s i tuat ions is r ecommended. Access to and f rom the s i te /bu i ld ing v i a pub l i c t ranspor t a t i on wi l l a f fect s igni f i cant l y the
numbe r of park i ng spaces needed for mos t t ypes of uses.

T i me - Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Ar ch i t ec t ur e

 Ene rgy and
Resour ce Conse rva t i on

CRED I TS

Con t r i bu t or:
N i cho l as T. D i nes , FASLA
Techn i ca l Wr i t e r :
Ky l e D. Brown
Rev i ewe r :
John Fur l ong
Coord i na t or
Landscape Des i gn Progr am
Radc l i f f e Co l l ege
Cambr i dge , MA

CONTENTS tu
1 .0 Int roduc t i on Tempe r a t e and Co l d Reg i ons
2 .0 S i t e Ana l ys i s and Assessmen t 4. 2 Human Comf or t Fac tors
3 .0 S i t e Deve l opmen t and Layou t 4. 3 So l ar Pa th , Rece i p t and Shadows C
3.1 Inf ras t ruc ture
Transpor t a t i on
Tree Shadows
Bu i l d i ng Spac i ng V
Ut i l i t i es 4 . 4 W i nd Managemen t
3. 2 Bu i l d i ng and S i t e Requ i r emen t s She l t erbe l t Des i gn U
L
Land Fea tures St ruc tura l Or i ent a t i on to t he W i nd
Bu i l d i ng Or i en t a t i on 4 . 5 Ear th She l t er St ra t eg i es
Si te I mprovemen t s Re f e rences N
Cons t ruc t i on Me t hods and Ma t er i a l s
4 .0 B i oc l i ma t e Fundamen t a l s
4.1 B i ochma t i c St ra t eg i es
Ho t Ar i d Reg i ons
Ho t Hum i d Reg i ons
L
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N
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r i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
F i gur e 220 -23 . Gene r a l s t eady s t a t e ea r t h t empe r a t ur es f or t he Un i t ed
St a t es ( Fahr enhe i t ) .

may be used to es t i ma t e hea t i ng and coo l -

i ng l oads for pre l i m i nary p l ann i ng and
des i gn .

REFERENCES

Brown , G . Z . Sun , W i nd , and L i ght :

Arch i t ec tura l Des i gn St rateg i es , W i l ey , New
York , 1985 .
G i von i , B. Man. C l i ma t e and Arch i t ec ture ,
Van Nos t r and Rhe i nho l d , New York , 1981 .

Ly l e , John . Regenera t i ve Des i gn for

Sus t a i nab l e Deve l opmen t , W i l ey , New York ,
1994.
Maz r i a , Edwa rd. The Pass i ve So l ar Energy ui
Book , Roda l e Press , Emmaus , PA, 1979. 3
O
McPhe r son , Greg. Si te P l ann i ng for Energy N
Conserva t i on , 1985 . 9)
Ramsey / S l eepe r , John Ray Hoke ( ed . )
Arch i t ec tura l Graph i c St andards , 8th ed. C
W i l ey , New York , 1994 . O
Wa t son , Dona l d , and Kenne t h Labs . C l i ma t i c
Des i gn , McGr aw-H i l l , New York , 1983 .
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a)
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T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 1 . 0 I NTRODUCT I ON

T
h i s sec t i on focuses on s i t e-p l ann i ng
st ra t eg i es and t echn i ques for ene rgy
and resource conse rva t i on w i th
regard to bo t h s i te and bu i l d i ng des i gn to
ach i eve grea t er human comf or t and opera -
t i ona l e f f i c i enc i es . Sound s i te p l ann i ng and
des i gn is prescr i pt i ve and st ra t eg i c . I t char t s
appropr i a t e pa t t erns of use for a s i te wh i l e
i ncorpora t i ng cons t ruc t i on me t hods tha t
m i n i m i ze s i te d i srupt i on and t he expend i -
ture of f i nanc i a l and bu i l d i ng resources .

2 . 0 S I TE ANALYS I S AND
ASSESSMENT

The process of ca l cu l a t i ng the degree of

resource use and the degree of d i s turbance
of ex i s t i ng na tura l sys t ems requ i red to sup- F i gur e 220-1 . D i s t r i bu t i on o f gene r a l c l i ma t e zones ac ross t he Un i t ed St a t es.
por t a deve l opmen t beg i ns w i th s i te se l ec-
t i on . The mos t env i ronmen t a l l y sound
deve l opmen t is one tha t d i s turbs as l i t t le of max i mum use of pass i ve so l ar resources for d i c t a t ed by the soi l 's pot ent i a l for eros i on .
the ex i s t i ng s i te as poss i b l e . Bu i l d i ng pro- hea t i ng , day l i ght i ng , and photovo l t a i cs . These f ac tors i nf l uence the overa l l ene rgy
j ec ts a l so requ i re connec t i ons to mass t ran- and resource consump t i on for des i gn and
si t , veh i cu l ar i nf rast ruc ture , and ut i l i ty and W i nd Pa t t erns : A i r -movemen t , bo t h
cons t ruc t i on .
annua l and d i urna l , par t i cu l ar l y i nf l uence
t e l ecommun i ca t i on ne t works . Sound s i te
s i t i ng of mu l t i p l e s t ruc tures , t o avo i d Groundwa t e r and sur f ace runof f charac -
p l ann i ng and des i gn shou l d cons i der s i t i ng
a bu i l d i ng to t ake advan t age o f ex i s t i ng damm i ng o f co l d mo i s ture - l aden ai r , or ter i st i cs : S i te dra i nage de t e rm i nes bu i l d i ng
b l ock i ng f avorab l e coo l i ng breezes dur i ng l oca t i ons as we l l as na tura l channe l s for
serv i ce ne t works .
per i ods of overhea t i ng . Proper l y measur ed d i ver t i ng s t orm runof f and l oca t i ons of
The use , sca l e , and st ruc tura l sys t ems of w i nd l oads and pressure d i f ferent i a l s are runof f de t ent i on ponds . Use o f the ex i st i ng
a bu i l d i ng a f f ec t i ts par t i cu l ar s i te requ i re- essent i a l for des i gn i ng i nter i or a i r -hand l i ng dra i nage sys t em m i n i m i zes need for add i -
men t s and assoc i a t ed env i ronmen t a l sys t ems or use o f pass i ve so l ar coo l i ng t i ona l i nf rast ruc ture .
i mpac t s . Bu i l d i ng charac ter i st i cs , or i ent a- st ra t eg i es .
t ion, and p l acemen t shou l d be cons i dered Vege t a t i on : Ex i st i ng vege t a t i on shou l d
in re l a t i on t o t he s i te so tha t prope r Topogr aphy : Si te t opogr aphy and ad j a- be i nventor i ed to i dent i f y s i gn i f i cant p l ant
dra i nage sys t ems , c i rcu l a t i on pa t t erns , cent l and f orms i nf l uence bu i l d i ng propor - commun i t i es . Th i s may i nf l uence bu i l d i ng
t i ons , w i nd pa t t erns , dra i nage st ra teg i es , l oca t i on , sur f ace runof f charac ter i st i cs , and
l andscape des i gn , and o ther s i t e-deve l op-
and key grav i t y- f ed sewer - l i ne cor r i dors . so l ar access to the s i te .
men t f ea tures can be de t e rm i ned .
C
O So i l Charac t er i s t i cs : So i l t ex ture and Ad j acen t l and uses : Ne i ghbor i ng deve l -
S i te da t a on c l i ma t e , topography , soi ls,
wa t er , vege t a t i on , and o ther f ac tors shou l d l oad-bear i ng capac i t y de t e rm i ne bu i l d i ng opmen t s and proposed future deve l op-
l oca t i on and the t ype of foot i ng requ i red men t s may i nf l uence s i te des i gn or pro-
be co l l ec t ed and ana l yzed to assess a s i te 's
for stab i l i ty. S i t e -grad i ng processes are a l so posed uses . Ne i ghbor i ng uses shou l d pro-
O compa t i b i l i t y w i th the proposed progr am
f rom an ene rgy and resource conserva t i on
C
perspec t i ve . In add i t i on to t rad i t i ona l s i te
V
O
p l ann i ng i nforma t i on , the fo l l ow i ng da t a is
typ i ca l l y co l l ec t ed and ana l yzed for the s i te :
U The process of ca l cu l a t i ng the degree of resource use and the degree of d i s turbance of
L Spec i f i c charac t er i st i cs of c l i ma t e zones : ex i st i ng natura l sys t ems requ i red to suppor t a deve l opmen t beg i ns w i th s i te se l ec t i on .
3 D i f f erent c l i ma t es have spec i f i c t empe ra -
O ture and prec i p i t a t i on charac ter i st i cs tha t
N 1 . The mos t env i ronment a l l y sound deve l opmen t is one tha t d i sturbs as l i t t le of the
sugges t par t i cu l ar s i t ing and bu i l d i ng prac- ex i st i ng s i te as poss i b l e . Adapt i ve re-use of ex i st i ng bu i l d i ngs , or redeve l opmen t of
t i ces . F i gure 220-1 shows the U .S . d i v i ded d i s turbed s i tes requ i res m i n i ma l d i srupt i on of natura l sys t ems and shou l d be encour -
i nto four genera l c l i ma t e zones (ho t -hum i d , aged .
hot -ar i d , t empera t e , and co l d) . P l ant har -
d i ness maps prov i de a mor e re f i ned 2 . The bes t way to m i n i m i ze t ranspor t a t i on needs for a proposed deve l opmen t is to a)
i descr i pt i on of m i croc l i ma t es w i th genera l se l ect a si te wh i ch is l oca t ed w i th i n or ad j acent to res ident i a l , shopp i ng , and / or wor k
N
C reg i ons ( re fer to sec t i on 550 : P l ant s and oppor tun i t i es ; or b) prov i de a m i x of uses on-s i te to mee t the needs of res i dents
W P l ant i ng) . and / or emp l oyees .

Geograph i ca l l a t i tude (so l ar a l t i tude) 3 . Si tes l oca t ed w i th i n or ad j acent to ex i st i ng deve l opmen t a l l ow for the mos t ef f i c i ent
N and so l ar access : Exposure to so l ar rad i a- and cost e f fect i ve ext ens i on of ut i l i t ies .
N t i on de t e rm i nes or i ent a t i on of bu i l d i ngs for

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

v i de suppor t serv i ces tha t comp l i men t the bu i l d i ng use . Measur e cut -and- f i l l st ruc ture and access in commerc i a l and res i -
proposed deve l opmen t in order to m i n i - pot ent i a l and assess pot ent i a l for ero- dent i a l des i gn .
m i ze t ranspor t a t i on needs of res i dent s s i on , s i l tat ion, and groundwa t e r po l -
Conso l i da t e serv i ce , pedes t r i an , and
and / or emp l oyees . l ut i on ( re fer to Sec t i on 320: Si te
au t omob i l e c i rcu l a t i on : To m i n i m i ze pave -
Grad i ng and Sec t i on 330 S t ormwa t e r
C i rcu l a t i on : Ex i st i ng t raf f i c and park i ng men t costs , i mprove e f f i c i ency , and cent ra l -
Managemen t for fur ther i n forma -
pa t t erns in areas wh i ch are ad j acent to or t i on) . i ze runof f , the pa t t ern of roads , wa l kways ,
nea r the s i te may need cons i dera t i on in and park i ng shou l d be compac t . Th i s not
re l a t i on to proposed bu i l d i ng des i gn and 4 . Rev i ew f i nanc i a l i mp l i ca t i ons of s i te on l y is a l ess expens i ve way to bu i l d, it a l so
s i te c i rcu l a t i on pa t t erns , in order to mi n i - deve l opmen t , bu i l d i ng , and pro j ec t ed he l ps to reduce t he amoun t of i mperv i ous
m i ze t ranspor t a t i on i nf rast ruc ture . ma i n t enance costs . Tot a l cos t of the sur f ace .
pro j ec t mus t i nc l ude ongo i ng costs
Ut i l i ty Inf ras t ruc ture : Pot ent i a l s i tes Ut i l i t i es:
assoc i a t ed w i th the s i te des i gn , deve l -
shou l d be ana l yzed for ex i st i ng ut i l i ty inf ra-
opmen t , and opera t i ons , as we l l as Si tes l oca t ed w i th i n or ad j acent to ex i st i ng
s t ruc ture and capac i t y . The re may be i nsuf -
h i dden ene rgy cos t s assoc i a t ed w i th deve l opmen t a l l ow for the mos t e f f i c i ent and
f i c i ent ex i st i ng i nf rast ruc ture for the pro- spec i f i c ma t er i a l s .
posed pro j ec t . The cos t for requ i red add i - cos t e f f ec t i ve ex t ens i on of ut i l i t ies . The fo l -
t i ona l capac i t y and assoc i a t ed d i srupt i on to 5 . Deve l op ma t r i x of use and s i te com- l ow i ng energy and resource -conserv i ng prac-
the sur round i ng area cou l d make the pro- pat i b i l i ty i ndex . Each s i te may be t i ces shou l d a l so be cons i dered :
j ec t unf eas i b l e . assessed to revea l i ts deve l opmen t M i n i m i ze road l ength , bu i l d i ng foot -
compa t i b i l i t y i ndex w i t h regard to a pr i nt , and the ac tua l ground area requ i red
3 . 0 S I TE DEVELOPMENT AND spec i f i c t ype of deve l opmen t . Th i s for i n t ended i mprovemen t s : Such p l ann i ng
LAYOUT i ndex may revea l a pa t t ern of i ncom- decreases t he l ength of ut i l i ty connec t i ons .
pat ib i l i t i es , sugges t i ng a d i f f erent s i te Consu l t loca l codes regard i ng separa t i on
Af t er a t horough ana l ys i s and assessmen t , be chosen or appropr i a t e m i t i ga t i on requ i remen t s for wa t er , sewer , e l ect r i ca l ,
i dea l d i agramma t i c concep t s are prepared measures be unde r t aken . and gas l ines .
w i t h the ob j ec t i ve of organ i z i ng al l pro- S i te deve l opmen t mus t cons i der the Use grav i t y sewe r sys t ems whe r eve r
posed bu i l t e l emen t s to ach i eve an e f f ec t i ve requ i rement s of i nf rast ruc ture , the proposed poss i b l e : Avo i d pumped sewe r sys t ems
f i t be t ween t he s i te and the proposed bu i l d i ng , and the s i te . St ra t eg i es for each can tha t requ i re ongo i ng powe r consump t i on .
deve l opmen t . The ma i n goa l of the con- i nform s i te deve l opmen t and l ayout .
cep t s shou l d be to m i n i m i ze ene rgy and Reuse chem i ca l -was t e t anks and l i nes :
resource consump t i on dur i ng cons t ruc t i on 3 .1 I n f ras t ruc t ure Ex i st i ng chem i ca l -was t e t anks and l ines
and a f t er occupa t i on . I t shou l d be no t ed shou l d be i nspec t ed , prot ec t ed , and reused
tha t dur i ng rec l ama t i on o f d i s turbed s i tes, Transpor t a t i on: to avo i d crea t i on of add i t i ona l hazardous-
ini t ia l expend i tures may be h i gher t han ma t er i a l s prob l ems .
The bes t way to m i n i m i ze t ranspor t a t i on
norma l and shou l d be ba l anced by ongo i ng needs is to a) se l ec t a s i te wh i ch is l oca t ed
l andscape managemen t st ra t eg i es ( re fer to Conso l i da t e ut i l i ty cor r i dors when feas i -
w i th i n or ad j acent to res i dent i a l , shopp i ng , b l e : Whe r e poss i b l e , common s i te ut i l i ty cor -
Sec t i on 640 : D i s turbed Landscapes for fur - and / or wor k oppor tun i t i es ; or b) prov i de a r i dors shou l d be conso l i da t ed a l ong prev i ous-
ther i n forma t i on on l and rec l ama t i on) . m i x of uses on-s i t e to mee t t he needs of ly d i s turbed areas or a l ong new road or wa l k
The fo l l ow i ng s t eps serve to gu i de the ini - res i dent s and / or emp l oyees . I f ne i ther of cons t ruc t i on , bo t h to m i n i m i ze unnecessary
t ial concep tua l des i gn process : these st ra t eg i es are feas i b l e , the fo l l ow i ng c l ear i ng and t rench i ng and to ensure ease U
L
prac t i ces shou l d be cons i dered : o f access for regu l ar ma i n t enance .
1 . Deve l op genera l area t akeo f f and O
overa l l bu i l d i ng footpr i nt to measur e Use ex i s t i ng veh i cu l ar t ranspor t a t i on N
ne t works : Th i s prac t i ce m i n i m i zes the need 3 . 2 Bu i l d i ng and S i t e Requ i r emen t s
tota l s i te cove rage of i mpe rmeab l e
sur f aces and de t e rm i ne run-of f po l l u- for new i nf rast ruc ture , and reduces i mper - Land Fea tures :
v i ous sur f ace , park i ng requ i rement s , and C
t i on pot ent i a l (e .g . grea t er t han 20
Prev i ous l y d i s turbed s i tes such as unused O
pe rcen t i mpe rmeab l e cove r age of re l a t ed cos t s .
gross s i te area typ i ca l l y requ i res mi t i - urban l ots and comme r c i a l s i tes may
Suppor t use of a l t erna t i ve t ranspor t a t i on : a l ready be a f f ec t i ng the env i ronmen t a l
ga t i on to c l ean s t ormwa t e r be fore i t
Whe r e poss i b l e , mass- t rans i t i nf rast ruc ture qua l i t y o f ne i ghbor i ng proper t i es , the
ent ers dra i nage sys t em) . The s i te p l an
and shut t l e buses shou l d be used . Carpoo l i ng wa t ersheds , and o ther f ea tures . Adap t i ve N
shou l d a l so be ana l yzed to ensure an C
st ra teg i es shou l d be encouraged in add i t i on re-use of ex i st i ng bu i l d i ngs , or redeve l op-
e f f i c i ent l ayou t w i t h regard to to mass- t rans i t use . To foster the use of b i cy- O
requ i red road , ut i l i ty, and serv i ce men t of d i s turbed s i tes requ i res m i n i ma l U
c l es, showe rs and l ockers shou l d be cons i d- d i srupt i on of na tura l sys t ems and shou l d be
access .
ered a t p l ace of emp l oymen t . Al l of these encour aged . Fur thermore , redeve l opmen t
2. Ident i f y a l t erna t i ve s i te des i gn con- t ranspor t a t i on me t hods reduce park i ng and is l i ke l y to i mprove t he i mmed i a t e commu -
cept s to m i n i m i ze resource costs and t ranspor t a t i on costs for res i dents and / or ni ty, pot ent i a l l y crea t e j obs , and i ncrease bA
i
d i srupt i on . Deve l op severa l a l t erna- emp l oyees. l and va l ues tha t have been a f f ec t ed by the
t i ves tha t exp l ore grad i ng and vege t a - abandoned or b l i ght ed proper t y.
Cons i der i ncreased use of t e l ecommu t i ng W
t i on- remova l consequences , as we l l as st ra t eg i es: Te l ecommu t i ng and t e l econf er -
resu l t i ng i nf rast ruc ture cos t s . St r eam channe l s , f l ood p l a i ns , we t l ands ,
enc i ng can reduce commu t e t i me and num- s t eep erod i b l e s l opes , and ma t ur e vege t a -
3. Ident i f y t opograph i c and hydro l og i ca l ber of veh i cu l ar t r ips to and f rom the s i te . t i on shou l d be prot ec t ed f rom deve l op- N
i mpac t s of proposed des i gn and P l an for adequa t e t e l ecommun i ca t i ons inf ra- men t . To avo i d h i gh s i t e-prepara t i on costs , N

T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec tur (

 and to preserve i mpor t an t v i sua l and eco-
l og i ca l f ea tures , deve l opmen t ac t i v i ty
shou l d be con f i gured to occupy t hose
spaces be t ween cr i t i ca l resources .

Bu i l d i ng Or i en t a t i on :

C l i ma t i c cond i t i ons , par t i cu l ar l y so l ar

access , shou l d gu i de t he p l acemen t of
bu i l d i ng and s i te f ea tures in ene rgy - con-
serv i ng des i gn . The fo l l ow i ng prac t i ces
shou l d be cons i dered : F i gur e 220 -2 . Theor e t i ca l " mos t f avor ab l e " m i c roc l i ma t e l oca t i on f or each c l i -
ma t e re- - i on .
1 . P l an s i te c l ear i ng and p l ant i ng to t ake
advan t age of so l ar access . So l ar or i en-
tat ion, c l oud cover , and t opography are
i nter re l a ted . A s i te 's l a t i tude de t erm i nes
t he sun ' s a l t i tude and assoc i a t ed
az i mu t h for any g i ven t i me of day , each
day of the year . S i te-c l ear i ng and p l ant -
i ng st ra teg i es may be used to max i m i ze
so l ar access to the bu i l d i ng or cr i t ica l
areas of the s i te.

2 . Or i en t the bu i l d i ng to t ake advan t age

of so l ar ene rgy for pass i ve and ac t i ve
so l ar sys t ems . The bu i l d i ng shou l d
t ake advan t age of shade and a i r f l ows
for coo l i ng in summe r , and of pass i ve
so l ar ene rgy for hea t i ng and w i nd
F i gur e 220 - 3 . Loca l m i c roc l i ma t e w i t h i n a l a rge r reg i ona l t opoc l i ma t e .
prot ec t i on in w i n t er . I f so l ar co l l ec tors
or photovo l t a i c sys t ems are proposed ,
or i ent a t i on shou l d a l l ow max i mum basemen t s and s t aggered f l oor l eve l s can sona l wea t he r pa t t erns and c l i ma t e var i -
access to sun l i ght . be used in areas o f excess s l ope. ab l es such as vapor pressure in ho t -hum i d
zones , des i cca t i ng w i nds and d i urna l
3 . Prov i de a nor th-wa l l des i gn tha t m i n- S i t e I mprovemen t s : ex t remes in hot -ar i d zones , and annua l
i m i zes hea t loss . Prov i de en t rances t empe ra t ure ex t remes in t empe ra t e and
Landscape des i gn shou l d seek to max i m i ze
w i th a i r l ocks , and l imi t g l ass to pre-
human comfor t , par t i cu l ar l y in h i gh-use co l d zones . A numbe r of st ra t eg i es can be
ven t hea t loss . Large bu i l d i ngs in co l d used to mod i f y the s i te ' s m i croc l i ma t e .
areas such as p l azas and ou t door ga ther i ng
or t empe ra t e c l i ma t es requ i re a i r -han-
spaces . The des i gner needs to cons i der sea-
d l i ng sys t ems tha t ba l ance i nter i or
C bu i l d i ng pressure in such c i rcum-
O s t ances .
4 . Prov i de a bu i l d i ng-ent rance or i ent a-
t i on tha t max i m i zes sa fety , ease of Si te l ayout and cons t ruc t i on shou l d focus on e l i m i na t i ng unnecessary s i te d i srupt i on
N access and prot ec t i on f rom the e l e- (e .g. , excess i ve grad i ng , b l ast i ng , c l ear i ng) and resource degrada t i on (e .g ., s t ream si l -
men t s . tat i on, groundwa t e r cont am i na t i on , a i r -qua l i ty l oss) .
C
O 5 . M i n i m i ze so l ar shadows . Landscaped
V Des i gn shou l d seek to m i n i m i ze the amoun t of i mperv i ous sur f ace tha t is const ruc t -
areas , open spaces , park i ng , and sep- ed . In add i t i on , ef f i c i ent s i te l ayout tha t ut i l i zes ex i st i ng t ranspor t a t i on inf rast ructure ,
U t i c f i e lds shou l d be aggrega t ed to pro- and a l ternat i ve t ranspor t a t i on st ra teg i es (e .g . mass- t rans i t , carpoo l i ng , t e l ecommu t -
L v i de the l east so l ar shadow for south- ing) shou l d be cons i dered .
ern or i ent a t i ons of the bu i l d i ng pro-
O 2 . The l ength of ut i l i ty connec t i ons shou l d be m i n i m i zed by s i te l ayout . Comb i n i ng ut i l -
N j ec t and ad j o i n i ng bu i l d i ngs .
O Ca l cu l a t i ng tota l s i te shadow can pre- i ty cor r i dors a l ong prev i ous l y d i s turbed areas may reduce unnecessary si te c l ear i ng .
f ie ven t the crea t i on of so l ar vo i ds and
co l d-a i r -dra i nage dams . Th i s is espe - 3 . Proposed l ayout shou l d accommoda t e serv i ce v i a grav i ty sewe r wheneve r poss i b l e ,
c i a l l y use fu l in co l d and t empe ra t e cl i - to e l i mi na t e the need for pump i ng sta t i ons .
ma t es .
i 4 . Bu i l d i ngs shou l d be or i ent ed to t ake advan t age of so l ar access . The or i enta t i on of
U The or i ent a t i on of bu i l d i ngs and o ther bu i l d i ngs and other s i te e l ement s can a l so i nf l uence the ex t ent of s i te d i srupt i on
C
W s i te e l emen t s can a l so i nf l uence the ex t en t requ i red for const ruc t i on .
of s i te d i srupt i on requ i red for cons t ruc t i on .
Ea r t hwork and c l ear i ng of the s i te can be 5 . Ma t er i a l s used in const ruc t i on shou l d be recyc l ed and / or reg i ona l l y ava i l ab l e , i f pos-
sibl e, and have a l ow l i fe-cyc l e cost .
N reduced by a l i gn i ng l ong bu i l d i ngs and
park i ng lots w i th l andscape con tours . Ha l f -
N
T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 1 . Ex i st i ng wa t e r sources and l and f orms Ma t er i a l s used in cons t ruc t i on shou l d be i ng ene rgy consump t i on . F i gure 220-1
can be used t o crea t e w i n t er hea t recyc l ed and / or reg i ona l l y ava i l ab l e , i f poss i - i l lust rates the d i st r i but i on of genera l c l i ma t e
s i nks in co l d c l i ma t es , and t empe ra - bl e, and have a l ow l i fe-cyc l e cos t . A l b i do zones across the Un i t ed St a t es . Each cl i -
ture d i f ferent i a l s for coo l i ng a i r move (so l ar re f l ec t ance i ndex a t t r i buted to co l or ) ma t e zone has un i que t empe ra t ure and
men t in hot c l i ma t es . Ex i st i ng s t reams shou l d a l so be cons i dered when choos i ng s i te mo i s t ure charac t er i s t i cs tha t mus t be
or o ther wa t e r sources can cont r i but e ma t er i a l s ( refer to D i v i s i on 800 for descr i p- addressed by des i gn .
to rad i ant coo l i ng for the s i te . Co l or t i ons of var i ous cons t ruc t i on ma ter i a l s) .
Ho t Ar i d Reg i ons : Charac t er i zed by dry ,
and sur f ace or i ent a t i on may a l so be hot summe r t empera tures [>20°C (68°F) ]
used to f avorab l y absorb or re f l ect 4 . 0 B I OCL I MATE FUNDAMENTALS and m i l d to coo l w i nt ers [>0°C (32°F) ] .
so l ar ene rgy.
Annua l prec i p i t a t i on is l ow, howeve r sea-
2 . Ex i st i ng vege t a t i on may be used to The concep t of re l a t i ng t empe ra t ure and sona l f l ash- f l oods may occur . Wh i l e f reez -
mode r a t e wea t he r cond i t i ons and hum i d i t y cond i t i ons to des i gn for human i ng t empe ra t ures are uncommon , ex t reme
prov i de prot ec t i on for na t i ve w i l d l i f e . comf or t is re f er red to as b i oc l i ma t i c des i gn . d i urna l t empe ra t ure f l uc tua t i ons are typ i ca l .
B i oc l i ma t e f undamen t a l s can be used to Si te p l ann i ng and des i gn shou l d seek to
Vege t a t i on can be used to prov i de
shade and t ransp i ra t i on in the sum- deve l op a s i te p l an and des i gn tha t mee t s ba l ance da i l y t empe ra t ure ex t remes by
me r and w i nd prot ec t i on in the w i n- the needs o f i ts occupan t s , wh i l e m i n i m i z -
t er. Add i t i ona l l y , vege t a t i on can pro-
v i de na tura l cor r i dors for w i l d l i f e
movemen t when prov i ded in con j unc -
t i on w i th a reg i ona l l andscape p l an .

3 . Access roads , p l ant i ng , grad i ng , and

anc i l l ary s t ruc tures shou l d be
des i gned to channe l w i nd t owa rd
ma i n bu i l d i ngs for coo l i ng , or away
f rom t hem to reduce hea t loss .

4 . Int roduce s t ruc tures and p l ant i ngs

tha t prov i de she l t er f rom harsh e l e-
men t s and h i gh l i ght des i rab l e f ea-
tures . Modu l a t i on of t ree - canopy
he i ght s and i nc l us i on of wa t e r f oun-
ta i ns and o ther bu i l t st ruc tures can
f i ne- tune an ext er i or s i te by acce l era t -
i ng or dece l era t i ng s i te w i nds , cas t i ng
shadows , or coo l i ng by evapora t i on .

Cons t ruc t i on Me t hods and Ma t er i a l s:

The cons t ruc t i on me t hods emp l oyed
shou l d ensure tha t each s t ep of t he bu i l d-
U
i ng process is f ocused on e l i m i na t i ng i
unnecessary s i te d i srupt i on (e .g ., excess i ve
grad i ng , b l ast i ng , c l ear i ng) and resource O
N
degrada t i on (e .g ., s t ream s i l tat ion, ground- N
wa t e r con t am i na t i on , a i r -qua l i t y loss) .
These st ra t eg i es shou l d harness f ea tures C
such as vent i l a t i ng breezes and so l ar ga i n , O
wh i l e m i t i ga t i ng un f avorab l e f ea tures such
as co l d t empera tures , mo i s t a i r; des i cca t i ng
tu
w i nds ; and i ncreased s t ormwa t e r runof f .
N
The cons t ruc t i on process shou l d be
st ra teg i ca l l y char t ed in s t ages to avo i d O
unnecessary s i te d i srupt i on , and to ach i eve V
an order l y cons t ruc t i on sequence f rom s i te F i gur e 220 -4 . Se l ec t ed des i gn and cons t ruc t i on t echn i ques t o encour age
c l ear i ng to s i te f i n i sh . Such a s t ra t egy ene rgy conse r va t i on .
reduces costs and damage to the s i te . I t 1 . P l ant ed w i nd screens requ i re mu l t i - row pa t t ern .
requ i res c l ose coord i na t i on be t ween al l 2. Grade to d i ver t wa t er , w i nds , and co l d mo i s t ai r. i
sub-cont rac tors ( re fer to Sec t i on 130 : S i te 3 . St ruc tures t ake up l ess space and are use fu l in ar i d zones.
C
Cons t ruc t i on Ope ra t i ons for fur ther i nfor - 4 . Porous pavemen t s and ear th cover a l l ows inf i l t rat ion. W
ma t i on on var i ous me t hods and s t ag i ng 5 . We t so i l is h i gh l y conduc t i ve of co l d and is best dra i ned.
6 . Wa l l s may be used to crea t e m i cro-c l i ma t es and to channe l a i r movemen t s .
st ra teg i es) .
7. Spec i a l wa l l des ign, g l ass , and overhangs can he l p adap t to c l i ma t e.
N
N

T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 F i gur e 220 - 5 . Gene r a l s i t e des i gn s t ra t eg i es f or ho t and r eg i ons . F i gur e 220 -6 . Gene r a l s i t e des i gn
s t ra t eg i es f or ho t hum i d r eg i ons .

stor i ng energy , i ncreas i ng hum i d i t y , and

d i ver t i ng des i cca t i ng w i nds .
Ho t Hum i d Reg i ons : Charac t er i zed by
ho t summe r t empe ra t ures [>20°C (68°F) ]
and m i l d to coo l w i nt ers [>0°C (32 ' F) ] .
Annua l prec i p i t a t i on and hum i d i t y are h i gh ,
w i th f requent ra in showe rs . Freez i ng t em-
pera tures are uncommon , and re l a t i ve l y
m i nor d i urna l t empe ra t ure f l uc tua t i ons are
typ i ca l . Si te p l ann i ng and des i gn shou l d
seek to i ncrease shade , coo l i ng f rom evap-
ora t i on , and breezes .
Tempe r a t e Reg i ons : Charac t er i zed by
hot , o f t en hum i d , summe r s [>20 ' C (68°F) ]
F i gur e 220 - 7 . Gene r a l s i t e des i gn s t ra t eg i es f or t empe r a t e and co l d r eg i ons . and co l d w i nt ers [<0°C (32 ' F) ] . Annua l
prec i p i t a t i on is fa i r l y h i gh . The reg i on is
sub j ec t to repe t i t i ve f reez i ng / t haw i ng
ac t i on , and s i gn i f i cant seasona l t empe ra -
ture f l uc tua t i ons are common . Si te p l an-
n i ng and des i gn shou l d seek to promo t e
shade and evapora t i ve coo l i ng in wa rm
per i ods , and b l ock w i nds and promo t e hea t
Tab l e 220 -01 . SUMMARY OF REG I ONAL B I OCL I MAT I C STRATEG I ES ga i n in coo l per i ods , w i t hou t d i srupt i ng
f avorab l e summe r w i nd pa t t ern .

C l i ma t e Zones
Co l d Reg i ons: Charac t er i zed by m i l d sum-
Fac t or s Mod i f i ed me r t empera tures [>10° -20o C (50° -68o F) ]
C by Land f o r m ,
Ho t A r i d Ho t Hum i d Tempe r a t e Co l d and very co l d w i nt ers [<0° C (32° F) ] . Annua l
O
Vege t a t i on , and
S t ruc t ur as
Avo i d hea t absorb i ng Max i m i ze shade t hrough S i t e s t ruc t ur es on SI t e s t ruc t ures on sou t he r l y
prec i p i ta t i on is typ i ca l l y l ow. Reg i on is sub j ec t
Sun ma t er i a l s use , th i ck wa l l s t he use o f p l an t i ngs sou t he r l y s l opes f or s l opes f or so l ar ga i n in to ex t reme f reez i ng / thaw i ng ac t i on . Si te
o r ea r t hshe l t e rs Use pe rgo l a and t re l l i s so l ar gam i n w i n t e r winter
Use pe rgo l a and t re l l i s s t ruc t ures f or shade Avo i d nor t he rn Co l d c l i ma t es r t mg bene f i t s p l ann i ng and des i gn shou l d seek to cont ro l
s t ruc t ur es f or shade
Prov i de l a rge ove rhangs
Sc r eened t e r r aces
prov i de re l i e f f rom
en t r ances t o bu i l d i ngs
P l an t dec i duous t rees f or
f rom s t eepe r s l opes f or
be t t e r so l a r access
w i nt er w i nds , and promo t e so l ar ga i n and
on bu i l d i ngs d i rec t hea t i ng o f ma i n a f t e rnoon shade Avo i d nor t he rn en t r ance , tc s torage .
Avo i d l arge a rea o f s t ruc t ur e Use ea r t hshe l t e rs to bu i l d i ngs

O exposed g l ass Prov i de l a rge ove rhangs pro t ec t f rom summe r

V
P l an t dec i duous t rees for
on bu i l d i ngs sun a f t e rnoon shade F i gure 220-2 i l l ust rates a topograph i c
Use h i gh ce i l i ngs and
ven t a l l roo f sys t ems
Use ea r t hshe l t e r t o pro t ec t
f rom summe r sun
sec t i on show i ng the theore t i ca l " mos t
S i t e s t ruc t ures a t t oe o f SI t e s t ruc t ure at t op o f S i t e s t ruc t ure on m i dd l e S i t e s t ruc t ure on m i dd l e to f avorab l e " m i croc l i ma t e l oca t i on for each
V
L
W i nd s l opes f or exposur e t o
co l d a i r f l ows at n i gh t
s l ope f a r exposur e t o
br eezes
t o uppe r s l ope f or
access t o l i ght w i nds ,
l owe r s l ope for v i nd
pro t ec t i on c l i ma t e reg i on . Ho t Ar i d c l i ma t es f avor the
Use p l an t ma t e r i a l t o Avo i d . . . . . . . e bu t pro t ec t i on f rom h i gh P l an t con i f e rous ~hr l mr
eas t ern s l ope base to avo i d harsh sun and
O
b l ock des i cca t i ng w i nds ea r t hmound i ng t ha t may w i nds be l t s to b l ock co l d wm
De f l ec t ho t w i nds w i t h t rap mo i s t a i r Land f orms , p l ant s , and Avo i d t opogr aph i c to rece i ve coo l d i urna l a i r dra i nage for t he
N
wa l l s and sc reens Max i m i ze br eezes s t ruc t ures can be used depr ess i ons t ha t ro l l ed co l c
t hrough use o f h i gh t o d i ver t nor t he r l y ai r uppe r s l ope . Ho t Hum i d c l i ma t es f avor the
CC canopy t rees and w i t h a
l oose open p l an t i ng
w i n t e r w i nds wh i l e
a l l ow i ng coo l i ng summe r
Use ea r t hshe l t e rs t o pr : aec t
f rom w i n t e r w i nd
t op of t he eas t ern s l ope to avo i d harsh wes t
pa t t e rn
Avo i d tal l so l i d wa l l s
br eezes
Use ea r t hshe l t e rs t o
sun and to rece i ve the evapora t i ve coo l i ng
t ha t b l ock w i nd pro t ec t f rom w i n t e r e f f ec t of w i nds due to turbu l ence a t the
w i nds
Us , mo i s t ur e Avo i d s i t i ng nex t t o Use of re t en t i on / Use o f re t en t i on / de t en t i on h i l l top . Tempe r a t e c l i ma t es are mos t f avor -
conse r v i ng p l ant s- s t agnan t bod i es o f
L Wa t e r
- - cape wa t e r
de t en t i on ponds for
s t ormwa t e r prov i des f or
ponds f or s t ormwa t e r
prov i des f or evapor a t we
ab l e at the south-eas t "mi l i t ary crest " to
C l i m i t i mpe r v i ous sur f ace Max i m i ze i nf i l t ra t i on o f evapor a t i ve / coo l i ng o f coo l i ng o f t he s i t e
rece i ve bo t h sun and breezes , but to avo i d
W
to m l n i mae runo f f . s t ormwa t e r runo f f t he s i te Founda t i ons for A, - t in, s
porous pav i ng can be Founda t i ons for and pavemen t i nu , t dr ,u~ co l d w i nds a t the t rue crest . Co l d c l i ma t es
used s t ruc t ures and pavemen t we l l to pr even t d . , . , g ,
mus t dra i n we l l to f rom f ros t / t haw . , in n
are i dea l on the sou t h to sou th-wes t e rn
l owe r s l ope to rece i ve so l ar rad i a t i on and
N
pr even t damage f rom
f ros t / t haw a
be prot ec t ed f rom w i n t er w i nds , bu t h i gh
N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
F i gur e 220 -8 . Ou t doo r b i oc l i ma t i c human com f or t cha r t . I f the t empera ture r i ses to 32°C (90°F) a t 15% hum i d i t y , as i nd i ca t ed by
po i n t "A, " t hen add i t i ona l mo i s ture i s requ i red to ach i eve human comfor t through evapora t i ve coo l i ng. I f rad i a t i on i ncreases beyond shad-
i ng l ine , then shade mus t be added. i

enough to avo i d co l d a i r dra i nage f rom Spec i a l i zed s i te des i gn and cons t ruc t i on al , and the s i te in par t i cu l ar . Tab l e 220-1 CC
uppe r s l ope . me t hods a l l ow each m i croc l i ma t e zone to summa r i zes var i ous t echn i ques for each c l i - C
be fur ther adap t ed to max i m i ze human ma t i c reg i on . F i gures 220-5 t hrough 220-7 O
Si te p l ann i ng seeks to i dent i f y f avorab l e -W
comf or t for both i ndoors and outdoors , and i l lust rate reg i ona l b i oc l i ma t i c st ra t eg i es for
m i croc l i ma t es w i th t he a i m of fur ther adap- cd
to m i n i m i ze ene rgy expend i ture requ i red the four c l i ma t e zones .
t a t i on t hrough des i gn and cons t ruc t i on
for hea t i ng and coo l i ng . Th i s s i te zone is
t echn i ques . F i gure 220-3 d i agrams a loca l Ho t Ar i d Reg i ons :
typ i ca l l y adap t ed for human use t hrough N
m i croc l i ma t e w i th i n a l arger reg i ona l cl i - C
st ruc tura l or i ent a t i on , vege t a t i ve c l ear i ng F i gure 220-5 i l lust rates genera l s i te des i gn
ma t e zone . The c l i ma t i c des i gn var i ab l es of O
and p l ant i ng pa t t erns , grad i ng , s t ormwa t e r
human comf or t in any g i ven c l i ma t e zone st ra teg i es for hot ar i d reg i ons . Key st ra te- (j
dra i nage , w i nd pa t t ern augmen t a t i on , and g i es are :
are :
the p l acemen t of paved sur f aces . F i gure
1 . So l ar rad i a t i on- Dura t i on and i ntens i - 220-4 i l lust rates how these t echn i ques may 1 . Use mo i s ture conserv i ng p l ant s. A
ty of therma l l oad i ng and absorp t i on be app l i ed to a res i dent i a l l andscape se t t i ng
2 . Preven t hea t bu i l d-up on st ruc tures i
( i nso l a t i on) . to ach i eve a mor e ene rgy conserv i ng f i t . G)
( th i ck wa l l ed , i n-ground arch i t ec ture
C
2 . A i r movemen t - Ve l oc i t y and pa t t ern . 4 . 1 B i od i ma t i c S t r a t eg i es is use fu l ) . W

3 . Hum i d i t y - Vapor pressure and a i r B i oc l i ma t i c des i gn crea t es s i te pa t t erns and 3 . De f l ec t hot w i nds w i th wa l l s , screens ,
and ea r t hwork . 0
t empe ra t ure . app l i es ma t er i a l s and s t ruc tura l f orms
wh i ch are su i t ab l e for the reg i on in gener - 4 . Trap coo l a i r for convec t i on . N

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 Tab l e 220 - 02 . D I STANCE REQU I RED BETWEEN BU I LD I NGS TO AVO I D Tab l e 220 - 03 . M I N I MUM SPAC I NG
SHADOWS REQU I RED TO ASSURE ADEQUATE
- L I GHT PENETRAT I ON

Va l ues o f x on Decembe r 21 C l i ma t e La t i t ude M i n i mum

Spac i ng
Ang l e
La t i tude 9 am 10 am 11 am noon 1 m 2 m 3 m
wa rm hum i d 1-10° 40°
24°N 1 .4 1 .2 1 .1 1 .1 1 .1 1 .2 1 .4 compos i t e 15° 45°
28°N 1 .7 1 .4 1 .3 1 .3 1 .3 1 .4 1 .7 compos i t e / dese r t 20 " 50°
32°N 2 .1 1 .7 1 .5 1 .5 1 .5 1 .7 2 .1 deser t 25° 50°
2 .1 1 .8 1 .7 1 .8 2 .1 2 .5 med i t e r ranean / dese r t 30 ° 45°
36°N 2 .5
med i t er ranean 35° 40°
40oN 3 .1 2 .4 2 .2 2 .1 2 .2 2 .4 3 .1
35°
2 .9 4 .0 med i t e r ranean / t empe ra t e 40°
441 N 4 .0 2 .9 2 .6 2 .5 2 .6
t empe ra t e 45° 30°
48° N 5 .7 3 .7 3 .3 3 .1 3 .3 3 .7 5.7
t empe ra t e 50° 25°
52°N 9 .5 5 .1 4 .3 4 .0 4.3 5 .1 9.5 co l d t empe ra t e 60° 22°

Sou r ce: G . Z. Brown . Sun , W i nd & Light : Archi tectura l Des i gn

Source: G .Z. Brown , .Sun, W i nd & L i ght Arch i tectura l Des i gn St rateg i es . New York. John W i l ey & Sons , 1985 . S t r a t eg i es. New York . John W i l ey & Sons , 1985 .

wa l l s to crea t e m i croc l i ma t e 6 . Cove red pergo l as , or screened ter - 8 . Gr ade and p l ant for co l d a i r dra i nage
5 . Use
cour t s . races ad j acen t to s t ruc ture wi l l he l p a round s t ruc ture .
dr aw a i r cur rent s . 9 . Ear th she l t ered arch i t ec ture is use fu l
6 . Use pergo l a and t re l l is s t ruc tures on
sou th and sou t hwes t wa l l s . 7 . Avo i d excess i ve ear th mound i ng in these reg i ons .
wh i ch m i gh t t rap mo i s t , s t agnan t a i r. 10 . Dra i n al l backf i l l so i l s and i nsu l a t e
7 . Use l arge ove rhang ca l cu l a t ed for
w i n t er sun . 8 . Use h i gh ce i l i ngs , and vent al l roof per i me t er f ounda t i on wa l l s (Re f er to
sys t ems . subsec t i on 4. 5 Ear thshe l t er St ra teg i es) .
8 . Avo i d l arge exposed g l ass .
C 11 . Avo i d nor thern en t rances both for the
O Tempera t e and Co l d Reg i ons:
9 . Avo i d hea t absorb i ng ma t er i a l s . s i te and arch i t ec ture
tu 10 . Pos i t i on s t ruc ture to bene f i t f rom
F i gure 220-7 i l lust rates genera l s i te des i gn
12 . Co l d c l i ma t e s i t i ng bene f i t s f rom
st ra t eg i es for t empe ra t e and co l d reg i ons
d i urna l a i r cur rent s . s t eeper s l opes , up to 20% , and or i en-
wh i ch share s i mi l ar t echn i ques bu t vary in
N t a t i on to the sou t hwes t for i ncreased
Ho t Hum i d Reg i ons: sever i t y of wors t case cond i t i ons . Key
C so l ar rece i pt pot ent i a l .
O st ra t eg i es are :
F i gure 220-6 i l lust rates genera l s i te des i gn
V 1 . Promo t e so l ar ga i n in w i nt er season . 4 . 2 Human Com f o r t Fac t ors
s t ra t eg i es for ho t hum i d reg i ons . Key
V st ra t eg i es are : 2 . Seek sou thern s l opes (SSE to SSW) 5- Human comf or t is de t e rm i ned by amb i en t
L
1 . Max i m i ze breezes and evapora t i on 15% . a i r t empera ture , hum i d i t y , and the ve l oc i t y
O w i t h h i gh canopy t rees and l oose of a i r movemen t wh i ch a l l ows the body to
(A 3 . B l ock w i nd chi l l w i t h m i xed dec i duous fee l comf or t ab l y wa rm (but not overhea t -
4) open p l ant i ng pa t t erns . and con i f erous p l ant s . ed) and comf or t ab l y coo l (but no t ch i l l ed) .
2 . Avo i d ta l l so l i d wa l l s tha t b l ock w i nds . Arch i t ec tura l i nt er i ors are hea t ed and
4. Ma i n t a i n open i ngs for coo l i ng sum-
coo l ed us i ng a b i oc l i ma t i c char t wh i ch
3 . Seek h i gh ground or r i s i ng s l opes f ac- me r breezes .
t racks these three f ac tors . F i gure 220-8
i ng preva i l i ng w i nds . 5 . Prov i de a f t ernoon shade w i th dec i du-
L
i l lust rates a b i oc l i ma t i c char t for ext er i or
4. Avo i d topograph i ca l depress i ons . ous t rees . spaces . In summa ry , t he i dea l comf or t zone
C is w i th i n a na r row t empe ra t ure range of
W 5 . Use l arge ove rhangs ca l cu l a t ed for 6 . Use garage , ear th , and p l ant i ngs to
20°C to 27°C (68°F to 80°F) , a cor respond-
Q severe sun ang l es (east and wes t ) d i ver t severe NE or NW w i n t er w i nds .
i ng hum i d i t y range of 80% to 20% , and a

N 7 . Prov i de arch i t ec tura l ent ry l ock to w i nd ve l oc i ty of at l east 0 . 26 m / s (0 .6

N b l nck co l d a i r inf i l t rat ion in w i nt er . moh) . I f the t empe ra ture -hum i d i t y comb i -

T i me -Save r St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 na t i on fa l l s above the shad i ng l ine , t hen
shad i ng is assumed . I f the t empera ture -
hum i d i t y comb i na t i on is be l ow the w i nd
l ine, then st i l l a i r is assumed . Use of th i s
char t for ou t door spaces mus t cons i der m i t -
i ga t i ng f ac tors of human comfor t , such as
the R-va l ue of c l oth i ng , and the way peo-
p l e move abou t a par t i cu l ar s i te to cope
w i th chang i ng wea t he r cond i t i ons ( i . e .
mov i ng into or out of the sun , or seek i ng
l eeward she l ter as breezes beg i n to acce l er -
a te) . These f ac tors are l i ke l y to a l ter the
idea l cond i t i ons for human comf or t .

4 .3 So l ar Pa th , Rece i pt , and
Shadows
Each c l i ma t e zone has an i dea l so l ar or i en-
F i gur e 220 - 9 . So l a r pa t h a round t he ea r t h on t he 21s t day o f each mon t h t a t i on based upon theore t i ca l mode l s wh i ch
o f t he yea r. t rack so l ar rece i pt and loss t hroughou t the
da i l y and annua l so l ar cyc l es . Howeve r ,
mode rn super - i nsu l a t ed s t ruc tures and
sound s i te p l ann i ng st ra t eg i es comb i ne to
est ab l i sh a genera l pr i nc i p l e f avor i ng SSE to
SSW s t ruc ture s i t i ng in nor thern l a t i tudes ,
w i th eas t ern or wes t e rn b i ases de t e rm i ned
by loca l cond i t i ons . F i gure 220-9 i l lust rates
the so l ar pa th a round t he ear th on the 21s t
of each mon t h of the year . F i gures 220-10
t hrough F i gure 220-17 show so l ar char t s
des i gned to p l ot the ac tua l pa th of the sun
as i t wou l d appea r f rom the ground l ook i ng
at the sky f rom var i ous nor thern l a t i tudes .
These are use fu l for i dent i f y i ng the a l t i tude
ang l e of the sun a t var i ous t i mes of year , to
i nsure tha t bu i l d i ngs , topography , or vege -
t a t i on do no t obscure t he sun f rom so l ar
co l l ectors , ou t door ga ther i ng spaces , or
w i ndows des i gned for pass i ve ga i n .

F i gur e 220 - 10 . So l a r a l t i t ude cha r t f or 28° nor t h l a t i t ude. Tree shadows: O

i
The u l t i ma t e shadow l eng th of an ex i s t i ng
or proposed t ree in nor thern l a t i tudes can O
be ca l cu l a t ed by us i ng the a l t i tude ang l e o f N
t he sun a t noon on Decembe r 21 . The (Y
he i ght of the t ree d i v i ded by the t angen t
C
va l ue ( tan) of the a l t i tude (°) wi l l prov i de
O
the d i s t ance requ i red be t ween the s t ruc ture
and the t ree or ob j ec t tha t is cas t i ng the
shadow. As F i gure 220-18 i l lust rates, a
20% s l ope in a co l d c l i ma t e wi l l a l l ow a tal l
N
t ree to be p l ant ed re l at i ve l y c l ose to a st ruc- C
ture w i t hou t obscur i ng so l ar access . O
V
Bu i l d i ng Spac i ng:
06
Tab l e 220-2 i nd i ca t es the re l a t i onsh i p
be t ween the so l ar a l t i tude at noon on bA
Decembe r 21 by l at i tude pos i t i on, and the i
N
d i s t ance requ i red be t ween bu i l d i ngs of a C
spec i f i ed he i ght so as to avo i d an obscur i ng W
shadow. Tab l e 220-3 shows the m i n i mum
F i gur e 220 -11 . So l a r a l t i t ude cha r t f or 32° nor t h l a t i t ude .
spac i ng ang l e by c l i ma t e t ype and l at i tude
requ i red to s t ep back a bu i l d i ng or other such N
N
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 F i gure 220-12 . So l a r a l t i tude cha r t f or 36° nor t h l a t i tude . F i gure 220 -13 . So l a r a l t i tude cha r t f or 40° nor t h l a t i tude .

C
O F i gure 220 -14 . So l a r a l t i tude cha r t f or 44° nor t h l a t i tude . F i gur e 220-15 . So l a r a l t i tude cha r t f or 48° nor t h l a t i tude .

N
N
C
O
V
uL
O

L
C
W
0
N
N F i gure 220 -16 . So l a r a l t i tude cha r t for 52° nor t h l a t i tude . F i gur e 220 -17 . So l a r a l t i tude cha r t f or 56° nor t h l a t i tude .
F i gur e 220 - 18 . Tr ee shadow ca l cu l a -
t i ons .

F i gur e 220 - 20 . S t ruc t ur e or i en t a t i on F i gur e 220 - 19 . She l t e rbe l t w i nd f l ow dynam i cs show i ng e f f ec t i ve w i nd shad
and w i nd f l ow. ow o f l i ght t o ve ry dense (mass t o vo i d ra t i o) she l t e rbe l t p l an t i ngs . No t e w i nd -
wa rd and l eewa rd ca l m a r eas.

l onges t w i nd shadow is produced by a she l -

terbe l t dens i t y of 50 -65% mass to vo i d
ra t i o . Th i s t rans l a t es i nto m i xed dec i duous
and con i f erous p l ant i ngs or ver t i ca l l y s l at - N
V
t ed f enc i ng . The f i gure fur ther shows tha t i
she l t erbe l t p l ant i ngs crea t e a w i ndwa rd and
O
a l eeward zone o f d i m i n i shed w i nd ve l oc i t y
of 6 t i mes and 25 t i mes the she l t erbe l t
he i gh t (H) respec t i ve l y. I t sugges t s t wo
pr i nc i p l es :
O
W i ndwa rd S i t i ng : Ac t i v i t i es requ i r i ng
the bene f i t s of preva i l i ng coo l i ng cd
breezes shou l d be no t be l oca t ed t oo
c l ose to the w i ndwa rd s i de o f a bu i l d-
N
F i gur e 220 - 21 . W i nd de f l ec t i on a t bu i l d i ng w i ndow. ing, t ree group , or topograph i c f ea- C
ture , because the breeze wi l l l i f t ove r O
the mass and crea t e a s t agnan t a i r U
st ruc ture to i nsure adequa t e l ight pene t ra t i on w i nd augmen t a t i on s t em f rom agr i cu l tura l pocke t .
dur i ng l ow sun per i ods in the w i nt er . research a i med a t ra i s i ng soi l t empe ra t ure
2 . Leewa rd S i t i ng: Ac t i v i t i es requ i r i ng A
in co l d c l i ma t es by reduc i ng w i nd chi l l aA
prot ec t i on f rom ch i l l i ng w i nds shou l d
4 . 4 W i nd Managemen t t hrough t he use of p l ant ed and st ruc tura l
be l oca t ed w i th i n the 4-6H zone of
she l t erbe l ts . C
W i nd , bo t h f avorab l e coo l i ng and un f avor - reduced w i nd ve l oc i ty for max i mum W
ab l e ch i l l ing, can be d i ver t ed by a l ter i ng She l t e rbe l t Des i gn : e f fect , but shou l d no t prec l ude the
vege t a t i ve cover , us i ng m i t i ga t i ng s t ruc tur - bene f i c i a l e f f ec ts o f preva i l i ng coo l i ng
F i gure 220-19 i l lust rates the resu l ts of she l - 0
al dev i ces , and by st ra t eg i c use of ex i st i ng breezes , wh i ch typ i ca l l y emana t e
t erbe l t s tud i es and i nd i ca t es tha t t he N
and proposed ear th f orms . Mos t stud i es of f rom the oppos i t e d i rec t i on . I f coo l i ng
N

T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 breezes are i mpor tant in a par t i cul ar
c l imate zone , then the face of the
st ructure or act ivi ty shou ld be located
5-6H f rom the she l terbe l t . Thi s ef fec-
t ively t rans l ates into the rear of the
st ructure be ing in winter ca lm, and
the f ront of the st ructure be i ng in
summe r breeze . Max i mum w i nter
ca l m in cold c l imates can be ach i eved
at 2H f rom the she l terbe l t . Roads and
park i ng shou ld be wi thin 10-12H of
the she l terbe l t because at 15H, the
snowthrow turbu l ence is most severe
and dr i f t ing depos i ts are deepest .
St ruc tura! Or i ent a t i on to the W i nd:

The propor t ions of archi tecture are i mpor -

tant w i th regard to w i nd augment a t i on .
F igure 220-20 i l lust rates how st ructures
F i gure 220-22 . Var i ous prof i l e concept s for ear th she l t ered st ruc tures . or i ented d i agona l l y to the w i nd present
greater w i dth than the same st ructure or i -
ented perpend i cu l ar to the w i nd . Genera l l y,
vent i l at ing ef fects of the w i nd can be pro-
mot ed by tal l thin st ructures wh i ch are one
room w i de to a l low cross f low, or by st ruc-
tures e l evated on co l umns to promot e
under -vent i ng . Research has shown that
best vent i l at ion occurs when st ructures are
sl ight ly ob l ique (20°-30°) to w i nd f low due
to Ventur i acce l erat ion ef fects . F igure 220-
21 i l lust rates the ef fect of l ow shrubs pl ant -
ed in f ront of w i ndows resul t ing in a down-
ward def l ect ion for a di stance (D) wh i ch
ranges f rom 4 500-6 000 mm (15 to 20 f t) .
Bioc l imat i c des ign relates temperature and humid i ty condi t ions to des ign for human 4 .5 Ear th She l ter St ra t eg i es
comfor t . Bioc l imate fundamenta l s can be used to deve l op a si te pl an and des ign that
mee ts the needs of i ts occupants , wh i l e min imi z ing energy consumpt i on . In cold, temperate , and hot ar id c l imates,
tempera ture stabi l i zat ion may be promot ed
C 1 . Bioc l imat ic des ign suggests si te layouts, mater i a ls and st ructural forms wh i ch are by us ing ear th she l ter ing const ruct ion tech-
O sui table for the di f ferent cl imat ic regions . Tabl e 220-1 summar i zes var ious tech- n iques . Thi s st rategy takes advantage of
n iques for four genera l c l imate zones, and F igures 220-5 through 220-7 i l lustrate the rather constant ear th tempera tures
ed st rategies for each region . wh i ch exist 2 000-3 000 mm (6-10 f t)
be l ow the ear th's sur face . In wa rm cl i -
G) 2 . Genera l ly, the human comfor t zone is wi thin a nar row temperature range of 20°C to mates , it is easi er to ma i nta i n a cool amb i -
C 27°C (68°F to 80°F) , a cor respond ing humid i ty range of 80% to 20% , and a wind ent inter ior temperature , and in co ld cl i -
O veloci ty of at least 0 .26 m/ s (0 .6 mph) . However , factors such as the R-va lue of mates , it takes less heat energy to ra ise the
V c lothing, and the way peop l e move about a par t icular si te to cope wi th chang i ng
wea ther condi t ions are l ikely to al ter these ideal condi t ions .
inter ior tempera ture to ach i eve comfor t .
F igure 220-22 i l lust rate var ious prof i le con-
i 3 . Modern super - insul ated st ructures and sound si te pl anning st rategies favor SSE to cepts for ear th she l tered st ructures . They
cons i st of bermi ng over at -grade st ructures,
O SSW or i entat ion for st ructures in nor thern lat i tudes, wi th eastern or western biases
determined by local condi t ions . ful ly excavat i ng si tes, or par t ial she l ter ing
through basement a l ternat i ves .
4 . She l terbe l ts are an ef fect ive means of cont rol l ing ai r f low. The longest w i nd shadow Ear th she l ter const ruct ion requi res dry
is produced by a shel terbel t dens i ty of 50-65% mass to void rat io . Thi s t ranslates soi ls of l ow conduct i v i ty . We t soi ls shou ld
into mi xed dec iduous and coni ferous pl ant ings or ver t ical ly slat ted fenc ing . be avo ided, or wi th proper mi t igat ion,
i bermi ng may be acceptab l e . Ear thshe l tered
5 . Genera l ly, vent i lat ing ef fects of the w i nd can be promoted by tal l thin st ructures bui ldings shou ld be vented wi th an appro-
C wh i ch are one room wide to a l low cross f low, or by st ructures e l evated on co l umns pr i ate ai r exchanger and the s l ab shou ld be
W to promote under -vent ing .
sea l ed and vented for radon gas mi t igat ion .
0 6 . In cold, temperate , and hot ar id c l imates, temperature stabi l i zat ion may be promot - F igure 220-23 i l lust rates genera l steady
N ed by us ing ear th she l ter ing const ruct ion techniques on si tes wi th dry soi l condi t ion . state ear th tempera tures for var ious regions
N of the Un i ted States . These temperatures

Time-Saver St andards for Landscape Archi tecture

 SECT I ON
:

Ou t door Access i b i l i ty

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
N i cho l as T. D i nes
Con t r i bu t or:
Ga ry M . F i shbeck
Techn i ca l Wr i t e r :
Je f f rey D. B l ankensh i p
Resea rch Ass i s t an t :
Amy Anse l l
Graph i cs :
Laur a Burne t t , ASLA
Wa l l ace , Robe r t s and Todd
San D i ego , Ca l i forn i a
Rev i ewe rs:
John P.S . Sa l men , A I A
Na t i ona l Cen t e r f or a
Bar r i er -Free Env i ronmen t
Wash i ng t on , DC
Jay L . Jorgensen , ASLA
Annanda l e , V i rg i n i a

CONTENTS
1 . 0 Int roduc t i on and Purpose 4 . 4 Handra i l i ngs Tra i l P l ann i ng Cl ass i f i ca t i on Sys t em
4. 5 Wa l l s , Benches , and Ou t door Sea t i ng 5 .3 Int erpre t i ve Tra i l s
2 . 0 I mpor t an t Des i gn Concep t s
4. 6 Wa l kway Furn i sh i ngs Gene ra l
2 .1 Un i versa l Des i gn Wa l kway Furn i sh i ngs S i gnage
2 .2 Access i b l e Rou t e 5 . 4 Ou t door Camp i ng and P i cn i ck i ng
Bo l l ards
2 .3 Gr adua t ed D i f f i cu l ty o f Access
Cha i n bar r i ers Camp i ng
3 . 0 Des i gn Cons i dera t i ons for 4 . 7 Pa rk i ng and Passenge r Load i ng Zones P i cn i ck i ng
Accomoda t i ng D i sab i l i t i es 4. 8 Bus She l t ers and Li f ts Cook i ng Fac i l i t i es " Vf
tA
3 .1 V i sua l I mpa i rmen t s 4 . 9 Ou t door P l ant i ngs , Lawns , and 5 .5 Sw i mm i ng Fac i l i t i es
3 .2 Mob i l i t y I mpa i rmen t s Ga rdens Sw i mm i ng Poo l s V

ai
P l ant i ngs Beaches V
3 .3 Hea r i ng I mpa i rmen t s
3 .4 Manua l I mpa i rmen t s Lawns 5 . 6 F i sh i ng and Boa t i ng
3 .5 Lea rn i ng I mpa i rmen t s Ga rdens F i sh i ng
4 . 10 Ou t door L i ght i ng Boa t i ng 0
4 . 0 Des i gn E l emen t s and De t a i l s 0
4 . 11 S i gnage 5 . 7 Spec t a t or Areas
4 .1 Wa l kways , St ree t Cross i ngs , and
Int erna t i ona l Symbo l s Add i t i ona l Recommenda t i ons
Paved Sur f aces
P l acemen t of S i gnage 5 . 8 Pa rks and P l aygrounds
Gene ra l
5 .0 Access i b l e Recrea t i on 5 .9 l ogg i ng Pa t hs
Tac t i l e Wa rn i ng St r i ps
4 .2 Ou t door Sta i rs and Land i ngs
St a i rways
5 .1 Ou t door Recrea t i on Access Rou t e
5 . 2 H i k i ng Tra i l s
Agenc i es and Organ i za t i ons

Re f e rences
0
Land i ngs
4 .3 Ou t door Ramps
Gene ra l
S i gnage N
T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 240 - 2
The Un i form Federa l Access ibi l i ty 2 .2 Access i b l e Rou t e
1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON AND Standards (1984) were deve l oped to mini -
PURPOSE mi ze the di f ferences be tween the standards Prov id ing an access ibl e route is the mos t
prev ious l y used by four federa l agenc i es i mpor tant way to ensure uni versa l access- i t

P
assage of the Amer i cans w i th connects the pr i mary e l ements and spaces
Disabi l i t ies Ac t in 1990 has produced ( the Genera l Serv i ces Admini st rat ion, the
Depar tment of Hous i ng and Urban of a si te, park ing, ent rances, faci l i t ies, and
both pub l i shed legal guide l ines and bui ldings . An access ibl e route must be pro-
recommenda t i ons for access to the U . S . Deve l opment , the Depar tment of De fense ,
and the U .S . Posta l Service) , and the stan- v ided wh i ch is cont i nuous and f ree f rom
outdoor env i ronment . Thi s sect ion focuses obst ruct ions, as spec i f i ed in the ADAAG
on accessibi l i ty wi thin outdoor env i ron- dards recommended for faci l i t ies that are
not federa l ly funded or const ructed . The sect ion 4 .3 Access ibl e Rout e . Th i s route
ments such as parks, p l aygrounds , gardens , must coinc ide wi th the route p l anned for
wi lderness areas, beaches , and common UFAS inc lude archi tectura l and t ranspor ta-
t ion guide l ines as we l l as a l arge amount of the genera l publ i c to the max i mum extent
urban env i ronments . Spec i f ic des ign rec- feasibl e (F igure 240-1) .
ommenda t i ons for ful ly access ibl e env i ron- bas i c informat ion useful for formu l at ing
ments and addi t iona l guide l ines based on a m i n i mum d i mens i ona l cr i ter ia for many si t - The par t i cul ar si te context usua l l y dic-
number of i mpor tant des ign concepts and uat ions . tates des ign st rategi es . Therefore , des ign
pr inc ipl es are prov ided . The Amer i cans w i th Disabi l i t ies Ac t cons iderat ions for cont i nuous accessibi l i ty
Accessibi l i ty Gu ide l ines (1991) was subse- shou ld emphas i ze speci f ic e l ements and
Many individua ls are unab l e to i ndepen- detai ls . These e l ements relate to spaces
dent l y obta in access to the l andscape quent l y deve l oped by the US Archi tectura l
and Transpor tat i on Bar r i er Comp l i ance such as inter iors, wa i t i ng and rest areas,
because of barr iers . Barr iers in the l and- and park i ng ; spec i f ic t ransi t ion points at
scape inc lude des i gned sur faces wh i ch are Board . The ADAAG incorporates ANSI
A117 .1-1980, wh i ch were deve l oped by bui lding ent r i es and curb ramps ; c l earances
not whee l cha i r -negot i ab l e and mi sp l aced be tween bui ldings and on paved sur faces,
bol l ards wh i ch create obstac l es unde- the Amer i can Nat iona l Standards Inst i tute .
The ADAAG sets guide l ines for accessibi l i ty and deta i ls inc luding l ight ing and s i gnage .
tectabl e by cane . Yet bar r i ers can of ten be Pedest r i an c i rcul at ion systems shou l d
avo i ded by creat ive or s imp l e des ign solu- for the pr i vate sector , under the Amer i cans
wi th Disabi l i t ies Ac t of 1990 . At this wr i t - inc lude loops rather than dead ends .
t ions wh i ch take into account di f ferent
users' needs . The concept of "Uni versa l ing, it seems l ikely that the ADAAG wi l l
soon repl ace the UFAS as the singl e acces- 2 .3 Gradua t ed D i f f i cu l ty of Access
Des i gn" has emerged to he lp des igners
address issues of concern to the widest pos- sibi l i ty guide l ine standard in the U .S . A system of gradua ted di f f icul ty of access is
sible range of individua ls wi thout segregat - Cop i es of the UFAS standards may be most appl i cabl e to the des ign and manage -
ing di f ferent users . acqu i red by contact ing the US Archi tectura l ment of outdoor recreat iona l faci l i t ies, par -
and Transpor tat ion Bar r i ers Comp l i ance t icular ly to h i k ing and camp i ng areas (See
Informat ion in this sect ion has been pre- 5 .0 Access ib l e Recreat ion in this sect ion for
pared to comp l ement the Un i form Federa l Board . fur ther informat ion) . The obj ect i ve is to
Access ibi l i ty Standards (UFAS) and the prov ide a w i de var i ety of trai l types wi th a
Amer i cans wi th Disabi l i t ies Ac t Accessibi l i ty 2 .0 I MPORTANT DES I GN range of oppor tuni t i es and exper i ences to
Gu ide l ines (ADAAG) . Cur rent l y, the UFAS CONCEPTS accommoda t e or cha l l enge al l abi l i t ies . The
appl i es to many federa l agenc i es wh i l e the diversi ty of trai l types is character i zed by
ADAAG appl i es to the pr i vate sector. State Severa l concepts re l ated to accessibi l i ty are var i at ions in degree of di f f icul ty (wi th vary-
or local government ent i t ies may fo l low i mpor tant to understand pr ior to rev i ewing ing sur faces, widths, slopes, cross-s lopes,
e i ther set of standards , but a si te des ign the guide l ines out l ined in this sect Ion . l engths, edges , number of rest stops, etc .) .
mus t be un i form in appl i cat ion (i .e . the A good system of s i gnage is necessary for
UFAS and ADAAG guide l ines cannot be 2 .1 Un i versa l Des i gn user se l ect ion of trai l type . Such a system
"mi xed and ma t ched" wi th in one si te) . does not comprom i se the recreat iona l
Un i versa l Des i gn is a phi losophi ca l l
For fur ther informat ion inc luding spec i f - approach to des ign wh i ch seeks to el imi - exper i ence for anyone , nor segregate users .
ic recommenda t i ons , the Of f i ce of the nate barr iers whi l e prov id ing access and
Amer i cans w i th Disabi l i t ies Ac t may be con- usabi l i ty to the broadest poss ibl e range of 3 .0 DES I GN CONS I DERAT I ONS
tacted di rect ly. Exper t gu i dance is ava i l abl e peop l e . A key to Un i versa l Des i gn is FOR ACCOMMODAT I NG
regard ing the appl i cat ion of the Amer i cans becomi ng aware of the w i de var i ety of dis- D ISABILITIES
wi th Disabi l i t ies Act , the Amer i cans wi th abi l i ty concerns . Des igners fo l lowing the
. V1 Disabi l i t i es Ac t Access ibi l i ty Gu i de l i nes UFAS or ADAAG standards may f ind that The range of abi l i t ies among peop l e is
N (ADAAG) , and the Un i form Federa l whi l e the d imens iona l guide l ines are highl y h igh l y var i ed . The guide l ines in this sect ion
u Accessibi l i ty Standards (UFAS) . Contac t : useful , fo l lowing UFAS or ADAAG does not address spec i f ic categor i es of i mpa i rment
Q The Of f i ce of the Amer i cans w i th automat i ca l l y create an access ibl e or usab l e and des ign st rategi es requi red to accom-
i
O
Disabi l i t ies Ac t
Civi l R ights Di v i s ion
space . Understand i ng di f ferent types of
i mpa i rments and how they mi ght af fect
moda t e them . They inc lude visual , mobi l i ty,
hear ing, manua l , and l earning i mpa i rments .
O US Depar tment of Just ice access is necessary in order to create usab l e Other areas of concern inc lude lack of sta-
P. O . Box 66118 l andscapes . In addi t ion, the guide l ines per - mi na and ext remes in si ze and we i ght .
Wash i ngton , DC 20035-6118 mi t f lexibi l i ty, if equa l or greater accessibi l i - Hear i ng and manua l i mpa i rments are
1 (800) 514-0301 ty can be prov i ded by a di f ferent or more some t i mes accommoda t ed by spec i f i c
1 (800) 514-0383 TTD creat i ve des ign solut ion . dev i ces . Learn i ng and menta l i mpa i rments
1 (202) 514-6194 (E l ect ron i c Bu l l et i n Board) in the outdoor env i ronment are of ten
webs i te : www.usdoj .gov addressed by clar i ty of s i gnage or the use
N
Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Archi tecture
 1 . Park i ng areas shou l d be re l a t ed d i rec t l y t o
the bu i l d i ngs wh i ch they se rve. ' Hand! - -
capped ' park i ng st a l l s shou l d be no mor e
t han 30 000mm (100 ' ) f rom bu i l d i ng
ent r i es .

2 . Drop-o f f zones shou l d be l oca t ed as c l ose

as poss i b l e t o pr i mary en t ryways . No
grade changes shou l d ex i st be t ween road
sur f aces and ad j acen t wa l kways. Veh i -
cu l ar connec t i ons t o drop-o f f s , s i te
en t rance and park i ng areas shou l d be
d i rec t .

3 . 5 i t e en t rances shou l d be we l l i dent i f i ed

w i th obv i ous re l a t i onsh i p t o t he bu i l d i ngs
and s i t es they se rve.

4. C l ear and l eg i b l e l i gnage shou l d be prov i d-

ed t o d i rec t pedes t r i ans t o var i ous des t i -
na t i ons.

5 . Bu i l d i ng en t r i es shou l d be c l ear l y i dent i -

f i ed ; comb i ned means of en t ry shou l d be
prov i ded for hand i capped i nd i v i dua l s ( i .e.
both r amps and st a i rs) : pub l i c fac i l i t i es
shou l d be l oca t ed near access i b l e ent ry-
ways ( l avator i es , phones , dr i nk i ng foun-
t a i ns , e t c .) ; no grade changes shou l d
ex i st be t ween en t ryways and t hese fac i l i -
t i es.

6 . Wa i t i ng areas pre f erab l y shou l d be l oca t ed w i th i n 90 000 mm r

(300 ' ) of bu i l d i ng ent ry ; avo i d t ra f f i c conges t i on ; and overhead
she l t e r shou l d be prov i ded for prot ec t i on f rom wea ther , ade -
qua t e sea t i ng and l i ght i ng shou l d a l so be prov i ded .

7. Res t areas shou l d be prov i ded whe re pedes t r i ans mus t wa l k ,

l ong d i s t an ces ; keep res t areas of f wa l kway t hrough f a r es -

5 . Wa l kways shou l d prov i de c l ear and d i rec t rou t es t hroughou t s i t es : our -

f aces shou l d be f i rm and l eve l ; curb cu t s and r amps shou l d be prov i ded
whe r e necessa r y ; access i b l e wa l kways shou l d cons i s t o f c l osed l oops ra ther
t han dead ends .
Q
U

F i gur e 240-1 . Access i b l e rou t e . An access i b l e rou t e ensures tha t a l l peop l e w i l l have un i n t er rup t ed access to fac i l i t i es

0
N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec tur
 of l andma r k f ea tures to a i d in s i te or i ent a-
t i on . These s t ra t eg i es a i m to ach i eve
Un i versa l Access .

3 .1 V i sua l I mpa i rmen t s

Int erna t i ona l l y there are an es t i ma t ed 40

mi l l i on peop l e who are b l i nd and ano t he r
20 mi l l i on who have severe v i sua l i mpa i r -
men t s . O f t he 8-12 mi l l i on U .S . c i t i zens
(1994) who are v i sua l l y i mpa i red , 4 .8 mi l -
l ion are severe l y i mpa i red . 1 .1 mi l l i on are
l ega l l y b l i nd and 220 , 000 have no usab l e
v i s i on a t al l . The r e are 9 .7 mi l l i on peop l e in
the U .S . whose func t i ona l l i mi ta t i ons in
see i ng wh i ch may a f f ec t or i ent a t i on and
negot i a t i on t hrough the l andscape . O f the
4 .8 mi l l i on who are severe l y i mpa i red ,
approx i ma t e l y 85 , 000 can read Bra i l l e .

O f t hose who are v i sua l l y i mpa i red in the

U .S ., 5 mi l l i on are ove r 65 . There fore , mos t
of those who are v i sua l l y i mpa i red a l so
F i gur e 240 -3 . Tac t i l e wa rn i ng s t r i ps . have the d i sadvan t age of l i mi t ed ba l ance ,
Tac t i l e wa rn i ng st r i ps are no t w i de l y used s t am i na , reac t i on t i me , and genera l agi l i ty,
and are no t a l ways recogn i zed as such , bu t as a func t i on of age .
do have pot ent i a l va l ue as dev i ces to wa rn
N i ne t y-s i x percent of those who are
of haza rdous areas . D i mens i ons of wa rn i ng
v i sua l l y i mpa i red became b l i nd dur i ng
st r ip shou l d be suf f i c i ent to f orewa rn
adu l t hood and consequen t l y unde rs t and
pedes t r i ans.
t he way urban env i ronmen t s are typ i ca l l y
F i gur e 240 -2 . Cane t echn i que . The s t ruc tured . Those w i th l i mi t ed v i s i on adap t
Typh l o cane is pr i mar i l y used by t hose w i t h to the i r gradua l l y worsen i ng v i s i on and
l i m i t ed v i s i on and w i l l de t ec t ob j ec t s on l y l earn how bes t to use wha t rema i ns of the i r
w i th i n a spec i f i c range. Ob j ec t s shou l d no t s i ght . S i mp l e percep t i on of l ight , for exam-
pro t rude i nto pedes t r i an pa t hways above a
p l e , he l ps one d i scr i m i na t e be t ween n i ght
675 mm (27 in . ) he i gh t .

u
u
Q
O
O

0
N F i gur e 240 -4 . Curb r amps a t ma r ked c ross i ngs . Curb r amps in order of pre f erence for access i b i l i ty.

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

F i gur e 240 -5 . Componen t s f or v i sua l
and t ex t ura l cue i ng . Bo t h v i sua l and
t extura l cues can be emp l oyed to f orewa rn
hand i capped pedes t r i ans o f haza rdous
araac
F i gur e 240 - 6 . Tac t i l e wa rn i ng a t haza rdous veh i cu l a r a r eas . V i sua l and l or tex-
tura l cues can be used to f orewa rn motor i s t s o f pedes t r i an areas , and v i ce-versa .

the sun and t he presence of st ree t gra t i ngs , by ADAAG on sta i rs and many r amps .
exhaus t f ans , or a doorway. Care fu l des i gn of ramps , l and i ngs , sta i r -
ways , sta i r nos i ngs , and t read- r i ser rat i os is
D i f f erences in pav i ng ma t er i a l s can pro-
i mpor t ant , as is the cho i ce of sur f ace ma t e -
v i de tact i l e cues to a i d negot i a t i on and
r ia ls . Wa l kway sur f aces shou l d no t const i -
i dent i fy hazards . A sense of ba l ance he l ps
tut e a pot ent i a l hazard in themse l ves .
i dent i f y t opograph i c grad i ent s , t he beg i n-
n i ng or end o f a ramp , the approx i ma t e Leve l changes wh i ch are no t r amped
w i d t h o f a c rowned road , or a dra i nage crea t e bar r i ers for mos t users of whee l -
s t ruc ture . cha i rs . Access i b i l i ty for whee l cha i r users
a l so i mp l i es adequa t e d i mens i on i ng o f
Many i nd i v i dua l s w i th i mpa i red v i s i on
spaces , routes , r amps and doorways , and
re l y on the i r l i mi ted v i s i on and var i ous env i - prope r p l acemen t o f s t ree t furn i ture .
ronmen t a l cues when negot i a t i ng the out -
K i ne tospheres , or reach l i mi ta t i ons , are a l so
door env i ronmen t . Some t rave l by ho l d i ng i mpor t an t de t erm i nan t s . Bo t h UFAS and
on t o the a rm or shou l der of a s i ght ed per -
ADAAG prov i de gu i de l i nes for pos i t i on i ng
F i gur e 240 - 7 . Unexpec t ed l eve l son . O t he rs emp l oy a var i e ty of mob i l i t y dr i nk i ng fount a i ns and t e l ephones . ADAAG
changes . Unexpec t ed l eve l changes are a ids , i nc l ud i ng use o f a l ong cane (i .e . , the
has an added sec t i on on the d i mens i ons for
haza rdous and shou l d no t occur in the Typh l o or Hoove r cane ) (F i gure 240-2) .
Au t oma t ed Te l l er Mach i nes .
ma i n l i ne o f pedes t r i an wa l kways . Ex i s t i ng Howeve r , use of a cane does no t a l ways
s i tua t i ons can be mod i f i ed to f orewa rn de t ec t pro t rud i ng ob j ec t s a t a he i gh t 3 . 3 Hea r i ng I mpa i rmen t s
unsuspec t i ng pedes t r i ans . grea t er t han abou t 675 mm (27 in) .
Ra i l i ngs , for i ns t ance , shou l d have a second i nd i v i dua l s w i th hear i ng i mpa i rmen t s may
and day , sun l i ght and shadow , or t he four rai l l owe r t han 675 mm (27 in) for eas i er encoun t e r bar r i ers tha t cen t er a round spo-
de t ec t i on . Ove rhang i ng branches are a l so ken i n forma t i on and aud i b l e wa rn i ng com-
card i na l d i rec t i ons .
not eas i l y de t ec t ed . mun i ca t i on , as v i s i on is re l i ed upon for
Such i nd i v i dua l s l earn to re l y upon the i n forma t i ona l needs . Dange r may occur
o ther senses of sme l l , hear i ng , and t ouch 3 .2 Mob i l i t y I mpa i rmen t s when a l arms such as au t omob i l e horns or A
for i dent i f i ca t i on and or i ent a t i on t hrough f i re a l arms are no t accompan i ed by f l ash i ng
comp l ex ou t door env i ronmen t s . The sense Impa i red mob i l i t y can be t he resu l t of a
l i ghts or o ther v i sua l cues . C l ear s i gnage
of sme l l is used to i dent i f y l andma rks w i de var i e ty o f cond i t i ons , such as t empo- and o ther v i sua l i nd i ca t i ons for d i rec t i ona l
whose charac ter i st i c odors can be r emem- rary or pe rmanen t i n j ur i es and t he norma l - V1
i n forma t i on are espec i a l l y i mpor t an t to
be red and cogn i t i ve l y mapped . The d i rec- e f f ec ts of ag i ng . i nd i v i dua l s w i th hear i ng i mpa i rmen t s when
t i on and l oca t i on of auto t raf f i c can be U

Qi
Impa i red mob i l i t y genera l l y re fers to an verba l commun i ca t i on is not poss i b l e . V
de t e rm i ned f rom aud i b l e cues . To a prac- i mpa i red func t i on of the l egs or an inab i l i ty
t i ced ear , the echo in a space can i nd i ca t e Ass i st i ve l i sten i ng sys t ems are requ i red in
to wa l k . I t can a l so re fer to l i mi ted s t am i -
i ts approx i ma t e s i ze and t he l oca t i on of cer ta i n assemb l y areas by ADAAG bu t spe- O
na , poor ba l ance , ex t reme of s i ze and
wa l l s or open i ngs . c i f i c gu i de l i nes have not ye t been deve l - O
we i gh t , or a hear t cond i t i on . A person w i th
oped for ou t door recrea t i on areas as of th i s
a mob i l i t y i mpa i rmen t may re l y on wa l k i ng
The percep t i on of w i nd or dra f t s wr i t i ng . Recommenda t i ons , howeve r , are
a i ds , need areas to rest , or requ i re a r amped
aga i ns t the sk i n can he l p i dent i fy st ree t cor - ava i l ab l e .
i nc l i ne for a whee l cha i r. When wa l k i ng is
ners , tunne l s , subway ent rances , or na r row
passages , as we l l as he l p i ng to de t e rm i ne
spat i a l f orm to some ex t en t . The percept i on
poss i b l e , there is o f t en d i f f i cu l ty in us i ng
sta i rs and ramps , espec i a l l y i f no hand ra i l -
3 . 4 Manua l I mpa i rmen t s 0
N
i ngs are present . Hand ra i l ings are requ i red Manua l i mpa i rmen t s genera l l y re fer to dys-
of hea t or co l d can i nd i ca t e t he d i rec t i on of
func t i ons of a rms or hands . Some i nd i v i du-

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 240- 6
s t rength and may crea t e a h i ndrance .
Equ i pmen t tha t can be opera t ed w i th a
c l osed f ist wi l l accommoda t e mos t peop l e .

Ope ra t i ng cont ro l s , such as a door open-

er wh i ch can be ac t i va t ed by a l arge push
bu t ton shou l d be p l aced so tha t a person
us i ng an e l ec t r i c whee l cha i r (such as
brea t h-ope ra t ed) can man i pu l a t e the i r
pos i t i on to push the bu t ton w i th the i r cha i r.

3 . 5 Lea rn i ng I mpa i rmen t s

i nd i v i dua l s w i th l earn i ng d i f f i cu l t i es requ i re

des i gn cons i dera t i on for severa l reasons .
Many peop l e have d i f f i cu l ty w i th or i ent a-
t i on and rout e memo r y as a func t i on of
cogn i t i ve mapp i ng d i f f i cu l ty . Graph i c sym-
bo l s can m i n i m i ze the hazards to t hose w i th
l earn i ng d i f f i cu l t i es by ca l l i ng ou t cross-
wa l ks , the edges of t raf f i c , and dange rous
and rest r i c ted areas . Graph i c symbo l i za t i on
(banded crosswa l ks , for examp l e ) can st i m-
u l a t e memor y in t hose w i t h l earn i ng di f f i -
cu l t i es . I l l i teracy can a l so be accommoda t ed
somewha t by t he use of graph i c symbo l i za -
F i gur e 240 - 8 . Ou t doo r s t ep t ypes . St eps shou l d be des i gned to sa f e l y accomoda t e
t i on . Landma r ks can func t i on as or i ent a t i on
t hose who wi l l use t hem . Care fu l a t t ent i on to nos i ng and shadow l i ne de ta i l s is espec i a l -
dev i ces in some cases .
l y i mpor t an t .

a l s have manua l d i f f i cu l ty as a func t i on o f

reduced s t rength in a rms and hands
I 4 . 0 DES I GN ELEMENTS AND
DETA I LS

Genera l cons i dera t i on of de ta i l s in access i -

because o f age or o t he r t empor a ry or per -
b l e des i gn i nc l ude d i mens i on i ng , ma t er i a l s
manen t cond i t i ons .
se l ec t i on , avo i dance of hazards , and ma i n-
Ope ra t i ng cont ro l s such as those f ound t enance i ssues . Spec i f i c r ecommenda t i ons
on e l eva tors , vend i ng mach i nes , doorways , are prov i ded be l ow and re f erences t o
or ga t es o f t en present bar r i ers . Push p l a t es gu i de l i nes are c i t ed .
and pu l l bars on ga t es or doors are recom-
Access i b l e ou t door fac i l i t i es shou l d
mended . Bu t tons or l arge sw i ng knobs are
i ncorpora t e the fo l l ow i ng amen i t i es as c l ose
pre f erab l e to sma l l tw i s t i ng or d i a l i ng
to en t ryways as poss i b l e :
mechan i sms wh i ch requ i re some degree of

, ., r Uz i

Phys i ca l i mpa i rmen t s a f fect a broad based popu l a t i on and requ i re spec i f i c des i gn
cons i dera t i ons .
1 . Many i nd i v i dua l s w i th i mpa i red v i s ion re l y on the i r l imi ted v i s ion and var i ous env i ron-
" 1!1 ment a l cues when negot i a t i ng the ou tdoor env i ronmen t . The Typh l o cane is pr i mar i l y
N used by those w i th l imi ted v i s ion and wi l l de t ec t ob j ec ts on l y w i th i n a spec i f i c range .
u Tact i l e warn i ng st r ips are r ecommended to forewarn pedest r i ans of hazardous areas .
u Ob j ec t s shou l d not prot rude into pedest r i an pa thways above a 675 mm (27 in) he i ght
Q (F i gure 240-2 and 240-3) .
i 2 . A person w i th a mob i l i ty i mpa i rmen t may re l y on wa l k i ng a ids , need areas to rest , or
requ i re a r amped inc l ine for a whee l cha i r (see F i gure 240-10 for r amp d i mens i ons) .
0 3 . Ass i st i ve l i sten ing sys t ems are requ i red in cer ta i n assemb l y areas by ADAAG .
4 . Opera t i ng cont ro l s such as those f ound on e l eva tors , vend i ng mach i nes , doorways ,
F i gur e 240 - 9 . S t a i rway l and i ngs . and ga t es shou l d have push p l ates , pul l bars , but tons , or l arge sw i ng knobs .
Ver t i ca l he i gh t be t ween s t a i rway l and i ngs Equ i pmen t tha t can be opera t ed w i th a c l osed f ist wi l l accommoda t e mos t peop l e .
shou l d be m i n i m i zed to accommoda t e 5 . Graph i c symbo l s can m i n i m i ze the hazards to those w i th l earn i ng di f f i cul t i es by ca l l -
i nd i v i dua l s w i t h l i m i t ed s t rength . No t e tha t i ng out crosswa l ks , the edge of t raf f ic, and dangerous and rest r i cted areas (see
m i n i mum w i d t hs do no t i nc l ude the th i ck- F i gure 240-26 : Un i versa l Des i gn Symbo l s) .
ness o f wa l l s .
N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 240 - T
1 . Park i ng ( for appropr i a t e numbe r o f
reserved access i b l e spaces , see Tab l e
240-1) .

2 . Access i b l e rest room fac i l i t i es

3 . Access i b l e dr i nk i ng fount a i n(s)

4 . Access i b l e pub l i c t e l ephone(s)

5 . Access i b l e wa i t i ng area w i th
appropr i a t e sea t i ng

6 . In forma t i ona l and d i rec t i ona l s i gnage

7 . E l eva tors , esca l a tors when in use

8 . O t he r amen i t i es prov i ded on s i te (ex .

ATM mach i nes)

For spec i f i c i nforma t i on , refer to t he fo l -

l ow i ng sec t i ons :

ADAAG 4 .6 Pa rk i ng and Passenge r

Load i ng Zones

ADAAG 4 . 23 Ba t hrooms , Ba t h i ng
Fac i l i t i es, and Showe r Rooms

ADAAG 4 .15 Dr i nk i ng Fount a i ns and

Wa t e r Coo l ers

ADAAG 4 .31 Te l ephones

ADAAG 4 .32 F i xed or Bu i l t - in Sea t i ng

and Tab l es

ADAAG 4 . 30 S i gnage

ADAAG 4 . 10 E l eva tors and Esca l a tors

ADAAG 4 . 34 Au t oma t ed Te l l er
Mach i nes

The fo l l ow i ng des i gn deta i l s common l y

occur in ou t door env i ronmen t s :

4 .1 Wa l kways , St ree t Cross i ngs and

Paved Sur f aces
Genera l :
The fo l l ow i ng r ecommenda t i ons prov i de
genera l des i gn gu i de l i nes ; consu l t the
appropr i a t e sec t i ons in ADAAG or UFAS for A
spec i f i c scop i ng requ i remen t s .
C l osed ne t works of pedes t r i an access i b l e .
rout es ra ther t han d i scon t i guous un i ts of N
access i b l e des i gn are essent i a l for a p l eas- N
ant exper i ence for mos t peop l e . Sma l l and V
l arge l oops are genera l l y des i rab l e for al l .
P l aces to s top and rest shou l d be prov i ded . Q
i
I f a pa th is nar row , pass i ng space for t wo O
whee l cha i rs mus t be prov i ded a t per i od i c O
i nterva l s (mos t whee l cha i rs are 800-900
mm (32-36 in) w i de and a 900 mm (36 in)
pa th m i n i mum is requ i red on an Access i b l e
Rou t e ) . Maneuve r i ng a round f i xed ob j ec t s
requ i res mor e space as we l l . P l aces to s top
and rest shou l d be l eve l and l arge enough
so tha t a whee l cha i r can " park " sa f e l y
N

T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 240 - 8
r amps shou l d no t exceed 2% in deve l oped
areas , and 3% in mor e na tura l or pr i mi t i ve
areas (due to cons t ruc t i on const ra i nts) .
Tab l e 240 -1 . M I N I MUM ACCESS I BLE
Ob j ec t s wh i ch are non-de t ec t ab l e by cane
SPACES .
and prot rude i nto the Access i b l e Rou t e
mus t be avo i ded or ma r ked accord i ng to
TOTAL PARK I NG REQU I RED
spec i f i ca t i ons . Aud i b l e cues , such as fa l l i ng IN LOT M I N I MUM
wa t e r f rom a fount a i n and even vege t a t i on , NUMBER OF
ACCESS I BLE
can a i d grea t l y in non-v i sua l or i ent a t i on of
SPACES
a pa th sys t em . The fo l l ow i ng ADAAG sec-
t i ons prov i de mor e i n forma t i on : 1 TO 25 1

26 TO 50 2
ADAAG 4 .3 Access i b l e Rou t e , for gener -
al requ i remen t s 51 TO 75 3

76 TO 100 4
ADAAG 4 .4 Pro t rud i ng Ob j ec t s
101 TO 150 5
ADAAG 4 .5 Ground and F l oor sur f aces
151 TO 200 6
ADAAG 4 .6 Pa rk i ng and Passenge r
201 TO 300 7
Load i ng Zones
301 TO 400 8
ADAAG 4 .8 Ramps
401 TO 500 9
ADAAG 4 . 14 Ent rances 501 TO 1000 2 % of
tot a l
Tac t i l e Wa rn i ng St r i ps (De t ec t ab l e
1001 and ove r 20 p l us 1 for
Wa rn i ngs) :
each 100 ove r
1000
Tact i l e wa rn i ng st r ips tha t wa rn of dange r
are used on wa l kway sur f aces and at curb
Source: U .S. Access Board , Amer i cans w i th Di sabi l i t i es Ac t
r amps and st ree t cross i ngs to wa rn pedes -
Access ib i l i ty Gu i de l i nes , U .S.
t r i ans of abrup t grade changes , veh i cu l ar Arch i tectura l and Transpor t a t i on Bar r i ers Comp l i ance Board ,
areas , pot ent i a l l y dange rous ex i ts , re f l ect - Wash i ngton , DC , Sep t embe r 1994 .
i ng or sw i mm i ng poo l s , wa t e r fount a i ns ,
and o t he r obs t ruc t i ons or hazards . (F i gures
240-3 t hrough 240-6) They are needed at
both the t op and bo t t om of s t a i rways
(F i gure 240-3) , in f ront of doors tha t l ead
to pot ent i a l l y haza rdous areas , and when a
wa l k i ng sur f ace and veh i cu l ar way cross or
ad j o i n and are no t separa t ed by curbs or
o ther e l emen t s . Tex tured door knobs or
w i thou t obs t ruc t i ng the Access i b l e Rou t e . I f hand l es are a l so bene f i c i a l . Howeve r , such
a rout e is no t access i b l e , s i gnage re f er r i ng wa rn i ngs shou l d no t be used a t eme rgency
to the en t rance of an Access i b l e Rou t e ex i ts , as t hey can d i scourage use of the ex i t
shou l d be pos t ed in a consp i cuous p l ace so dur i ng rea l eme rgenc i es .
as to avo i d " dead- ends . " Howeve r , the
A l i near tact i l e wa rn i ng st r ip can de f i ne
Access i b l e Rou t e mus t co i nc i de w i t h the
the zone a l ong the ou t er edge of wa l k -
rout e for the genera l pub l i c to the max i -
ways , l eav i ng a c l ear pa th w i thou t obs t ruc -
mum ex t ent feas i b l e , by l aw. Sma l l l eve l
t i on of st reet furn i ture and t rees . (Re f er to
changes shou l d be avo i ded or m i n i m i zed ,
and sur f aces shou l d be chosen w i th care . the fo l l ow i ng gu i de l i nes for spec i f i c d i men-
s i ons and scop i ng requ i remen t s : ADAAG
Ma t er i a l s in a boardwa l k , f l ags tones , and
N 4 .7 Curb Ramps ; ADAAG 4 . 29 De t ec t ab l e
ûu br i ck pav i ng , for examp l e , shou l d be
" f l ush " so tha t sma l l l eve l changes neve r
Wa rn i ngs) . F i gur e 240 - 15 . Cha i n bar r i ers and

ai exceed 12 mm (1 / 2 in) . The w i de l y vary i ng na ture of wa l kway

sur f aces common l y used makes s t andard-
gua rdr a i l s. Cha i n bar r i ers can be very
haza rdous and shou l d be used on l y w i t h a
Runn i ng s l opes grea t er than 1 : 20 are h i gh degree of d i sc re t i on. Cha i ns tha t sag
O di f f i cul t for many peop l e , i nc l ud i ng mos t
i za t i on of tact i l e wa rn i ng st r ips di f f i cul t , bu t be l ow 675 mm (27 î n) i n he i gh t a r e
O the s t andard i za t i on of t ex tured wa rn i ng de t ec t ab l e by cane bu t a r e o f t en unseen by
10 i nd i v i dua l s who use manua l whee l cha i rs
4-0 and peop l e w i t h l ess s t am i na . S l opes sur f aces w i th i n any one s i te or fac i l i ty can o t he rs , espec i a l l y t he e l de r l y. Gua rdr a i l s
3 be eas i l y accomp l i shed . Textura l and co l or
grea t er than 1 : 20 are cons i dered Ramps by mus t be h i gh enough to be eas i l y seen , bu t
cont ras t s shou l d be s t rong but shou l d no t ra i l mus t be de t ec t ab l e w i t h i n a 675 mm
ADAAG and fal l unde r d i f f erent des i gn
cons t i tut e a sa f e t y hazard in themse l ves .
0 requ i remen t s . Ramps shou l d no t exceed
Con t ras t in t one is the i mpor t an t cr i ter i on .
(27 î n) c l ea r max i mum he i gh t r ange .

I IT 8 . 33% (1 :12) for d i s t ances grea t er t han 9

000 mm (30 f t ) . Cross s l opes on pa ths and
St a t e regu l a t i ons shou l d be checked .
PV

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 240- 9
Tab l e 240 - 2 . HAZARDOUS AND NOX I OUS PLANT SPEC I ES

Spec i es Commen t s

Hol l y, yew, pr i vet , l aure l , rhododendron Ch i l dren may be t emp t ed to

samp l e br i ght -co l ored
ber r i es or l eaves
Po i sonous p l ants
Crab app l e , p l um, cher ry , oak , chestnut , Long , st rap- l i ke rods , ber r i es, cones , and nuts can
h i ckory , wa l nut be s l ippery or di f f i cul t to wa l k on. They are
eas i l y t racked into bu i l d i ngs and can sta in
c l oth i ng if sa t upon .
Debr i s : f rui ts and nuts
Pines , spruce , f i r, l arch, hem l ock Cones , wh i l e hav i ng many decora t i ve uses ,
can cause prob l ems for pedest r i ans and
sma l l -whee l ed veh i c l es on wa l kway sur f aces.
Cones
Swee t gum , sycamore , London p l ane t ree , Pods crea t e unsure foot i ng for
honey locust , map l e pedest r i ans and h i nder the move
men t s of sma l l -whee l ed veh i c l es.
Seed pods
Bi rch, si lver map l e , box e lder , horse Branch debr i s is di f f i cul t to wa l k on or to push sma l l
chestnut , pop l ar , w i l l ow, tul ip t ree , e l m whee l ed veh i c l es over . Large branches can cause ext ens i ve
damage to i t ems on wh i ch they m i ght happen to fal l ,
Br anch br eakage such as cars, sma l l wood- f rame st ructures , e tc .
Bi rch, w i l l ow, p i n oak , beech , magno l i a Branches can drop be l ow m i n i mum
c l earances on wa l kways or st reets caus i ng fac i a l or eye
injur i es to pedes t r i ans and hazards for motor i s t s .
Droop i ng br anches

W i l l ow, red map l e , si lver map l e , beech , Sur f ace root sys t ems can cause wa l ks to heave and break
cot tonwood , pop l ar var i et i es apar t , and pedest r i ans may t r ip and fal l .
Uneven or broken sur f aces can be ex t reme l y
di f f i cul t for sma l l -whee l ed veh i c l es .
Sha l l ow Roo t s

S i ebo l d v i burnum, f ema l e g i nkgo , Fou l -sme l l i ng odors no t on l y degrade the

M i mosa aesthe t i c appea l of an area but a l so t end to make some
peop l e nauseous .
Odo r

Barber ry , qu i nce , hawt home , locust , P l ants w i th thorns or sp i kes can be pa i nfu l and dangerous
hol l y, rose var i et i es, pr i vet to brush aga i nst or fal l i nto . Leaves , tw i gs , and branches
that fal l to the ground can a l so be hazardous to peop l e in
Thorns and sp i kes l ight footwear or wa l k i ng bare foot .

Fru i t t rees (crab app l e , cher ry , p l um, e tc .), Because of the severe react i on cer ta i n peop l e have to
moun t a i n l aure l insect b i tes and st ings , the use of p l ant ma ter i a l s
wh i ch at t ract these pests are no t r ecommended for areas
I nsec t s and pests near wa l ks and sea t i ng.
Source : Gary Robinet te , ed ., Bar r i er Free Si te Des i gn , van Nost rand Re inhold, New York , 1985 .

ci)
F i gu r e 240 - 16 . Tr ash r ecep t ac l es .
V
Trash recept ac l e des i gns have var i ous
ai
V
advant ages and d i sadvant ages depend i ng
on the c l i ma t e and s i tuat ion, i nc l ud i ng
ease of use and exc l us i on of ra in or snow. O
O

N
T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 240 - 1 0
4 .2 Ou t door Sta i rs and Land i ngs
Sta i rways:
Sta i rways const i tute the most formi dab l e
barr ier and safety hazard for those wi th
physi ca l i mpa i rments . A l arge percentage of
acc idents by severe l y visua l ly i mpa i red indi -
v idua l s occur at level changes (F igure 240-
7 and 240-8) .
Open r isers are not permi t ted under
ADAAG . Spec i f i cs on t reads and r isers, nos-
ings, handra i l s and detectab l e warn i ngs are
g i ven in the sect ion : ADAAG 4 .9 Stai rs .
Land i ngs:
Outdoor l andings to sta i rways shou l d be
adequa te l y d i mens i oned to a l low room for
the conven i ent movemen t of peop l e , espe-
cial ly for those who need ass i stance nego-
t iat ing sta i rways . The max i mum he ight
be tween l and ings shou ld be 1 500 mm (5
f t) for visual coherence and psychologi ca l
invi tat ion be tween ad j acent levels . Lower
he ights are prefer red (F igure 240-9) .
4 .3 Ou t door Ramps
Ramps are crucial for those who use whee l -
cha i rs but may not be easi er to negot i ate
than stai rs for others . Both means of access
shou ld be prov i ded whenever poss ibl e
(F igure 240-10) (Refer to the fo l lowing sec-
t ions : ADAAG 4 .7 Curb Ramps ; ADAAG
4 .8 Ramps) .
Ramps requi re leve l l and ings at both top
and bot tom of each ramp and be tween
each ramp run . Cl ear f loor space must be
adequa te to maneuver on and of f of ramp ,
out of doors, etc . See sect ion ADAAG 4 .8 .4
Land i ngs

4 .4 Handra i l i ngs
Hand rai l ings are i mpor tant for safety and
can a id wi th mobi l i ty, or i entat ion and cog-
ni t ive mapp i ng of the env i ronment . Steps,
ramps , sof t ground, and i r regul ar pav i ng
sur faces are non-negot i ab l e for many peo- 4 .5 Wa l l s , Benches , and Ou t door 4 .6 Wa l kway Furn i sh i ngs
pl e if no hand rai l ings are present . In recre- Sea t i ng
. in at iona l set t ings, ropes wi th per iodi c knots Wa l kway Furn i sh i ngs:
have of ten been used as or i enteer ing Basic outdoor seat ing too of ten fai ls to
u dev i ces enab l i ng some peop l e wi th visual address the needs of a broad l y based user Wa l kway furni shings shou ld be careful ly
aui i mpa i rments to en j oy env i ronments other -
wi se di sor i ent ing and prev ious l y inaccessi -
group . For examp l e , many peop l e of ten
requi re arm rests when get t ing into or out
organ i zed for safety and eas i er negot i a-
t ion . Furni shings shou ld be easi ly
O bl e (F igure 240-11) (Refer to 5 .0 Access ibl e of a seated posi t ion . Hee l space is a l so nec- detectab l e by cane , e i ther in themse l ves or
O Recreat ion in this sect ion for more informa- essary to make r ising f rom a seated pos i t ion by way of a hazard st r ip . A hazard st r ip
t ion) . See the fo l lowing sect ions for more eas i er (F igures 240-12 and 240-13) . ( l inear textured sur face) can be used to
3 informat ion : ADAAG 4 .9 .4 Stai r Handra i l s ; Whee l cha i r users of ten desi re p l aces to stop separate wa l kway furni shings f rom c lear
ADAAG 4 .8 .5 Ramp Handra i l s . and rest and p l aces to set packages . See the wa l k i ng space (Refer to 4 .1 Wa l kways and
fo l lowing sect ions for d i mens i ons of out - Paved Sur faces in this sect ion for more
0 door seat ing and assemb l y areas : ADAAG informat ion on tact i le warn i ng st r ips) .
4 .32 F i xed or Bui l t - in Seat ing and Tab l es ;
N ADAAG 4 .33 Assemb l y Areas

Ti me-Saver St andards for Landscape Archi tecture

 240 - 1 1

F i gur e 240 - 19 . Access i b l e bus s t op . Bus s tops shou l d be par t o f an access i b l e F i gur e 240 -21 . Trans i t i on be t ween
pedes t r i an ne t wor k and i nc l ude an area des i gned for dep l oymen t o f a l i f t . A c l ear v i ew o f da r k and sun l i t a r eas . As a func t i on of
approach i ng buses shou l d be ma i n t a i ned. ag i ng , v i sua l response to abrup t changes in
l i ght i nt ens i t y becomes s l owe r . Care fu l
cho i ce and p l acemen t o f t rees , arbors , t re l -
l i swork , and s i m i l ar dev i ces can sof t en the
t rans i t i on be t ween dark l y shaded and
br i ght l y sun l i t areas.

t i on by al l peop l e (Re f er to ADAAG 4 .4

Pro t rud i ng Ob j ec t s for mor e i nforma t i on) .

4 . 7 Pa r k i ng and Passenge r Load i ng

Zones

The m i n i mum numbe r of Access i b l e Spaces

in se l f -park park i ng lots are presen t ed in
Tab l e 240-1 .

The "Un i versa l " Park i ng Space Des i gn

r ecommends tha t al l access i b l e spaces to be
3 300 mm (11 f t ) w i de w i th a 1 500 mm
(5 f t ) access a i s l e in order to accommoda t e
the i ncrease in use o f vans w i th s i de-
moun t ed l i f ts or r amps (See F i gure 240-17
and 270-18) .

Spec i f i c d i mens i ona l i n f orma t i on on

park i ng and passenge r l oad i ng zones is a l so
F i gur e 240 - 20 . M i c roc l i ma t i c com f or t . M i croc l i ma t i c cont ro l is espec i a l l y i mpor -
g i ven in the fo l l ow i ng sec t i on : ADAAG 4 .6
t ant for e l der l y peop l e , who are adverse l y a f f ec t ed by br i ght l ight , g l are , co l d draf ts , and Park i ng and Passenge r Load i ng Zones .
excess i ve hea t . On wa rm , sunny days , for i ns t ance , a l i ght l y shaded area w i t hou t w i nd i -
ness is a pre f er red env i ronmen t . 4 . 8 Bus She l t e rs and L i f t s
.v f
Al l bus she l t ers shou l d have an unobs t ruc t - N
Bo l l ards : Cha i n Bar r i ers :
ed v i ew of ar r i v i ng veh i cu l ar t raf f i c for bo t h V
Bo l l ards , or pos t bar r i ers , shou l d no t be
p l aced in the ma i n l ine of pedes t r i an t rave l
Cha i n bar r i ers can be haza rdous to pedes -
t r i ans , b i cyc l i sts , and motorcyc l i s t s s i nce
s t and i ng and sea t ed i nd i v i dua l s . The drop-
of f zone shou l d be par t of the Access i b l e ai
and shou l d be cen t ered on park i ng sta l ls, these bar r i ers are di f f i cul t to see , espec i a l l y Rou t e .
O
when app l i cab l e , to a l l ow f ree pedes t r i an when l ower than 790 mm (32 in) in he i ght , The st ree t ad j acent to access i b l e bus O
t rave l to and f rom park i ng areas (F i gure and a l so at n i ght (F i gure 240-16) . Cha i ns a t
s tops shou l d no t have a h i gh c rown wh i ch
240-14) . The same pr i nc i p l e app l i es to a he i gh t o f 670 mm (27 in) or l ess are mor e
wou l d cause the bus l i f t to t i l t , and the curb
t rees , p l ant ers , l i ght s t andards , park i ng eas i l y de t ec t ed by v i sua l l y i mpa i red cane
me t ers , t rash recept ac l es , and the l i ke upon wh i ch the l i f t descends shou l d be l ow

0
users . D i scre t i on shou l d be used when
(F i gure 240-15) . enough to a l l ow ful l dep l oymen t o f t he l i f t.
des i gn i ng cha i n bar r i ers , and a means
A max i mum curb he i ght of 200 mm (8 in)
shou l d be dev i sed to i ncrease the i r de t ec -
N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 240- 1 2

F i gur e 240 -22 . No i se bu f f e r f or eas i e r ou t door conve r sa t i on. As a func t i on o f

ag i ng , e l der l y peop l e o f t en l ose the i r ab i l i ty to c l ear l y d i s t i ngu i sh be t ween s i mu l t aneous
sounds . Ou t door conversa t i on areas shou l d be bu f f ered f rom i nt er f er i ng no i se wheneve r
poss i b l e .

F i gur e 240 - 24 . Ra i sed p l an t i ngs f or

i nd i v i dua l s w i t h r each l i m i t a t i ons .
Oppor tun i t i es for i nd i v i dua l s w i t h reach
l i m i t a t i ons i s i mpor t an t , espec i a l l y for
those who use mob i l i t y a i ds .

F i gur e 240 -23 . Ga rdens f or e l de r l y and hand i capped peop l e . Ga rdens and gar -
den i ng can prov i de p l easure as we l l as i ncent i ve to exerc i se for peop l e w i t h d i sab i l i t i es
and o thers who wou l d bene f i t f rom h i gher l eve l s o f phys i ca l ac t i v i ty.

A
a l l ows for the opera t i on o f s t andard l i f ts Spec i es w i th branches tha t charac ter i st i ca l -
(F i gure 240-19) . ly break unde r i ce or snow , produce exces-
s i ve l i t ter , droop down ove r wa l kways , or
. 7A Bus she l t ers shou l d be cons t ruc t ed so produce po i sonous or s l i ppery f ru i ts shou l d
N tha t there is enough room to maneuve r be used w i th d i scre t i on (Tab l e 240-2) .
f rom the pub l i c way i nto the she l t er and

ai
U on t o t he bus w i th i n the per i me t er of the M i croc l i ma t e cont ro l is espec i a l l y i mpor -
she l ter. See sec t i ons : ADAAG 10 .2 Bus t ant for e l der l y and hand i capped peop l e .
Stops and Term i na l s ; ADAAG 4.11 P l a t form P l ant ma t er i a l s can be used to m i t i ga t e the
O
Li f ts for d i mens i ona l gu i de l i nes d i scomfor t i ng e f f ec ts of w i nd , g l are , re f l ec-
O
-v t i on , t empera ture , and hum i d i t y (F i gure
4 . 9 Ou t doo r P l an t i ngs , Lawns , 240-20) .
3
and Ga rdens
E l der l y peop l e typ i ca l l y have the v i sua l
P l an t i ng. prob l em of d i m i n i shed dep t h percept i on
0 P l ant i ng a l ong pub l i c wa l kways shou l d not
and a s l ower ad j us t men t to abrup t changes F i gur e 240 -25 . I n t e rna t i ona l symbo l
in l i ght . W i t h care fu l p l ant i ng or o ther o f access i b i l i t y.
cons t i tut e a pot ent i a l hazard or nu i sance .
N means , harsh t rans i t i ons be t ween areas of

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 PUBL I C SERV I CES 1
1 Te l ephone 14 To i l e t s
2 Ma i l 15 Nurse ry
3 Cur r ency Exchange 16 Dr i nk i ng Foun t a i n
4 Cash i e r 17 Wa i t i ng Room
5 F i rs t A i d 18 I n f orma t i on
6 Los t and Found 19 Ho t e l I n f orma t i on
7 Coa t Check 20 A i r Transpor t a t i on
8 Baggage Locke rs 21 He l i por t
9 Esca l a t or 22 Tax i
10 St a i rs 23 Bus
11 E l eva t or 24 GrounaTr anspor t a t i or
12 To i l e ts , Men 25 Ra i l Tr anspor t a t i on
13 To i l e ts , Women 26 Wa t e r Tr anspor t a t i on

CONCESS I ONS 2
27 Ca r Ren t a l 32 Ba rbe r 5hop l
28 Res t aur an t Beau t y Sa l on
29 Co f f ee Shop 33 Ba rbe r Shop
30 Ba r 34 Beau t y Sa l on
31 Shops

PROCESS I NG ACT I V I T I ES 3
35 T i cke t Pur chase 39 I mm i gra t i on
36 Baggage Check - i n 40 Depa r t i ng F l i gh " .s
,37 Baggage C l a i m 41 Ar r i v i ng F l i gh t s F i gur e 240 - 26 Un i ve rsa l Des i gn Symbo l s . These symbo l s i gns are recogn i zed i nter -
38 Cus t oms na t i ona l l y as subs t i tut es for l i tera l s i gnage and are espec i a l l y use fu l for those who are i l l i t -
e r a t e i n e i ther the i r own l anguage or a f ore i gn l anguage .
REGULAT I ONS 4
42 Smok i ng 47 No En t ry
43 No Smok i ng 48 Ex i t
44 Park i ng 49 F i re Ex t i ngu i sher
45 No Park i ng 50 L i t t er D i sposa l
46 No Dogs

br i ght sun l i ght and deep shade can be sof t - Tab l e 240 - 3 . CHARACTER HE I GHT
ened (F i gure 240-21) . ( CANAD I AN SYSTEM )
Charac t er Read i ng Traf f i c speed ,
Speech is of t en d i f f i cu l t to hear , espec i a l - X he ight , d i stance , K / hr (mph)
m mm ( in) : (ft)
ly by the e lder l y , who have t roub l e sor t i ng
s i mu l t aneous sounds . Unwan t ed no i se 5(0 . 20) 3 .0 (10) Pedes t r i an
sources nea r ou t door conversa t i on areas 6 ( 0 . 24) 3 .7 (12)
shou l d be bu f f ered whe r eve r poss i b l e .
8 ( 0 . 32) 4 .9 (16)
Re f er to Sec t i on 660 : Sound Cont ro l in th i s
handbook for mor e i n forma t i on (F i gure 10 (0 . 40) 6 .2 (20)
240-22) . 12 (0 . 48) 7 . 4(24)

Lawns: 15 (0 . 60) 9 .2 (30)

20 (0 . 80) 12 .3 (40)
Regard i ng l awns , many peop l e ' s bas i c des i re
is to be ab l e to si t on the grass ; th i s i nc l udes 25 (1 . 00) 15 .4 (50)
peop l e who may have di f f i cul ty in do i ng so 300 . 20) 18 .5 (60)
because of a mob i l i t y i mpa i rmen t and are
400 . 60) 24 . 6 (80) Veh i cu l a r
us i ng a whee l cha i r. Wor k i ng w i th the topog-
raphy of a si te, t ransf er wa l l s shou l d be bu i l t 50 (2 . 00) 30 .0 (100) 3-6(10-20)
in when poss i b l e to a l l ow for eas i er access to 60 (2 . 40) 37 .0 (120) . (A
3-6(10-20)
grass f rom a sea t ed pos i t i on . F i gur e 240 - 27 . P l acemen t o f ou t -

Ga rdens:
80 (3 . 20) 49 .3 (160) 6-9(20-30) doo r s i gnage . Access i b l e s i gnage re f ers
to gr aph i c i n f orma t i on t ha t i s access i b l e t o
uu
Q)

100 (4 . 00) 61 .6 (200) 6-9(20-30)

eve r yone regard l ess of mob i l i t y i mpa i r - Q
Ga rdens as we l l as ga rden i ng are an i mpor -
t ant source o f en j oymen t and can be
120 (4 . 80) 73 .9 (240) 12-19 (40-60)
men t , and a l so i nc l udes accommoda t i on i
150 (6 . 00) 92 .4 (300) 12-19 (40-60) for those w i t h v i sua l i mpa i rmen t s and O
des i gned to serve a w i de var i e ty of user O
200 (8 . 00) 123 .2 (400) 12-19 (40-60) l ea rn i ng i mpa i rmen t s.
groups ; i nc l ud i ng peop l e w i th v i sua l i mpa i r -
men t s and those us i ng whee l cha i rs (F i gure No t e : Charac t er X he i ght refers to the he i ght of the l ower -
240-23) . A p l eas i ng l y tact i l e , aud i b l e , case " x " charac t er in a par t i cu l ar font or t ype f ace .
and / or aroma t i c env i ronmen t can be espe -
c i a l l y i nt eres t i ng . Oppor tun i t i es to p i ck
f rui ts, sme l l f l owers , pu l l weeds , e t c . , can
be prov i ded , by t he use of ra i sed p l a t forms N
T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 240 - 1 4
for pot t i ng ; ra i sed p l ant i ng beds for non Access , wh i ch has a t endency to i mp l y
s toop i ng access ; and hor t i cu l tura l oppor t u- " reserved for peop l e w i th d i sab i l i t i es . "
n i t i es a t above ground l eve l s (e .g . , ber ry
P l acemen t , sca l e , and cons i s t ent graph i c
p i ck i ng f rom shrubs , dwa r f f rui t t ree cu l -
ture , upr i ght f l ower i ng p l ants , and tal l veg- sty l e are i mpor t an t and shou l d be read i l y
observab l e f rom both sea t ed and s t and i ng
e t ab l es) (F i gure 240-24) . Ga rdens wh i ch
a t t rac t songb i rds and o t he r f orms of pos i t i ons . Bra i l l e and ra i sed or recessed l et -
ters prov i de s i gnage for peop l e w i th v i sua l
w i l d l i f e are grea t l y en j oyed by al l peop l e .
Adap t i ve ga rden i ng areas shou l d be i nte- i mpa i rmen t s , and ra i sed- re l i e f maps when
prov i ded are a l so par t i cu l ar l y use fu l .
gra t ed i nto the l andscape whe r e sa f e t y per -
Casse t t e t apes or aud i b l e tones are other
mi ts .
poss ib i l i t i es w i th d i st i nct advan t ages over
4 . 10 Ou t doo r L i gh t i ng wr i t t en i nforma t i on , excep t for those w i th
i mpa i red hear i ng . Tra f f i c s i gna l s and k i osks
L i ght i ng is espec i a l l y i mpor t an t in p l aces are espec i a l l y amenab l e to aud i b l e s i gna l s .
tha t are pot ent i a l l y haza rdous . F i xtures When poss i b l e , s i gnage comp l emen t ed by
shou l d not pro t rude i nto Access i b l e Rou t es . i nforma t i ona l brochures can prov i de mor e
H i ghe r l eve l s of i l l umi na t i on or a grea t er de t a i l ed l eve l s of i n forma t i on .
d i st r i but i on of f i xtures are bene f i c i a l to
those w i th l i mi ted v i s i on . V i sua l a l arms Bra i l l e st r i ps can be added to the edges
shou l d be i nt egra t ed i nto t he sys t em whe r e of s i gns tha t are reachab l e and l oca t ed for
aud i b l e a l arms are requ i red . See sec t i ons : tha t purpose .
ADAAG 4 .4 Prot rud i ng Ob j ec t s ; ADAAG
Graph i c symbo l s shou l d no t be t oo
4 . 28 .3 V i sua l A l a rms for mor e i n forma t i on . abst rac t , nor shou l d t hey be the on l y
means of commun i ca t i on , because they
4 . 11 S i gnoge
have no app l i cab i l i ty for some . Readab i l i t y
C l ear and prec i se s i gnage is a cruc i a l a i d to in s i gnage is a func t i on of comprehens i on ,
negot i a t i on for al l peop l e . Essent i a l func - t one cont rasts , charac t er he i ght , and char -
t i ons i nc l ude p l ace i dent i ty , not i ce of acces- ac t er propor t i on . Des i gn cr i ter i a for l i tera l
sibi l i ty, warn i ngs , and d i rec t i ona l i n forma - s i gnage have been deve l oped to fac i l i tate
t i on . eas i er readab i l i ty , (see appropr i a t e ADAAG
sec t i on for spec i f i cs) . S i gnage w i th a ma t t e
Int erna t i ona l Symbo l s : f i n i sh and co l or cont ras t be t ween charac -
ters and background is mos t readab l e .
Symbo l s of access i b i l i ty shou l d be d i sp l ayed
Tab l e 240-3 i l lust rates the Canad i an sys t em
whe r e appropr i a t e . The Int erna t i ona l
for de t e rm i n i ng charac t er he i ght , based on
Symbo l of Access i b i l i ty (F i gure 240-25) is
read i ng d i s t ance for pedes t r i ans .
requ i red in four l oca t i ons : access i b l e park-
i ng spaces , access i b l e l oad i ng zones , acces- The moun t i ng l oca t i on and he i gh t of
s ib l e s i te and fac i l i ty ent rances tha t are no t s i gnage shou l d not cons t i tut e a hazard .
the pr i ma ry ent rance , and access i b l e
res t rooms . The Un i versa l Des i gn Symbo l s P l acemen t o f S i gnage :
(see F i gure 240-26) shou l d be used to ind i -
P l acemen t of s i gnage is i mpor t an t . S i gnage
ca t e l eve l s of access i b i l i ty on ou t door
for s i ght ed peop l e is mos t eas i l y seen a t
Access i b l e Rou t es . In the case of Access i b l e
approx i ma t e l y eye l eve l , a t an ang l e per -
Rout es , the Un i versa l Des i gn Symbo l s are
pend i cu l ar to the pa t h of t rave l or w i th i n a
pre f erab l e to the Int erna t i ona l Symbo l o f
30 degr ee ang l e to the cent er l i ne of t he

aw ~ .- ~I

. in
Des i gn e l emen t s and deta i l s in ou t door env i ronmen t s mus t be un i versa l l y unders tood
u
u
and easy to negot i a t e .
1 . In genera l , deta i l s for access ib i l i ty mus t mee t spec i f i c d i mens i ons , some of wh i ch are
Q requ i red by l aw. The ma j or i ty of f i gures w i th i n th i s sec t i on g i ve a range of accept -
i ab l e d i mens i ons .
O 2 . Ma t er i a l s se l ect i on is i mpor t ant as a v i sua l and tact i l e cue to hand i capped pedest r i -
O ans. Ma t er i a l s can wa rn of hazardous areas (F i gures 240-3 to 240-7) or he l p make
access i b l e areas more comfor t ab l e (F i gures 240-20 to 240-24) .
3 3 . I t is i mpor t ant to avo i d potent i a l hazards or nu i sances caused by des i gned e l ement s
and deta i l s . P l ant ma t er i a l mus t be se l ec t ed care fu l l y to avo i d hazardous or nox i ous
p l ant spec i es (Tab l e 240-2) .
4 . For mor e spec i f i c i nforma t i on regard i ng deta i l s see The Amer i cans w i th Di sabi l i t i es F i gur e 240 - 28 . Un i ve rsa l Des i gn
Ac t Access ib i l i ty Gu i de l i nes (ADAAG) . Symbo l s f or Rec r ea t i on .
N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 Tab l e 240-4. SUMMARY OF DES I GN STANDARDS FOR OUTDOOR the Recrea t i on Access Adv i sory Comm i t t ee .
RECREAT I ON ACCESS ROUTES . For more i nforma t i on or to commen t on
the recommenda t i ons , cont ac t Access
Board , Recrea t i on Repor t , 1331 F St reet ,
LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT N . W., Su i te 1000 , Wash i ngton , DC 20004-
1111 .
ACCESS ROUTES N i gh Modera t e M i n i ma l
(Eas i er ) (Mod erate) (Di f f i cul t ) Ano ther source of i nforma t i on deve l -
clear width (mi n i mum) : 1 200 mm (48 in) 900 mm (36 in) 900 mm (36 in) oped in par t by the USDA Forest Serv i ce is
Un i versa l Access to Ou t door Recrea t i on : A
susta ined running grade ' (max i mum) : 5% 5% 8 Des i gn Gu i de , pub l i shed by PLAE , Inc . i n
max i mum grade a l lowed"* 8% 10% 10 con j unc t i on w i th other pub l i c and pr i va te
for a max i mum distance of : 9 000 mm (30 f t) 15 000 mm (50 f t) 15 000 mm (50 f t) par tners i nc l ud i ng the USDA Forest Serv i ce
cross slope (max i mum) : " ` 3% 3% 3% and Sea Reach , Ltd ., 1993 , ava i l ab l e f rom
passing space interval (max i mum) : 60 000 mm (200 f t) 90 000 mm (300 f t) 120 000 mm (400 f t) M I G Commun i ca t i ons , 1802 F i f th St reet ,
Berke l ey , CA 94710 USA.
rest area interval (max i mum) : 120 000 mm (400 f t) 270 000 mm (900 f t) 360 000 mm (1200 f t)
smal l level changes (max i mum) : 12 mm (1/2 in) 12 mm (1/2 in) In genera l , when e l ement s of the out -
25 mm (1 in)
door recreat i on env i ronment co i nc i de w i th
Note : No more than 20% of the total length o f the outdoor recreat ion access route shal l exceed the max i mum sustained run- i ndoor e l ements , the ADAAG and UFAS
ning grade .
gu i de l i nes shou l d be app l i ed (e .g . p i cn i c
" Note : The measurement of a max i mum grade and cross slope should be made over a 24 " measurement interval to corre tab l es are covered under ADAAG 4 . 32
spend to the footpr int of a wheelchai r operat ing i n that envi ronment. F i xed or Bui l t - in Sea t i ng and Tab l es) .
Source : Recreat ion Access Advisory Commi t tee, Recommendat ions for Accessibi l i ty Guidel ines : Receat ion Faci l i t ies and Outdoor
Deve loped Areas, U . S. Archi tectural and Transportat ion Barr iers Compl iance Board. Ju l y 1994 . A di f f i cul ty in deve l op i ng access ibi l i ty
st andards for the outdoor recreat i on env i -
ronmen t has been in de t erm i n i ng how
Tab l e 240-5. DEGREE OF ACCESS FOR OUTDOOR RECREAT I ON ACCESS much each si te shou l d be deve l oped . To
ROUTES . address this concern , the USDA Forest
Serv i ce , for examp l e , uses a recreat i on
Degree of Access managemen t approach ca l l ed the
Leve l of Deve l opmen t Requ i red Cl ear W i d th
"Recrea t i on Oppor tun i t y Spec t rum . " The
easier high (urban/ rura l ) m i n i mum 1 200 mm (48 in) ROS sys t ems a l l ows for rat ings of outdoor
moderate moderate (natural ) m i n i mum 900 mm (36 in) recreat i on areas w i th respec t to user expec-
di f f icul t tat ions, and resu l t ing l eve l of access ibi l i ty
low (back count ry) m i n i mum 900 mm (36 in)
that shou l d be the goa l .
most di f f icul t none (pr imat ive) not appl i cabl e
The ROS is based on the fo l l ow i ng :
Source : Recreat ion Access Advisory Commi t tee, Recommendat ions for Accessibi l i ty Guidel ines : Recreat ion Faci l i t ies and Outdoor
Deve loped Areas, U . S. Archi tectural and Transportat ion Barr iers Compl iance Board, Ju l y 1994 .
" Peop l e purpose fu l l y choose a set t i ng
for the i r recreat i on act ivi t i es .
s i gn . Read i ng d i stance de t erm i nes whe re i t
5 . 0 ACCESS I BLE RECREAT I ON Expec t a t i ons regard i ng access ib i l i ty
shou l d be p l aced (see Tab l e 240-3) . S i gns
are of ten cent ra l to that cho i ce .
shou l d not be obscured or confused w i th l ~~cess i b l e des i gn in recrea t i on areas
a Cho i ces are made w i th the expec t a-
other graph i cs and shou l d be eas i l y recog- requ i res a d i vers i ty of qua l i ty exper i ence ,
t ion of ach i ev i ng par t i cu l ar recreat i on
n i zed for wha t they represent . S i gnage not an abso l ut e standard i za t i on of al l faci l -
exper i ences .
i nt ended for those w i th v i sua l i mpa i rment s i t ies nor the deve l opmen t of al l natura l and
It is des i rab l e to present a d i verse
shou l d be we l l l i t and / or l oca t ed for easy pr i st ine areas . An appropr i a t e me t hod for
spec t rum of recreat i on set t ings, rang-
access and touch (F i gure 240-27) . access i b l e recreat i ona l des i gn need not
ing f rom h i gh l y deve l oped to pr imi t i ve
comprom i se the na tura l charac t er of the in accordance w i th the na tura l env i -
Many s i tuat ions requ i re a syst em of
l andscape .
sequent i a l s i gns . Hosp i ta l s , co l l ege campus- ronment , f rom wh i ch peop l e may
es, and other inst i tut ions shou l d have post - Access i b i l i ty gu i de l i nes for ou tdoor choose . (A
ed s igns, v i sua l and textura l cues , and recreat i on areas are cur rent l y ava i l ab l e in
The process of des i gn for standard i za-
pavemen t mark i ngs whe re app l i cab l e . the form of recommenda t i ons . Wh i l e not V
t ion of recreat iona l faci l i t ies i nvo l ves deve l -
ai
Access to bu i l d i ngs or faci l i t ies w i th on l y l ega l l y enforceab l e , these recommenda - V
op i ng a pos i t i ve at t i tude and awareness ,
one or t wo access ib l e ent rances shou l d be t i ons have been present ed to the pub l i c for
m i n i m i z i ng of phys i ca l bar r i ers, deve l op i ng
c l ear l y marked w i th sequent i a l s i gnage . commen t at this t i me . Th i s sec t i on fo l l ows O
of programs , and i nvo l v i ng many par t i c i -
many of the recommenda t i ons g i ven by the O
For spec i f i c i nforma t i on on tone con- pant s . Des i gn st andards and concept s mus t
fo l l ow i ng pub l i cat i on :
t rasts, l et ter ing, p l acement of s i gnage , etc ., be cons i dered in re l at ion to each recre-
re fer to the fo l l ow i ng sec t i on : ADAAG 4 . 30 Recommenda t i ons for Access i b i l i ty at iona l faci l i ty, program, and par t i c i pant . A
S i gnage . Gu i de l i nes : Recrea t i ona l Fac i l i t i es and systema t i c approach to faci l i ty and pro-
Ou t door Deve l oped Areas , deve l oped for :
U .S . Arch i tec tura l and Transpor t a t i on
gram deve l opmen t can fac i l i tate h i gher -
qua l i ty recreat i on cho i ces . 0
Bar r i ers Comp l i ance Board , Ju l y 1994 , by
N
T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 240 - 1 6
sa f eguard i ng v i s i tors . Mor e i nforma t i on on
Tab l e 240-6. SUMMARY OF DES I GN STANDARDS FOR RECREAT I ON TRAI LS . appropr i a t e s i gnage fo l l ows .

Eas i er Mode ra t e D i f f i cu l t Tra i l P l ann i ng C l ass i f i ca t i on Sys t em :

ACCESS ROUTES (urban/ rura l ) (natura l ) (back count ry)
Tab l e 240-8 and F i gure 240-29 i l lust rate a
clear width(min imum) : 1 200 mm (48 in) 900 mm (36 in) 700 mm (28 in)
t rai l p l ann i ng c l ass i f i cat ion sys t em and
susta ined running grade* (max i mum) : 5% 8% 12 accompany i ng gu i de l i nes for a vary i ng
max i mum grade a l lowed" " ' 10% 14% 20 degree of access ibi l i ty in t rai l t ypes. Th i s
for a distance of : 9 000 mm (30 f t) 15 000 mm (50 f t) 15 000 mm (50 f t ) sys t em is an examp l e of wha t can be done
5% 8 to prov i de qua l i ty recreat iona l oppor tun i -
cross slope` " (max i mum) : 3%
t i es for a broad l y de f i ned popu l a t i on w i th-
passing space interval (max i mum) : 60 000 mm (200 ft) 90 000 mm (300 f t) 120 000 mm (400 f t) out comprom i s i ng the natura l l andscape
rest area interval (max i mum) : 120 000 mm (400 f t) 270 000 mm (900 f t) 360 000 mm (1200 f t) exper i ence . Trai l at t r ibutes wh i ch shou l d be
pos t ed i nc l ude : grade , cross-s l ope , and
'Note : No more than 20% of the total length of the outdoor recreat ion access route shal l exceed the max i mum sustained run
ning grade . w i dth and sur face ; show i ng average and
m i n i mum / max i mum va l ues . Tota l t rai l dis-
" `Note: Cross slope may not exceed 3% in max i mum grade segments, or 5% in max i mum grade segments on di ff icul t access t ance shou l d a l so be noted , in add i t i on to
trai ls.
change in e l evat i on, obstac l es such as
" 'Note : The measurement of a max i mum grade and cross slope should be made over a 24" measurement interval to corre- roots, ruts, rocks , wa t er cross ings , and ver -
spond too the footpr int of a wheelchai r operat ing in that envi ronment.
t ical obst ruc t i ons .
Source : Recreat ion Access Advisory Commi t tee, Recommendat ions for Accessibl i ty Guidel ines : Recreat ion Faci l ities and Outdoor
Deve loped Areas, U .S. Archi tectural and Transpor tat ion Barriers Compl iance Board, July 1994 . Da t a on recreat i on t rai ls shou l d be post -
ed at t rai l heads , i nforma t i ona l areas , and
Tab l e 240-7 . DEGREE OF ACCESS FOR RECREAT I ONAL TRAI LS appear in brochures and maps when poss i -
bl e . A route map and grade prof i l e shou l d
a l so be prov i ded when poss i b l e .
Degree of Access Recrea t i on Se t t i ng Requ i red M i n i mum
Cl ear W i d th
5 .3 Int erpre t i ve Tra i l s
easier highly deve loped (urban/ rural ) m i n i mum 1 200 mm (48 in)
Gene ra l :
moderate moderate l y deve loped (natural ) m i n i mum 900 mm (36 in)
di f f icul t minima l l y deve loped (back count ry) m i n i mum 700 mm (28 in) Des i gn so l ut i ons for interpret i ve exper i -
ences shou l d prov i de a sys t em of gradua t -
most di f f icul t no deve l opment (pr imat ive) not appl icable
ed di f f i cul ty of access and a di vers i ty of
Source : Recreat ion Access Advisory Commi t tee, Recommendat ions for Accessibi l i ty Guidel ines. Recreat ion Faci l ities and Outdoor exper i ences for peop l e w i th vary i ng inter -
Deve loped Areas, U.S . Archi tectural and Transportat ion Barriers Compl iance Board, July 1994. ests and abi l i t ies .
S i gnage :
5 .1 Ou t door Rec rea t i on Access beaut y w i th i n the h i k i ng exper i ence shou l d
be p l anned in a d i verse way for al l potent i a l A comprehens i ve sys t em of s i gns a l ong
Rou t e
users of a t rai l sys t em . Prov i d i ng oppor tun i - interpret i ve t rai ls is cruc i a l . Essent i a l mes-
The Ou t door Recrea t i on Access Rou t e is t i es for phys i ca l l y cha l l eng i ng recreat i on sages at the beg i nn i ng of the t rai l sys t em
the si te fea ture wh i ch de t erm i nes access i - for those w i th mob i l i ty i mpa i rment s and shou l d i nc l ude :
bi l i ty at any deve l oped recreat i on si te, by p l ann i ng a h i gh-qua l i ty sensory exper i ence
connec t i ng al l essent i a l e l ement s of the si te . for those w i th v i sua l i mpa i rment s shou l d 1. A map in ra i sed rel ief accompan i ed by
Th i s route mus t co i nc i de w i th the route for not be over l ooked . ra i sed or rout ed l et ters descr i b i ng al l
the genera l pub l i c to the max i mum poss i b l e
The grea test di vers i ty of peop l e can be t rai ls and the i r respect i ve l engths
ext ent . In genera l , the gu i de l i nes set by
accommoda t ed by prov i d i ng a w i de var i ety 2. A d i f f i cu l ty-of -access c l ass i f i cat ion (or
A ADAAG 4 .3 Access i b l e Rout e shou l d be
of t rai l t ypes and cha l l enges to choose comparab l e descr ipt ion) for each t rai l
app l i ed . The Un i versa l Des i gn Symbo l s for A genera l descr i pt i on of each trai l ,
f rom . Such a sys t em a l so m i n i m i zes soc i a l 3.
Recrea t i on shou l d be used (see F i gure 240-
segrega t i on be t ween user groups . (See i nc l ud i ng i ts emphas i s , character , and
28) . These symbo l s are pre ferab l e to the ma i n fea tures
" Vf Internat i ona l Symbo l of Access ibi l i ty, wh i ch Tab l e 240-6: Summa r y of Des i gn St andards
(A 4. A descr i pt i on of l ocat i ons where users
usua l l y i mp l i es " reserved for peop l e w i th for Recrea t i on Tra i l s and Tab l e 240-7 :
V Degree of Access for Recrea t i on Tra i ls) . can expec t to f i nd add i t i ona l s i gns
V di sabi l i t i es" (See Tab l e 240-4: Summa r y of
a l ong each t rai l
Q Des i gn St andards for Ou t door Recrea t i on
S i gnage : 5. The mean i ng of spec i a l s i gna l s such as
i Access Rout es and Tab l e 240-5 : Degree of
O textura l changes on t rai ls, etc .
Access for Ou t door Recrea t i on Access S i gnage shou l d be compa t i b l e w i th the
O Rout es) . type of t rai l for wh i ch i t is i nt ended . In Essent i a l messages a l ong t he t ra i l s shou l d
t erms of extent , prom i nence , styl e, and i nc l ude :
5 .2 H i k i ng Tra i l s message , s i gnage shou l d ref l ect the charac-
ter of the par t i cu l ar t rai l exper i ence . Al l 1. Loca t i ons of spec i a l areas for rest ,
Gene ra l :
potent i a l l y hazardous areas shou l d be comfor t , spec i a l features , danger , etc .
A l l ow i ng for the phys i ca l negot i a t i on of c l ear l y marked , and i nc l ude a means for 2. Descr i pt i ons of events and p l aces , spe-
l andscape and the en j oymen t of natura l cial features , th i ngs to v i ew, touch ,
N
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 240 - 17

Tab l e 240 -8 . TRA I L PLANN I NG CLASS I F I CAT I ONS

Cl ass of t rai l I II III IV V

Approx i ma t e l ength of trai l 0- 4 km (0-1 /4 mi ) 4-1 .6 km (1 /4-1 mi ) 1 .6-4 .8 km (1-3 mi ) 4 .8-16.1 km (3-10 mi ) Over 16 .1 km (10 mi )
Rest stop spac i ng and types 30 000-45 000 mm 60 000-90 000 mm 150 000-180 000 mm Rest area or None unl ess un i que
(use natura l mater i a l s (100-150 f t ) benches , ' (200-300 f t ) benches , (500-600 f t ) natura l interpretat ion every interpretat ion
whenever poss ibl e for shel ter , interpretat ion she l ter , interpretat ion benches occas iona l l y, 1 .6 km (1 mi )
benches , she l ters, etc .) interpretat ion
W i dth of trai l 1-way : 1 200 mm (4 f t ) 1-way : 900-1 200 mm 900-1 200 mm (3-4 f t ) 600-900 mm (2-3 f t) Unde f i ned
(3-4 f t )
2-way : 1 800 mm (6 f t ) 2-way : 1 200-1 500 mm
(4-5 f t )
Shou l der of trai l 450 mm (1 1/2 f t ) Cl ear understory brush Cl ear understory brush Cl ear understory brush Unde f i ned
grass ; sl ight s lope to 300 mm (1 f t ) to 300 mm (1 f t ) f rom to 150 mm (1 /2 f t)
toward trai l f rom trai l ; gradua l trai l ; no abrupt f rom trai l
s lope e i ther di rect ion drop-of fs ad j acent
S l ope of trai l 1 :50 1 :20 wi th 1 500 mm 1 :12 wi th 1 500 mm 1 :8 wi th occas iona l Steps or natura l
(5 f t ) level space at (5 f t ) leve l space at leve l space when
30 000 mm (100 f t ) 9 000 mm (30 f t ) poss ibl e
interva ls interva ls
Cross s l ope None 1 :50 for max i mum of 1 :25 for max i mum of 1 :20 Unde f i ned
9 000 mm (30 f t ) and 15 000 mm (50 f t ) ,
var i ed f rom one s ide of vary f rom s ide to s ide
trai l to other
Sur face of t rai l Concrete , aspha l t Aspha l t , perpend i cu l ar F i rm sur face, Bound woodch i ps , Sandy , rough
wood pl ank ing, very we l l -compac t ed c lass 5 grave l unbound wood
f ine crushed rock mi xture coarse chips, rocks
sol idly packed
Trai l edge (rai ls, curbs, etc. ; Curbs used where Gradua l ramp i ng ; rai ls Compac t ed ear th, Texture change Noth i ng
use natura l mater i a l s necessary for safety; for rest ing a l ong l ineal level wi th trai l edge ; wi th i mmed i a t e drop
whenever poss ibl e) 900 mm (3 f t ) h igh s lope and to prov i de def ini te texture change ; to natura l ter ra in f rom
rai ls for safety or for safety on cross s lope rai ls for ho l d i ng s lope trai l edge ; rai ls used
rest ing a l ong l ineal or hazard area at steepest grade to guard hazard
s lope where necessary and for safety
" Benches refers ei ther to the commerc i a l type or a big log or boulders sui table for si t t ing.
Source : From the Minnesota Depar tment of Natura l Resources .

' tn
V

a
0
0
«0

O
F i gur e 240 - 29 . Tra i l c l ass i f i ca t i on sys t em . Th i s recrea t i on t rai l c l ass i f i cat ion sys t em was deve l oped by the M i nneso t a Depar tmf
of Na tura l Resources as par t of i comprehens i ve scheme to accommoda t e al l t ypes of peop l e in a s t a t ew i de recrea t i on mode l . The f l
0
t rai l c l ass i f i cat ions represent z <iJi , .3ted d i f f i cu l ty" in t erms of access ib i l i ty.
N
T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 240 - 18

sme l l , or hear , e t c .
S i gnage shou l d accommoda t e bo t h
those w i t h v i sua l i mpa i rmen t s and the
s i ght ed popu l a t i on . Ra i sed or recessed l et -
ters are pre f erab l e to Bra i l l e . Prerecorded
messages can be e i ther l oca l l y ac t i va t ed or
con t a i ned in cont i nuous l y worn headse t s
ac t i va t ed w i th i n a spec i f i ed range .
Or i ent i ng dev i ces such as h i gh rope
l ines, t extura l cues , and bar r i ers are bene f i -
c i a l and can ensure a reasonab l e l eve l of
sa f e t y . Kno t t ed ropes or o ther per i od i c cues
can bo t h cal l ou t f ea tures and a l so serve as
d i s t ance me t e rs .

5 .4 Ou t doo r Camp i ng and

P i cn i ck i ng

Camp i ng:

A d i vers i ty of recrea t i ona l oppor tun i t i es at

or near the camp i ng s i te i tse l f , such as
sw i mm i ng , f i sh i ng , and r emo t e h i k i ng
shou l d be prov i ded . A degr ee of remo t e -
ness is typ i ca l l y charac t er i st i c of the camp -
F i gur e 240 - 30 . Typ i ca l access i b l e camps i t e (p l an v i ew) . Camps i t es shou l d be i ng exper i ence and can be ma i n t a i ned by
organ i zed to prov i de vary i ng degrees o f cha l l enge and remo t eness.
a l l ot t i ng su i t ab l e acreages for each fac i l i ty .
Pot ab l e wa t e r and comf or t fac i l i t i es shou l d
be prov i ded w i th i n a reasonab l e d i s t ance of
each fac i l i ty. Med i ca l accommoda t i on of
some k i nd shou l d a l so be read i l y ava i l ab l e .
When camp i ng areas are l oca t ed in
h i gh l y deve l oped (urban / rura l ) and mode r -
a te l y deve l oped (na tura l ) se t t i ngs , the bas i c
gu i de l i nes out l i ned by ADAAG can be
app l i ed for such e l emen t s as p i cn i c tab l es ,
wa t e r sources , f i re r i ngs and gr i l ls, t rash
recept ac l es , and res t rooms . Reach ranges ,
sur f aces , and sa f e t y shou l d be re l evant to
the des i gn .

Camps i t es shou l d not be l oca t ed near

pot ent i a l l y haza rdous areas . Haza rdous
obs t ruc t i ons and i t ems - such as deadf a l l s ,
l ow-hang i ng branches , ho l es in the ground ,
po i sonous p l ants , or t horns - shou l d no t
ex i st near camps i t es . H i gh-use a r eas - such
as she l ters , comf or t sta t i ons , sw i mm i ng
poo l s , beaches , camps i t es , and f ood
. ûf a r eas - shou l d be l oca t ed on re l at i ve l y l eve l
N ground tha t is easy to negot i a t e (F i gures
U 240-30 and 240-31) .

ar
U
When access i b l e camp i ng un i ts can be
prov i ded , t he un i ts shou l d be l oca t ed in
O vary i ng l oca t i ons to g i ve users a var i e ty of
O
cho i ces and a l so to t ake advan t age of the
F i gur e 240 -31 Typ i ca l access i b l e camps i t e .
na tura l f ea tures of the s i te .
The un i que exper i ence o f camp i ng may

0
sugges t us i ng a d i f f erent t ype of s i gnage
sys t em t han tha t used for i nt erpre t i ve t ra i l

N
sys t ems .
 240- 1 9

F i gur e 240 - 32 . Typ i ca l access i b l e f i rep l ace and gr i l l . Ground sur f aces a round
camps i t es and f i rep l aces shou l d be s t ab i l i zed and f ree-dra i n i ng.

F i gur e 240 - 33 . T i e r ed t rans f e r p l a t -

f o rm f or poo l s. T i ered t rans f er p l a t f orms
a l l ow easy en t ry i nto the poo l f rom whee l -
cha i rs .

P i cn i ck i ng:
Ground sur f aces at p i cn i c s i tes shou l d be
re l at i ve l y l eve l , f ree of obs t ruc t i ons , and
appropr i a t e in bo t h the i r sur f ac i ng and s i ze
for whee l cha i rs .
A c l ear space o f a t l east 675 mm (27 in)
h i gh , 750 mm (30 in) w i de , and 475 mm
(19 in) deep is necessary to accommoda t e
mos t whee l cha i rs . The tops o f access i b l e
t ab l es and coun t ers shou l d be f rom 700-
850 mm (28-34 in) above the ground . See
ADAAG 4 .32 F i xed or Bu i l t - in Sea t i ng and
F i gur e 240 - 34. Gene r a l cons i de r a t i ons f or poo l sw i mm i ng . No t e tha t a var i ed Tab l es for spec i f i cs .
o f means for ent er i ng the poo l shou l d be prov i ded . Cook i ng Fac i l i t i es :
The t wo act i v i t i es of f i re bu i l d i ng and cook -
i ng shou l d be accommoda t ed in al l des i gns
(F i gure 240-32) . A c l ear , l eve l ground space
a round f i re r i ngs and pedes t a l gr i l ls shou l d
be at l east 900 mm (36 in) on al l s i des , w i th
1 200 mm (48 in) be i ng r ecommended .
The he i gh t requ i remen t s for f i re r i ngs
depend on the l eve l of deve l opmen t of the
s i te . For examp l e , in h i gh l y deve l oped s i tes,
t he f i re-bu i l d i ng sur f ace shou l d be equa l or
grea t er than 225 mm (9 in) above the
y
ground . F i re r i ngs w i th f i xed gr i l ls shou l d be
cons t ruc t ed a t 425-475 mm (17-19 in) . V1
above t he ground . F i re r i ngs w i t h N
ad j us t ab l e gr i l ls shou l d have a cook i ng sur - c
f ace at 475-600 mm (19-24 in) above the A
ground . A pedes t a l gr i l l shou l d have a
r
cook i ng sur f ace 750-900 mm (30-36 in) O
above the ground , and the gr i l l mus t be O
ab l e to rot a t e 360 degrees to a l l ow users to
ad j us t based on w i nd d i rec t i on . Pedes t a l
F i gur e 240 - 35 . Unde rwa t e r r amp f or beach sw i mm i ng . The l ength o f a r amped
gr i l ls mus t a l so have a t l east 675 mm (27
wa l k shou l d be ad j us t ed to the s l ope o f t he par t i cu l ar l ake prof i l e (10 percen t max i mum
in) knee c l earance .
grad i ent ) , and shou l d cons i der the s i ze of ant i c i pa t ed waves .
Wa t e r f auce t s and dr i nk i ng fount a i ns
shou l d have a spou t he i ght a t no h i gher than
N
 F i gure 240-37 . Access i b l e f i sh i ng
docks and p i ers . The w i dth of a f i shing
dock or p i er shou l d a l l ow the f ree move -
F i gure 240-36 . Genera l cons i dera t i ons for beach sw i mm i ng . men t of pedest r i ans when whee l cha i rs are
perpend i cu l ar to the s ide ra i l ing.

900 mm (36 in) f rom ground to spout out - 4. Underwa t er seat ing is necessary for 1. Accessibi l i ty to the beach f rom park ing
let , and be easi ly operab l e . P l acement of f ix- rest ing and for those w i th l imi ted lots, she l ters, camp i ng grounds , pi cni c
tures on a hard, relat ively level ground sur - mobi l i ty. The seat ing shou ld be easi ly areas, and other po ints of or igin
face is recommended . Adequa t e dra inage is ident i f iable and shou ld be isol ated shou ld be prov i ded . A ne twork of
impor tant . (Refer to ADAAG sect ions 4 .15 f rom sw i mmers j ump i ng into the access ibl e routes shou l d be prov i ded
Dr ink ing Founta ins and Wa t er Coo l ers and wa ter f rom above . for a w i de range of recreat iona l
4 .27 Cont rol s and Operat i ng Mechan i sms oppor tun i t i es wi th mi n i ma l ass i stance .
for more informat ion on economi c cons ider - 5. Mechan i ca l l i fts and swings are com-
at ions of faci l i ty des ign .) merc i a l l y ava i l abl e for ra ising and low- 2. Beach grad i ents into the wa ter shou ld
er ing individua ls into the wa t er. be 10 percent max i ma l l y. Drop-of fs,
5 .5 Sw i mm i ng Fac i l i t i es abrupt bot tom changes , bot tom i rreg
6. Moveab l e f loors a l low a person to ular i t ies, obst ruct ions , and sharp
Sw i mm i ng Poo l s: t ransfer f rom a deck , wh i ch is then obj ects shou ld not exist in the wa t er or
The advantages of poo l s over beaches l owered to the poo l . on the beach . Ramps , sta i rways, and
inc lude the cont rol they af ford over wa ter boardwa l ks at the water ' s edge and
depth, wa t er temperature , and sani tat ion . 7. A deep poo l shou ld not be spec i f i ed l ead ing into the wa ter are i mpor tant
The d i sadvantages of pool s inc lude the i r unl ess d i v ing is an obj ect i ve . F loats for many individua ls (F igure 240-35) .
hard and sl ippery edges and sur faces, h igh and mark i ngs shou ld warn sw i mmers Connec t ed f loat ing buoys shou l d be
no i se levels, and si ze l imi tat ions . of increas ing wa ter depth . used to de l ineate the extent of the
Al ternat i ve, access ibl e means of access for sw i mm i ng area and to d i scourage
sw i mm i ng poo l s fal l into three genera l cat - 8. No sharp or prot rud ing obj ects shou ld ent ry to deeper wa t er (F igure 240-
egor i es: ramps , t ransfer t iers, and l i fts . exist anywhere , and al l corners shou ld 36) .
be rounded . Al l pav i ng near the poo l
Add i t i ona l Recommenda t i ons : shou ld have a nons l ip sur face . F igure 3. I t is recommended that the access ibl e
240-34 shows an i ndoor poo l route ext end to a point that is 900 mm
1. A poo l cop i ng at si t t ing he ight , wi th des i gned accord i ng to the above- (36 in) beyond the water 's edge at
grab bars, wi l l a l low easi er access to ment i oned recommenda t i ons . h igh t ide .
the wa t er for many individua ls . The
wa t er leve l shou ld not be too far Beaches : 5 .6 F i sh i ng and Boa t i ng
be l ow the cop i ng . The advantages of beaches over sw i mm i ng
.vf
pool s inc lude the i r gradua l wa ter depth, F i sh i ng.
2. A ramp descend i ng into the water , the i r lack of sl ippery sur faces or hard edges ,
t7 wi th handra i l s on both s ides at a A var i ety of access ibl e f i shing locat ions,
U and the psychologi ca l benef i t of an out -
he ight of 850-950 mm (34-38 in) door , natura l env i ronment . Waves , sun- wh i ch of fer di f ferent types and levels of
Q shou ld be prov i ded at the sha l l ow end exper i ence , integrated wi th al l users,
i l ight , breezes, wi ldl i fe, f ragrance , spac ious-
O of the poo l . The ramp shou ld have a ness, and the genera l amb i ance of the out - shou ld be prov i ded (F igure 240-37 and
O curb edg i ng and a nons l ip sur face . 240-38) .
of -doors are benef i c i a l qua l i t ies . Ideal ly,
access to both a sw i mm i ng poo l and a Access ibl e ne tworks l ead ing to f i shing
3. A sta i rcase descend i ng into the water , nearby beach cou ld accommoda t e the piers, docks , and board i ng areas are neces-
a lso wi th handra i l s, shou ld be prov id- needs of al l indi v idua l s and a l low for diver - sary. F loat ing pi ers have the advant age of
ed at the sha l l ow end of the poo l . si ty and f lexibi l i ty in programm i ng . c loseness to the wa t er level but are of ten
Ti ered t ransfer p l at forms are recom- unstab l e , espec i a l l y for those who use
mended (F igure 240-33) . Add i t i ona l Recommenda t i ons: whee l cha i rs .
N
Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Archi tecture
 240- 21
pe r ang l er , or 3 600 mm (12 f t ) for
t wo ang l ers , a l ong the wa t e rs edge .
2 400 mm (8 f t ) o f space beh i nd the
ang l ers are needed for unres t r i c t ed
pedes t r i an c i rcu l a t i on .

3. Sa f e t y Ra i l s- In h i gh l y deve l oped s i tes,

sa f e t y ra i ls are needed a t a he i gh t of at
l east 800 mm (32 in) On mode ra t e l y
deve l oped s i tes (mor e na tura l ) , sa f e t y
ra i l ings may be cons t ruc t ed ou t of na t -
ura l ma t er i a l s such as rocks , l ogs , e t c .
O t he r amen i t i es shou l d be prov i ded ,
such as armres t s , t ack l e box she l ves ,
e t c ., us i ng ma t er i a l s appropr i a t e to the
F i gur e 240 - 39 . Boa t access . Dev i ces l eve l o f deve l opmen t a t the s i te .
wh i ch prov i de suppor t bo t h on the dock
and in t he cra f t i tse l f are o f cruc i a l i mpor - 4. Curbs and Drop-o f f s- In h i gh l y deve l -
t ance . Dock he i ght s shou l d be w i th i n 450- oped areas , edge prot ec t i on of 100
600 mm (18-24 " ) o f the wa t e r to fac i l i tate mm (4 in) h i gh curbs shou l d be pro-
eas i er t rans f erence o f peop l e and gea r f rom v i ded .
the boa t to the dock .
5. Sea t i ng-shou l d be prov i ded to accom-
moda t e non- f i sh i ng compan i ons .
F i gur e 240 - 38 . Handr a i l i ng de t a i l f or
a f i sh i ng dock or p i e r . Handra i l i ngs 6. Shade and she l t er - shou l d be prov i d-
shou l d have a numbe r o f i mpor t an t f ea- ed , i f not na tura l l y occur r i ng at s i te .
tures. Howeve r , ver t i ca l c l earance shou l d no t
be reduced to l ess t han 3 600 mm
(144 in) above the f i sh i ng st a t i on .

Boa t i ng.,
Boa rd i ng a boa t or sma l l yach t is di f f i cul t ,
espec i a l l y i f the cra f t is sma l l and buoyan t .
Ra i l i ngs are abso l u t e l y necessa ry and
shou l d ex t end beyond the edge or end of
the dock , prov i d i ng suppor t to i nd i v i dua l s
even wh i l e aboa rd cra f t (F i gure 240-39) .
Dev i ces to stab i l i ze the cra f t wh i l e i nd i v i du-
a l s are boa rd i ng are ve ry he l pfu l .
Suppor t i ve dev i ces (grab bars , e t c.) on t he
cra f t are essent i a l . Howeve r , ra i l i ngs or grab
bars shou l d not i nd i scr i mi na t e l y be added
to a prev i ous l y unequ i pped sma l l craf t , as
the ba l ance in i ts des i gn may be adverse l y
a f f ec t ed .

Heavy , w i de -bo t t omed boa t s w i th a l ow

cent er of grav i ty of f er t he grea t es t stab i l i ty
and sa f e t y . Pon t oons and p l a t form boa t s
are idea l . Na r row , buoyan t boa t s such as (A
canoes are easy to caps i ze and espec i a l l y
0)
d i f f i cu l t to boa rd . Board i ng on the beach u
u
Bas i c cons i dera t i ons of F i sh i ng St a t i ons areas . Capac i t y o f f i sh i ng on a typ i ca l
and then shov i ng of f is adv i sab l e .
Dock he i ght s w i th i n 450-600 mm (18-
ai
i nc l ude the fo l l ow i ng : day ' s demand mus t be cons i dered .
24 in) of the wa t e r l eve l a l l ow eas i er access O
2. Des i gn- Sur f aces of access i b l e f i sh i ng to boa t s than do grea t er he i ght s . T i de f l uc-
O
Loca t i on- F i sh i ng st a t i ons on an out - tua t i on may have to be accommoda t ed by
st a t i ons mus t be f i rm, stab l e , and no t
door access i b l e recrea t i on rou t e means of ramps , st ab l e f l oa t i ng p l a t forms , 3
exceed a 3% cross s l ope in any d i rec-
shou l d be l oca t ed w i th i n 1 / 5 km (1 / 8 and the l i ke (F i gure 240-40) .
t i on . A tact i l e d i st i nc t i on o f the ground
mi ) f rom access i b l e park i ng and fac i l i - sur f ace f rom the ou t door recrea t i on
t i es, in a h i gh l y deve l oped (urban / The s l opes of gangways shou l d no t
access rou t e is r ecommended . Ang l ers exceed 1 :12 (8 . 33%) .
rura l ) area , and w i th i n 2 / 5 km (1 / 4
need a m i n i mum of 1 500 mm (5 f t )
mi ) in mode ra t e l y deve l oped (na tura l ) N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 240 - 2 2

5 .7 Spec t a tor Areas

Spectator areas shou ld be access ibl e by
hard-sur faced ramps and safe sta i rways
(F igure 240-41) . (Refer to ADAAG sect ions
4 .8 Ramps and 4 .9 Stai rs for more i nforma-
t ion .)
Add i t i ona l Recommenda t i ons :

1. Prov ide a cho i ce in seat ing areas to

wha tever extent possibl e, inc lud ing
areas for extended legs and whee l
cha i rs . Comparab l e l ines of sight , and
cho i ces of admi ss i on pr ices based on
seat ing shou l d be prov i ded . Each
whee l cha i r seat ing area must a l so con-
ta in f ixed compan i on seat ing . Locate
these areas near access ramps to mi n-
imi ze the need for negot i at ing
through a crowd . Refer to the tabl e
be l ow for number of requi red whee l -
cha i r pos i t ions based on capac i ty of
seat ing .

2. Protect spec i a l seat ing areas f rom

excess i ve sun, w i nd , and ra in to wha t -
ever extent poss ibl e .

3. Re fer to ADAAG sect ion 4 .33

Assemb l y Areas for more informat ion
on d i mens i ona l cr i ter ia, sur faces,
access, etc .
5 .8 Parks and P l aygrounds
Parks and p l aygrounds shou ld be access ibl e
f rom ad j acent commun i t i es and inc lude a
cont i nuous access ibl e route throughout al l
pl ay areas, connec t i ng access ibl e act ivi t ies
wi th in the pl ay set t ing. The access ibl e route
shou ld promot e social interact ion and use
of the pl ay component s be tween chi ldren .
A des igner shou ld cons ider al l the ways
interact ion can occur across abi l i ty levels by
des i gn i ng systems of gradua ted di f f icul ty of
access to cha l l enge grow i ng chi ldren of al l F i gure 240-41 . Genera l cons i dera t i ons for access i b l e spec t a tor s t ands .
abi l i t ies . Cha l l eng i ng equ i pment shou l d be Space for whee l cha i r users shou l d be l ocated near ent rance ramps to mi n i mi ze maneu-
p l aced in the vicini ty of less cha l l eng ing ver ing through crowds . Access aisles shou l d be ma i nta i ned beh i nd whee l cha i r users .
equ i pment to faci l i tate interact ion among another. D i verse oppor tun i t i es for chi ldren
di f ferent abi l i ty levels, safety permi t t ing . to interact wi th the i r env i ronment shou ld Tab l e 240-9 . CAPACI TY OF SEAT I NG
" Vf
N P l ayground sur faces must conform to be prov i ded to accommoda t e al l levels of IN ASSEMBLY AREAS
N abi l i ty and need .
un i que safety standards . Wi th in 2 400 mm
tJ (8 ft) of pl ay equ i pment wh i ch is more than Numbe r o f Requ i r ed Whee l cha i r
Q An access ib l e path is requ i red to Pos i t i ons
500 mm (20 in) of f the ground, an accessi -
L approach pl ay equ i pment , at wh i ch po int a
O bl e pa th must a lso be shock-absorb i ng . l ow p l at form can serve as a t ransfer point 4t o25 1
O Both st ructured pl ay faci l i t ies and oppor - onto the equ i pment . The p l at form shou ld 26 to 50 2
tuni t ies for creat ive, imaginat i ve , non st ruc- be 275-350 mm (11-14 in) of f the ground 51 to 300 4
tured pl ay are i mpor tant features of a pl ay for chi ldren under age f ive, and 300-425 301 to 500 6
env i ronment (F igure 240-42 and 240-43) . mm (12-17 in) of f the ground far chi ldren over 500 6*
be tween f ive and twe l ve years o ld . An
Preferences for these two types of pl ay ad j acent c lear ground space of at least *plus 1 addi t iona l space for
vary among individua ls, some respond i ng 1 500 mm (5 f t) in d i ameter is needed , in each total seat ing capac i ty
more posi t ive ly to one type of pl ay than to increase of 100 .
N
Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Archi tecture
 240- 2 3

F i gur e 240 - 42 . Access i b l e baske t ba l l .

F i gur e 240 - 43 . Access i b l e sand a r ea . E l eva t ed areas con t a i n i ng sand or wa t e r a l l ow
Baske tba l l hoops l owe red to 2 100 mm (7
f t ) f rom the s t anda rd 3 000 mm (10 f t ) access by whee l cha i r users .
he i gh t a l l ow whee l cha i r users and young
ch i l dren grea t er en j oymen t of the game .

add i t i on to space a t l east 750 by 1 200 mm b l e by those w i th v i sua l i mpa i rmen t s who Gu i de l i nes : Recrea t i ona l Fac i l i t i es and
(30 by 48 in) out s i de t he fal l zone for re l y on cogn i t i ve mapp i ng for or i ent a t i on . Ou t door Deve l oped Areas pub l i ca t i on , l ist -
" park i ng " whee l cha i rs . The p l a t form i tse l f ed a t the beg i nn i ng o f th i s sec t i on . In add i -
Adu l t superv i s i on of p l ay areas is usua l l y t ion, books are ava i l ab l e on the top i c and
shou l d have a sur f ace of a t l east 600 mm
necessary. I ts ex t en t var i es accord i ng to
(2 f t ) w i de and 350 mm (14 in) deep , w i th the O f f i ce of the Ame r i cans w i th
user abi l i t i es, user numbe rs , and the t ype of
handho l ds r ecommended . A pa th is a l so D i sab i l i t i es Ac t is cur rent l y propos i ng a se t
fac i l i ty .
requ i red f rom the p l a t form to the rest of of r ecommenda t i ons be pub l i shed .
the p l ay equ i pmen t . Recommenda t i ons for parks and p l ay-
5 . 9 Jogg i ng Pa t hs
grounds may a l so be f ound in the
The phys i ca l organ i za t i on of a park or
Recommenda t i ons for Access i b i l i t y D i mens i ons of j ogg i ng pa ths and t ra i l s wi l l
p l ayground shou l d be read i l y comprehens i -
vary accord i ng to use pa t t erns and shou l d

There are severa l i mpor t ant f ac tors wh i ch requ i re cons i dera t i on in the des i gn and
phys i ca l organ i za t i on of access i b l e recrea t i on fac i l i t i es . These f ac tors assure the sa f e-
ty, ease of mob i l i ty , ease of or i ent a t i on and commun i ca t i on for a broad l y de f i ned user
group .
1 . Prov i de hard sur f aces w i th adequa t e ramps for access i b l e ne tworks wh i ch ad j o i n
and c i rcu l ate throughou t fac i l i t i es . Hard sur f aces near p l ay equ i pmen t mus t a l so
mee t shock -absorb i ng requ i rement s .
2 . Prov i de s i gnage w i th v i sua l and textura l cues for i nforma t i on and descr i pt i ons
(F i gure 240-28) .
3 . Prov i de l eve l ground sur f aces for camp i ng , p i cn i ck i ng, and f i sh i ng stat i ons (F i gure
240-30 - 240-32 , F i gure 240-37 and 240-38) . N
4 . Prov i de access i b l e rout es for sw i mm i ng poo l s and beaches (F i gure 240-33 - 240-
36) .
5 . Prov i de var i ed l ines of s i te for access i b l e sea t i ng in ou tdoor assemb l y areas (F i gure
u
u
240-41) . Q
6 . Int egra t e access i b l e rout es and equ i pmen t into parks and p l aygrounds . à-
7 . Avo i d hazardous e l ement s such as st eep s l opes , dangerous or nox i ous p l ants , heavy 0
veh i cu l ar t raf f ic, and unexpec t ed l eve l changes , or prov i de s i gn i f i cant bar r i ers for O
sa f e ty.
8 . Des i gn t ra i ls for phys i ca l d i sab i l i tes rang i ng f rom ful l whee l cha i r access to l i mi ted
wa l k i ng access , crea t i ng a var i ety of w i l derness or recrea t i on exper i ences and cha l -
l enges (Tab l e 240-6 and 240-7) .
F i gur e 240 - 44 . Jogg i ng pa t h f or use
by i nd i v i dua l s w i t h v i sua l i mpa i r - 0
men t s . Tex tura l and v i sua l cues a l ong j og-
9 . Prov i de amen i t i es in cent ra l l ocat i ons , pre f erab l y w i th i n max i mum d i st ances a l l owed
g i ng pa ths , espec i a l l y a t turns in the pa th-
for by regu l a t i ons.
way , can a i d t hose w i t h v i sua l l i m i t a t i ons .
N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 240- 24
be made sa f e for al l t ypes o f users . Whe r e Pr i va te REFERENCES
b i cyc l i sts , wa l kers , rol l er ska t ers and ska t e- Ame r i can Camp i ng Assoc i a t i on
boarders wi l l a l so use a pa t hway , an ade - Mar t i nsv i l l e , Ind i ana
Ame r i cans w i t h D i sab i l i t i es Access i b i l i t y
qua t e means of separa t i on or coopera t i on
be t ween user groups is adv i sab l e . Ame r i can Coa l i t i on of Ci t i zens w i th Gu i de l i nes for Bu i l d i ngs and Fac i l i t i es ,
Di sabi l i t i es Transpor t a t i on Fac i l i t i es , Transpor t a t i on
A var i e ty of access po i nt s on l ong j og- Wash i ng ton , DC Veh i c l es , Sep t embe r 1994. US
g i ng or b i ke t ra i l s w i t h accompany i ng Arch i t ec tura l and Transpor t a t i on Bar r i ers
access i b l e park i ng a l l ows mor e users to ge t Amer i can Founda t i on for the Bl i nd Comp l i ance Boa rd (Access Board) , 1331 F
on and of f t he t ra i l a t d i f f erent areas . New York , New York St reet , N . W., Su i t e 1000 , Wash i ng t on , DC.
20004-1111 .
S i gnage is i mpor t an t and shou l d accom- Amer i can Na t i ona l St andards Inst i tute
moda t e those who are s i ght ed , those w i th Recommenda t i ons for Access i b i l i t y
(ANSI ) Gu i de l i nes : Recrea t i ona l Fac i l i t i es and
l i mi t ed v i s i on, and a l so those who are b l i nd . New York , New York
Textura l and v i sua l cues on ground sur f aces Ou t door Deve l oped Areas , deve l oped for :
Access Recrea t i on US . Arch i t ec tura l and Transpor t a t i on
are he l pfu l . Tex tured pa th edges , espec i a l l y 3308 Va l l ey Dr i ve Bar r i ers Comp l i ance Board , Ju l y 1994 , by
at turn i ng po i nts , a l so a i d negot i a t i on . A A l exandr i a , Vi rg i n i a
the Rec rea t i on Access Adv i sory
br i ght l y co l ored or cont ras t i ng cen t er st r i pe
Comm i t t ee . Access Boa rd , Rec rea t i on
he l ps those w i th l i mi t ed v i s i on s t ay on Na t i ona l Cen t er for a Bar r i er -Free
Repor t , 1331 F St ree t , N . W., Su i t e 1000 ,
course and can a l so serve to separa t e var i - Env i ronmen t Wash i ng t on , DC . 20004-1111 .
ous func t i ons (F i gure 240-44) . Wash i ng ton , DC
Preva l ence Es t i ma t es o f B l i ndness and
Pedest r i an Research Labora tory Vi sua l I mpa i rmen t in the Un i t ed Sta tes ,
AGENC I ES AND ORGAN I ZAT I ONS
Georg i a Inst i tute of Techno l ogy Sep t embe r 1994 , Soc i a l Research Group ,
U .S. Federa l Gove rnmen t Co l l ege of Arch i t ec ture Ame r i can Founda t i on for t he Bl i nd , 11
Arch i tec tura l and Transpor t a t i on Bar r i ers At l anta , Georg i a Penn P l aza , Su i t e 300 , New York , NY
Comp l i ance Board 10001 .
V i n l and Na t i ona l Cen t er Un i f orm Federa l Access i b i l i ty St andards ,
U .S . Depa r t men t of Hea l th , Educa t i on and Lor re t to , M i nneso t a Gene r a l Serv i ces Adm i n i s t ra t i on ,
We l f are , Wash i ng ton , DC Depa r t men t o f De f ense , Depa r t men t o f
Interna t i ona l
Hous i ng and Urban Deve l opmen t , US
U .S . Her i t age Conserva t i on and Recrea t i on Canad i an Rehab i l i ta t i on Counc i l
Pos t a l Serv i ce , Access Board , 1331 F St reet ,
Serv i ce , Depa r t men t of the Inter ior for the D i sab l ed
N . W , Su i t e 1000 , Wash i ng t on , DC.
Wash i ng ton , DC Toronto , Ont ar i o , Canada
20004-1000
Un i t ed States L i brary of Congress I CTA Informa t i on Cen t er Un i versa l Access to Ou t door Recrea t i on : A
Re f erence Sec t i on , D i v i s i on for the Bl i nd Swed i sh Cent ra l Comm i t t ee for Des i gn Gu i de , PLAE , Inc. i n con j unc t i on
and Phys i ca l l y Hand i capped Rehab i l i ta t i on (SUCR) w i t h o t he r pub l i c and pr i va t e par tners
Wash i ng ton , DC Fack , S-161-03 i nc l ud i ng t he USDA Fores t Serv i ce and Sea
Bromma 3 Reach , Lt d., 1993 , M I G Commun i ca t i ons ,
U .S . Na t i ona l Park Serv i ce Sweden 1802 F i f th St ree t , Berke l ey , CA 94710
Of f i ce of Spec i a l Programs and USA .
Popu l a t i ons , Depa r t men t of the Inter ior Rehab i l i ta t i on Interna t i ona l , USA
Wash i ng ton , DC New York , New York .

" V1

u
a
V

0
0
-0

O
O
N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 Na t ur a l Haza rds :
Ea r t hquakes

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
Cha r l es W. Har r i s
Techn i ca l Wr i t e r :
Ky l e Brown
Tess Can f i e l d
Rev i ewe rs
Susan Tubbes i ng , Execu t i ve D i rec tor
Ea r t hquake Eng i nee r i ng
Resea rch Ins t i tut e
Oak l and , Ca l i forn i a

M i chae l Kuk l a , L i brar i an , ( l i brary search)

Na t i ona l Cen t e r f or Ea r t hquake
Eng i nee r i ng Resea rch
St a t e Un i vers i t y of New York ,
Buf f a l o , New York

Na t ura l Haza rds Resea rch and

App l i ca t i ons I n f orma t i on Cen t e r
Bou l der , Co l or ado N
a)
Dan i e l L . Schodek , Pro f essor
Ha r va rd Gr adua t e Schoo l o f Des i gn
Cambr i dge , Massachuse t t s
s
12
CONTENTS W
1 .0 Int roduc t i on 5 .0 Assess i ng Ea r t hquake R i sks And Losses Sources o f Techn i ca l I n f orma t i on and
l ~f
2 . 0 Causes of Ea r t hquakes 6 .0 Land P l ann i ng , Des i gn & Cons t ruc t i on in Ass i s t ance
2 .1 P l a t e Tec ton i cs Se i sm i c Zones Re f e rences
2 . 2 O t he r Causes 6.1 Responses to Pot ent i a l Ground
N
3 . 0 Measur emen t Fa i l ures & Fau l t s
6. 2 Dange rs o f H i l l tops and Gr aded
4 . 0 Ef f ec t s of Ea r t hquakes
H i l l s i des
4 .1 Fau l ts and Fau l t D i sp l acemen t s
6. 3 Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s and S i m i l ar " Dev i ces "
4 .2 Ground Shak i ng & D i rec t i ons o f i
6. 4 Br i dges and S i m i l ar St ruc tures
Se i sm i c Waves
Ear th Se t t l emen t and Loss o f Suppor t
4 .3 Fa r t hquake - I nduced Ground Fa i l ures
Br i dge St ruc tures Moved O f f Suppor t
L i qu i f i ca t i on
6 . 5 Bu i l d i ngs and O t he r Ma j or St ruc tures z
La t era l Spreads
6 . 6 Bu i l d i ng Codes
F l ow Fa i l ure
N
N
T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 252 - 2

1 . 0 I NTRODUCT I ON Tab l e 252 -1 . MOD I F I ED MERCALL I I NTENS I TY SCALE

E
ar thquakes are essent i a l l y v i bra t i ons of
the ear th ' s crust caused by subt er - I. No t f e l t excep t for a ve ry f ew unde r excep t i ona l l y f avorab l e c i r cums t ances .

ranean ground fau l ts or movemen t s . II . Fe l t by pe rsons a t rest , on uppe r f l oors , or f avorab l y p l aced .
They can cause i n j ury or dea th to peop l e III . Fe l t i ndoors ; hang i ng ob j ec t s sw i ng ; v i bra t i on s i mi l ar t o pass i ng o f l i ght t rucks; dura t i on may be
and an i ma l s , damage or des t ruc t i on to es t i ma t ed ; may no t be r ecogn i zed as an ea r t hquake .
st ruc tures and l andscapes . They crea t e pr i -
I V. Hang i ng ob j ec t s sw i ng ; v i bra t i on s i m i l ar t o pass i ng of heavy t rucks , or sensa t i on of a jo l t s i mi l ar
ma ry hazards such as sur f ace ruptur i ng , t o a heavy ba l l s t r i k i ng t he wa l l s ; s t and i ng mo t or cars rock ; w i ndows , d i shes , and doors rat t l e ;
d i sp l acemen t of l and , ground shak i ng , g l asses c l i nk and c rocke ry c l ashes ; i n t he uppe r r ange o f I V wooden wa l l s and f r ames c reak .
ea r t hquake - i nduced ground fa i lures , and V. Fe l t ou t doors ; d i rec t i on may be es t i ma t ed ; s l eepers wakened , l i qu i ds d i s turbed , some sp i l l ed ; sma l l
osc i l l at i on of wa t e r sur f aces . Seconda ry uns t ab l e ob j ec t s d i sp l aced or upse t ; doors sw i ng , c l ose , or open ; shu t t e rs and p i c tures move ; pen-
hazards are l ands l i des , f i res, f l oods , subs i - du l um c l ocks s top , star t , or change ra t e

dence , and t sunam i s ( l arge sea waves) VI . Fe l t by a l l ; many f r i gh t ened and run ou t doors ; wa l k i ng uns t eady ; w i ndows , d i shes and g l asswa re
[Re f er to Sec t i ons 253 t hrough 255 for broken ; kn i ckknacks , books , e t c . , fa l l f rom she l ves and p i c tures f rom wa l l s; furn i ture moved or
i n f orma t i on on o t he r t ypes o f na tura l ove r t urned ; weak p l as t er and masonr y D* c r acked ; sma l l be l l s r i ng ( chur ch or schoo l ) ; t rees and
shrubs shaken (v i s i b l y , or hea rd t o rust l e) .
hazards] .
VI I . D i f f i cu l t to s t and ; no t i ced by dr i vers o f mo t or cars ; hang i ng ob j ec t s qu i ve r ; furn i ture br eaks ; dam-
The da t a presen t ed in th i s sec t i on is no t age t o mason r y D , i nc l ud i ng c racks ; weak ch i mneys br eak a t roo f l i ne ; fa l l o f p l aster , l oose br i cks ,
a genera l d i scuss i on of ea r t hquakes . I t s tones , t i l es, corn i ces (a l so unbr aced pa r ape t s and arch i t ec tura l ornamen t s ) ; some cracks in
masonr y C* ; waves on ponds ; wa t e r turb i d w i t h mud ; sma l l s l i des and cav i ng i n a l ong sand or
seeks to focus on how t he pot ent i a l r i sks grave l banks; l arge be l l s r i ng ; conc r e t e i r r i ga t i on d i t ches damaged .
assoc i a t ed w i th ea r t hquakes shou l d inf lu-
VI I I . St ee r i ng o f mo t or cars a f f ec t ed ; damage t o masonr y C or par t i a l co l l apse ; some damage t o mason -
ence (a) l and use p l ann i ng and (b) des i gn ry B* ; none t o masonr y A* ; fa l l o f s t ucco and some masonr y wa l l s , tw i s t i ng and fa l l o f ch i mneys ,
and eng i neer i ng of l andscapes , s t ruc tures f ac t ory s t acks , monumen t s , t owe r s and e l eva t ed t anks ; f r ame houses moved on f ounda t i ons i f no t
and i nf rast ruc ture sys t ems . Some of t he bo l t ed down ; l oose pane l wa l l s t hrown ou t ; decayed p i l i ng broken of f ; br anches broken f rom
t rees ; changes in f l ow or t empe r a t ur e o f spr i ngs and we l l s; cracks in we t ground and on s t eep
re f erences l i sted at the end of th i s sec t i on s l opes .
cont a i n add i t i ona l genera l and t echn i ca l
i n forma t i on . In al l cases , i t is assumed tha t IX . Gene r a l pan i c ; masonr y D des t royed ; masonr y C heav i l y damaged , some t i mes w i t h comp l e t e co l -
l apse ; masonr y B ser i ous l y damaged ; gene r a l damage t o f ounda t i ons ; f r ame s t ruc tures , i f no t bo l t -
prof ess i ona l exper t i se wi l l be needed to ed , sh i f t ed of f f ounda t i ons ; f r ames r acked ; ser i ous damage t o reservo i rs ; unde rground p i pes bro
de t e rm i ne the de t a i l ed des i gn and eng i - ken ; consp i cuous cracks in ground ; in a l l uv i a t ed a reas sand and mud e j ec t ed , ea r t hquake f oun-
neer i ng requ i remen t s for al l l arge man - t a i ns and sand cra t ers appea r .

made s t ruc tures and ma j or ear thworks . X. Mos t masonr y and f r ame s t ruc tures des t royed w i t h the i r f ounda t i ons ; some we l l -bu i l t wooden
s t ruc tures and br i dges des t royed ; ser i ous damage t o dams , d i kes , and embankmen t s ; l arge l and-
s l i des ; wa t e r t hrown on banks o f cana l s , r i vers , l akes , e t c. , sand and mud sh i f t ed hor i zont a l l y on
2 . 0 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES beaches and f l at l and ; ra i l s bend s l i ght l y .

2 .1 P l a t e Tec ton i cs XI . Ra i l s ben t grea t l y ; unde rground p i pe l i nes comp l e t e l y ou t o f serv i ce .

XI I . Damage near l y tot a l ; l arge rock masses d i sp l aced ; l i nes o f s i ght and l eve l d i s tor t ed ; ob j ec t s t hrown
The ear th ' s crust and uppe r man t l e are i nto t he a i r .
composed of a mosa i c of 80- to 100- km-
(50- to 60-m i l e) th i ck r ig id p l a t es wh i ch ' Masonry A, B, C, and D as used i n MM Sca l e above:
move s l ow l y and con t i nuous l y over the Masonry A : Good workmansh i p , mor tar , and des i gn ; re i nforced, espec i a l l y l atera l ly, and bound toge ther by us i ng
N i nter i or of the ear th resu l t i ng in pressure , stee l , concre te , etc. ; des i gned to resist l atera l forces.
N Masonry 8 : Good workmansh i p and mor t ar ; re i nforced, but not des i gned in deta i l to resist l atera l forces.
separa t i on or s l i d i ng a t p l a t e edges . As Masonry C : Ord i naryworkmansh i pandmor t ar ;noext remeweaknesses l i ke f a i l i ngtot i e i na t corners , but ne i ther re i nforced
cd these p l a t es move , st ra i n accumu l a t es , nor des i gned aga i nst hor i zonta l forces.
eventua l l y caus i ng fau l ts a l ong boundar i es Masonry D : Weak mater i a l s , such as adobe ; poor mor t ar ; l ow s t andards of workmansh i p; weak hor i zonta l l y
when the p l a t es s l ip abrupt l y . The resu l t ant
s
re l ease of st ress , wh i ch usua l l y occurs w i th- equ i va l en t s on t he R i ch t e r sca l e and i l l us-
i 3 .0 MEASUREMENT
in a f ew cub i c k i l ome t ers of the ear th ' s t r a t es t he magn i t ude o f seve r a l we l l - known
Cu crust , is ca l l ed an ea r t hquake . F i gure 252-1
W ea r t hquakes .
I n t ens i t y and magn i t ude a r e t wo t ypes o f
shows the ma j or t ec ton i c p l a t es of the
wor l d . F i gure 252-2 shows the wor l d-w i de measu r emen t t ha t a r e used t o de t e r m i ne
N 4 . 0 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
t he seve r i t y o f ea r t hquakes .
d i st r i but i on of ea r t hquakes occur r i ng in the
11-
Cu m i d- to l a t e -20th century , up to 1987 . I n t ens i t y desc r i bes t he deg r ee o f shak i ng Ea r t hquakes c r ea t e seve r a l sepa r a t e , bu t
N a t a spec i f i ed p l ace . The mos t w i de l y used o f t en r e l a t ed ac t i ons and r eac t i ons . These
2 .2 O t he r Causes i n t ens i t y sca l e i s t he mod i f i ed Me r ca l l i sca l e are desc r i bed br i e f l y be l ow . Da t a abou t

O t he r causes of ear thquakes i nc l ude vo l - ( MM ) (Tab l e 252 - 1 ) . O t he r sca l es i n i n t e r - each o f t he i r i mpac t s on l and uses , s i t e and
ct3 can i c act i v i ty, i n j ec t i on of l iqu id was t es i nto na t i ona l use a r e shown i n Tab l e 252 - 2 . bu i l d i ng p l ann i ng , des i gn and cons t ruc t i on
L
suscept i b l e rock st rata , and the we i gh t of is p rov i ded i n subsec t i on 5 . 0 .
Magn i t ude i nd i ca t es t he s i ze of an
Cu new l arge dams and the i r assoc i a t ed reser - ea r t hquake , i ndependen t o f t he p l ace o f
vo i rs . 4 .1 Fau l t s and Fau l t D i sp l acemen t s
Z obse r va t i on . I t i s ca l cu l a t ed f r om amp l i t ude
measu r emen t s and is exp r essed i n dec i ma l A f au l t is a f r ac t ur e w i t h i n t he ea r t h ' s c rus t .

IN numbe r s on a l oga r i t hm i c sca l e . The mos t Fau l t d i sp l acemen t is t he movemen t o f t wo

used magn i t ude sca l e is t he R i ch t e r sca l e s i des o f a f au l t caused sudden l y du r i ng an
(M) . F i gur e 252 - 3 shows ene r gy r e l ease ea r t hquake , o r deve l ops s l ow l y as a t ec t on -
IN

T i me - Save r Standards f or Landscape Ar ch i t ec t ur e

 252- 3

F i gur e 252 -1 . Ma j o r t ec t on i c p l a t es o f t he wor l d , m i d - ocean r i dges , t r enches and t r ans f orm f au l t s [Af t e r C . M . R .
Fow l e r , 1990] .

Tab l e 252 -2 . CONVERS I ON TABLE FOR SE I SM I C I NTENS I TY SCALES

N
Y

t
i.
W

N
L
N

N
N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 252 - 4

F i gur e 252 -2 . Se i sm i c i t y map o f t he wor l d . The dot s i nd i ca t e t he d i st r ibut ion of se i sm i c even t s in the m i d- to- l a t e 20 t h cen tury.

is creep . D i sp l acemen t may be hor i zont a l , dep t h of the focus , and the st ruc tura l prop- o f geo l og i ca l ma t er i a l s . Depend i ng on the
ver t i ca l or bo t h and vary f rom a f ew cen- er t i es of sur round i ng soi l and bedrock . d i rec t i on o f propaga t i on of the energy-
t i me t ers to severa l me t e rs . Fau l t s are c l ass i - waves , the resu l ts can be qu i t e d i f f erent .
F i gure 252-6 is a map of peak hor i zont a l
f i ed based upon the geome t r y and d i rec- F i gure 252-7 i l lust rates an examp l e whe r e
ground acce l era t i on expec t ed w i th i n a 50-
t i on of s l i ppage . F i gure 252-4 i l lust rates t he foca l po i nt of the ea r t hquake is nea r
year per i od in the cont i nent a l Un i t ed St a t es
the t ypes and names of the i r componen t s . t he hi l l or moun t a i n . As the wedge of
under l a i n by rock. The r e is a 10 percent
Typ i ca l l y , ma j or f au l ts have severa l para l l e l ma t er i a l s deepens , i t i ncreases the amp l i f i -
probab i l i ty tha t these va l ues wi l l be exceed-
and i nt er l eaved m i nor breaks or "b l i nd ca t i on o f the se i sm i c ene rgy -waves . Thus ,
ed w i th i n a 50-yea r per i od .
f au l ts " in a zone of cons i derab l e w i d t h . any ma j or s t ruc tures l oca t ed above th i s
Dur i ng ea r t hquakes there are of t en sma l l zone may be suscept i b l e to much mor e
a)
t dn
Mos t fau l ts shown on geo l og i ca l maps
areas of very h i gh se i sm i c i ntens i t i es wh i ch damage .
are cons i dered ac t i ve i f they have moved
td may be caused by spec i a l cond i t i ons w i th i n
dur i ng the pas t 11 , 000 years . They are c l as- The reverse can a l so happen . F i gure
or near th i s area . One such cond i t i on is 252-8 shows the d i rec t i on of propaga t i on
s i f i ed "poss i b l y ac t i ve " i f t hey have moved
whe r e there are nea rby rocky-h i l l s or t owa rd hi l ls or moun t a i ns t hrough l ayers of
t dur i ng the pas t 3 mi l l i on years , and f au l ts
moun t a i ns ad j acent to f l at ter l and whose decreas i ng dep t hs . In such cases the un i t of
tha t have no t moved in the pas t 3 mi l l i on
L subsur f ace cont a i ns wedge - shaped l ayers
years are cons i dered i nac t i ve .
W
4 .2 G round Shak i ng and D i r ec t i ons
iii o f Se i sm i c Waves
L Ear thquakes crea t e severa l separa t e , but of t en re l a ted phys i ca l ac t i ons and reac t i ons .
Cu Ground shak i ng occurs when a f au l t rup-
N tures dur i ng an ea r t hquake send i ng se i sm i c 1 . Fau l ts , or f rac tures w i th i n the ear th ' s crust , are the mos t obv i ous e f fect f rom se i smi c
(u waves in al l d i rec t i ons . Th i s causes the movemen t . Mos t fau l ts are cons i dered act i ve i f they have moved dur i ng the pas t
ground to v i bra t e a t f requenc i es rang i ng 11 , 000 years .
f rom abou t .1 to 30 Hz . F i gure 252-5 is a
L d i agramma t i c i l l ust rat i on o f sur f ace se i sm i c
2 . Ground shak i ng is caused by se i smi c waves re l eased dur i ng an ear thquake . There are
of t en sma l l areas of very h i gh se i smi c intens i t i es wh i ch may be caused by spec i a l
waves . Ep i cent er is the po i nt on the ear th ' s
cl i cond i t i ons , such as the presence of rocky hi l ls or moun t a i ns .
sur f ace ver t i ca l l y above t he subsur f ace
Z po i nt whe r e the fau l t rupture or i g i na t ed . 3 . F l ow fa i lures are the mos t ca t ast roph i c t ype of ground fa i lure resu l t i ng f rom ear th-
The f requency and amp l i t ude of the sur f ace quakes . Fa i lure by l i que f ac t i on is mos t dangerous in marshes , we t l ands and a l ong
N v i bra t i ons or se i sm i c waves are measur ed shore l i nes . Latera l spread i ng typ i ca l l y occurs in re l at i ve l y f l at l andscapes , such as
by t he amoun t of mechan i ca l ene rgy f l ood p l a i ns .
N re l eased a t the focus , the d i s t ance to and

T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 252 - 5

F i gure 252-3 . R i cht er magn i t ude F i gure 252-4 Types of fau l ts . : (a) names of components , (b) norma l faul t , (c) reverse
sca l e . Thi s graph shows the amount of faul t , (d) lef t - lateral st r ike-sl ip faul t , (e) lef t - lateral norma l faul t , and (f) lef t - lateral
energy re l eased by ear thquakes of di f ferent reverse faul t .
magn i tudes .
(A
se i smi c energy increases as it nears the t ip G)
of the l ayer. Aga i n , st ructures located cd
above this zone can be sub j ected to much 3
h igher se i smi c energi es and become more
suscept ibl e to st ructura l and other types of s
damage . L

4 .3 Ear thquake - Induced Ground W

Fa i l ures
üi
There are three ma j or types of ground fai l - L
ures . Al l have some connect i on wi th the l iq- cqs
uefact ion of under l y ing geologi ca l mater i a l s . N

L i que f ac t i on :
Liquefact ion is a temporary cond i t ion when L
se i smi c waves pass through saturated lay-
ers of granu l ar mater i a l s (such as sand or
si l t) . These waves cause the vo ids in this
mater i a l to col l apse, or for a shor t t ime ,
F i gure 252-5 . D i rec t i ons of v i bra t i on caused by body and sur face se i smi c waves
genera ted dur ing an ear thquake . When a faul t ruptures, se i smi c waves are propaga t ed in Z
al l di rect ions, caus i ng the ground to v ibrate at f requenc i es rang i ng f rom about 0.1 to 30
causes the mater i a l to behave as a f luid and
as a resul t lose i ts bear ing capabi l i t ies . Thi s f 1Z N
mater i a l mus t be wi thin about 30 m (100
N
Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Archi tecture
 252- 6
f t ) of the sur f ace to have a drama t i c e f f ec t .
The grea t es t dange rs f rom l i que f ac t i on wi l l
occur in marshes , we t l ands or a l ong shore-
l ines .

La t era l spreads :

La tera l spreads occur when the ear th ' s sur -

f ace s l ow l y moves in mass ove r a subsur -
f ace p l ane . La tera l spreads o f 3 to 5 m (10
t o 15 f t ) can occur on re l a t i ve l y f l at (1 to 7
percent ) s l opes . I f t he ear th shakes for a
l ong dura t i on t hen the l atera l spreads can
become as grea t as 30 to 45 m (100 to 150
f t ) . Depos i t s o f soi l in f l ood p l a i ns are par -
t i cu l ar l y vu l nerab l e to l atera l spread i ng
t owa rd r i ver channe l s .

F l ow f a i l ures :

F l ow fa i l ures are the mos t ca t as t roph i c t ype

of ground fa i l ure . They are caused by l arge
b l ocks of i nt ac t ma t er i a l be i ng moved on a
F i gur e 252 - 6 . Peak hor i zon t a l ground acce l e r a t i on expec t ed a t s i t es in t he l ayer of l i que f i ed ma t er i a l s . These f l ows
con t i guous Un i t ed S t a t es unde r l a i n by rock i n a 50- yea r pe r i od ( f rom may be very l arge (e . g. , 1 .5 kmz (1 m i l )
A l ge rm i ssen and Pe rk i ns , 1976) . Th i s map represent s the ground- shak i ng haza rd in and may move many me t ers or even k i lo-
t erms o f the peak amp l i t ude of hor i zont a l acce l era t i on , one charac t er i st i c o f the s t rength me t ers , a t ve l oc i t i es reach i ng t ens o f k i lo-
o f the se i sm i c shak i ng. Loca t i ons hav i ng the same va l ue of peak acce l era t i on are con- me t e rs pe r hour . F l ow f a i l ures usua l l y
nec t ed w i th a con t our l i ne. Va l ues shown on each con t our and on the map are percen t - i nvo l ve l ayers of sa tura t ed sands or si l ts on
ages of the acce l era t i on of grav i t y. The re i s a 10 pe rcen t probab i l i t y tha t these va l ues w i l l s l opes grea t er t han 6 or 7 percent . When
be exceeded in a 50-yea r pe r i od. Th i s map t akes i nto accoun t the re l a t i ve d i f f erences i n these f l ow f a i l ures occur unde r wa t e r t hey
ra t e of se i sm i c ac t i v i ty i n the eas t ern and wes t e rn Un i t ed St a t es. Areas whe r e peak acce l - can cause l arge sea waves ( t sunam i s) wh i ch
era t i on exceeds 10 pe rcen t o f the acce l era t i on o f grav i ty are shaded . The l argest va l ues
can damage i nhab i t ed coas t l i nes .
shown , a l ong the Ca l i forn i a coast , are 80 percen t o f grav i t y.
5 . 0 ASSESS I NG EARTHQUAKE
R I SKS AND LOSSES

Th i s da t a is i n t ended to he l p reduce the

r i sks re l a t ed to ea r t hquakes in pre l i m i nary
s i te and l arge area p l ann i ng and des i gn . Si x
s t eps are r ecommended to assess and mi t i -
ga t e the poss i b l e se i sm i c r i sks for bo t h loca l
G)
and reg i ona l use .
1. Eva l ua t e Se i sm i c Haza rds and R i sk .
Th i s i nvo l ves es t i ma t i ng the var i ous
se i sm i c r i sks for an area or s i te . Th i s
t
i nc l udes es t i ma t i ng t he pred i c t ed l oca-
i t i on , dura t i on , and i nt ens i ty of future
t t3
W ea r t hquakes . Desp i t e nume rous s tud-
i es of recent ea r t hquakes se i sm i c sc i -
ent i sts wor l dw i de have l i t t le conf i -
dence in the i r ab i l i ty to pred i c t ear th-
i
tti quakes .
N 2. De t e rm i ne the Des i gn Ea r t hquake .
tu The des i gn ea r t hquake is usua l l y t he
hypothe t i ca l max i mum even t expec t
ed on the l argest fau l t in the area . I t
i may represent a s i ng l e l arge ear th-
quake or a ser i es of ear thquakes o f
d i f f erent magn i t udes . I t is based upon
z t he fo l l ow i ng da t a :
F i gur e 252 - 8 . Propaga t i on o f se i sm i c waves t owa rd a h i l l s i de . The se i sm i c ener - a. Se i sm i c h i story of any fau l t and
N gy i ncreases as i t nears the sur f ace o f the a l l uv i um . St ruc tures l oca t ed above th i s zone can i ts sur round i ng area to de t e rm i ne
be mor e suscept i b l e to damage. the ra te of s l ip or ground de for -
N ma t i on .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 2 52- 7
compos i t e maps show i ng the tota l
pot ent i a l se i sm i c r i sks for each zone .
The accuracy of es t ab l i sh i ng se i sm i c
zones depends on the l eve l of deta i l
and t he accuracy of t he bas i c geo l og i c
mapp i ng . Geograph i ca l i n forma t i on
sys t ems (GIS) can be used to produce
de t a i l ed compu t e r gene ra t ed maps
show i ng the assessmen t o f a var i e ty of
r i sks tha t cou l d a f f ec t a par t i cu l ar c i ty
or a reg i on . The app l i ca t i on of G I S
based upon da t a ob t a i ned f rom
r emo t e sens i ng and o t he r sources
shou l d be a h i gh pr i or i ty for pub l i c
author i t i es and pr i va t e sec tor users of
l and who are conce rned w i th d i sast er
m i t i ga t i on and managemen t .
4. Eva l ua t i on of Land Uses , St ruc tures &
Human Occupanc i es . The nex t s t ep in
r i sk assessmen t is i dent i f i ca t i on and
eva l ua t i on of the vu l nerab i l i ty of var i -
ous t ypes o f l and uses and s t ruc tures
to damages re l a t ed to ea r t hquakes .
Th i s ca l l s for an i nventory and ana l ys i s
of ex i st i ng and proposed l and uses ,
s t ruc tures and assoc i a t ed dange rs to
humans tha t cou l d be caused by the
assumed des i gn ea r t hquake .
5. Regu l a t i ons Based on Se i sm i c R i sk . In
many l oca t i ons ( loca l , st a t e and / or
na t i ona l ) , bu i l d i ng codes and l and use
regu l a t i ons are expec t ed to he l p
reduce se i sm i c r i sks . For i ns t ance , in
t he U .S . there is a Un i f orm Bu i l d i ng
Code wh i ch is rev i sed eve ry year but
on l y pub l i shed eve ry three years . In
add i t i on , some i nd i v i dua l st a t es and
loca l i t i es have subd i v i s i on regu l a t i ons ,
zon i ng ord i nances , and bu i l d i ng codes
tha t requ i re spec i a l geo l og i ca l stud i es
of an area i f i t is w i th i n an i dent i f i ed
se i sm i c r i sk zone .
6. I mpac t s of Ea r t hquakes on Ma j or tu
St ruc tures & Sys t ems . Th i s s t ep de t er - 3
m i nes spec i f i c mesaur es to avo i d ,
t
reduce , or m i t i ga t e any se i sm i c r i sks
f ound w i th i n the s tudy s i te or area . i
W
1 LAND
CONSTRUCT I ON I N SE I SM I C
ZONES

I t is f ar l ess r i sky and l ess expens i ve to not

F i gur e 252 -9 . D i agr ams o f l a t era l so i l pr essur es for a) grav i t y des i gn ; b) grav i t y bu i l d in or near se i smi ca l l y ac t i ve areas .
p l us se i sm i c des i gn l oads; and c) shear key to res i st hor i zont a l movemen t o f foot i ng . Un for tuna t e l y , as F i gures 252-2 and 252-6
cd
show , many of t he wor l d ' s l argest and mos t i
b. Geo l og i c eva l ua t i on of the ex i st - 3. Se i sm i c I nven tory and Zona t i on . rap i d l y grow i ng me t ropo l i t an reg i ons are
i ng t ec ton i c s t ruc ture of the area Se i sm i c zona t i on i nvo l ves i nventory l oca t ed in se i sm i c areas . I f pot ent i a l l y ac t i ve cd
and s i te . and mapp i ng an area for i ts pot ent i a l se i sm i c areas canno t be avo i ded , there are z
c. The re l a t i onsh i p be t ween t he for each t ype of se i smi c hazard , such severa l use fu l gu i de l i nes to he l p reduce d i f -
magn i t ude of pot ent i a l ear th-
quakes and the l ength o f present
as sur f ace fau l t i ng , ground shak i ng , f erent t ypes of pot ent i a l se i sm i c r i sks . N
f l ood i ng , l i que f ac t i on , and l and-s l i d-
fau l ts . i ng . These maps are used to make
N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 252-8
who spec i a l i ze i n such wor k . I f po t en t i a l
haza rds a re i dent i f i ed f or a s i te , use o f deep
f ounda t i ons , p i l i ngs or o t he r ma j o r coun t e r
measur es may be necessa r y in a r eas sub j ec t
t o se t t l emen t or l oss o f bea r i ng s t reng t h .

Ma j o r s t ruc tures (bu i l d i ngs , roadways ,

br i dges , s t or age t anks , and ut i l i ty l i nes)
shou l d no t be bu i l t on or nea r f au l t l i nes .
For cer t a i n k i nds o f l and uses whe r e many
human l i ves a r e i nvo l ved ( such as hosp i t a l s ,
schoo l s , e t c . ) t he r e may be a need f or a l t er -
na t i ve or t empor a r y ways t o assure veh i cu-
l ar and ut i l i ty access .

6 .2 Dange r s o f H i l l t ops and

Reg r aded H i l l s i des

H i l l s i des and r i dges amp l i f y se i sm i c v i bra -

t i ons and mo t i ons . Th i s is con f i rmed by
F i gur e 252 - 10 . Me t hods t o m i t i ga t e se t t l emen t o f b r i dge bu t t r esses . resea rch and f i e l d obse r va t i ons o f t he
r ecen t Nor t hr i dge and Loma Pr i e t a

Tab l e 252 - 3 . SE I SM I C COEFF I C I ENTS FOR EARTH - RETA I N I NG STRUCTURES

Se i sm i c coe f f i c i ent a = (a /g)

I mpor t ance ca t egory` Zone t A Zone t B Zone t C

0 .18 0 .12

0 .13 0. 09

" 1 : Ma j or re t a i n i ng wa l l s suppor t i ng i mpor t ant st ruc tures or serv i ces whe r e fa i lure wou l d have d i sast rous
consequences , such as cut t i ng v i ta l serv i ces or caus i ng ser i ous l oss of l i fe .

2 : Free -s t and i ng st ruc tures a t l east 20 f t (6 m) h i gh , not in l oca t i ons as in ca t egory 1, bu t whe r e rep l ace-
men t wou l d be di f f i cul t or cost l y and other consequences wou l d be ser i ous .

3 : For l ess i mpor t ant st ruc tures than above , no spec i f i c prov i s i on for ear thquake l oad i ng need be made .

t New Zea l and Se i sm i c Zones . Zone A represents modera t e l y h i gh se i sm i c r isk on a wor l d sca l e , the
max i mum des i gn ear thquake be i ng of magn i t ude 7 .8, approx i ma t e l y .
F i gur e 252 - 11 . D i ag r am o f b r i dge Source: D . J. Dowr i ck , Ear thquake Res i stant Des ign, John W l ey & Sons , Ltd ., Chicester , Engl and, 1977.
span t ha t has f a l l en o f f o f i t s suppo r t
due t o ea r t hquakes .

-M In a l l cases , consu l t a t i on w i t h a pro f es -

s i ona l eng i nee r who spec i a l i zes i n se i sm i c
Q haza rd is essen t i a l t o he l p i den t i f y and Deve l opmen t i n a r eas o f se i sm i c ac t i v i ty shou l d be avo i ded wheneve r poss i b l e . I f
t de t e rm i ne t he po t en t i a l haza rds and wha t t hese a r eas canno t be avo i ded , t he re a re seve ra l use f u l gu i de l i nes and ru l es o f t humb
measur es t ha t shou l d be t aken t o ove r come to he l p r educe d i f f erent t ypes o f po t en t i a l se i sm i c r i sks .
or m i t i ga t e t hrea t s assoc i a t ed w i t h ea r t h-
W quakes . I t shou l d be no t ed t ha t mos t se i s-
1 . Consu l t a t i on w i t h a pro f ess i ona l eng i nee r who spec i a l i zes in se i sm i c haza rd is essen-
t ia l to de t e rm i ne t he pot ent i a l hazards , bu i l d i ng code requ i remen t s , and appropr i a t e
m i c expe r t s a r e se l dom ab l e t o pr ed i c t measur es t ha t shou l d be t aken t o ove r come or m i t i ga t e threa t s assoc i a t ed w i t h
!If
wh i ch t ypes or magn i t udes o f ea r t hquakes ea r t hquakes .
i and resu l t i ng e f f ec t s w i l l occur i n a spec i f i c
2. Ma j or s t ruc tures shou l d no t be bu i l t on or nea r f au l t l i nes . I f pot ent i a l ground fa i l -
p l ace or t o a spec i f i c s t ruc t ure . Thus , se i s-
cd ures a re i dent i f i ed f or a s i te , use o f deep f ounda t i ons or p i l i ngs may be necessa ry.
m i c expe r t s mus t re l y on use o f a ra t i ona l
process based upon f ac t s , as we l l as pe r - 3. H i l l s i des and r i dges a re par t i cu l ar l y haza rdous in a r eas o f se i sm i c ac t i v i ty . Al l e f for t s
sona l expe r i ence . shou l d be made t o avo i d deve l opmen t in t hese a reas .
L
6 . 1 Responses t o Po t en t i a l G r ound 4. I t is bes t t o p l ace t he l eng th of re t a i n i ng dev i ces pe rpend i cu l a r t o t he ant i c i pa t ed
cd Fa i l ur es and Fau l t s d i rec t i on o f t he se i sm i c waves , a l t hough t he i nt r i cac i es o f many f au l t zones makes i t
Z d i f f i cu l t to pred i c t t he d i rec t i on o f se i sm i c ac t i v i ty.
Ident i f i ca t i on o f t he po t en t i a l ground fa i l -
5. The des i gn and con f i gura t i on o f bu i l d i ngs p l aced in ea r t hquake haza rd a reas is
ures and f au l t s can on l y be es t i ma t ed by
N de t a i l ed geo l og i ca l i nves t i ga t i ons gu i ded
i mpor t an t in m i n i m i z i ng damage . Genera l l y , l arger and ta l l er s t ruc tures a re mor e sus-
cept i b l e to damage , and squa r e p l ans a re pre f er red (F i gure 252-19) .
and i n t e rpre t ed by pro f ess i ona l eng i nee r s
N
T i me -Save r Standards f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 252 - 9

Ea r t hquakes in Ca l i forn i a . Deve l op i ng these

s i tes t ends to resu l t in comp l i ca t ed f ounda -
t i ons for ma j or st ruc tures , and the drama t -
ic reshap i ng of h i l l tops and h i l l s ides wh i ch
of t en requ i res use of re t a i n i ng s t ruc tures
wh i ch can become uns t ab l e dur i ng ear th-
quakes . As a resu l t , deve l opmen t of these
s i tes shou l d be avo i ded wheneve r poss i b l e .

6 .3 Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s and S i m i l a r
S t ruc t ur es
Re t a i n i ng wa l l s or s t ruc tures do not typ i ca l -
l y fai l comp l e t e l y dur i ng ea r t hquakes . Mor e
of t en , they are shaken ou t o f a l i gnmen t or
suf f er s i gn i f i cant damage . Whe r e poss i b l e ,
i t is bes t to p l ace the l ength of the re t a i n i ng
dev i ces a t r i ght ang l es to the expec t ed
d i rec t i on o f the se i sm i c waves . Howeve r ,
se i sm i c areas may have many unknown
m i nor or so-ca l l ed "b l i nd f au l ts " wh i ch
make i t d i f f i cu l t to pred i c t t he d i rec t i on of
pot ent i a l ea r t hquakes . Tab l e 252-3 shows
how the New Zea l and M i n i s t ry of Wor ks
c l ass i f i es ear th re t a i n i ng st ruc tures and rec-
ommends se i sm i c coe f f i c i ents for t hese
s t ruc tures when they are l oca t ed in se i sm i c
zones .
F i gure 252-9 i l lust rates how re t a i n i ng
wa l l s in se i sm i c areas need to res i st the nor -
ma l assumed f lu id pressure beh i nd a wa l l
w i th or w i t hou t surcharge and the pass i ve
soi l mass beh i nd the wa l l . In s i tua t i ons
whe r e a foot i ng rests on c l ay or a s i mi l ar
F i gur e 252 - 12 . St ruc t ura l damage i n t ens i t y for d i f f e ren t -he i gh t bu i l d i ngs re l a t ed to
dep t h o f so i l and compu t ed f undamen t a l pe r i od o f so i l depos i t . N = numbe r o f stor i es .
"s l i ck " ma t er i a l , a shear -key shou l d be
Whe r e the f undamen t a l per i od of a so i l depos i t is shor t (be t ween 0 . 6 and 0 .8 sec . ) the added to he l p t he wa l l res i st pass i ve soi l
grea t es t damage w i l l occur to bu i l d i ngs f rom f i ve to n i ne stor i es ta l l . W i t h l onger so i l per i - movemen t c r ea t ed by ea r t hquakes .
ods , the damage i nt ens i t y to h i ghe r s t ruc tures i ncreases .
6 .4 Br i dges and S i m i l a r S t ruc t ur es
The des i gn of ma j or br i dges for veh i cu l a r N
t raf f i c is a spec i a l f i e ld for st ruc tura l eng i -
nee rs (See pub l i ca t i ons by the U .S . App l i e d
Techno l ogy Counc i l on Se i sm i c Des i g n
cu
Gu i de l i nes for H i ghway Br i dges : ATC-6 o r
6-1 and 6 .2 .) . Br i dges for l i ghter veh i c l es , s
footbr i dges , decks and boardwa l ks , sta i rs, i
and r amps are o f t en des i gned by l andscap e
arch i t ec t s and bu i l d i ng arch i t ec t s . W
Ear thquakes can cause damage to these
s t ruc tures . The fo l l ow i ng descr i bes a f ew
common prob l ems and so l ut i ons to be con- i
s i dered when p l ann i ng , des i gn i ng and con- w
N
s t ruc t i ng such s t ruc tures in se i sm i c areas
(Re f er t o Sec t i on 470 : Pedes t r i an Br i dges ,
and Sec t i on 460 : Wood Decks and
Boa rdwa l ks for add i t i ona l des i gn i n forma - i
F i gur e 252 - 13 . Pendu l um ac t i on . The t i on) .
F i gur e 252 - 14 . E f f ec t s o f cyc l i c
bu i l d i ng ac t s l i ke a pendu l um w i th respec t reve rsa l s o f g round acce l e r a t i on . At çq j
Ea r t h se t t l emen t & l oss o f suppor t .
to the ground. the same t i me tha t the uppe r par t o f a Z
s t ruc ture beg i ns to move to ca t ch up w i th Ear thquakes cause se t t l emen t of mos t f i l l
the i n i t i a l d i sp l acemen t , t he ground ma t er i a l s ad j acent to and beh i nd but t ress- N
mo t i on reverses i tse l f . es , re t a i n i ng wa l l s of br i dges , and unde r the
f ounda t i ons for br i dges , re t a i n i ng wa l l s , fV

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 252- 1 0

F i gur e 252 - 15 . Tors i on e f f ec t on a bu i l d i ng p l an . Bu i l d i ng on l ef t shows rot a t i on

o f the mass o f an eas t -wes t w i ng re l a t i ve to the mass o f a nor th-south w i ng. The draw-
i ng on the r i ght shows a regu l ar p l an bu i l d i ng w i t h asymme t r i ca l s t i f f en i ng. In a rec t an- F i gur e 252 - 16 . Ob l i que v i ew o f ve r -
gu l ar bu i l d i ng w i th a very st i f f of f -cent er core area and w i t h the rema i nde r of the st ruc- t i ca l t ors i on e f f ec t . Whe r e the uppe r
ture f l ex i b l e , tors i on w i l l deve l op in the f l ex i b l e por t i on a round the st i f fer core . stor i es of a ta l l s t ruc ture have a grea t er
f l oor area t han those be l ow , tors i ona l
prob l ems can resu l t because o f ver t i ca l
acce l era t i ons.

sa f e t y. In the past , mos t st ruc tures we r e

p l anned , des i gned and cons t ruc t ed w i t hou t
s i gn i f i cant regard to the i r se i sm i c i mp l i ca-
t i ons (See re f erence l ist a t end of th i s sec-
t i on for sources on se i sm i c des i gn of
bu i l d i ngs) .

Mos t damage to s t ruc tures occurs dur -

i ng t he f i rst momen t s of the ear th shak i ng
neares t the ep i cent er . The re can some t i mes
be grea t er dange r f rom cumu l a t i ve ear th-
quake damages . These are caused by sev-
F i gur e 252 - 17 . St i f fness o f a s t ruc t ure F i gur e 252 - 18 . St i f fness o f a s t ruc t ure era l ea r t hquakes occur r i ng over a per i od of
re l a t ed t o bu i l d i ng p l an . The nor th-south re l a t ed t o bu i l d i ng p l an . The nor th-south t i me , each one caus i ng l i mi t ed damage .
w i ng o f an L- shaped bu i l d i ng w i l l be re l a- w i ng of a T-shaped bu i l d i ng w i l l be re l at i ve- Af t er a ser i es of such event s , even a m i nor
t i ve l y st i f fer i f i ts l ong ax i s is para l l e l to the l y st i f fer i f i ts l ong ax i s is para l l e l to ear th- a f t ershock cou l d t r i gger ma j or st ruc tura l
ear thquake mo t i on . The eas t -wes t is sha l l ow quake mo t i on . The eas t -wes t w i ng is sha l - damage or co l l apse .
in the d i rec t i on of the ear thquake mo t i on , l ow in the d i rec t i on of the ea r t hquake
and un l ess des i gned to have adequa t e mo t i on , and un l ess des i gned to have ade - Ta l l st ruc tures (bu i l d i ngs , s torage t anks
a) capac i t y to absorb and d i ss i pa t e the forces , i t qua t e capac i t y to absorb and d i ss i pa t e the or observa t i on towers , e t c .) and l ow , l ong
Rf can suf f er grea t er damage . forces , i t can suf f er grea t er damage. st ruc tures (br i dges , st ad i a , dams , re t a i n i ng
3 wa l l s , e t c .) are mor e vu l nerab l e to the sub-
IS sequen t e f f ec ts of se i sm i c waves . Some
t and s i mi l ar " ear th-suppor t ed " st ruc tures . 6 .5 Bu i l d i ngs and O t he r Ma j o r
s t ruc tures respond by v i bra t i ng at var i ous
Th i s se t t l ement can i nt er rupt the cont i nu i t y St ruc t ur es f requenc i es , depend i ng on the shape , s i ze ,
L
of the t rave l sur f aces l ead i ng to and f rom and st ruc tura l sys t em . Ad j acen t s t ruc tures
W br i dges by severa l mi l l i me t ers , wh i ch cou l d Si te se l ec t i on and p l acemen t of bu i l d i ngs w i th d i f f erent charac t er i st i cs may each
be dange rous or even preven t movemen t and other l arge s t ruc tures are a f undamen- v i bra t e a t the i r own f requenc i es . Th i s may
of mos t veh i c l es . F i gure 252-10 i l lust rates ta l ini t ia l cons i dera t i on in se i smi ca l l y ac t i ve cause t hem to st r i ke each other and may
s. - one me t hod to preven t or reduce such areas . inf l i ct severe damage .
cu dange rs .
N The second mos t i mpor t an t cons i dera -
w Ta l l s t ruc tures have l onger ra t es of v i bra-
Br i dge st ruc tures moved of f suppor t . t i on is the mass i ng of the bu i l d i ng e l emen t s t i on , or f undamen t a l per i ods , and there -
and the cont i nu i t y of var i ous st ruc tura l sys- fore , are sub j ec t to grea t er damage i f bu i l t
Ear thquakes cause l atera l spread i ng o f the t ems . These wi l l a f f ec t t he ab i l i ty o f a st ruc-
n3 on deep soi l s wh i ch may have equa l l y l ong
i but t resses and can rock br i dges , aer i a l
ture to res i st or surv i ve damage f rom se i s- f undamen t a l per i ods . F i gure 252-12 shows
wa l kways , e t c . of f the i r bear i ng p l a t es or
m i c forces . Bu i l d i ngs w i th comp l ex masses the pot ent i a l damage to bu i l d i ngs of d i f fer -
of f the i r suppor t s un l ess appropr i a t e
(d i f f erent f l oor he i ght s and w i ngs) , var i a-
Z rest ra i n i ng dev i ces or other t echn i ques are t i ons in the s i ze and numbe r of open i ngs ,
ent he i ght s based upon t he soi l cond i t i ons ,
emp l oyed (F i gure 252-11) . e t c . F i gures 252-13 t hrough 252-18 show
e t c . , present very comp l ex prob l ems to how some t ypes of st ruc tures may be
N quant i t a t i ve l y de t e rm i ne the i r res i s t ance to e f f ec t ed by ea r t hquake v i bra t i ons . These
se i sm i c damage and prov i de for human v i bra t i ons cause t he ground to osc i l l ate in
N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 by gove rnmen t s . O f t en na t i ona l prof es-
s i ona l and t rade assoc i a t i ons have es t ab-
l i shed mor e s t r i ngent codes and gu i de l i nes

SOURCES OF TECHN I CAL

I NFORMAT I ON & ASS I STANCE

Ea r t hquake Eng i neer i ng Research Inst i tute

499 14t h St reet , Su i t e 320 , Oak l and , CA
94612-1934
Na t i ona l Cen t e r for Ea r t hquake
Eng i neer i ng Research , 304 Capen Ha l l ,
Sc i ence and Eng i neer i ng Li brary , Un i vers i t y
of Buf f a l o , Buf f a l o , New York 14260-2200
Na t i ona l Ea r t hquake In forma t i on Cent er ,
MS-967 , PO Box 25046 , Federa l Cent er ,
Denver , CO 80225
Na tura l Haza rds Research & App l i ca t i ons
Info . Cent er , Un i v. o f Co l orado , Campus
Box 482 , Bou l der , Co l orado

REFERENCES

Ambrose , James , and D i m i t ry Ve rgun .

S i mp l i f i ed Bu i l d i ng Des i gn for W i nd and
Ea r t hquake Forces , 3rd. Ed . W i l ey , New
York 1995
Arno l d , Chr i s topher , and Robe r t
Re i t he rman. Bu i l d i ng Con f i gura t i on and
Se i sm i c Des i gn W i l ey , New York 1982.
Bo l t , Bruce A ., e t a l . Geo l og i ca l Hazards ,
2d ed. Spr i nger -Ver l ag , New York 1975
Bo l t , Bruce A . Ea r t hquakes . W H.
F reeman , New York 1993
Bot sa i , E l me r E. , Horn , W L ., e t a l .
Arch i t ec t s and Ea r t hquakes . AI A Resea rch
Corpora t i on , Wash i ng t on , DC 1977 .
Dowr i ck , D . l ., Ea r t hquake Res i s t ant
Des i gn : A Manua l for Eng i neers &
Arch i t ec t s . W i l ey , New York 1977. 0)
Y
Inst i tute o f Ci v i l Eng i neer i ng , St ruc tures to ed
W i t hs t and D i sas t ers . Thomas Te l ford
House , London , Eng l and 1995
F i gur e 252 - 19 S i mp l e ru l es f or p l an l ayou t s and e l eva t i on shapes t o m i n i - s
m i ze se i sm i c haza rds . These ru l es shou l d be broken on l y w i t h dynam i c ana l ys i s and Inst i tut e of C i v i l Eng i neer i ng , Megac i t i es :
Reduc i ng Vu l nerab i l i ty to Na tura l D i sas t ers . L
care fu l de t a i l i ng.
Thomas Te l ford House , London , Eng l and W
al l d i rec t i ons , crea t i ng r andom mo t i ons of er a l t erna t i ve is to d i v i de the s t ruc ture i nto 1995
vary i ng f requenc i es . Tors i ona l e f f ec ts on more -or - l ess f ree s t and i ng segmen t s by N i cho l s , D . R ., and J . M . Bachanan-Banks .
such st ruc tures are d i f f i cu l t to assess and crea t i ng gaps of a t l east 100 mm (4 in) in Se i sm i c Haza rds and Land Use P l ann i ng i
can be very des t ruc t i ve . Bo t h the conf i gu- w i d t h . De t a i l i ng of these gaps is comp l ex Geo l og i ca l Survey C i rcu l ar 690 , N
ra t i on of the p l an and / or ver t i ca l mass i ng but wi l l he l p preven t or reduce pound i ng . Wash i ng t on , DC 1974.
of l arge s t ruc tures can have s i gn i f i cant
i nf l uence on the st ruc ture ' s ab i l i ty to w i th- 6 .6 Bu i l d i ng Codes Ramsey / S l eepe r , Arch i t ec tura l Graph i c
s t and ground shak i ng . St andards , 9t h Ed i t i on , W i l ey , New York
Bu i l d i ng codes have been es t ab l i shed in 1994 i
F i gure 252-19 shows s i mp l e ru l es for mos t par ts of the wor l d to d i c t a t e m i n i mum St rat ta , James L. Manua l of Se i sm i c Des i gn
prepar i ng p l ans and e l eva t i ons for l arge requ i remen t s for the cons t ruc t i on o f ma j or
Prent i ce -Ha l l , Eng l ewood , New Jersey ,
s t ruc tures . Genera l l y , squa re or near l y bu i l d i ngs and o t he r s t ruc tures whe r e z
1987
square p l ans are pre f er red . R i g i d ver t i ca l human sa f e t y and we l f are is a conce rn .
e l emen t s (such as sta i r towers , e t c .) shou l d Such codes typ i ca l l y i nc l ude cons i dera t i on W i ege l , Robe r t L . Ea r t hquakes Eng i neer i ng
Hs i n l u shu ch i u , Ta i pe i , Taw i an 1983 N
be p l aced symme t r i ca l l y w i th i n the st ruc- of se i sm i c f ac tors . Bu i l d i ng codes are typ i -
ture . I f a squa re p l an is no t poss i b l e , ano t h- ca l l y na t i ona l or loca l s t andards deve l oped
N

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 SECT I ON

Na t ura l Haza rds : Lands l i des

and Snow Ava l anches

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
Cha r l es W. Har r i s
Techn i ca l Wr i t er :
Ky l e D. Brown
Rev i ewe rs :
Pro f essor Tunce r B. Ed i l
N

su
Depa r t men t of Ci v i l and
Env i ronmen t a l Eng i nee r i ng
Un i vers i t y of W i scons i n -Mad i son
C
Mad i son , W i scons i n

James E . Hough
James E . Hough and Assoc i a t es â
C i nc i nna t i , Oh i o

O
Jack D. I ves C
Int erna t i ona l Moun t a i n Soc i e t y
Bou l der , Co l or ado
06

CONTENTS
1 .0 Int roduc t i on 3 . 0 Snow Ava l anches C
2 .0 Lands l i des 3 .1 Causes and Types o f Snow Ava l anches
J
2.1 Types o f Lands l i des 3 .2 Es t i ma t i on of Ava l anche Haza rd
2. 2 Causes o f Lands l i des 3 .3 Ava l anche Loss Preven t i on and N
2. 3 Es t i ma t i on o f Lands l i de Haza rd Reduc t i on
i
2. 4 Lands l i de Loss Preven t i on and Regu l a t i on a
(,
N
Reduc t i on Prevent i on and Cor rec t i on
Regu l a t i on Sources o f Techn i ca l I n f orma t i on and
Preven t i on and Cor rec t i on Ass i s t ance
St ab i l i za t i on o f So i l S l opes Re f e rences
St ab i l i za t i on o f Rock S l opes L

Z
M
N
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 253 -2
ly suscept i b l e to l ands l i des . Lands l i des of t en used to de t e rm i ne the pot ent i a l for l and-
1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON
accompany f l ood i ng or heavy ra i ns . s l i des on a par t i cu l ar s i te .
Unusua l l y we t cond i t i ons wi l l i ncrease the
Th i s sec t i on descr i bes t he hazards of l and- In t he Un i t ed St a t es , more -de t a i l ed
we i gh t of the s l ope and decrease the f r i c-
s l i des and snow ava l anches . Lands l i des are maps of l ands l i de hazards have been pre-
t i on be t ween soi l par t i c l es . Eros i on or cut s
de f i ned as the mass movemen t of any pa red by the U .S . Geo l og i ca l Survey for
at the base of a s l ope can cause weaken i ng
comb i na t i on of rock or soi l down a s l ope . areas whe r e the prob l ems have been mos t
and s l i d i ng . Ea r t hquakes are ano t he r
S l ope movemen t resu l ts f rom the ac t i on of severe . St a t e geo l og i ca l survey un i ts or
i mpor t an t cause of l ands l i des . Lands l i des
grav i ty and c l i ma t e on geo l og i c ma t er i a l s . m i n i ng regu l a t i on agenc i es may a l so pro-
can a l so be caused by human act i v i ty.
F i gure 253-1 i dent i f i es and de f i nes the v i de l ands l i de hazard maps .
Cons t ruc t i on , remova l of prot ec t i ve vege -
common f ea tures of a l ands l i de .
ta t i on , or act i v i t i es wh i ch cause v i bra t i on in In many areas of the Un i t ed St a t es and
Snow ava l anches are de f i ned as t he the soi l (b l ast i ng , heavy equ i pmen t , e t c .) e l sewhe re in the wor l d , such de t a i l ed i nfor -
rap i d downwa rd movemen t o f a mass of can upse t the ba l ance of forces ac t i ng on a ma t i on on l ands l i de hazards is not ava i l -
snow , or i g i na t i ng on s t eep s l opes , o f t en s l ope . Common human ac t i v i t i es tha t ab l e . Soi l survey maps can be use fu l as an
car ry i ng i ce, rock , and debr i s tha t con- i ncrease the pot ent i a l for l ands l i des i nc l ude : i nt er i m source o f i n forma t i on unt i l mor e
t r i but e to i ts pot ent i a l des t ruc t i veness . prec i se s tud i es are ava i l ab l e . A pre l i m i nary
1. The p l acemen t o f ear th and o t he r i nves t i ga t i on of a s i te by a geo l og i ca l eng i -
2 . 0 LANDSL I DES heavy f i l l ma t er i a l s on a s l ope , wh i ch neer , us i ng a i r pho t o ana l yses or o ther
i ncreases the downwa rd force ac t i ng me t hods , can g i ve i nd i ca t i ons as to
2 .1 Types o f Lands l i des on the s l ope whe t he r mor e comprehens i ve geot echn i ca l
2. The cons t ruc t i on o f roads , bu i l d i ngs i nves t i ga t i ons are requ i red .
The mos t w i de l y used c l ass i f i ca t i on of l and-
and o ther t ypes of st ruc tures , wh i ch
s l i des is based on the predom i nan t t ype of Cer t a i n comb i na t i ons of sur f ace d i stur -
i ncreases bo t h the l oad and t he wa t e r
mass movemen t tha t occurs and the t ype bances can s i gn i fy f orme r l ands l i des or
inf i l t rat ion .
of ma t er i a l i nvo l ved . Lands l i des are a l so areas of h i gh l ands l i de pot ent i a l . These key
3. The use of on-s i t e sewage d i sposa l
descr i bed by the i r ve l oc i t y. f ea tures are descr i bed in Tab l e 253-5 .
sys t ems , the cons t ruc t i on of ponds ,
Movemen t : The t ype of movemen t is one and the use o f spr i nk l er sys t ems , al l of Aer i a l pho t ogr aphs can revea l the l oca-
of the pr i nc i pa l cr i ter i a for c l ass i fy i ng l and- wh i ch i ncrease t he inf i l t rat ion of wa t e r t i on of f orme r l ands l i des . Zones of prev i ous
s l ides and de t erm i n i ng an appropr i a t e mi t i - i nto a s l ope and i ncrease i ts t endency s l i d i ng act i v i ty are ev i dent by charac t er i st i c
ga t i on s t ra t egy . Tab l e 253-1 l ists the f i ve to s l i de . c rescen t -shaped scarps and hummocky
d i st i nc t t ypes of l ands l i de movemen t . 4. The grad i ng of a s i te wh i ch resu l ts in t opogr aphy. I t is mor e d i f f i cu l t to i dent i f y
N
Comp l ex l ands l i des may a l so occur , cons i st - undercu t t i ng the t oe of a vu l nerab l e areas tha t have a pot ent i a l for future l and-
s
V i ng o f t wo or mor e movemen t t ypes occur - s l ope . s l i d i ng . Large-sca l e pho t ogr aphs (grea t er
r i ng in succeed i ng s t ages . than 1 : 9600) are mos t use fu l for th i s t ask
2 . 3 Es t i ma t i on o f Lands l i de Haza rd because the i dent i f y i ng f ea tures are ra ther
tCl Ma t er i a l : The t ype of ma t er i a l can be
F i gure 253-2 is a l ands l i de suscept i b i l i ty sma l l . Sur f ace ev i dence is of t en h i dden by
descr i bed as e i ther rock or soi l . So i l is fur -
Q ther d i v i ded based on par t i c l e s i ze i nto
map deve l oped by the U .S . Geo l og i ca l vege t a t i on or is so subt l e tha t on l y f i e ld
observa t i on wi l l revea l t he need for mor e
ear th , predom i nan t l y f i ne soi l par t i c l es , or Survey ; the map is based on bo t h the phys -
t horough s tud i es .
O debr i s , cons i s t i ng of predom i nan t l y course i ca l cond i t i ons wh i ch make l ands l i des poss i -
C b l e (bedrock geo l ogy , soi l s, s l opes , and pa t -
par t i c l es . As par t of t he geot echn i ca l i nves t i ga t i on
t ern o f ra infa l l ) and on recorded occur - of a pot ent i a l l y haza rdous s i te , the pres-
cla Ve l oc i t y : Tab l e 253-2 l ists t he l ands l i de rences of l ands l i des . Sys t ema t i c mapp i ng ence of uns t ab l e ma t er i a l s shou l d be de t er -
ve l oc i ty sca l e . The des t ruc t i ve s i gn i f i cance of and reg i st ra t i on of l ands l i des has been con- m i ned by i nves t i ga t i on of sur f ace and sub-
N a l ands l i de is of t en a f f ec t ed by the ve l oc i ty of duc t ed in a numbe r of count r i es whe r e sur f ace f ea tures. Sur f ace i nves t i ga t i ons
movemen t . Escape is un l i ke l y w i th ex t reme l y s l ope i nstab i l i ty has caused ser i ous prob- shou l d i nc l ude hydro l og i c aspec t s of the
rap i d l ands l i des [5 m / sec (17 f t /sec) ] . In con- l ems . Th i s da t a is use fu l for ascer t a i n i ng a s i te , such as seepage zones and t he
t rast , very s l ow and ex t reme l y s l ow move - genera l i zed v i ew of the l ands l i de pot ent i a l groundwa t e r ' s dep t h and seasona l f l uc tua-
C
men t [ l ess than 1 .6 m/ yea r (5 f t /year ) ] wi l l of a reg i on dur i ng t he l and p l ann i ng t i ons . Bor i ngs may be necessary to prov i de
cause l i t t le damage in some cases and may process . Such maps are not mean t to be
even be i mpercept i b l e .

cts 2 .2 Causes o f Lands l i des

Lands l i des occur when the s t rength of a 1 . Lands l i des are typi ca l l y ` c l ass i f i ed by the t ype of movemen t tha t occurs (Tab l e 253-1) .
mass of soi l and / or rock compr i s i ng a s l ope Comp l ex l ands l i des cons i st of t wo or mor e movemen t types occur r i ng in succeed i ng
is l ess t han the downh i l l pu l l of grav i t a t i on- st ages .
i al force upon it . The ba l ance of forces on a
2. The dest ruc t i ve s i gn i f i cance of a l ands l i de is a f f ec t ed by the ve l oc i ty of movemen t ,
s t ab l e s l ope can be sh i f t ed e i ther by
as descr i bed in Tab l e 253-2 .
i ncreas i ng t he we i gh t o f ma t er i a l s or by
Z decreas i ng i ts res i st ance to s l i d i ng .
3. Lands l i des may be caused by suscept i b l e geo l og i c , morpho l og i c , or other phys i ca l
cond i t i ons such as heavy ra infa l l . Human act i v i ty such as cons t ruc t i on or remova l of
M Tab l e 253-3 l ists common causes of
protec t i ve vege t a t i on can a l so cause l ands l i des . Tab l e 253-3 l ists l i ke l y causes of
l ands l i de movemen t , and t ab l e 253-4
descr i bes geo l og i c cond i t i ons tha t are h i gh- l ands l i des .
N
T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 253-3

NUMBER NAME DEF I N I T I ON

1 Crown Pract i ca l l y und i sp l aced ma ter i a l ad j acent to h i ghes t par t s of ma i n scarp

2 Ma i n scarp St eep sur f ace on und i s turbed ground at uppe r edge of l ands l i de caused by movemen t
of d i sp l aced ma ter i a l (13) away f rom und i s turbed ground ; it is v i s ib l e par t of sur f ace of
rupture (10)

3 Top H i ghes t po i nt of cont ac t be t ween d i sp l aced ma t er i a l (13) and ma i n scarp (2)

4 Head Uppe r par ts of l ands l i de a l ong cont ac t be t ween d i sp l aced ma ter i a l and ma i n scarp (2)

5 M i nor scarp St eep sur f ace on d i sp l aced ma ter i a l of l ands l i de produced by d i f ferent i a l movemen t s
w i th i n d i sp l aced ma t er i a l
N
6 Ma i n body Par t of d i sp l aced ma ter i a l of l ands l i de that over l i es sur f ace of rupture be t ween ma i n
scarp (2) and toe of sur f ace of rupture (11) s
U
7 Foot Por t i on of l ands l i de tha t has moved beyond toe of sur f ace of rupture (11) and over l i es
or ig ina l ground sur f ace (20)

8 Tip Po i nt on t oe (9) far thest f rom t op (3) of l ands l i de

9 Toe Lower , usua l l y curved marg i n of d i sp l aced ma t er i a l of a l ands l i de , mos t d i stant f rom
ma i n scarp (2)
Q
10 Sur f ace of rupture Sur f ace tha t f orms (or tha t has formed) l ower bounda ry of d i sp l aced ma ter i a l (13)
be l ow or i g i na l ground sur f ace (20)
0
C
N
Toe of sur f ace of rupture Intersec t i on (usua l l y bur i ed) be t ween l ower par t o f sur f ace (10) of a l ands l i de and
or ig ina l ground sur f ace (20)

12 Sur f ace of separa t i on Par t of or i g i na l ground sur f ace (20) now over l a i n by foot (7) of l ands l i de N

13 D i sp l aced ma ter i a l Ma t er i a l d i sp l aced f rom i ts or ig ina l pos i t i on on s l ope by movemen t in l ands l i de ; f orms
both dep l e t ed mass (17) and accumu l a t i on (18)
N
14 Zone of dep l e t i on Area of l ands l i de w i th i n wh i ch d i sp l aced ma ter i a l (13) l ies be l ow or i g i na l ground sur
f ace (20)
15 Zone of accumu l a t i on Area of l ands l i de w i th i n wh i ch d i sp l aced ma ter i a l l ies above or ig ina l ground sur f ace
(20)
N
16 Dep l e t i on Vo l ume bounded by ma i n scarp (2) , dep l e t ed mass (17) , and or i g i na l ground sur f ace
(20) L

17 Dep l e t ed mass Vo l ume of d i sp l aced ma ter i a l tha t over l i es sur f ace of rupture (10) but under l i es or ig ina l
ground sur f ace (20)

18 Accumu l a t i on Vo l ume of d i sp l aced ma ter i a l (13) tha t l ies above or ig ina l ground sur f ace (20)

19 F l ank Und i sp l aced ma ter i a l ad j acent to s ides of sur f ace of rupture ; compass d i rec t i ons are i
pre f erab l e in descr i b i ng f l anks , bu t i f lef t and r ight are used , they refer to f l anks as
v i ewed f rom c rown
O3
20 Or i g i na l ground sur f ace Sur f ace of s l ope tha t ex i s t ed be fore l ands l i de took p l ace Z
rn
F i gur e 253-1 . Common f ea t ur es o f a l ands l i de .
N
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 253 - 4

Tab l e 253-1 . CLASS I F I CAT I ON OF LANDSL I DES

s
C
_cu

O
C

C
co
J
~J1
i

Z
M
M
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 253- 5
Tab l e 253 -1 . CLASS I F I CAT I ON OF LANDSL I DES ( con t i nued)

t
C

Q
O
C

i
N

F i gur e 253 - 2 . Lands l i de suscep t i b i l i t y map o f t he Un i t ed St a t es . F i gur e 253 -3 . F l a t t en i ng a s l ope . Z

M
M
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 253- 6
Tab l e 253 -2 . LANDSL I DE VELOC I TY SCALE Tab l e 253 -3 . COMMON LANDSL I DE
CAUSES

Ve l oc i t y Cause Descr i pt i on
C l ass Descr i pt i on Pot ent i a l Des t ruc t i ve S i gn i f i cance Typ i ca l Ve l oc i t y
Catast rophe of ma j or v io l ence ; Geo l og i c Weak or sens i t i ve mater i a l s
7 Ext reme l y Rap i d
bui ldings dest royed by i mpac t of d i sp l aced Wea thered or sheared mater i a l s
mater i a l ; many deaths ; escape unl i ke l y
5 m/ sec (17 f t /sec) Jo inted or f i ssured mater i a l s
6 Very Rap i d Some l ives lost ; ve loc i ty too great
to permi t al l persons to escape Adverse l y or i ented mass
3 m/ m i n (10 f t /min) di scont inui ty (bedd i ng, schistosi ty,
5 Rap i d Evacuat i on poss ibl e ; st ructures, possess ions, etc . )
and equ i pment dest royed
1 .8 m/ hr (6 f t /hr) Adverse l y or i ented st ructura l
4 Modera t e Some t emporary and insens i t i ve st ructures di scont inui ty ( faul t , unconformi ty ,
can be temporar i l y ma i nta i ned contact , etc .)
13 m/ mon t h
3 S l ow Remed i a l const ruct i on can be under taken dur i ng (45 f t /month)
Cont rast in permeab i l i ty
movemen t ; insens i t i ve st ructures can be ma i nta i ned
wi th f requent ma i nt enance work if tota l movemen t Cont rast in st i f fness (st i f f , dense
is not large dur i ng a par t i cul ar acce l erat ion phase 1 .6 m/ year mater i a l over plast ic mater i a l s)
(5 f t /year )
2 Very S l ow Some permanent st ructures undamaged Morpho l og i c Tecton i c or vol cani c upl i f t
by movemen t 16 mm/ year
( 5 /s in/year ) Gl ac i a l rebound
1 Ext reme l y S l ow Impercept ib l e w i thout i nst ruments;
const ruct ion poss ibl e wi th precaut i ons F luvia l eros ion of s lope toe
Source: Adapted f rom Turner , A . Kei th and Rober t L. Schuster (eds .) . Lands l i des . I nves t i ga t i on and M i t i ga t i on , Spec i a l Repor t Wave eros ion of s lope toe
247 , Nat ional Academy of Sc i ences , Transpor tat ion Research Board, Washington, DC , 1996 .
Gl ac i a l eros ion of s lope toe
Eros ion of latera l marg i ns
Subter ranean eros ion (solut ion,
piping)
Depos i t i on load ing of s lope or i ts
crest
N Vege ta t i on remova l (by forest
f i re ,drought )
u Cl i mat i c Intense rainfal l
c Rap i d snow me l t
Pro l onged except iona l prec ipi tat ion
Q Rap i d drawdown ( f loods and t ides)
Thaw i ng
0 Freeze-and- thaw wea ther i ng
C
Ln Shr ink-and-swe l l wea ther i ng
Human Excavat i on of s lope or i ts toe
Load i ng of s lope or i ts crest
Drawdown (of reservoi rs)
Deforestat ion
C I rr igat ion
M i n i ng
N Ar t i f icial v ibrat ion
i Wa t er l eakage f rom ut i l i t ies
t !3
N Source : Adapted f rom Turner , A. Kei th and Rober t L .
Schuster (eds .) . Landsl ides, Invest igat ion and Mi t igat ion,
i Special Repor t 247 , Nat ional Academy of Sciences,
Transpor tat ion Research Board, Washington, DC , 1996.
L

4-11

Z
M
F i gur e 253 -5 . Round i ng cu t s l opes
N
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 253 - 7

F i gur e 253 -7 . Subsur f ace i n t e r cep t or t r ench dra i n and sur f ace - runo f f d i ve r -
s i on d i t ch .

F i gur e 253 - 6 . Sur f ace dr a i nage o f

s l ope by d i ve rs i on d i t ch and i n t er -
cep t or dr a i n .

i n forma t i on on t he ver t i ca l st rat i f i cat i on of

so i l s . The compac t ness of granu l ar soi l s and
the cons i s t ency of cohes i ve so i l s shou l d a l so
be ascer t a i ned . The i nves t i ga t i on shou l d be
conduc t ed by a geot echn i ca l eng i neer , who
shou l d a l so assess bo t h the shor t - and
l ong- t e rm stab i l i ty of the s i te and the pos- N
V
s i b l e e f f ec ts of any deve l opmen t on ad j o i n- t
i ng areas . V
C
F i gur e 253 - 8 . Regr ad i ng w i t h subsur f ace dr a i n .
2 . 4 Lands l i de Loss Pr even t i on and
cd
Reduc t i on
s torage o f haza rdous ma ter i a l s) , rest r i ct Q
The bes t way to preven t damages resu l t i ng
act i v i t i es tha t cou l d t r i gger s l i d i ng (e .g . of f -
f rom l ands l i des is to avo i d s i tes tha t have a road veh i c l es) , est ab l i sh cer ta i n grad i ng
pot ent i a l for s l i d i ng . Howeve r , l ands l i de- O
prac t i ces , and ca l l for t he preserva t i on of Ç
prone areas o f t en of f er spec t acu l ar v i ews
ex i st i ng vege t a t i on . Spec i a l regu l a t i ons can
and are f requent l y cons i dered pr i me l and
a l so d i scourage the s i t i ng of roads and
for deve l opmen t . Both the regu l a t i on of
br i dges in these haza rdous areas . I f a l t erna-
future deve l opmen t and the prot ec t i on of
t i ve l oca t i ons canno t be f ound for roads or N
ex i s t i ng deve l opmen t are i mpor t an t in
br i dges , they shou l d be des i gned to requ i re
reduc i ng l ands l i de hazards .
m i n i ma l cut s and f i l ls and shou l d be ab l e to
Regu l a t i on: w i ths t and expec t ed l ands l i de cond i t i ons .
C
cd
The regu l a t i on of future deve l opmen t can Preven t i on and Cor rec t i on:
be ach i eved t hrough zon i ng , subd i v i s i on ,
The prot ec t i on o f ex i st i ng deve l opmen t
and san i t ary regu l a t i ons , or t hrough spec i a l t hrough preven t i on or cor rec t i on of l and-
regu l a t i ons for h i l l s ides i dent i f i ed as l and- i
s l i des is a comp l ex prob l em . Each s l ide has
s l i de-prone areas . Zon i ng can rest r i ct i nt en-
i ts own charac ter i st i cs , mak i ng cor rec t i ve
s i ve deve l opmen t and / or proh i b i t l and uses
measures d i f f i cu l t to s t andard i ze . Exper t s in
tha t wou l d be vu l nerab l e to l ands l i de dam-
geo t echn i ca l eng i nee r i ng and geo l ogy
age . Subd i v i s i on regu l a t i ons can requ i re
shou l d be consu l t ed . i
tha t l ands l i de hazard areas be i dent i f i ed
and reserved for open- space uses . San i t ary St ab i l i za t i on o f So i l S l opes :
regu l a t i ons can rest r i ct the use of on-s i t e F i gur e 253 - 9 . L i ve wooden cr i b
Tab l e 253-6 descr i bes a range of use fu l wa l l . Z
d i sposa l sys t ems tha t cou l d t r i gger l and-
s l i des by we t t i ng vu l nerab l e areas . H i l l s i de me t hods for the stab i l i za t i on of soi l s l opes .
and s l i de-prone area regu l a t i ons can l imi t These me t hods seek to reduce shear i ng M
dens i t i es , proh i b i t cer ta i n uses , (e .g . the st resses or i ncrease shear i ng res i st ance .
They i nc l ude : excava t i on , dra i nage , vege - M

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 253- 5
ta t i on , res t ra i n i ng st ruc tures , and a var i e ty
of l ess common me t hods .

Excava t i on : Excava t i on can be one of

the l east expens i ve me t hods for stab i l i z i ng
a s l ope . By un l oad i ng the head of a po t en-
t ial s l i de mass and depos i t i ng the ma t er i a l
a t t he toe of the s l ope , e i ther t emporar i l y or
permanen t l y , the dr i v i ng force is reduced
and t he res i st ance i ncreased . I t is ex t reme l y
i mpor t an t to round of f the s l ope a t the
head and t oe . Whe r e the s l i d i ng mass is
sha l l ow , the ent i re mass may have to be
r emoved . See F i gures 253-3 to 253-5 .

Dra i nage : One of the f i rst cor rec t i ve

measures is to cont ro l the sur f ace dra i nage
o f t he haza rd area t hrough a var i e ty of
t echn i ques , i nc l ud i ng d i vers i on d i t ches and F i gur e 253 - 10 . Dr i l l ed ca i sson wa l l re l y i ng on so i l a r ch i ng .
i nt erceptor dra i ns (F i gure 253-6) . St reams ,
spr i ngs , and sur f ace run-of f mus t be d i ver t -
ed away f rom t he t hrea t ened a rea .
Subsur f ace dra i nage v i a t rench or s i mi l ar
me t hods is ano t he r e f f ec t i ve t echn i que
(F i gures 253-7 and 253-8) . At l arge con-
s t ruc t i on s i tes, the pump i ng of groundwa -
t er (dewa t er i ng) can t emporar i l y reduce
hazards , bu t th i s approach of f ers no l ong-
t e rm bene f i ts .

Vege t a t i on : Vege t a t i on can be a re l a-

t i ve l y i nexpens i ve me t hod for the cont ro l of
N
N sha l l ow debr i s s l i des . The phys i ca l b i nd i ng
t ac t i on of deep roots can he l p anchor ear th
U
C vo l umes prone to s l i d i ng . Lands l i des w i th
deep- l y i ng s l ide sur f aces canno t e f f ec t i ve l y
cd be s t opped t hrough revege t a t i on a l one ,

â a l though i t does he l p reduce wa t e r inf i l t ra-

t i on i nto the threa t ened area . The mos t

OC su i t ab l e spec i es are those tha t consume the

mos t wa t e r and have the h i ghes t t ransp i ra-
t i on ra tes . For s l opes sub j ec t to t oe eros i on
F i gur e 253 -11 . Ea r t h bu t t r esses w i t h subsur f ace dra i n .
by waves and / or cur rent s , a comb i na t i on of
vege t a t i on and st ruc tura l measures at the
N toe is of t en the essent i a l f i rst s t ep in l and-
U
s l ide cont ro l .

P l ant s can a l so d i rec t l y or i nd i rec t l y con-

t r i bute to s l ope fa i l ures unde r some cond i -
C
t i ons . On rocky s l opes , root wedg i ng and
w i nd t hrow can prec i p i t a t e f a i l ures. Large
t rees a l so add we i gh t to a s l ope , the e f f ec t
of wh i ch mus t be assessed on a case -by-
i
case bas i s . Cau t i on mus t a l so be exerc i sed
when i nsta l l i ng new p l ant i ngs on uns t ab l e
s l opes , s i nce wa t e r i ng can i ncrease t he
l ands l i de pot ent i a l .

Res t ra i n i ng St ruc tures : Res t ra i n i ng

s t ruc tures shou l d be cons i dered a l ast resor t

Z
«S for s l ope st ab i l i za t i on . They are o f t en
expens i ve and shou l d be emp l oyed on l y

M when there are no o ther a l t erna t i ves .

Wa l l s for l ands l i de rest ra i nt can range F i gur e 253 - 12 . Re i n f or ced ea r t h wa l l and bu t t r ess .
N f rom re l at i ve l y l ow, s t rong d i kes des i gned

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 253- 9
Tab l e 253 - 4 . COND I T I ONS SUSCEPT I BLE TO SL I D I NG

COND I T I ON DESCR I PT I ON

Sa tura t ed cohes i ve , c l ayey soi l s S l oped areas of cohes i ve , c l ayey soi l s are s l id ing because of an i ncrease in
we i gh t due to the absorbed wa t e r.

Loose , granu l ar ma t er i a l s w i th l ow shear st rength Loose , granu l ar ma t er i a l s read i l y absorb mo i s ture , thus i ncreas i ng the i r we i gh t
and caus i ng s l ides, s l umps , and f l ows.

Int erbedded sed i ment ary rock para l l e l to h i l l s lopes Int erbedded sed i ment ary rock w i th jo ints para l l e l to va l l ey wa l l s are suscept i b l e to s l i d i ng
due to the i ncreased we i gh t of the wa t e r. Bedd i ng p l anes or jo ints are l ubr i ca ted by wa t er ,
wh i ch causes s l i ppage .

H i gh l y fo l i ated me t amorph i c rock Fo l i a t i ons para l l e l to va l l ey wa l l s cause cond i t i ons s i mi l ar to those for i nt erbedded
sed i ment ary rocks . The occur rence of mi nera l s such as m i cas and serpent i ne i ncreases the
s l i pper i ness of a s l ope .
Rot t en or decomposed i gneous or me t amorph i c rock Rot t en , l oose , granu l ar rock debr i s is suscept i b l e to i ncreases in mo i s ture con t en t and can
crea t e potent i a l s l i d i ng cond i t i ons .
Frac tures and fau l ts When f rac tures or fau l ts para l l e l or i nt ercept a s l ope , and there is no l atera l suppor t , or
when seepage l ubr i cates rock sur faces , there is an i ncreased danger of s l i d i ng.

Int erbedded ma t er i a l s of d i f fer i ng res i stance or permeab i l i ty Int erbedded ma t er i a l s w i th d i f f erences in the i r res i stance to wea ther i ng resul t in the
de t er i ora t i on of the sof ter ma ter i a l s , thereby a l l ow i ng wa t e r to accumu l a t e in the e l eva t ed
rock l ayers. Cond i t i ons such as l i mestones over sha l e or c l ay , sands tone under l a i d by an
i mperv i ous st ra tum, and l ava f l ows over tuf f can resu l t in t he deve l opmen t of cl i f fs and
ove rhangs and cond i t i ons suscept i b l e to fa l ls .

Seepage of wa t e r a l ong hi l l s ides The appearance of seepage wa t e r a l ong hi l l s lopes may i nd i ca te t he deve l opmen t of h i gh
pore or hydros t a t i c pressures , espec i a l l y i f the wa t e r is f ound near the toe of the s l ope .
Co l l uv i a l soi l s These and other soi l s f ormed by ear l i er mass-was t i ng i nd i cate prev i ous l y uns t ab l e cond i t i ons
wh i ch may st i l l ex i st .

Wa t e r and l and edges a f ter rap i d decreases in wa t e r l eve l The recess i on o f f l ood wa t ers or the l ower i ng of reserv i or l eve l s can crea t e t empora ry
uns t ab l e cond i t i ons a l ong the l and edges.

Bor rowed f i l ls Fi l l areas are suscept i b l e to s l ump i ng or s l i d i ng if hydrost a t i c pressures bu i l d up , if seepage

occurs unde r the f i l l , or i f the fi l l is p l aced on a soi l of h i gh vo l ume change . Such f i l ls shou l d
be anchored and we l l -dra i ned . N

Coas t a l s l opes and r i ver banks Coas t a l s l opes and r i ver banks are sub j ec t to eros i ve ac t i on of waves and cur rents . s
V
Sour ce : Adap t ed f rom Doug l as S. Way , Ter ra i n Ana l ys i s: A Gu i de t o S i t e Se l ec t i on Us i ng Ae r i a l Pho t ogr aph i c Int erpre t a t i on , Doug l as 5. Way , Co l umbus , Oh i o , 1978. i

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F i gur e 253 - 14 . Rock r emova l s t r a t eg i es f or s t ab i l i za t i on .

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F i gur e 253 - 13 . Rock s l ope r e i n f o r cemen t s t r a t eg i es .
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Tab l e 253 - 5. FEATURES I ND I CAT I NG LANDSL I DES OR AREAS W I TH H I GH LANDSL I DE POTENT I AL

FEATURE S I GN I F I CANCE

St ruc tura l damage Road se t t l ement or up l i f t ; broken p i pes or powe r l ines ; spa l l i ng or crack i ng of concre t e st ruc tures ; c l osure of expan
s i on joints in br i dge p l a tes or r igid pavemen t ; loss of a l i gnmen t ; l eak i ng poo l s ; doors or w i ndows tha t j am .

Hummocky , d i ssec t ed topography Common f ea ture in o l d and ac t i ve progress i ve s l ides (s l ides w i th many i nd i v i dua l componen t s) . S l i de mass is prone
to gu l l y i ng.

Abrup t change in s l ope May i nd i ca te e i ther an o l d l ands l i de area or a change in the eros i on character i st i cs of under l y i ng ma ter i a l . Por t i on
w i th l ow s l ope ang l e is genera l l y weake r and o f t en has h i gher wa t e r con t en t.
Scarps and cracks De f i n i te i nd i ca t i on of an ac t i ve or recent l y ac t i ve l ands l i de . Age of scarp can usua l l y be es t i ma t ed by t he amoun t of
or "sta i r s t ep " t opography vege t a t i on est ab l i shed upon it . W i d t h of cracks may be mon i tored to es t i ma t e re l at i ve rates of movemen t . Graben
i nd i ca t i on of progress i ve fa i lure . Comp l ex or nes t ed ser i es of rota t i ona l s l ides can a l so cause sur f ace of s l ope to
appear s t epped or t i ered .
Loba t e s l ope f orms Ind i ca t i on of former ear th f l ow or so l i f luct ion area .
H i l l s ide ponds Loca l ca t chment s or depress i ons f ormed as resu l t of scarps and cracks ac t as inf i l t rat ion source wh i ch can exacerba t e
or acce l era t e l ands l i d i ng .
H i l l s ide seeps Common in l ands l i de masses. Area w i th h i gh l ands l i de pot ent i a l can usua l l y be i dent i fed by assoc i a t ed presence of
denser or phrea tophy t e vege t a t i on (cat ta i l s, equ i se tum, a lder , e t c .) in v i c in i ty of seep .
Incongruent vege t a t i on Pa t ches or areas of much younge r or very d i f ferent vege t a t i on (e .g . , a l der th i ckets) ; may i nd i ca te recent l ands l i des
or unst ab l e ground .
" Jacks t rawed " t rees Lean i ng or can t ed t rees on a s l ope are i nd i ca tors of prev i ous ep i sodes of s l ope movemen t or soi l creep.
Bedd i ng p l anes and
joints d i pp i ng downs l ope Potent i a l sur f ace of s l id ing for t rans l at i ona l s l ope movemen t s .
Accumu l a t i on of debr i s in Accumu l a t i ons of soi l ma t era i l s in these areas i nd i cate prev i ous s l id ing and s l ump i ng , common l y assoc i a t ed w i th
va l l eys and s t ream channe l s s t ream underm i n i ng of embankmen t s .

L i ght tones a l ong uppe r These tones , espec i a l l y when l inear , may i nd i cate the forma t i on o f subsur f ace cracks ; these fac i l i tate dra i nage and
edges of hi l l s ides or cl i f fs cause the l i ghter tone . The appearance of these tones may precede the occur rence of ac tua l breaks and scarps in
the l and sur f ace .

Changes in tone a l ong uppe r Changes in tone near edges of embankmen t s may i nd i cate mo i s ture d i f f erences in t he subso i l , re f l ect i ng mo i s ture
areas of cl i f fs or embankmen t s accumu l a t i on and the deve l opmen t of hydrost a t i c wa t er pressures .
s Source : Adapt ed f rom Dona l d H . Gray and Andrew T. Leiser , B i o t echn i ca l S l ope Pro t ec t i on and Eros ion Cont rol , Van Nost rand Re inho ld Company , New York , 1982 ; and Doug l as S. Way , Ter ra in
V
C Ana l ys i s : A Gu i de to Si te Se l ect ion Us i ngAer i a l Photograph i c Interpretat ion, Doug l as S. Way , Co l umbus , Oh i o , 1978 .

t o d i ve r t po t en t i a l mud f l ows a round ex i s t - Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s , f or i n f orma t i on on con- 2. Dr i l l ed (no t dr i ven) ca i sson wa l l s

i ng deve l opmen t , t o va r i ous t ypes o f re t a i n- s t ruc t i on o f t hese s t ruc t ures) . ( F i gure 253 -10)
Q Ea r t h or grave l bu t t resses ( F i gure 253 -
i ng wa l l s des i gned t o pr even t f u t ure move - 3.
O t he r res t ra i n i ng s t ruc t ures use f u l f or
men t o f a s l ope . In a r eas o f known l ands l i de 11)
O haza rd , t he des i gn o f re t a i n i ng s t ruc t ures
t he r educ t i on o f l ands l i de haza rd i nc l ude :
4. Re i n f or ced ea r t h wa l l bu t t r esses
C shou l d be made adequa t e to
ca r ry t he
1. L i ve wooden cr i b wa l l s ( F i gure 253 - 9
( F i gure 253 - 12 and see Sec t i on 410:
and see Sec t i on 410 : Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s ,
po t en t i a l ex t r a l oad . (Re f e r t o Sec t i on 410: Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s , f or mor e da t a )
f nr mn rp na t a l
N Stab i l i zat i on of Rock S l opes :
Tab l e 253 - 7 l i sts a numbe r o f me t hods f or
N pro t ec t i ng and s t ab i l i z i ng rock s l opes . They
-a cons i s t o f r e i n f or cemen t measur es , rock
C r emova l s t ra t eg i es , and t echn i ques t o pro-
RS 1 . De t a i l ed i n f orma t i on on l ands l i de haza rd is no t ava i l ab l e in many a reas . A pre l i m i -
J na ry i nves t i ga t i on by a geo l og i ca l eng i nee r can de t e rm i ne i f mor e compr ehens i ve t ec t peop l e and prope r t y f rom f a l l i ng rock .
F i gure 253-13 i l l us t ra t es va r i ous re i n f orce -
N1 i
geo t echn i ca l s tud i es a re requ i red .
men t s t ra t eg i es . F i gur e 253 - 14 i l l us t ra t es
I
r` va r i ous rock r emova l s t ra t eg i es .
2. Ce r t a i n comb i na t i ons of sur f ace d i s t urbances can s i gn i f y f orme r l ands l i des or a reas
o f h i gh l ands l i de pot ent i a l (Tab l e 253-5) . La rge -sca l e aer i a l pho t ogr aphs (grea t er
When rock f a l l i ng on t o an a r ea presen t s a
t han 1 : 9600) can be used t o revea l c rescen t - shaped scarps and hummocky t opogra -
haza rd , t he use o f res t ra i n i ng cab l es , ne t s or
phy t ha t is charac t er i s t i c of prev i ous s l i d i ng .
wa l l s may be t he on l y f eas i b l e so l u t i on .
i Va r i ous ne t and wa l l comb i na t i ons a r e
3. The bes t way to pr even t damages f rom l ands l i des i s t o avo i d s i tes t ha t have t he
grea t es t pot ent i a l for s l i d i ng . Regu l a t i ons can be used t o rest r i c t deve l opmen t on shown i n F i gur es 253 - 15 t o 253 - 16 . Whe r e
vu l ne rab l e s i tes . space perm i t s , ca t chmen t d i t ches may be
Z used t o re t a i n f a l l i ng rock . Tab l e 253 - 8
4. Geo t echn i ca l eng i nee r shou l d be consu l t ed t o de t e rm i ne appropr i a t e cor rec t i on g i ves su i t ab l e des i gn cr i t er i a f or rock ca t ch-
M s t ra t eg i es . Tab l e 253-6 desc r i bes a r ange o f poss i b l e me t hods f or s t ab i l i za t i on o f soi l men t d i t ches .
s l opes . Tab l e 253-7 l ists me t hods f or s t ab i l i z i ng rock s l i des .
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Tab l e 253 - 6. METHODS OF SO I L SLOPE STAB I L I ZAT I ON

METHOD PROCEDURE BEST APPL I CAT I ON L I M I TAT I ONS REMARKS

Reduce shear i ng st resses
Regrad i ng Dur i ng pre l iminary des i gn Wi l l af fect areas ad j acent to l ands l ide
phase of proj ect hazard area
Dra i ned sur face In any des ign scheme ; mus t Wi l l on l y cor rect sur face inf i l t rat ion or Slope vegetat i on shou l d be
a l so be par t of any seepage due to sur face inf i l t rat ion cons i dered in al l cases
remed i a l des i gn
Dra i ned subsur face On any s lope where Cannot be used ef fect i ve l y when sl iding mass Stabi l i ty ana l ys i s shou l d inc lude
l ower i ng of groundwa t er is i mperv i ous cons iderat ion of seepage forces
tabl e wi l l increase
s lope stabi l i ty
Reduced we i ght At any ex i st ing or potent i a l Requ i res l ightwe ight mater i a l s that may be Stabi l i t ana l ys i s mus t be per
on s l ope sl ide cost ly or unava i l ab l e ; excavat i on wast e may formedyto ensure proper p l ace-
create prob l ems ; requi res r i ght -of -way ment of l i ghtwe i ght mater i a l s

Increase shear i ng res i stance

App l y externa l force But t ress and At an exi st ing l ands l ide ; May not be ef fect i ve on deep-sea t ed l ands l ides ; Cons i der re inforced steep s lopes
count erwe i ght f i l ls ; in comb i na t i on w i th mus t be founded on a f i rm founda t i on ; for l imi ted r i ght -of -way
toe berms other me thods requi res r i ght -of -way
St ructura l systems To prevent movemen t be fore Wi l l not cont rol l arge de forma t i ons ; mus t Stabi l i ty and soi l -st ructure
excavat i on ; where pene t ra te we l l be l ow sl iding sur face ana l yses are requ i red
r i ght -of -way is l imi ted
Anchors Where r i ght -of -way Requ i res abi l i ty of founda t i on soi ls to resist Study mus t be made of in si tu
is l imi ted shear forces by anchor tens ion soi l shear st rength ; econom i cs
of me thod de ends on anchor
capac i ty, dep t , and f requency
Increase interna l st rength Dra i ned subsur face At any l ands l ide where Requ i res exper i enced personne l to instal l and
wa t er tabl e is above ensure ef fect i ve operat i on
shear sur face
Re i nforced backf i l l On embankment s and steep Requ i res l ong- term durabi l i ty of re i nforcement Mus t cons i der st resses i mposed
fill s lopes; l ands l ide on re i nforcement dur i ng
reconst ruct ion const ruct i on
N
In si tu re i nforcement As t emporary st ructures Req vi res Ion t erm durabi l i ty of nai ls, Des i gn me thods not we l l
in st i f f soi ls anchors , and mi cropi l es estab l i shed ; requi res thorough s
soi ls invest igat ion and proper - V
t ies test ing C
_t d
Biotechni ca l On soi l s lopes of Cl i mate ; may requi re i rr igat ion in dry seasons ;
stabi l i zat ion modes t he ights longev i ty of se l ected pl ants
Chemi ca l t rea tment Whe re sl iding sur face is
we l l de f i ned and soi l reacts
May be revers ibl e; l ong- term ef fect i veness
has not been eva l ua t e ; env i ronmenta l
Labora tory study of soi l -
chemi ca l t rea tment mus t Q
posi t ive ly to t rea tment stabi l i ty unknown precede f ield insta l lat ions ; mus t
cons i der env i ronmenta l ef fects
El ect ro-osmos i s To re l ieve excess Requ i res constant di rect cur rent power Used when noth i ng else works ;
0
C
pore pressures and increase supp l y and ma i nt enance emergency stabi l i zat ion of l and N
shear st rength at a des i rabl e sl ides
const ruct ion rate
Therma l t rea tment To reduce sensi t ivi ty of Requ i res expens i ve and careful l y des i gned Me thods are exper i menta l N
c l ay soi ls to act ion of wa ter syst em to ar t i f icial ly dry or f reeze subsoi l s and cost l y
Source: Adapted f rom Turner , A . Kei th and Rober t L. Schuster (eds.) . Landsl ides : Invest igat ion and Mi t igat ion, Special Repor t 247, Nat ional Academy of Sciences, Transpor tat ion Research Board,
Washington, DC, 1996.

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F i gur e 253 -15 . Pr ecas t conc r e t e ca t ch wa l l .
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T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
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Tab l e 253-7 . METHODS OF ROCK SLOPE STABI L I ZAT I ON AND PROTECT I ON

PROCEDURE DESCR I PTI ON REQU I REMENTS

Protec t i on Measures
Ca tchment Di tches Catches fal len rock at base of s lope Requi res space to accommoda t e necessary
d imens ions
Catch Fences Stops fal len rock at base of s lope; may be used in Des ign depends on slope, ant ic ipated loading
comb inat ion wi th di tches and bounce he ight ; Flexible mater ia ls are used
to absorb impact
Draped Mesh Conta ins fal len rock close to the face, and a l lows them to Top of mesh should be pl aced close to source
migrate down into catchment di tch of rock fal l to minimi ze momentum
Warn i ng Fences Detects rock fal ls, and t r iggers warn i ng signal Mos t appropr i ate a long l ight ly- t raveled t rans-
por tat ion routes ; Requi res signi f icant ma inte-
nance to minimi ze false a l arms
Rock Sheds Di rects rocks over traf f ic route or st ructure Used only in areas of ext reme hazard, where
stabi l i zat ion is not a viable opt ion ; cost ly ma in-
tenance and instal lat ion
Tunne l s Redi rects traf f ic route through rock s lope to avoid Used only in areas of ext reme hazard, where
hazard zones stabi l i zat ion is not a viable opt ion ; cost ly ma i n-
tenance and instal lat ion
Stab i l i zat ion Measures
Re inforcement Rock Bol t ing Secures sl iding fai lure a long crest Requi res me thod of anchor ing bol t in the rock ;
must be protected f rom cor ros ion
Dowe l s Prevents pass ive loosening of slabs at crest Most ef fect ive wi th no pr ior movement of
rock ; can only suppor t slabs up to approxi -
mate l y 2 m (6 f t) thick
Ti ed-Back Wa l l s Prevents sl iding fai lure in f ractured rock Dra inage must be prov ided beh ind wal l
Shotcrete Prevents the fal l and ravel ing of f ractured rock Sur face must be f ree of loose rock, soi l , vege-
tat ion and ice ; Dra inage must be prov ided
N beh ind wa l l
s But t resses Suppor ts rock above cavi ty Must be pl aced on clean, sound sur face
v
C Dra in Hol es Reduces wa ter pressure wi thin the rock s lope Must intersect rock f ractures that hold water ;
dra ined water must not be a l lowed to inf i l trate
toe of the s lope
Rock Remova l Res loping Remova l of unstable, wea thered mater ial Excavat ion requi rements may vary throughout
Q in upper par t of slope s lope ; addi t iona l weather ing may take place
af ter excavat ion ;
Tr im Blast ing Remova l of rock overhangs Cont rol l ed blast ing must not damage rock
c beh ind the face ; ground vibrat ions should be
kept to a m i n i mum
Hand Sca l ing Manua l remova l of loose rock, soi l and vegetat ion Remova l of vegetat ion is cr i t ical to prevent
on s lope face loosening and inf i l trat ion due to root growth ;
N may requi re per iodic ma i ntenance
Source: Adapted f rom Turner , A. Kei th and Rober t L. Schuster (eds .) . Landsl ides: Invest igat ion and Mi t igat ion, Special Repor t 247 , Nat ional Academy of Sciences, Transportat ion Research Board,
N Wash i ng t on , DC , 1996 .

C 3 .0 SNOW AVALANCHES sk i ers, snowmob i l ers , or h i kers cross i ng an S l ab ava l anches occur when a l ayer of
ct3 ava l anche star t ing zone , or through mi t i ga- cohes i ve snow f ractures a l ong a l ine as a
3 .1 Causes and Types of Snow t ion st rateg i es such as the use of exp l os i ves cont i nuous uni t and s l ides down the s l ope
Ava l anches to t r i gger sma l l ava l anches . (F i gure 253-17) . These f rac tures may
i ext end for grea t d i stances across a s l ope
Snow ava l anche is a type of s l ope fa i lure Two bas i c t ypes of ava l anches may
and i ncorpora te a l arge vo l ume of snow.
tha t is common in mount a i nous and hi l ly occur , depend i ng on cond i t i ons at the star t - Sl ab ava l anches are di f f i cul t to pred i ct
ter ra in, whenever snow is depos i t ed on i ng zone . A po i nt re l ease , or l oose snow because the fa i lure occurs we l l be l ow the
s l opes st eeper than abou t 20 degrees . ava l anche , typi ca l l y occurs w i th new l y fal l - sur face . The hazard f rom such ava l anches is
When the shear i ng st ress deve l oped by the en snow , or w i th we t snow f rom me l t i ng h i gh due to the l arge vo l ume of snow that
we i ght of the snow and the ang l e of the cond i t i ons . When the ang l e of repose for can be re l eased .
s l ope exceeds the shear i ng st rength of the the snow is l ess than the s l ope , the l oose
The s i ze and i mpac t pressure of
Z snow pack , an ava l anche re l ease wi l l occur. snow s l ides down the s lope , spread i ng out
i nto a character i st i c i nver ted V-shaped pat - ava l anches de t erm i nes i ts potent i a l hazard .
Na tura l re l ease typi ca l l y resul ts f rom rap i d
tern . Po i nt re l eases typi ca l l y i nvo l ve sma l l Potent i a l l y dest ruct i ve ava l anches t rave l at
M l oad i ng of the s l ope by heavy snowfa l l , or a
loss of st rength due to snow me l t . Ar t i f ic ia l vo l umes of snow and present on l y a s l ight h i gh rates of speed . Average ve loc i t i es
re l ease resul ts f rom human act i v i ty such as hazard r isk . observed at the Snow Research Stat i on in
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T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 253 - 13

s
c)
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F i gur e 253 - 16 . Ca t chmen t d i t ches and f ences .

9)

Japan ranged f rom 40 to 60 km / h (25 to 40 s l ope ex t reme l y d i f f i cu l t . Howeve r , i t is pos- N

mph) , however , speeds o f 200 to 300 km / h s i b l e to map h i gh- r i sk areas because
C
(125 to 190 mph) have been obse rved . ava l anches t end to reoccur in the same cu
Ve l oc i t y is a func t i on of shear i ng s t rength , l oca t i ons . The t echn i que o f mapp i ng F i gur e 253 - 17 . Ana t omy o f a s l ab
dens i t y of snow , t he ang l e o f s l ope , and ava l anche .
ava l anche haza rd is we l l -deve l oped in cr i
l eng th o f the ava l anche pa t h . Many many count r i es prone to these hazards .
ava l anches car ry s i gn i f i cant amoun t s of
Maps used to de l i nea t e haza rd zones N
rock , soi l , and vege t a t i ve debr i s , wh i ch
shou l d have a m i n i mum sca l e o f 1 : 25000 cd
makes t hem mor e des t ruc t i ve as they t rav-
for genera l p l ann i ng purposes . Mor e
e l down a s l ope .
de t a i l ed maps , 1 : 10000 to 1 : 2000 , shou l d
3 . 2 Es t i ma t i on o f Ava l anche Haza rd be used in areas requ i r i ng grea t er accuracy.

Loca l know l edge of wea t he r cond i t i ons and F i gure 253 - 18 shows a map i l l ust rat i ng
t he h i story of prev i ous ava l anch i ng is t he m i crozona t i on of ava l anches and the Z
i nva l uab l e when es t i ma t i ng hazards . The es t i ma t ed i mpac t pressures on a v i l l age in
comp l ex t empe r a t ur e and s t ruc tura l Co l orado . M
changes wh i ch occur in a snow mass make
the pred i c t i on of ava l anches on a g i ven
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T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 253 - 14
3 .3 Ava l anche Loss Prevent i on and
Reduc t i on
Avo i dance of known ava l anche hazard
areas when si t ing st ructures, roads, power
l ines, and other faci l i t ies is the best way to
mi n i mi ze losses . However , increas ing deve l -
opmen t pressures in mount a i nous regions
are requi r ing greater protect ion and mi t iga-
t ion measures . Both the regu l at ion of
future deve l opment and protect ion of
exist ing deve l opment are i mpor tant in mi n-
imi z ing ava l anche hazard .
Regu l a t i on :
A number of count r i es have deve l oped legis-
lat ion regul at ing l and use in ava l anche haz-
ard areas . These regul at ions are most restr ic-
t ive in Swi t zer l and, France, and se l ect regions
of the Un i ted States (e .g . Co l orado) . These
regul at ions typical ly prohibi t p l acement of
st ructures, roads, or other faci l i t ies wi thin
Tab l e 253-8 . ROCK TRAJECTORY FOR VAR I OUS SLOPE ANGLES AND ava l anche hazard zones . I f deve l opment
DES I GN CR I TER I A FOR CATCHMENT D I TCHES wi thin these zones is permi t ted, st ructures
are requi red to mee t speci f ic des ign stan-
Ang l e He i gh t (H) , Fa l l ou t a r ea D i t ch dards to wi thstand ava l anches, or incorpo-
m (ft) w i d t h (W) , m ( f t ) dep t h rate var ious ava l anche de fense systems .
(D) , m( f t )
Regu l at ions may a lso be used to cont rol the
Nea r ver t i ca l 5-10 (16-32) 3 .7 (12) 1 .0 (3) use and management of ava l anche hazard
10 -20 (32-65) 4 . 6(15) 1 . 2(4) areas . Cl ear -cut t ing or other logg ing opera-
N t ions on s lopes may increase the r isk of
>20 (>65) 6 .1 (20) 1 . 2(4)
ava l anches .
s 1 . 0(3)
u 0 . 25-0 .3 :1 5-10 (16-32) 3 .7 (12)
Prevent i on and Cor rect ion:
C 10-20 (32-65) 4 . 6(15) 1 . 2(4)

6 .1 (20) 1 .8 (6)* When avo i dance of a hazard area is not

cd 20 -30 (65-100)
feasible, severa l st rategi es have been deve l -
1 .8 (6)*
Q
>30 (>100) 7 . 6(25) oped to reduce hazards . In ski areas, s lopes
0 .5 :1 5-10 (16-32) 3 .7 (12) 1 .2 (4) and wea ther cond i t ions are mon i tored, and
O 10-20 (32-65) 4 . 6(15) 1 .8 (6)* sma l l ava l anches are occas iona l l y t r iggered
C through the use of exp los i ves in an ef for t to
1 .8 (6)*
20 -30 (65-100) 6 .1 (20)
mi n i mi ze the hazard . Ava l anche star t ing
cr i >30 (>100) 7 . 6(25) 2 .7 (9)* zones are a l so of ten stabi l i zed through
0 . 75 :1 0-10(0-32) 3 . 7(12) 1 . 0(3)
compac t i on by "boot pack ing, " ski ing, or
N mach i ne me thods .
10-20 (32-65) 4 . 6(15) 1 .2 (4)

>20 (>65) 4 . 6(15) 1 .8 (6)* St ructura l ava l anche cont rol inc ludes the
anchor i ng of snow pack in star t ing zones ,
C 1 :1 0-11) (0-32) 3 . 7(12) 1 . 0(3)
the redist r ibut ion of the snow pack , or the
10-20 (32-65) 3 . 7(12) 1 .5 (5)* st ructura l protect ion of peop l e and proper -
>20 (>65) 4 . 6(15) 1 .8 (6)*
ty. Many me thods are cost ly and shou ld be
N cons i dered on l y as a last resor t , when
i *May be 1 .2 rn (4 f t ) i f ca t ch f ence is used .
avo i dance or other mi t igat ion techn iques
M Source: Adap t ed f rom Doug l as R . Pi teau and F. Lione l Peckover , Lands l i des : Ana l ys i s and Cont ro l , Spec i a l Repor t 176, are not poss ibl e .
N Transpor t a t i on Research Board , Na t i ona l Academy of Sc i ences , Wash i ngton , D .C ., 1978 ,
F igures 253-19 and 253-20 show sever -
al dev i ces used to cont rol di f ferent par ts of
cd
i an ava l anche-prone s lope . Addi t iona l l y,
l ayer or st r ip ter races can be used to rough-
cd en smooth , steep s lopes in order to ho ld
Z the snow cover bet ter. These hor i zonta l ter-
races are usua l l y 30 000 mm (100 ft) w i de
M and 100 000 mm (300 f t) apar t . Square
mi n i berms ar ranged in a checkerboard pat -
tern are a lso used for the same purpose .
N
T i me - Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Ar ch i t ec t ur e
 253- 1 5

1 . Ava l anche re l eases typ i ca l l y resu l t

f rom na tura l occur rences , such as
heavy snowf a l l or me l t i ng cond i -
t ions , or f rom human act i v i ty, such
as sk i ers or h i kers cross i ng a star t -
i ng zone .

2 . S l ab ava l anches occur when a l ayer

of cohes i ve snow f rac tures as a
cont i nuous un i t and s l ides down
the s l ope . These are by far the
mos t dange rous t ype of ava l anche
due to the l arge vo l ume of snow
tha t can be re l eased and the l arge
area tha t can be a f f ec ted .

3 . The comp l ex t empera ture and

st ructura l changes in a snow mass
make i t di f f i cul t to pred i c t
ava l anches . Howeve r , i t is poss i b l e
to map h i gh- r i sk areas because
HOUSES MOVED BY WET SNOW AVALANCHES ava l anches t end to reoccur in the
same l oca t i ons .
OUTER L I M I T ZONE I : I MPACT PRE55URE > 615 PSF BASED ON VOELLMY ' 5 EQUAT I ON

4 . Avo i dance of known ava l anche

- - - - - OUTER L I M I T OF AVALANCHE DEBR I S ASS I GNED TO ZONE 1 hazard areas is the best way to pre-
vent damage . A numbe r of com-
- - - - - - - EST I MATED RUN - OUT OF 1973 WET SPR I NG AVALANCHE
mun i t i es have deve l oped regu l a- N
t i ons to rest r i ct deve l opmen t in
uc
. . . . . . . . . . . . . OUTER L I M I T OF EST I MATED WET SPR I NG AVALANCHE THAT MOVED HOU5E5 1 AND 2
hazard areas .

ZONE II : I MPACT PRESSURES < 615 PSF BASED ON VOELLMY ' S EQUAT I ON . 5 . Hazards can be reduced by ar t i f i -
c i a l ly t r i gger i ng sma l l ava l anches to
? t OUTER L I M I T OF WET SPR I NG AVALANCHES FROM S I DES OF ADJACENT VALLEY , CLA561F I ED
A5 W I TH I N ZONE I.
prevent snow bu i l dup , or by com-
pac t i on of the star t i ng zone snow â
to stab i l i ze the s l ope .
F i gur e 253 - 18 . Mapp i ng o f ava l anche m i c rozona t i on . O
6 . St ructura l ava l anche cont ro l st rate- C
g i es i nc l ude the anchor i ng or red i s-
t r i but i on of the snow pack , or the
st ructura l prot ec t i on of peop l e and N
proper t y (F i gures 253-19 and 253- N
20) . Many me t hods are cost l y and
shou l d on l y be cons i dered as a l ast N
resor t .
I

ar
cd
Z
F i gur e 253 - 19 . Ava l anche con t ro l s t ruc t ur es. A numbe r o f d i f f e ren t t ypes o f s t ruc -
t ur es can be bu i l t i n the rupture zone , pa th , and depos i t i ona l s i t e o f an ava l anche .
M
N
T i me -Saver S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 253- 1 6
These berms are approx i mate l y 900 mm (3 Lands l ide Hazards : A Gu i de for Pl anners,
ft) square in si ze and are p l aced 900 to P l ann i ng Adv i sory Serv i ce Repor t Numbe r
1 500 mm (3 to 5 f t) apar t . These areas are 359, Amer i can P l ann i ng Assoc i at ion,
of ten reforested to prov ide addi t iona l sur - Ch i cago, 1981 .
face roughness . Gray, Dona l d H ., Biotechni ca l and Soi l
Bi oeng i neer i ng S l ope Stabi l i zat ion : A
A l though expens i ve , tunne l s or
ava l anche sheds can be cost -ef fect i ve Pract ica l Gu i de for Eros ion Cont rol , W i l ey
when ful l protect ion is essent i a l . Brak ing and Sons, New York, 1996 .
and def l ect ion st ructures, wh i ch usua l l y S i d l e , Roy C., Andrew J. P i erce and Co l i n
cons i st of heavy masonry def l ect ing wa l l s L . O ' Lough l i n . Hi l lslope Stabi l i ty and Land
or inc l ined permeab l e stee l brak i ng barr iers, Use , Ame r i can Geophys i ca l Un i on ,
can be useful in the depos i t iona l area when Wash i ng t on , D . C ., 1985 .
deve l oped areas need protect ion . Large-
sca l e def l ect ing systems for a l ter ing the Turner , A. Ke i th and Robe r t L . Schuster
f l ow di rect ion of ava l anches shou ld be (eds .) . Lands l ides : Invest igat ion and
des i gned on l y by spec ia l ists . They are Mi t igat ion, Spec i a l Repor t 247, Na t i ona l
expens i ve and requi re cont inua l ma i nte- Academy o f Sc i ences , Transpor t a t i on
nance but of fer max i mum protect ion to Research Board , Wash i ng t on , DC , 1996.
large areas and f ixed insta l lat ions .
Ava l anches
SOURCES OF TECHN I CAL Bo l t , B . A ., W. L . Horn , G . A. MacDona l d ,
I NFORMAT I ON AND ASS I STANCE and R . F Sco t t . Geo log i ca l Hazards, 2nd
Ed ., Spr inger -Ver l ag, New York, 1977
Amer i can Assoc i at ion of Ava l anche
Professiona ls, Truckee , Ca l i fornia . Int erna t i ona l Comm i ss i on on Snow and Ice
o f the I n t e rna t i ona l Assoc i at i on o f
Nat iona l Lands l ide Informat ion Center , Hydro l og i ca l Sc i ences. Ava l anche At l as :
Denver , Co l orado . I l lust rated Internat iona l Ava l anche
Classi f icat ion, UNESCO , Par i s , 1981 .
Internat iona l Lands l ide Informat ion Center ,
Pa lo Al to, Ca l i forni a . Na t i ona l Resea rch Counc i l Pane l on Snow
Ava l anches. Snow Ava l anche Hazards and
sN REFERENCES Mi t igat ion in the Un i ted States, Na t i ona l
Academy Press , Wash i ng t on D . C ., 1990
C Lands l i des Per la, R. l ., and M . Mar t i ne l l i . Ava l anche
n3 Bel l , F. G . (ed .) . Ground Eng ineer ' s Handbook , Forest Serv i ce Agr i cu l ture
Re ference Book , Bu t t erwor ths , London , Handbook 489 , U .S . Depar tment o f
Q 1987. Agr i cul ture, 1978 .
Er ly, D ., and W. J. Kocke l man . Reduc i ng
O
C
tr i
(A
G)

Cu
J

i
cd

Z
M F i gure 253-20 . Snow f ences and
de f l ec t i ng st ruc tures.
M
Time-Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Archi tecture
1 SECT I ON

Na t ur a l Haza rds :
Land Subs i dence

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
Char l es W . Har r i s
Techn i ca l Wr i t er :
Ky l e D . Brown
Tess Canf i e l d
Rev i ewers:
James E . Hough
James E . Hough and Assoc i a t es
Ci nc i nnat i , Oh i o

G i l ber t Wh i t e , Susan Tubbes i ng ,

Jacque l yn L . Monday , and Sarah Na t he
Na tura l Hazards Research and
App l i ca t i ons Informa t i on Cent er
Un i vers i ty of Co l orado
Bou l der , Co l orado
V
R i chard Zo i no C
Go l dberg-Zo i no and Assoc i a t es
Newt on , Massachuse t t s .
N

c
CONTENTS cti
1 .0 Genera l Cons i dera t i ons 3 .2 Underground M i n i ng
1 .1 Hazards f rom Subs i dence 3 .3 So l ut i on M i n i ng N
1 .2 De t erm i na t i on of Hazard 3 .4 P i p i ng L
1 .3 Hazard Prevent i on and Cor rec t i on 3 .5 Remova l of Water , Oi l , and Gas
N
2 .0 Subs i dence Caused by Sur f ace or Interna l 4 .0 Subs i dence in Perma f rost Zones 3
Load i ng 5 .0 Subs i dence Caused by Co l l aps i ng or
2 .1 Causes Hydrocompac t i ve So i l s
2 .2 Est i ma t i on of Hazard
6 .0 Subs i dence Caused by Organ i c Soi l s i
2 .3 M i t i ga t i on
3 .0 Subs i dence Caused by Remova l of Re f erences
Subsur f ace Ma t er i a l s
3 .1 Subt er ranean So l ut i on W i thdrawa l and
Z
Vo l can i c Act i v i ty

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 254 - 2

cause i t can ope ra t e for l ong per i ods w i th-

1 . 0 GENERAL CONS I DERAT I ONS

L
ou t v i s i b l e e f f ec ts . The f i rst i nd i ca t i ons of
and subs i dence is de f i ned as any d i s- subs i dence may be changes not i ced by sur -
p l acemen t o f a genera l l y l eve l ground vey c rews or unusua l l y h i gh road ma i n t e -
sur f ace resu l t i ng f rom sur f ace or sub- nance demands . The prec i se amoun t of
sur f ace causes . Th i s sec t i on addresses sub- subs i dence and i ts d i st r i but i on mus t be
s i dence resu l t i ng f rom the a l tera t i on of sur - de t e rm i ned t hrough survey i ng . De t a i l ed
f ace or i nt erna l l oad i ng , the remova l of unde rs t and i ng of a par t i cu l ar subs i dence
subsur f ace ma t er i a l s , and o ther subsur f ace bas i n depends upon the cor re l a t i on of h i s-
fa i l ures . Tec ton i c act i v i ty , l ands l i des , and tor i ca l survey i n forma t i on f rom var i ous
expans i ve so i l s are no t addressed in th i s sources w i t h cur rent survey i n forma t i on .
sec t i on (Re f er to Sec t i ons 252-Na t ura l Un l ess t he h i stor i ca l da t a are very accura t e ,
Haza rds : Ear thquakes , 253-Na tura l Haza rds : cons i derab l e uncer t a i nt y is l i ke l y.
Lands l i des and Snow Ava l anches , and 255-
To es t i ma t e the degree o f hazard resu l t -
Na tura l Haza rds : Expans i ve Soi l s, for add i -
i ng f rom subs i dence , the cause , magn i t ude
t i ona l i nforma t i on) .
o f d i sp l acement , and the t i me ove r wh i ch
1 .1 Haza rds f rom Subs i dence movemen t t akes p l ace mus t be known .
Geo l og i ca l and geophys i ca l i n forma t i on is
The e f f ec t of l and subs i dence on a s t ruc ture essent i a l in order to es t i ma t e t he hazard .
is dependen t on the re l a t i onsh i p be t ween In forma t i on on some t ypes of subs i dence is
the d i mens i ons of t he s t ruc ture and t he s i ze ava i l ab l e f rom gove rnmen t sources; in t he
of the area wh i ch is subs i d i ng . A subs i dence Un i t ed Sta tes , i n forma t i on can be ob t a i ned
bas i n of severa l k i l ome t ers or m i l es in d i am- f rom the U .S . Geo l og i ca l Survey , st a t e sur -
e t er wi l l have l i t t le e f f ec t on sma l l s t ruc tures veys , o ther geo l og i c- re l a t ed agenc i es of
w i th i n t he subs i d i ng area . I t may , howeve r , st a t es and commun i t i es , geo l ogy depar t -
have ser i ous e f f ec ts on l arger st ruc tures , men t s of loca l co l l eges and un i vers i t i es , and F i gur e 254 -1 . S i nkho l e Forma t i on .
such as cana l s , l arge br i dges , roadways , pr i va t e consu l t ant s . S i nkho l es are f ormed when ground co l -
ra i l ways , and dra i nage sys t ems . Subs i dence l apses i nto subsur f ace cav i t i es . I l l ust ra t i on
occur r i ng ove r re l at i ve l y sma l l areas , and on Pot ent i a l hazards mus t typ i ca l l y be i den- shows the f orma t i on o f kars t t opogr aphy
shor t t i me sca l es have the h i ghes t pot ent i a l t i f i ed on the bas i s o f a s i te-by-s i te eva l ua - f rom re l a t i ve you t h to ma tur i t y.
for caus i ng ma j or damage . t i on , because subs i dence can be caused by
a var i e ty of na tura l processes and human
Subs i dence may l ead to i ncreased r i sk act i v i t i es . C i t y or coun t y eng i neers , consu l t -
f rom o ther hazards , par t i cu l ar l y i ncreased i ng eng i neers , and geo l og i s t s may be
1 . 3 Haza rd Pr even t i on and
f l ood r i sk and i ncreased ra tes of coast a l sources of the t ypes of s i te-spec i f i c i nfor -
eros i on . Sur f ace dra i nage pa t t erns can be Cor r ec t i on
ma t i on needed . M i ne deve l opmen t p l ans
a l tered , crea t i ng add i t i ona l prob l ems . on f i le w i th f edera l , state , or loca l agenc i es Haza rd preven t i on and cor rec t i on e f for ts
and l oca l m i n i ng f i rms may i nd i ca t e areas of mus t seek to reduce damage to ex i s t i ng
1 .2 De t e rm i na t i on o f Haza rd past , present , or future unde rground open- deve l opmen t , and prot ec t future deve l op-
U Land subs i dence and d i sp l acemen t can i ngs . In reg i ons of karst ter ra i n or whe r e men t f rom the e f f ec t s o f subs i dence .
occur at a w i de range of speeds and ex t end m i ne p l ans do no t ex i st , i t may be neces- Rest r i c t i on of human act i v i t i es in areas
over areas rang i ng f rom a f ew square sary to unde r t ake geophys i ca l exp l ora t i on i dent i f i ed as be i ng suscept i b l e to subs i -
me t e rs ( feet ) to t housands of hec t ares and dr i l l ing progr ams to ensure tha t a s i te is dence is the bes t overa l l s t ra t egy for reduc -
(acres) . De t ec t i on of subs i dence hazards f ree of caverns , cav i t i es , or m i ne open i ngs . i ng hazards and pot ent i a l l osses . Land use
can be di f f i cul t , because the processes tha t cont ro l s and zon i ng may be used to prot ec t
proper t y and l i ves by d i rec t i ng i nt ens i ve
ac t i v i t i es away f rom haza rdous areas .
C M i n i ng opera t i ons , groundwa t e r use , or
cà o ther pot ent i a l l y haza rdous act i v i t i es can
J
a l so be d i rec t ed to areas whe r e haza rd
t /1 1 . De t ec t i on of subs i dence can be di f f i cul t , because the processes tha t cause it can pot ent i a l is l ow , or may requ i re the use of
i opera t e for l ong per i ods w i thou t v i s ib l e e f fects . De t a i l ed unders t and i ng of a par t i cu- me t hods tha t wi l l reduce subs i dence po t en-
l ar subs i dence bas i n depends upon the cor re l at i on of hi stor i ca l survey i nforma t i on t ial .
N w i th cur rent survey i nforma t i on . Un l ess the hi stor i ca l da t a are very accura t e , cons i d-
ct i Ex i st i ng deve l opmen t can be prot ec t ed
erab l e uncer t a i nt y is l i ke ly .
t hrough a var i e ty of m i t i ga t i on and con-
2 . Rest r i ct i on of human act i v i t i es through zon i ng or other l and use cont ro l s in areas s t ruc t i on st ra t eg i es . The t ype of s t ra t egy
i
i dent i f i ed as be i ng suscept i b l e to subs i dence is the best overa l l st ra t egy for reduc i ng tha t is mos t appropr i a t e is dependen t on
hazards and potent i a l losses . the cause o f the subs i dence , the t ype of
«3 i deve l opmen t , and t he s i ze of t he area tha t
Z
3 . I f avo i dance is not feas ib l e , deve l opmen t can be prot ec t ed through a var i e ty of mi t - is a f f ec t ed .
i ga t i on and cons t ruc t i on st rateg i es , dependen t on the cause of the subs i dence , the
t ype of deve l opmen t , and the s i ze of the area tha t is a f f ec t ed .

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 254 - 3

F i gur e 254 -2 . Ar eas o f ka rs t t opogr aphy i n t he Un i t ed S t a t es .

the compress i on of the soi l l ayer deve l ops 2 . 3 M i t i ga t i on

2 . 0 SUBS I DENCE CAUSED BY w i th t i me is comp l ex and , i f the compress -
ib l e ma t er i a l is sa tura t ed , depends upon t he Labora tory t est i ng of soi l samp l es can be
SURFACE OR I NTERNAL
movemen t of wa t e r in the soi l . The ra te a t used to pred i c t the tota l se t t l emen t and the
LOAD I NG behav i or of the soi l based on ant i c i pa t ed
wh i ch dra i nage can t ake p l ace depends on
the permeab i l i t y o f the soi l and on t he l oad i ng . Whe r e se t t l emen t caused by the
2 .1 Causes we i gh t of ma t er i a l on the ground sur f ace is
ava i l ab i l i ty of dra i nage boundar i es . Free- U
Sur f ace l oad i ng causes s l ow, gradua l com- ant i c i pa t ed , ana l yses are pe r f ormed to
dra i n i ng granu l ar soi l s wi l l set t l e very qu i ck - C
pac t i on , or conso l i da t i on , of compress i b l e ensure tha t the des i gn of the s t ruc ture can
ly. C l ays and si l ts of l ow permeab i l i t y wi l l
ma t er i a l s . W i t h su i t ab l e soi l cond i t i ons , the w i ths t and forces resu l t i ng f rom d i f ferent i a l
a l l ow wa t e r to escape very s l ow l y , and set -
l oad caused by bu i l d i ngs or eng i neer i ng se t t l emen t . I f the tota l se t t l ement is expec t - û1
t l emen t may t ake mon t hs or years .
s t ruc tures can cause subs i dence over an ed to be mor e t han a f ew m i l l i me t ers or
Geo t echn i ca l eng i neers shou l d be consu l t -
area 2 to 3 t i mes grea t er than the i r own i nches , precaut i onary measur es are t aken .
ed to ca l cu l a t e ant i c i pa t ed compress i on .
d i mens i on . Inadequa t e l y compac t ed areas
of ar t i f i c i a l f i l l ma t er i a l are sub j ec t to far C
grea t er subs i dence . O l d re fuse dumps , spo i l R3
heaps , and f i l l ed l and shou l d be regarded as
pot ent i a l l y haza rdous . Even i f proper l y N
p l aced and compac t ed , f i l l can be sub j ec t to i
subs i dence i f i t l ies over a mud l ayer tha t 1 . Inadequa t e l y compac t ed areas of ar t i f ic ia l f i l l are sub j ec t to subs i dence f rom sur f ace Cu
can compress unde r a l oad or f l ow ou t f rom l oad i ng . O l d re fuse dumps , spoi l heaps , f i l l ed l and, and other compress i b l e ma t er i a l s N
benea t h t he f i l l ed area . shou l d be regarded as potent i a l l y hazardous .

2 . 2 Es t i ma t i on o f Haza rd 2 . The tota l amoun t of compress i on tha t wi l l occur is ca l cu l a ted based on the com- Cu
press ibi l i ty of the soi l l ayer , i ts th i ckness , and the magn i t ude of the l oad . i
The amoun t of compress i on and the t i me Geot echn i ca l eng i neers shou l d be consu l t ed to ca l cu l a te ant i c i pa t ed compress i on .
ove r wh i ch i t occurs mus t be i nves t i ga t ed
to de t e rm i ne the pot ent i a l hazard . The tota l 3 . I f the tota l se t t l ement is expec t ed to be mor e than a f ew mi l l i me ters or i nches , pre- z
amoun t of compress i on tha t wi l l occur is caut i onary measures are t aken . These measures may i nc l ude p l ac i ng st ruc tures on
ca l cu l a t ed based on the compress i b i l i t y of pi l ings, p l ac i ng st ruc tures on f l oa t i ng founda t i ons , or conso l i da t i on of base pr i or to
the soi l l ayer , i ts th i ckness , and the magn i -
t ude of the l oad . The ca l cu l a t i on of how
cons t ruc t i on .
n
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 254 - 4

F i gur e 254 - 3 . Ar eas o f known cave rns i n t he Un i t ed St a t es .

These measures may i nc l ude : m i n i ng and so l ut i on m i n i ng resu l t in s i mi l ar l y i ng ma t er i a l is weak , co l l aps i ng areas

1. P l ac i ng st ruc tures on p i l i ngs . The st ruc- hazards crea t ed by the ex i s t ence of under - resu l t in sur f aces s i nkho l es and depress i ons .
ture may be f ounded on pi l es wh i ch ground vo i ds and cav i t i es . The remova l of
F i gure 254-1 i l lust rates the f orma t i on of
car ry i ts we i gh t to a non-compress i b l e wa t er , oi l , and gas genera l l y does not cre-
s i nkho l es . The charac ter i st i c pockma r ked
s t ra tum . a t e l arge subsur f ace vo i ds , but causes
t opogr aphy resu l t i ng f rom the w i despread
2. P l ac i ng st ruc tures on f l oa t i ng founda - w i despread l ower i ng o f sur f ace l eve l s .
presence o f l i mes tone in a hum i d c l i ma t e is
t i ons . The st ruc ture is des i gned w i th a
3 .1 Sub t e r r anean So l u t i on ca l l ed karst t opogr aphy. F i gure 254-2
deep basemen t , so tha t the we i gh t of
W i t hd r awa l and Vo l can i c shows the genera l d i st r i but i on of karst and
the excava t ed ma t er i a l is equa l to the
we i gh t of the bu i l d i ng. Ac t i v i t y pseudoka rs t t opogr aphy in the Un i t ed
U St a t es .
C 3. Conso l i da t i on pr i or to cons t ruc t i on . In
Subsur f ace depos i t s o f l i mes tone and o ther
some cases , a l oad equa l to the we i gh t Vo l can i c act i v i ty can a l so cause a s i mi l ar
ca rbona t e rocks are sub j ec t to so l ut i on in
. of a st ruc ture , usua l l y in the f orm of an e f f ec t . Lava f l ows tha t reach the ear th ' s
N groundwa t e r , par t i cu l ar l y in hot , hum i d cl i -
ear th f i l l , is app l i ed to the s i te in sur f ace , coo l and sol idi fy, can resu l t in a
ma t es . Unde rground vo i ds ca l l ed so l ut i on
3 advance of cons t ruc t i on . When set t l e-
cav i t i es are crea t ed as m i nera l ma t er i a l is ho l l ow s t ruc ture i f the mo l t en ma t er i a l is
men t has occur red , the we i gh t is not rep l aced by l ater f l ows . These vo i ds are
car r i ed away d i sso l ved in groundwa t e r .
r emoved and cons t ruc t i on is begun . genera l l y crea t ed in the f orm of sha l l ow
C Whe r e the cav i t i es are sha l l ow or the over -
Geo t echn i ca l eng i neers shou l d be con-
J su l t ed to de t e rm i ne the mos t appropr i a t e
m i t i ga t i on s t ra t egy .
L
3 . 0 SUBS I DENCE CAUSED BY
N REMOVAL OF SUBSURFACE
cd
MATER I ALS
1. S i nkho l es and depress i ons can form in areas of karst topography , whe re l arge subsur -
2 f ace depos i ts of l i mes tone d i sso l ve in ground wa t er and create underground cav i t i es
cr i suscept i b l e to co l l apse . (F i gure 254-1) .
i The remova l of subsur f ace ma t er i a l s as a
resu l t of na tura l processes or of human 2. Vo l can i c act i v i ty can cause a s imi l ar e f fect as ho l l ow l ava tubes are f ormed when
cd i nt ervent i on can cause s i gn i f i cant subs i - mo l t en ma t er i a l sur f aces and is not rep l aced by l ater f l ows .
Z dence . Na tura l processes tha t r emove sub-
sur f ace ma t er i a l s i nc l ude sub t e r ranean 3 . Subsur f ace cav i t i es may be l oca t ed by e l ect r i ca l , se i smi c , or grav i me t r i c me t hods or
so l ut i on w i thdrawa l and vo l can i c act i v i ty . by d i rect bor i ng of test ho l es . Ground sur f aces ad j acent to these subsur f ace cav i t i es
Human act i v i t i es , such as unde rground may a l so be sub j ec t to subs i dence .
N

T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

tunne l s , ca l l ed l ava tubes , and over l y i ng
areas are sub j ec t to co l l apse .

F i gure 254-3 shows areas of so l ut i on

caves , areas whe r e l ava t ubes are common ,
and other known caverns in the Un i t ed
St a t es . Subsur f ace cav i t i es may be l oca t ed
by e l ect r i ca l , se i smi c , or grav i me t r i c me t h-
ods or by d i rec t bor i ng of test ho l es .
Ground sur f aces ad j acent to bu t not d i rec t -
ly ove r subsur f ace cav i t i es may a l so be sub-
j ect to subs i dence . The w i d t h of th i s area
var i es , depend i ng upon loca l cond i t i ons .

3 . 2 Unde rg round M i n i ng
Unde rground m i n i ng of so l i d ma t er i a l s ,
par t i cu l ar l y sha l l ow coa l work i ngs , is a s ig-
n i f i cant cause of subs i dence haza rd .
Cons t ruc t i on of a tunne l c l ose to the sur -
f ace typ i ca l l y resu l ts in sur f ace se t t l emen t .
I f the ma t er i a l i nto wh i ch the tunne l is dr i - F i gur e 254 -4 . Subs i dence due t o m i ne co l l apse . The l i mi t ang l e is de f i ned by the
ven is weak or i nadequa t e l y suppor t ed , a l i ne j o i n i ng t he edge of the co l l apsed area unde rground to the edge o f t he area o f sur f ace
process ca l l ed cav i ng or s topp i ng can occur , s i nk i ng . The ang l es of break w i l l vary depend i ng upon t he geo l og i ca l cha rac t e r i s t i cs of t he
in wh i ch rock in t he roo f co l l apses , l eav i ng rock f orma t i ons .
a vo i d above i t . Repea t ed cav i ng resu l ts in
the vo i d m i gra t i ng upwa rd , eventua l l y ver i fy tha t the grou t i ng opera t i on has been dence hazard , made par t i cu l ar l y di f f i cul t to
resu l t i ng in the f orma t i on o f a s i nkho l e a t success fu l . manage because of the d i f f i cu l ty of i dent i -
the sur f ace . F i gure 254-4 shows the e f f ec t f y i ng the l i mi ts of the a f f ec t ed a rea .
F i gure 254-6 i l lust rates a me t hod for
of the co l l apse o f a re l at i ve l y deep m i ne . So l ut i on m i n i ng is the remova l of wa t e r so l -
i n j ec t i ng a s l ur ry of wa t e r and sand or o ther
ub l e ma t er i a l s such as sa l t , gypsum , or
F i gure 254-5 shows the genera l l oca- ma t er i a l , us i ng a hydros t a t i c pump i ng t ech-
po t ash f rom benea t h the sur f ace by an
t i ons of coa l f i e lds in the Un i t ed St a t es . In n i que wh i ch a l l ows a mor e comp l e t e f i l l ing
i n j ec t i on o f wa t e r wh i ch d i sso l ves the
reg i ons whe r e coa l is present , subs i dence of vo i ds and wh i ch can requ i re on l y a s in-
ma t er i a l . The so l ut i on is then pumped to
resu l t i ng f rom prev i ous m i n i ng act i v i t i es g l e i n j ec t i on we l l for an area of up to 1 .2 ha
t he sur f ace and the wa t e r is evapora t ed ,
shou l d be regarded as a pot ent i a l hazard . I f (3 acres) . Grou t i ng may requ i re i n j ec t i on
l eav i ng the des i red ma t er i a l . The resu l t i ng
abandoned m i ne wor k i ngs are l oca t ed on a po i nt s on l y a f ew me t e rs or yards apar t .
subsur f ace vo i ds can be very l arge and are
s i te , severa l eng i neer i ng me t hods have
sub j ec t to co l l apse , much l i ke t he na tura l l y
been deve l oped to ove r come the prob l em . 3 . 3 So l u t i on M i n i ng
occur r i ng cav i t i es in l i mes tone reg i ons .
I t is a l ways expens i ve , howeve r , and many
The remova l of subsur f ace ma t er i a l s by
me t hods i nvo l ve cons i derab l e uncer t a i nt y.
so l ut i on m i n i ng can cause a ser i ous subs i - V
Avo i dance of such a s i te is pre f er red . C
Ca l cu l a t i on o f ant i c i pa t ed subs i dence
resu l t i ng f rom tunne l i ng or m i n i ng is par t i c-
u l ar l y d i f f i cu l t because o f t he l i m i t ed
know l edge of cond i t i ons at t he t i me of tun-
ne l i ng (wh i ch a f f ec ts st resses in the sur - 1 . M i n i ng may resu l t in a maze of unde rground caverns , mak i ng pred i c t i on of subs i -
round i ng ma ter i a l s) , the ma t er i a l proper t i es dence di f f i cul t . Grout i ng or other t echn i ques tha t f i l l known vo i ds may be used in
C
i nvo l ved , and comp l ex spat i a l cons i dera - areas whe r e future subs i dence mus t be prevent ed .
t i ons . O f t en , records of m i n i ng opera t i ons J
are i ncomp l e t e , and i dent i f i ca t i on of exac t 2 . The remova l of subsur f ace ma t er i a l s by so l ut i on m i n i ng can cause a ser i ous subs i -
tunne l l oca t i ons is d i f f i cu l t . dence hazard tha t is par t i cu l ar l y di f f i cul t to assess because of the di f f i cul ty of locat -
i ng the l imi ts of the a f f ec t ed area. i
Pi l l ar and sta l l m i n i ng , a l so re f er red to as N
room and pi l l ar m i n i ng , is a common 3 . Cons t ruc t i on shou l d be avo i ded in areas suscept i b l e to p i p i ng (subsur f ace dra i nage
ext rac t i on me t hod . As coa l is r emoved , rec- condu i t s occur r i ng in re l at i ve l y i nso l ub l e soi l s as a resu l t of the passage of sed i ment -
t angu l ar pi l l ars of coa l are l ef t at i nterva l s to l aden wa t er ) . I f const ruc t i on is necessary , avo i d i ng a concent ra t i on of runof f in vu l -
suppor t the roo f o f the work i ngs , crea t i ng nerab l e areas is essent i a l . cl i
i
an unde rground maze of caverns . In cases
whe r e future subs i dence mus t be prevent - 4 . In areas whe re the w i thdrawa l of groundwa t e r by we l l s is caus i ng subs i dence , the
Z
n5
ed , sha l l ow wor k i ngs can be grou t ed w i t h deve l opmen t of a sur f ace wa t e r supp l y sys t em may be necessary .
an i n j ec t i on of cemen t s l ur ry. Grou t i ng is
very expens i ve and can be i ne f f ec t i ve i f 5 . Subs i dence caused by the w i thdrawa l of oi l , gas , or wa t er has been reduced or
wa t e r is present unde rground ; i t can a l so be ar rest ed by the add i t i on of i mpor t ed wa t er to subsur f ace sed i ment s , rep l ac i ng the
d i f f i cu l t to cont ro l the f l ow of grou t and to
ma t er i a l tha t was w i t hdrawn .
N
T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 254-6

F i gur e 254 -5 . Loca t i on o f coa l f i e l ds in t he Un i t ed S t a t es.

3 . 4 P i p i ng

P i p i ng is the t e rm used to descr i be subsur -

f ace dra i nage condu i t s occur r i ng in re l a-
t i ve l y i nso l ub l e so i l s as a resu l t of the pas-
sage of sed i men t - l aden wa t e r . P i p i ng
occurs in re l a t i ve l y weak , i ncoheren t soi l
uc
CL)
l ayers , such as l oess , tuf f , vo l can i c ash , f i ne-
gra i ned a l l uv i um or co l l uv i um, and some
rocks (c l ays tone , muds t one , and s i l tstone) .
. ûf
Wa t e r mov i ng t hrough sa tura t ed l ayers
t owa rd e i ther a na tura l l y occur r i ng or con-
s t ruc t ed f ree f ace car r i es w i th i t some sed i -
N men t in suspens i on . As the wa t e r r emoves
ma t er i a l , dra i nage is d i rec t ed to t he mor e
C pe rmeab l e area , resu l t i ng in the f orma t i on
of a sma l l ho l e on t he f ree f ace , wh i ch , as
dra i nage cont i nues , expands i nto the cl i f f ,
u l t i ma t e l y caus i ng subs t ant i a l unde rground
L vo i ds . Co l l apse and subs i dence may occur ,
cqd in some cases , crea t i ng a pseudoka rs t
N
t opogr aphy . F i gure 254-7 shows h i ghway
damage resu l t i ng f rom p i p i ng in the sou th-
wes t ern Un i t ed St a t es . F i gur e 254 -6 . Hydr au l i c back f i l l i ng o f an abandoned coa l m i ne .
L
3 P i p i ng is c l ass i f i ed i nto three t ypes , ra t ed ma t er i a l s to downgrad i en t out -
2. En t ra i nmen t : occurs when dewa t e red
based on i ts mode o f or i g i n : bu i l d i ng founda t i ons or a r i se in wa t e r f l ow po i nt s can resu l t in sand boi l s, mud
Z 1 . Des i cca t i on , w i th st ress cracks : so i l s
wh i ch become dry and cracked are sub-
l eve l beh i nd or unde r dams or l evees vo l canoes , and a co l l apse of sed i men t
causes changes in hydrau l i c head pres- and over l y i ng st ruc tures .
j ec t ed to ra infa l l wh i ch ent ers the cracks sures and subsequen t subsur f ace chan- 3. Var i ab l e permeab i l i t y subs i dence :
and t rave l s to a f ree face , f orm i ng ne l i ng . En t ra i nmen t of wa t e r and sa tu- occurs when suf f i c i ent hydrau l i c head
N dra i nage condu i t s .

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 254 - T

F i gure 254-7 . St ruc tura l fa i l ure of h i ghways (wes t ern Un i t ed Sta tes) caused by p i p i ng of va l l ey f i l l .

exists to move sed i ment - l aden wa ter can occur , resul t ing in severe damage to expand wi th each season' s thaw . In winter ,
through a st ratum to the face of a gul ly ut i l i t ies and large st ructures, as we l l as dis- ef fects inc lude heav ing, the format i on of
or embankment . The condui ts formed rupt ing sur face dra i nage pat terns . r idges and ice di kes, as wa ter t rapped
in this way grow f rom the out l et back be tween the permanent l y f rozen st rata and
Eng ineer ing me thods can be used to
into the cl i ff face . the recent l y f rozen sur face expands upon
reduce the subs i dence hazards resul t ing f reez ing . Subs i dence wi l l then occur dur ing
Const ruct ion shou ld be avo i ded in areas f rom the w i thdrawa l of water , oi l , or gas . In
the spr ing thaw .
where p ip ing is l ikely. If const ruct ion is areas where the w i thdrawa l of groundwa-
unavo idab l e , the careful des ign of dra i nage ter by we l l s is caus i ng subs idence , the F igure 254-8 shows areas in the nor th-
systems to avo id a concent rat ion of runof f deve l opment of a sur face wa t er supp l y sys- ern hemi sphere of cont i nuous perma f rost N
u
in vu lnerab l e areas is essent i a l . Runof f t em may be necessary . (where the ent i re seasona l l y thaw i ng layer C
shou ld be conveyed in c losed culver ts to ref reezes each winter ) and of d i scont inuous
Subs i dence caused by the w i thdrawa l of
points away f rom vu lnerab l e st ructures . oi l , gas, or wa t er has been reduced or
perma f rost (where the seasona l thaw l ayer .
does not total ly ref reeze to the depth of the N
3 .5 Remova l of Wa t er , O i l , and Gas ar rested by the addi t ion of i mpor ted wa t er permanent l y f rozen layer) . F igure 254-9
to subsur face sed i ments , rep l ac ing the
gi ves a block d i agram of perma f rost mor - N
The remova l of water , oi l and gas can cause mater i a l that was w i thdrawn . pho l ogy .
signi f icant d i sp l acement over a w i despread
area. The amount of subs i dence depends C
A number of eng i neer i ng st rategi es have
on the amount of mater i a l removed , the 4 .0 SUBS I DENCE IN been deve l oped to overcome the di f f icul -
depth of the l ayer f rom wh i ch it is ext ract - PERMAFROST ZONES t ies encountered in perma f rost regions .
ed, and the st i f fness or r igidi ty of the over - Granu l ar f rozen permaf rost , in wh i ch soi l
l y ing soi l mater i a l s . Genera l l y, wa t er is Subs i dence is a l so a hazard in reg ions of gra ins are in contact wi th each other and i
removed f rom sha l lower l ayers of fai r ly permaf rost or where l arge masses of under - excess ice is not present , typica l ly causes N
compress ib l e mater i a l s, and gas and oi l are ground ice exist . At temperatures be l ow f ew ser ious eng ineer ing di f f icul t ies . Hard
removed f rom deeper l ayers of less com- f reez ing, l arge b locks of ice prov i de stabl e f rozen perma f rost , where some wa t er
pressibl e mater i a l . suppor t . When permaf rost is d i sturbed or rema i ns unf rozen, does present prob l ems .
sub j ected to warmi ng , thaw i ng decreases Common approaches in these cond i t ions i
When wa t er is w i thdrawn f rom a we l l , 3
the wa t er level is lowered, reduc i ng the i ts suppor t of over l y ing soi ls and causes are to thaw the area and remove the excess
subs i dence . Soi l par t i c l es former l y he ld
pore pressure and a l lowing the soi l mater i -
al above to compress the water -bear i ng
together by ice are f reed, resul t ing in subs i -
water , or to ma i nta i n the perma f rost in i ts
natura l therma l cond i t ion . Preservat ion of Z
dence as f ree- f lowing wa ter accumu l a tes at perma f rost can be ach i eved by ensur i ng
st rata . If a singl e we l l is used, a d i sh-shaped the sur face or dra ins away , l eav ing l owered
depress ion resul ts . If a l arge we l l f ield is that no addi t iona l heat is int roduced into
levels of saturated soi ls . D i sturbed areas the ground . Const ruct ion may be carr ied
operated, w i despread ver t ical d i sp l acement
can turn into mud- f i l l ed depress ions that N
Time-Saver St andards for Landscape Archi tecture
 2 5 4- 8

F i gur e 254 - 8 . Gene r a l d i s t r i bu t i on F i gur e 254 -9 B l ock d i agr am o f pe rma f ros t mo rpho l ogy.
o f pe rma f ros t i n t he nor t he rn
hem i sphe r e .
ou t on an i nsu l a t i ng pad of grave l over the A s i mi l ar e f f ec t is observed in hydrocom- Ma i n t enance of ex i st i ng s t ruc tures depends
s i te or may be ra i sed on therma l l y i so l a t ed pac t i ve soi l s . In ar i d reg i ons , a l luv i a l f an on st r i ct managemen t of sur f ace wa t e r .
p i l i ngs . depos i t s and soi l s wh i ch we r e or i g i na l l y
depos i t ed as a resu l t o f mud f l ows or mud - 6 . 0 SUBS I DENCE CAUSED BY
Preserva t i on of ex i st i ng vege t a t i on in
s l i des and have a l oose s t ruc ture con t a i n i ng ORGAN I C SO I LS
perma f ros t reg i ons is par t i cu l ar l y i mpor t ant , a re l a t i ve l y l arge quant i t y of a i r can f orm
s i nce i ts remova l wi l l a l l ow d i rec t sun to hydrocompac t i ve soi l s . We t t i ng causes a H i gh l y compress i b l e organ i c soi l s are sub-
hea t the sur f ace and cause i ncreased sea- reor i ent a t i on of the soi l par t i c l es and can j ec t to subs i dence due to the w i thdrawa l of
sona l t haw i ng .
resu l t in s i gn i f i cant subs i dence [4 .5 m (15 wa t e r . The dra i nage of ma rshes for agr i cu l -
f t ) in Ca l i forn i a a f t er the i nt roduc t i on o f i rr i - tura l purposes and the dewa t er i ng of pea t
5 . 0 SUBS I DENCE CAUSED BY ga t i on wa t er ] . bogs has resu l ted in w i despread subs i dence ,
COLLAPS I NG OR
In reg i ons whe r e hydrocompac t i ve soi l s usua l l y resu l t i ng f rom the comb i ned e f f ec ts
HYDROCOMPACT I VE SO I LS of dry i ng , ox i da t i on , and w i nd eros i on .
or co l l aps i ng so i l s are common , s i te-spec i f -
ic geo l og i c repor t s tha t assess pot ent i a l Organ i c so i l s shou l d be avo i ded for mos t
Co l l aps i ng so i l s are those tha t re l y on a
subs i dence shou l d be ob t a i ned . cons t ruc t i on purposes . When unavo i dab l e ,
wa t e r so l ub l e m i nera l cemen t t o ma i nt a i n
the i r s t rength . When we t , t he m i nera l These so i l s shou l d be avo i ded for mos t common approaches are e i ther to dump
C so l i d f i l l ma t er i a l on t he s i te unt i l se t t l emen t
cemen t d i sso l ves and these so i l s co l l apse , t ypes of deve l opmen t . When avo i dance is
l eav i ng a bumpy ter ra i n . Loess and some i mposs i b l e , a common eng i nee r i ng ceases or to rep l ace the sof t ma t er i a l w i t h
. su i t ab l e f i l l .
N o ther so i l s o f a l oose , open s t ruc ture are approach is to compac t t he area by the
sub j ec t to th i s t ype of subs i dence . add i t i on of wa t e r pr i or to cons t ruc t i on .
REFERENCES

Be l l , F. G . ( ed .) . Ground Eng i neer ' s

Re f e rence Book , Bu t t e rwor t hs , London ,
1987.
N 1 . When perma f ros t is d i s turbed or sub j ec t ed to warm i ng , t haw i ng decreases i ts sup-
L por t of over l y i ng soi l s and causes subs i dence . Common approaches in these cond i - Bo l t , B. A. , W. L . Horn , G. A. MacDona l d ,
«t t i ons are to t haw the area and r emove the excess wa t er , or to ma i nt a i n the per - and R. F. Sco t t. Geo l og i ca l Hazards , 2nd
N ma f ros t in i ts natura l therma l cond i t i on . Ed. , Spr i nger -Ver l ag , New York , 1977.

2 . Hydrocompac t i ve and co l l aps i ng soi l s may caused subs i dence due to excess i ve Cos t a , John E. , and V i c tor R. Bake r.
mo i s ture . These soi ls shou l d be avo i ded for mos t types of deve l opmen t . When
i Sur f i c i a l Geo l ogy : Bu i l d i ng w i th the Ear th ,
avo i dance is i mposs i b l e , a common eng i neer i ng approach is to compac t the area by
3 W i l ey , New York , 1981 .
the add i t i on of wa t er pr ior to const ruc t i on .

Z 3 . H i gh l y compress i b l e organ i c soi ls are sub j ec t to subs i dence due to the w i thdrawa l of Ke l l er , Edwa rd A. Env i ronmen t a l Geo l ogy ,
7th ed . , MacM i l l an , I nd i anapo l i s , IN,
wa t e r. These soi l s shou l d be avo i ded for mos t const ruc t i on purposes . When
unavo i dab l e , common approaches are e i ther to dump sol id f i l l ma t er i a l on the s i te 1995.
unt i l se t t l ement ceases , or to rep l ace the sof t ma ter i a l w i th su i tab l e f i l l .
N
T i me -Save r St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 SECT I ON

Na t ur a l Haza rds :
Expans i ve So i l s
.
1141144 DIN "
Sec t i on Ed i tor :
Cha r l es W. Har r i s
Techn i ca l Wr i t ers :
Ky l e Brown
Megan Ga rdne r
Tess Can f i e l d
Spec i a l Consu l t an t s:
R i cha rd Myr i ck and H. Row l and Jackson
My r i ck -Newman -Dah l be rg Par tnersh i p
Da l l as , Texas

Pa t r i ck Buck l ey
Yande l l and H i l l er
Da l l as , Texas
Rev i ewe rs
Ernes t L . Buck l ey , Dean
Schoo l of Eng i nee r i ng
Sou t h Dako t a St a t e Un i vers i t y
Brook i ngs , Sou t h Dako t a

James E . Hough
James E . Hough and Assoc i a t es
C i nc i nna t i , Oh i o

Na t ura l Haza rds Resea rch and O

V1
App l i ca t i ons I n f orma t i on Cen t e r
Un i vers i t y of Co l or ado , Bou l der , Co l or ado
. û1
C

xa
CONTENTS IW
1 .0 Gene ra l Cons i dera t i ons compac t i on
Prewe t t i ng
L
2 .0 Es t i ma t i on of Haza rd
N
Hea t Trea t men t
3 .0 Loss Preven t i on and Reduc t i on
Chem i ca l Add i t i ves
3 .1 Avo i dance of Haza rdous S i t es 3 .6 Managemen t o f Vege t a t i on
3 .2 I so l a t i on f rom Expans i ve So i l s Sources of Techn i ca l I n f orma t i on and
3 .3 F l ex i b i l i ty i n Des i gn i
Ass i s t ance
3 . 4 So i l Trea t men t s to Reduce Pot ent i a l

Z
Re f e rences cd
Vo l ume Change
3 . 5 Dra i nage and Con t ro l o f Sur f ace
Runo f f

N
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 255 - 2

,oads i mpose m i nor l oads on expans i ve ca t i on) are usua l l y preven t ed once an area
soi l s in compa r i son to i ts swe l l i ng pressures , is cove r ed by a road or s t ruc ture .
wh i ch may exceed 480 000 Pa (10 , 000 Des i cca t i on and we t t i ng st i l l occur a round
So i l s and sof t rocks wh i ch shr i nk or swe l l as
Dsf ) . t he pe r i me t e r but gradua l l y dec rease
a resu l t of changes in mo i s ture con t en t are
t owa rd the cent er .
common l y known as expans i ve so i l s . Expans i ve so i l s crea t e d i f ferent i a l move -
Expans i ve soi l s are usua l l y c l ays , but some men t unde r s t ruc tures . Seasona l changes in O t he r common charac t er i st i cs of d i f fer -
t ypes of sha l es a l so exh i b i t shr i nk i ng and mo i s t ure and wa t er - t ab l e l eve l s cause ent i a l movemen t i nc l ude :
swe l l i ng . A l um i num s i l i cate m i nera l s of vo l - -xpans i ve soi l to move unde r na tura l con-
can i c or i g i n decompose to f orm expans i ve 1 . Dom i ng or downwa rd-wa rp i ng of soi l
d i t i ons . Th i s zone of seasona l change can
c l ays of the smec t i t e group , the bes t known occurs as the soi l shr i nks a t t he per i me t er
ex t end to a dep t h of abou t 2 m (7 f t ) .
(F i gure 255-2) .
of wh i ch is mon tmor i l l on i t e . Pure mon t mo - Vorma l seasona l change and dry i ng (des i c-
r i l loni te may swe l l up to 15 t i mes i ts dry
vo l ume , bu t mos t na tura l soi l s cont a i n
o ther ma t er i a l s tha t swe l l l ess . Few na tura l
soi l s swe l l t o mor e t han 1-112 t i mes the i r
or i g i na l vo l ume (F i gure 255-1) . For mor e
da t a abou t soi l s in genera l , re f er to Sec t i on
810 : So i l s and Aggrega t es .

To represent a haza rd due to shr i nk i ng and

swe l l i ng , the soi l mus t :
1 . Con t a i n a m i nera l componen t wh i ch
is sub j ec t to s i gn i f i cant swe l l i ng.
2 . Exper i ence f l uc tua t i ng changes in
mo i s ture con t en t .
3 . Exer t s i gn i f i cant movemen t due to a
th i ck soi l st ra t a.
Vo l ume i ncreases of 3 percent or mor e
are pot ent i a l l y damag i ng and requ i re spe -
c i a l l y des i gned f ounda t i ons . In the Un i t ed
Sta tes , the ma j or i t y of houses bu i l t on
expans i ve c l ays suf f er m i nor damage , and
up to 10 percen t wi l l suf f er ma j or damage .
Proper t y damage caused by expans i ve so i l s
exceeds the damage f rom f l oods , hur r i -
canes , tornadoes , and ea r t hquakes com-
b i ned . Roads , br i dges , p i pe l i nes , and o ther
N r ig id s t ruc tures wh i ch rest on or pass
t hrough expans i ve soi l s are a l so a f f ec t ed .
O
N Uneven mo i s ture d i st r i but i on t hrough-
W ou t t he soi l and subsequen t pressure F i gur e 255 - 2 . Heav i ng Pa t t e rns Benea t h S t ruc t ur es w i t h S l abs on Gr ade . The
changes wi l l crea t e prob l ems dur i ng con- prob l ems w i th expans i ve so i l s var i es w i th t he amoun t o f na tura l ra i nfa l l and dep t h of
N wa t e r tab l e .
C s t ruc t i on . Sma l l bu i l d i ngs , br i dges , and
cd
C_
X
W
Vf
i
N
cd 1 . Expans i ve soi l s tha t shr i nk or swe l l as a resu l t of changes in mo i s ture are usua l l y
c l ays , but some t ypes of sha l es a l so exh i b i t shr i nk i ng and swe l l i ng .
2 . Mos t expans i ve soi ls wi l l swe l l to mor e than 1-112 t i mes the i r or ig ina l vo l ume when
i we t , and app l y swe l l i ng pressures tha t may exceed 480 000 Pa (10 , 000 psf ) . Vo l ume
F i gur e 255-1 . D i ag r am o f a
Mon t mor i l l on i t e C l ay Par t i c l e . No t e i ncreases of 3 percent or more are potent i a l l y damag i ng to st ruc tures and requ i re
ed
tha t wa t e r is i ncorpora t ed w i th i n the c l ay spec i a l l y des i gned founda t i ons .
Z
s t ruc ture i tse l f . 3 . When roads or st ruc tures are p l aced on expans i ve soi ls, des i cca t i on and we t t i ng occur
around the per i me ter , resu l t ing in dom i ng , warp i ng , or cupp i ng (F i gure 255-2) .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 255- 3
2 . 0 EST I MAT I ON OF HAZARD

F i gure 255-5 shows a genera l i zed map of

expans i ve soi l hazards in the Un i t ed St a t es .
Sma l l loca l depos i t s are not shown , and
care fu l s i te i nves t i ga t i on is requ i red i f there
is reason to suspec t the presence of expan-
s i ve so i l s .

Prof ess i ona l geo t echn i ca l eng i nee rs

shou l d be consu l t ed for pos i t i ve i dent i f i ca-
t i on of expans i ve so i l s . A comb i na t i on of
severa l s i gns shou l d i nd i ca t e i ts presence
i nc l ud i ng :
F i gur e 255 -3 . D i s t or t ed Heav i ng - i gure 255 - 4 . Re l a t i onsh i p be t ween
Pa t t e rn . Whe r e sources of wa t e r vary ;oi l heave and f l uc t ua t i ons o f ra i nf a l l 1 . The sof t , puf fy , popcorn appea r -
f rom one s i de o f a s l ab to ano t he r . i nd wa t e r t ab l e . ance of c l ay soi l when dry

2 . Soi l tha t is very st i cky when we t

3 . The presence of subst ant i a l open
cracks in dry c l ay soi l

4 . Soi l tha t is very h i gh l y p l ast i c and

weak when we t , bu t rock ha rd
when dry

Ex i st i ng s t ruc tures in the v i c i n i ty shou l d

be i nspec t ed for s i gns of damage wh i ch
cou l d i nd i ca t e expans i ve soi l s .

The soi l p l ast i c i ty i ndex (F i gure 255-6 ,

and fur ther descr i bed in Sec t i on 810 : So i l s
and Aggrega t es) is an i nd i ca tor of a soi l 's
t endency to expand based on t he percent -
age of c l ay in a samp l e . I t can be used to
es t i ma t e t he sever i ty of t he prob l em . The
p l ast i c i ty i ndex (PI ) i nd i ca t es expans i v i t y as
fo l l ows :

PI Expans i v i t y

0-14 Non cr i t i ca l

14-25 Marg i na l
F i gur e 255 -5 . Gene r a l i zed Map o f Expans i ve So i l s i n t he Un i t ed S t a t es . O
25-40 Cr i t i ca l N

Ove r 40 H i gh l y cr i t i ca l
2 . Cupp i ng resu l ts f rom we t t i ng former - . tn
Howeve r , the p l ast i c i ty i ndex a l one does C
ly dry areas a t the per i me t er (F i gure
not adequa t e l y de f i ne t he expans i ve po t en- td
255-2) . t ial of a soi l prof i l e . A t horough under - X
3 . Asymme t r i ca l soi l pa t t erns (F i gure s t and i ng o f the soi l s t ruc ture and dep t h o f W
255-3) re l a ted to : the ac t i ve zone is necessary in order to pre-
d i ct the expans i ve pot ent i a l of a g i ven s i te .
a . l eak i ng wa t e r or sewe r connec t i ons Cons i dera t i on mus t be g i ven to geo l og i c , cd
N
b . shade pa t t erns crea t ed by s t ruc tures ground wa t er , and soi l cond i t i ons a t each cd
s i te pr i or to se l ec t i ng a f ounda t i on des i gn .
c . sur f ace runof f f rom ad j acent s l ope
co l l ec t i ng aga i ns t a bu i l d i ng or Labora tory t es t i ng can g i ve a prec i se cd
i
roadway. es t i ma t e of expans i on pot ent i a l . Severa l
me t hods o f t est i ng have been deve l oped t o
cqd
Two f orms of heav i ng ex i st , super i m-
posed on each o ther . These are genera l
es t i ma t e heave on a par t i cu l ar s i te .
Z
heave and seasona l heave (F i gure 255-4) .
F i gur e 255 - 6 . P l as t i c i t y i ndex ve r sus
so i l compos i t i on as an i nd i ca t or o f
t he seve r i t y o f so i l expans i v i t y .
N
T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 255 - 4

F i gur e 255 -8 . Two t ypes o f mach i ne -

dr i l l ed p i e rs.
F i gur e 255 - 7 . Des i gn o f re t a i n i ng wa l l i n swe l l i ng c l ay so i l .

3 . 0 LOSS PREVENT I ON AND

REDUCT I ON

A comprehens i ve approach ta i l ored to par -

t i cu l ar s i te cond i t i ons for reduc i ng damage
is r ecommended .

3 .1 Avo i dance o f Haza rdous S i t es

The bes t me t hod to preven t loss f rom

expans i ve so i l s is to f i nd an a l t erna t i ve con-
st ruc t i on s i te . I f th i s is not poss i b l e , a num-
ber of st ra t eg i es for cop i ng w i th expans i ve
so i l s have been deve l oped .

3 . 2 I so l a t i on f rom Expans i ve So i l s

Damage can be preven t ed by i so l a t i ng

s t ruc tures f rom the st resses caused by the
shr i nk i ng and swe l l i ng of expans i ve soi l s . I t
may be f eas i b l e to excava t e and rep l ace
"O soi l s w i th non- expans i ve f i l l in areas whe r e
N the s t ra tum of expandab l e soi l is re l a t i ve l y
N sha l l ow. I f the s t ra tum is deep , i t may be
" V1 e f f ec t i ve to excava t e a grea t er t han norma l
dep t h of soi l , backf i l l w i th non-swe l l i ng
cd ma t er i a l , and i mmed i a t e l y cove r it to pre-
X ven t dry i ng .
W
Expans i ve soi l s a l so crea t e hor i zont a l
st resses when con f i ned by ver t i ca l st ruc-
i tures such as basemen t wa l l s or re t a i n i ng
N wa l l s . F i gure 255-7 shows the r ecommend -
ed prac t i ce for cons t ruc t i on of l arge reta i n-
i ng wa l l s in areas of expans i ve so i l s . The
procedure to cont ro l changes in soi l mo i s-
i ture beh i nd the wa l l is to r emove t he
expans i ve ma t er i a l , rep l ace i t w i th non-
Z swe l l i ng ma t er i a l , and insta l l wa t e rproo f
membr anes .

I ILn The i n t ended s t ruc ture may be p l aced on

p i ers encased in f i berboard c i rcu l ar f orms
F i gur e 255 -9 . Fa i l ures o f bu i l d i ngs caused by movemen t o f p i l e f ounda t i ons . wh i ch are f ounded in the non- expans i ve
N

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 255- 5
bear i ng s t ra tum and e f f ec t i ve l y i so l ate the
s t ruc ture f rom t he e f f ec t s of unequa l
movemen t and up l i f t forces (F i gure 255-8) .
P i ers may be pre f erab l e to p i l i ngs to avo i d
the heave and v i bra t i on assoc i a t ed w i th p i l e
dr i v i ng.

P i er or p i l e f ounda t i ons shou l d be

des i gned by a qua l i f i ed eng i neer , s i nce
i mprope r des i gn can resu l t in ser i ous fa i l -
ures of bu i l d i ngs and o ther l arge s t ruc tures
(F i gure 255-9) . Pi ers or p i l es are sub j ec t to
upwa rd forces produced by expans i ve soi l s .
These forces mus t be res i sted by the l oad
on the p i er or pi l e , or by the res t ra i n i ng
force of the foot of the be l l i ed p i er , as
shown in F i gure 255-8 .

3 . 3 F l ex i b i l i t y i n Des i gn

The des i gn of s t ruc tures to accommoda t e

the heav i ng by expans i ve soi l s i nc l udes the
use of f l oa t i ng s l abs in basemen t s (F i gure
255-10) and the prov i s i on of c l ear space
unde r s l abs on-grade .

F i gure 255-11 shows t wo t ypes of f i ber -

boa rd vo i d forms , wh i ch are ava i l ab l e in
var i ous th i cknesses , usua l l y 100 , 150 , and
200 mm (4, 6, and 8 in) . These f orms are
s t rong enough to suppor t the we i gh t o f
f resh concre t e p l aced ove r t hem , bu t unde r
pressure f rom expand i ng soi l be l ow they
are weak enough to crush and a l l ow the
soi l to move f ree l y. F i gure 255-12 shows a
typ i ca l use of vo i d f orms to i so l ate a con- F i gur e 255 - 10 . Four A l t e rna t i ve Des i gns f or Res i den t i a l Basemen t s . In a l l cases
cre t e s l ab f rom expans i ve soi l . S i nce the a f l oat i ng f l oor s l ab may be used; otherw i se , an a i r space of severa l i nches is l ef t benea th
s l ab is no t suppor t ed on soi l , i t mus t be to perm i t soi l swe l l .
des i gned to span be t ween p i ers unde r
grav i ty (down) l oads . The s i ze of vo i d
requ i red is based on the es t i ma t ed ver t i ca l
3 . 4 So i l Tr ea t men t s t o Reduce Labora tory tests to de t e rm i ne the e f f ec ts of
r i se of the soi l benea t h the s t ruc ture . compac t i on shou l d be based on the soi l
Po t en t i a l Vo l ume Change
s t ruc ture as f ound on the s i te .
~O
Ano t he r approach uses r ig id e l emen t s N
Compac t i on :
j o i ned by f l ex i b l e ones wh i ch can accom-
Prewe t t i ng:
moda t e movemen t . E l emen t s wh i ch br i dge The compac t i on of expans i ve so i l s may
f rom a r igid prot ec t ed s t ruc ture to the reduce i ts permeab i l i t y . Compac t i on can The prewe t t i ng of a s i te pr i or to cons t ruc - tn
C
ground sur f ace shou l d be i so l a t ed f rom the s l ow the subsequen t expans i on of so i l s t i on e i ther by pond i ng or spray i ng has
ma i n s t ruc ture by use of a f l ex i b l e f i l l er to wh i ch have a l ow to mode r a t e expans i on proven success fu l in cont ro l l i ng expans i v i t y. 0-
absorb movemen t , thereby prot ec t i ng the We t t i ng is i n t ended to br i ng the mo i s ture X
pot ent i a l . I t is mos t e f f ec t i ve on granu l ar , W
s t ruc ture f rom damage . F i gure 255-13 non- cohes i ve so i l s . In some cases , com- con t en t of the soi l to the l eve l expec t ed at
i l l ust rates the ent ry st eps of a house bu i l t equ i l i br i um a f t er comp l e t i on of cons t ruc -
in
pac t i on at h i gh degrees of sa tura t i on is
on p i l es. accompan i ed by changes in soi l st ruc ture , t i on . Th i s requ i res a know l edge of the i
rd
wh i ch in turn a f f ec t swe l l i ng charac t er i st i cs . swe l l i ng charac t er i st i cs of the soi l and the N
Unde rground ut i l i t i es are a l so sub j ec t to Çd
A knead i ng compac t i on to a mode r a t e den- d i st r i but i on and magn i t ude of the l oads to
d i srupt i on f rom expans i ve soi l s . I t is par t i c- be app l i ed .
s i ty by a sheeps f oo t ro l l er unde r we t t er
u l ar l y i mpor t an t to assure s t ab l e dra i nage
t han op t i mum cond i t i ons , may resu l t in l ess
connec t i ons to avo i d t he l eakage i nto sen- Th i s me t hod has severa l dr awbacks . A
swe l l . The excava t i on and recompac t i on o f
s i t i ve soi l s . F i gure 255-14 shows one per i od of 30 days is typ i ca l l y requ i red to
ex i s t i ng soi l pr i or to i ts use as subgrade may
approach to mak i ng dra i nage connec t i ons . a l l ow t he we t t i ng to pene t ra t e to a dep t h
be necessary.
of 1 200 to 1 500 mm (4 to 5 f t ) . When t he Z
Compac t i on shou l d be done w i th cau- we t t i ng has been comp l e t ed , the s i te may
t ion, howeve r , s i nce the ove rcompac t i on of be so sof t and st i cky tha t cons t ruc t i on
very ac t i ve so i l s can resu l t in rebound , equ i pmen t canno t func t i on e f f ec t i ve l y. Soi l
wh i ch wi l l exagge ra t e the swe l l i ng e f f ec ts . s t rength may be reduced to the ex t ent tha t
N
T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 255 - 6

F i gur e 255 -11 . Typ i ca l f o l ded " vo i d F i gur e 255 - 12 . De t a i l o f f i be rboa rd vo i d f o rms used t o prov i de space f or so i l
f orms " made o f f i be rboa rd . expans i on be l ow conc r e t e s l ab .

the add i t i on of l i me is necessary to crea t e a roots may be de t r i ment a l to cap i l l ary bar r i - because pos i t i ve sur f ace dra i nage away
su i t ab l e work i ng p l a t form . A l t hough we t - ers . f rom the s t ruc ture in al l d i rec t i ons is eas i er
t i ng is a s l ow process , dry i ng can be very to ach i eve .
Af t er i nsta l l at i on of the mo i s ture bar r i er ,
rap i d unde r wa rm wea t he r cond i t i ons . To the suppor t i ng soi l is pre -we t t ed to br i ng i ts The use o f s l ab-on-grade subdra i ns
preven t dry i ng , comp l e t e the cons t ruc t i on
mo i s ture con t en t up to 1 to 2 percent shou l d be care fu l l y cons i dered . Un l ess out -
and sea l the pre -we t t ed soi l mass as qu i ck - fa l l s and t renches can be prot ec t ed f rom
above t he p l ast i c l imi t . Cons t ruc t i on shou l d
ly as poss i b l e. La t er dry i ng of t he s i te may surcharged cond i t i ons , f ounda t i on dra i ns
proceed qu i ck l y , to preven t loss of soi l
cause shr i nkage . may i nt roduce back f l ow i nto the areas they
mo i s ture (F i gure 255-15) .
Hea t Trea t men t : are des i gned to keep dry dur i ng per i ods o f
Prov i d i ng down- spou t s and dra i n b l ocks heavy ra infa l l . An a l t erna t i ve approach rec-
Hea t i ng expans i ve c l ays to 1200 degrees C is ano t he r t echn i que to car ry roof run-of f to ommended by t he U .S . Federa l Hous i ng
(±400 degrees F) may s i gn i f i cant l y reduce an area at l east 1 .5 m (5 f t ) away f rom the Adm i n i s t ra t i on is the use of i mperv i ous
the i r ab i l i ty to swe l l or shr i nk . One thou- s t ruc ture . The prov i s i on of a w i de paved
backf i l l at t he bu i l d i ng per i me t er and prop-
sand degrees C (±1830 degrees F) causes area a round a s t ruc ture is of t en r ecom- er cont ro l o f sur f ace runof f and roof wa t e r .
soi l to fuse , bu t t he cos t of th i s me t hod is mended to reduce the d i f ferent i a l move -
se l dom j ust i f i ed . men t by spread i ng i t ove r a l arger area .
S i tes on the tops of mounds , e i ther na tura l
Chem i ca l Add i t i ves: or ar t i f ic ia l , are pre f erab l e to s i tes on s l opes

The app l i ca t i on of hydra t ed l i me or o ther

chem i ca l s has been success fu l in cont ro l l i ng
soi l expans i v i t y. Stud i es have shown tha t
the i on i c charac t er of wa t e r has a ma j or The best me t hod to prevent damage f rom expans i ve so i l s is to f i nd an a l terna t i ve
e f f ec t on vo l ume change . The add i t i on of cons t ruc t i on s i te . I f th i s is not poss i b l e , a numbe r of st ra teg i es for cop i ng w i th expan-
chem i ca l s for cont ro l o f expans i v i t y is sum- s i ve so i l s have been deve l oped .
mar i zed in Tab l e 255-1 .
O 1 . Damage can be prevent ed by i so l at i ng st ruc tures f rom shr i nk i ng and swe l l i ng by
N 3 . 5 Dr a i nage and Con t ro l o f Sur f ace rep l ac i ng soi ls w i th non-expans i ve f i l l , insta l l ing wa t erproo f membr anes , and p l ac i ng
O Runo f f st ruc tures on p i ers or p i l ings .

Techn i ques for manag i ng the amoun t o f 2 . F l oa t i ng s l abs in basemen t s can be used to accommoda t e soi l heav i ng (F i gure 255-
mo i s ture change in expans i ve soi l s i nc l ude
a
cd
X
t he prov i s i on of ver t i ca l mo i s ture bar r i ers to
10) , or c l ear space can be prov i ded under s l abs on-grade (F i gure 255-12) .

W i so l ate the soi l unde r a s t ruc ture f rom the

3 . Compac t i on , prewe t t i ng , hea t and chem i ca l t rea tment of the soi l are var i ous me th-
sur round i ng soi l . Two t ypes of mo i s ture
;Jf ods of reduc i ng potent i a l vo l ume change . Each has spec i f i c advan t ages and d i sad-
bar r i er are common l y used . One uses vant ages depend i ng on si te cond i t i ons .
i i mpe rmeab l e ma t er i a l such as l ow-grade
ctS
N concre t e or ground rubbe r t i res in an
4 . Sur f ace runof f mus t be prevent ed f rom inf i l t rat ing the per i me t er of st ruc tures .
aspha l t emu l s i on b i nder . The o ther uses
Ver t i ca l mo i s ture bar r i ers, down- spou t s and dra i n b l ocks are t echn i ques for prevent -
crushed rock to crea t e a cap i l l ary bar r i er.
i ng heav i ng due to mo i s ture change.
S i nce mos t of the movemen t o f wa t e r
i
t hrough c l ay is by cap i l l ary ac t i on , break i ng
5 . P l ant root act i v i ty causes des i cca t i on of the soi l , par t i cu l ar l y dur i ng dry seasons of
the con t ac t be t ween masses of expans i ve
the year. Cons t ruc t i on shou l d be avo i ded w i th i n the root zone of t rees .
Z soi l t emporar i l y s tops mo i s ture change.
Cap i l l ary bar r i ers may be l ess des i rab l e t han
6. I f t rees are removed dur i ng const ruc t i on , care mus t be t aken to ma i nt a i n soi l mo i s-
i mpe rmeab l e bar r i ers in areas whe r e t rees
ture l eve l s dur i ng and a f ter const ruc t i on , or the s i te shou l d be a l l owed to estab l i sh
ex i st , s i nce the l ong- t erm e f f ec t of t ree
i ts new mo i s ture l eve l .
N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 255- 7
TABLE 255-1 . Me t hods for Vo l ume Change Con t ro l Us i ng Add i t i ves

Me t hod or add i t i ve E f f ec t s on so i l Me t hod o f app l i ca t i on Commen t s

L i me t r ea t men t Reduce or e l i m i na t e swe l l i ng by " Remove , m i x , rep l ace , or " On l y su i t ab l e f or sha l l ow dep t hs
i on exchange , f l occu l a t i on , m i x i n p l ace " M i x i ng d i f f i cu l t i n h i gh l y p l ast i c c l ays
cemen t a t i on , a l t era t i on o f " De l ay be t ween ini t i a l add i t i on o f l i me
c l ay m i ne ra l s and f i na l m i x i ng and p l acemen t
i mproves ease o f hand l i ng and com-
pac t i on
" 2 - 6% l i me usua l l y requ i red

" Deep -p l ow " Trea t dep t hs t o 1 m (36 " )

" Can use conven t i ona l equ i pmen t
" Requ i r es care fu l qua l i t y con t ro l

" L i me s l ur ry i n j ec t i on ; l i me p i l es " Con t rovers i a l , ve ry sens i t i ve to ini t i a l

mo i s t ur e cond i t i ons
" L i m i t ed by s l ow l i me d i f fus i on ra t e
" May no t be e f f ec t i ve i n dry , f i ssured
ma t er i a l or accep t ed i f soi l is we t

" M i x i ng i n p l ace : p i l es and wa l l s " No t ye t i nves t i ga t ed

" M i gh t be su i t ab l e in h i gh l y p l ast i c so i l s
for t r ea t men t t o l arge dep t h
" Cou l d use dry l i me , l i me mor t ar , or
s l ur ry

Cemen t t r ea t men t Reduce or e l i m i na t e swe l l i ng by " Remove , m i x , rep l ace ; p l ant m i x " Cemen t may be l ess e f f ec t i ve t han l i me
cemen t a t i on , i on exchange , and i n h i gh l y p l ast i c c l ays
a l t era t i on o f c l ay m i ne ra l s " M i x i ng d i f f i cu l t i n h i gh l y p l ast i c c l ays
" Reduc t i on in swe l l i ng no t i ceab l e f or
cemen t con t en t s >4-6

" M i x i ng in p l ace " No excava t i on and back f i l l i ng requ i red

" Has been used f or cons t ruc t i on o f p i l es
and wa l l s
" Be t t er , mor e econom i ca l equ i pmen t
needed

Chem i ca l s : hydrox i des , ch l or i des , Va r i ous e f f ec t s have been measur ed " Usua l l y r emove , m i x , and rep l ace " Prob l ems o f m i x i ng or i n j ec t i on may be
phosphor i c ac i d , ca rbona t es , su l f a t es , or hypo t hes i zed , i nc l ud i ng r educed or m i x i n p l ace s i gn i f i cant
l i gn i ns , s i l i cona t es , aspha l t s , p l ast i c i ty , i mproved compac t i on , r educed " In some i ns t ances spray i ng or " No chem i ca l add i t i ves for con t ro l o f
qua t e rna ry ammon i um ch l or i de swe l l , wa t e rproo f i ng , prese rva t i on o f i n j ec t i on is used vo l ume change appea r t o be ava i l ab l e
so i l s t ruc ture , i nc reased s t reng th , " E l ec t ro-osmos i s may be use fu l t ha t are e f f ec t i ve , pe rmanen t , and
Propr i e t a ry : " compac t i on a i ds " i nc reased or dec r eased pe rmeab i l i t y. in spec i a l cases econom i ca l l y compe t i t i ve w i t h l i me or
" D i f fus i on may be e f f ec t i ve cemen t when l arge vo l umes o f so i l mus t
be t rea t ed
" Ca l c i um ch l or i de may be e f f ec t i ve a t
l eas t t empora r i l y i n so i l s w i t h expand i ng
l a t t i ce c l ays . I t may be use fu l in so i l s
w i t h a h i gh su l f a t e con t en t
" A numbe r o f propr i e t a ry f ormu l a t i ons N
have been ma r ke t ed . The bene f i c i a l
e f f ec t s o f t hese ma t er i a l s have no t gen- .0
era l l y been documen t ed LA
Sour ce : Mod i f i ed f rom James K . M i t che l l and Luf t i Rand , Con t ro l o f Vo l ume Changes i n Expans i ve Ea r t h Ma t er i a l s , vo l . 2: Proceed i ngs : Expans i ve C l ays and
0
Sha l es i n H i ghway Des i gn and Cons t ruc t i on , FHA .
"V1
C
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d
X
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i
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i
3

F i gure 255-13 . De t a i l of gr ade beam on p i l ed f ounda t i on .

N
T i me - Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Ar ch i t ec t ur e
 3 .6 Managemen t of Vege t a t i on deve l op in the cr i t ical area .
3 . Const ruct a subter ranean imperv i -
Vegetat i on is an i mpor tant cons iderat ion ous barr ier simi lar to that shown in
when p l ann ing const ruct ion on si tes wi th F igure 255-14 to prevent t ree roots
expans i ve soi ls . Pl ant root act ivi ty causes f rom penet rat ing vu lnerab l e areas .
des i ccat ion of the soi l , par t i cul ar ly dur ing
dry seasons of the year. Thi s resul ts in I f none of these me thods are feasible,
shr inkage of the soi l , wh i ch is on l y par t ial ly l arge exist ing t rees that cou ld cause ma j or
of fset by the plant 's shad i ng of the soi l . damage shou ld be cons idered for remova l .
Ar t i f icial i rr igat ion of p l ant ing can a lso In many par ts of the wor l d exist ing veg-
cause soi l expans i on . etat ion is cons idered so va luab l e that it is
Exist ing ma ture t rees whose root sys- undes i rab l e to remove it un l ess absolute l y
tems are not act ive ly expand i ng may cause necessary . Some profess iona l s wou l d rather
relat ively less damage than new l y p l anted r isk mi nor damage to l andscape const ruc-
or young t rees in act i ve growth . Soi ls under t ion (such as reta ining wal ls, steps, or
pav ing) than remove exist ing t rees or not F i gure 255-14. Typ i ca l f l ex ib l e
pav i ng or st ructures tend to become wet ter dra i nage connec t i on .
than sur round i ng soi l because of capi l lary pl ant proposed t rees on a si te wi th expan-
act ion . Thus , they wi l l at t ract t ree roots . sive soi ls .
The Roya l Botan i c Garden , Kew, Tree
Root Survey (1971-1979) repor ted the
damage to bui ldings on shr inkabl e c l ays
caused by the act ivi ty of t ree roots . The
survey repor ted exper i ence in the hum i d
c l imate of Grea t Br i tain and inc luded the
ext reme drought of 1975-1976 , wh i ch
caused extens i ve soi l shr inkage and dam-
age to st ructures . The study was based on
3000 repor ts of damage , chief ly f rom
London and the south of Eng l and, most l y
in urban s i tuat ions . Quercus , Popu lus , and
Sa l ix spec i es were found to cause the
greatest damage in the survey.
Based upon the f indings of the Kew sur -
vey and consul tat ion wi th Amer i can l and-
scape archi tects exper i enced in dea l i ng
wi th expans i ve soi ls, the fo l lowing act ions
are suggested to reduce poss ibl e damage
caused by vegetat ion .
1 . Good ma i ntenance , inc lud ing f re-
N quent and cop i ous water i ng of veg-
O etat ion to prevent excess i ve soi l
V'1 des i ccat ion .
N 2 . Avo i d bui lding wi th in the root zone
. of ex i st ing t rees or wi th in the area
N
C into wh i ch the roots wi l l grow dur -
tu ing the expec ted l i fe of the st ruc-
d ture . Depend i ng upon the spec i es
X
W and the si te condi t ions, avo id con-
st ruct ion wi th in a zone approx i -
mate l y equa l to the ma ture he ight F i gure 255-15 . De ta i l show i ng stab i l i zat i on of expans i ve c l ay founda t i on soi l .
cd of an exist ing t ree . Expans i ve c l ay foundat i on soi ls can be stabi l i zed by prewe t t i ng and by insta l l ing a barr i -
N
tu If const ruct ion must take pl ace wi thin an er that prevents the loss of mo i sture f rom the zone of seasona l change at the per i me ter.
act i ve or potent i a l root zone , one of the
cd three fo l lowing techn i ques may be appro- Thi s may take as l ong as a year , and other
i pr iate : When bui lding on a si te former l y occu-
pi ed by t rees, a careful assessment shou ld measures shou ld be taken to protect the
1 . Pre-we t the soi l pr ior to const ruc- ex i st ing or proposed const ruct ion .
cd t ion, and ma inta in a constant h igh be made as to whe ther the mo i sture level
Z mo i sture level through art i f icial irri - of the soi l at the t i me of the remova l of the New pl ant ing in expans i ve soi ls can be
gat ion . t rees wi l l be ma i nta i ned dur ing and af ter accomp l i shed in severa l ways . At tent ion
2 . Keep the soi l as dry as poss ibl e so const ruct ion . If this cannot be assured, then shou l d be pa id to dra i nage pat terns, so that
that roots are not encouraged to the c l eared and regraded si te shou ld be excess wa ter f rom art i f icial i rr igat ion is not
N a l l owed to establ i sh i ts new mo i sture level .

Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Archi tecture

 255-9
d i rec t ed t owa rd vu l nerab l e areas . Whe r e
REFERENCES
t he p l ant i ng of t rees near bu i l d i ngs is
des i red , t he use o f above - or be l ow-grade Chen , H . F , Founda t i ons on Expans i ve
tubs or i mperv i ous bar r i ers can i so l ate the C l ays , E l sev i er Sc i ent i f i c Pub l i sh i ng , New
roots f rom the sur round i ng soi l . A l t hough York.
th i s so l ut i on may crea t e o ther prob l ems , Cut l er , D . F., and l. 8. K. R i cha rdson , Tr ee
such as rest r i c ted growt h and h i gh ma i n t e - Roo t s and Bu i l d i ngs , Cons t ruc t i on Press ,
nance demands , i t may be t he on l y accept - London and New York .
ab l e so l ut i on in ex t reme c i rcums t ances .
Ho l ty , Wes l ey , G. , and St ephen S . Ha r t .
Loca l exper i ence is par t i cu l ar l y i mpor t an t Home Cons t ruc t i on on Shr i nk i ng and
in dev i s i ng an appropr i a t e s t ra t egy for the Swe l l i ng Soi l s, Ame r i can Soc i e t y o f Ci v i l
managemen t of vege t a t i on on s i tes w i th Eng i nee rs , New Yor k
expans i ve so i l s . Consu l t a t i on w i th i nd i v i du- Joach i m , Candace L . , Home Landscap i ng
a l s f ami l i ar w i th l oca l cond i t i ons and prac- and Ma i n t enance on Swe l l i ng So i l
t i ce is essent i a l . The genera l i n forma t i on Co l or ado Geo l og i ca l Survey Spec i a l
supp l i ed in th i s sec t i on shou l d be mod i f i ed Pub l i ca t i on 14, Denver , Co l orado
and supp l emen t ed as appropr i a t e for spe - Lamb , Dona l d R . , and St even J . Hanna
c i f i c s i te cond i t i ons . Proceed i ngs of Wor kshop on Expans i ve
C l ays and Sha l es in H i ghway Des i gn and
Cons t ruc t i on , vo l s . 1 and 2, May 1973
I I , 110 0!1r_1IL" l 0 I l l ,01 RX-VI -111 _ Fede r a l H i ghway Adm i n i s t r a t i on , U .S .
Gove rnmen t Pr i nt i ng Of f i ce
Ame r i can Soc i e t y of Ci v i l Eng i neers Int erna t i ona l Con f e r ence on Expans i ve
New York , New York So i l s See Proceed i ngs for per i od i c conf er -
ences he l d a t d i f f erent p l aces and da t es
Na tura l Haza rds Research and App l i ca t i ons s t ar t i ng w i t h the F i rst in 1965 in Aus t i n ,
In forma t i on Cen t e r Texas . The reader shou l d seek the l ist o f a l l
Un i vers i t y of Co l orado , Bou l der , Co l orado such con f erences and i dent i f y wh i ch ones
may have produced proceed i ngs tha t may
con t a i n the mos t use fu l i n f orma t i on .
U .S . Federa l Hous i ng Adm i n i s t ra t i on
Wash i ng t on , D . C .

"
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trt
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T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
Techn i ques
 SECT I ON

S i t e Gr ad i ng
. 0
1101 114

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
N i cho l as T D i nes
Con t r i bu tor :
D. Ly l e A t en and
John Dud l ey Sc ruggs
Sc ruggs and Hammond , Inc .
Landscape Arch i t ec t s -P l ann i ng Consu l t an t s
Lex i ng t on , Ken t ucky

Techn i ca l Wr i t er :
Je f f rey D. B l ankensh i p
Gr aph i c Des i gne r :
Doug l as L. Sha rp
Rev i ewe rs :
Hors t Schach , Cha i rman
Depa r t men t o f Landscape Arch i t ec ture
Un i vers i t y o f Ken t ucky ?k
Lex i ng t on , Ken t ucky
Dav i d M. DuTo t
The De l t a Group , Landscape Arch i t ec t s
Ph i l ade l ph i a , Pennsy l van i a
Eugene Wes t
L . E . Gr egg & Assoc i a t es ,
Consu l t i ng Eng i nee rs
Lex i ng t on , Ken t ucky r. -

CONTENTS

1 .0 In t roduc t i on Schema t i c Gr ad i ng P l an Eros i on Con t ro l by Gr ad i ng

1 .1 I mpor t ance o f Gr ad i ng Gr ad i ng by Spo t E l eva t i ons Gr ad i ng for Porous Paved Sur f aces
1 . 2 Func t i ona l and Aes the t i c Reasons for Pre l i m i nary Cut -and-F i l l Ca l cu l a t i ons Park i ng Areas
Gr ad i ng F i na l Gr ad i ng P l an 5 .0 Ea r t hwor k Processes
2 .0 St anda rds 4 . 0 Gr ad i ng Cr i t er i a 5.1 Gr ad i ng As Par t o f a Sequen t i a l
2 .1 Abbrev i a t i ons on Gr ad i ng P l ans 4 .1 Gene ra l Landscape E l emen t s Des i gn Process
2 . 2 Me t hods o f Express i ng S l ope Recommended Grad i en t s Prepara t i on o f t he Si te
Pe rcen t age (of S l ope) Ear th Fi l l aga i ns t Bu i l d i ngs Excava t i on and Prepara t i on of
Propor t i on (of S l ope) 4 .2 Ath l e t i c F i e l ds Subgr ade
Degr ee (of S l ope) Recommended Grad i en t s for Ou t door 5. 2 Ear th and Rock Mov i ng Equ i pmen t
Spo t E l eva t i ons Spor t s 5. 3 I n f orma t i on on So i l and Rock Ma t er i a l
2 .3 Mak i ng a Con t our Map Baseba l l and Sof tba l l Sources of I n f orma t i on
F i e l d Survey Footba l l / Soccer / F i e l d Hockey Typ i ca l So i l Prof i l e
P l ot t i ng Con t ours Cour t Games Rock in Re l a t i on t o Gr ad i ng C
3 . 0 Gr ad i ng Concep t s 4. 3 Roadways Swe l l and Shr i nkage
3 .1 Schema t i c Gr ad i ng A l t erna t i ves for a Gr ad i ng and A l i gnmen t We i gh t s o f Soi l and Rock Ma t er i a l fu
L
De f i ned Ar ea
Per i me t er Edge Leve l
Cr i ter i a for Road Des i gn
4. 4 De t a i l s and Spec i a l Cond i t i ons
5 .4 Es t i ma t i ng Cu t and F i l l
Gene ra l Cons i dera t i ons V
Two Per i me t er Edges Leve l Swa l es and D i t ches Es t i ma t i ng Requ i red Gr ad i ng
Ent i re Ar ea Leve l Dra i nage Channe l s w i t h Unpro t ec t ed Quant i t i es
3. 2 Schema t i c Gr ad i ng A l t erna t i ves for So i l Gr i d or Bor row Pi t Me t hod
Open Ar eas Cu l ver t s and Headwa l l s Ave r age End-Ar ea Me t hod

N
3. 3 Prepa r i ng a S i t e Gr ad i ng P l an S l opes and Be rms Con t our Me t hod
Si te Ana l ys i s Sta i rs and Ramps
M
Re f erences
Si te Use Concep t Ex i st i ng Trees

T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 320-2
1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON Tab l e 320-1 . GRAD I NG ABBREV I AT I ONS

1 .1 I mpor t ance o f Gr ad i ng
Abbr ev i a t i on Mean i ng
Landscape arch i tec ts and o ther des i gners
CI Con t our i nt erva l
mus t ensure tha t grad i ng becomes an i nte-
gra l par t o f the des i gn process , on a par TC Top o f curb
w i th the l oca t i on o f bu i l d i ngs , c i rcu l a t i on BC Bo t t om o f curb ( i nc l ude spo t e l eva t i on)
p l ann i ng , and the recogn i t i on and use of al l
TW Top o f wa l l ( i nc l ude spo t e l eva t i on)
l andscape qua l i t i es . In many cases the
grad i ng scheme is a pr i mary de t e rm i nan t in BW Bo t t om o f wa l l ( i nc l ude spo t e l eva t i on)
the tota l des i gn . HP H i gh po i n t ( i nc l ude spo t e l eva t i on)

1 . 2 Func t i ona l and Aes t he t i c LP Low po i n t ( i nc l ude spo t e l eva t i on)

Reasons f or Gr ad i ng TS Top o f s t eps ( i nc l ude spo t e l eva t i on)

Grad i ng may be done for a numbe r o f BS Bo t t om o f s t eps ( i nc l ude spo t e l eva t i on)

func t i ona l and / or aes the t i c reasons . F i gures IE Inver t e l eva t i on ( i nc l ude spo t e l eva t i on)
320-1 t hrough 320-9 show a range of t yp-
RE R i m e l eva t i on
ical examp l es .
DI Dra i n i n l e t (needs RE and IE)

2 . 0 STANDARDS SD S t orm dra i n (needs RE and IE)

2 . 1 Abbr ev i a t i ons on Gr ad i ng P l ans MH Manho l e (needs RE and IE)

CB Ca t ch bas i n (needs RE and IE)

Landscape arch i tects , eng i neers , and arch i -
tec ts who do grad i ng p l ans , as we l l as the PL Prope r t y l ine

cont rac tor who does the ac tua l grad i ng , ROW R i gh t o f way
shou l d unde rs t and a common t erm i no l ogy.
Tab l e 320-1 shows abbrev i a t i ons tha t are
common l y used on grad i ng p l ans .

2 . 2 Me t hods o f Expr ess i ng S l ope

S l ope is expressed in t erms of a percent age ,

a propor t i ona l rat io, or a degree of s l ope .
Each of these is descr i bed in t he fo l l ow i ng
pa ragraphs .

bZ
C

«t
i
V
CU

F i gur e 320-1 . Gr ad i ng f or dr a i nage . Sur f ace dra i nage can

be ach i eved by p i t ch i ng sur f aces to na tura l dra i nage f ea tures
N and sys t ems .
M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 320 - 3

F i gur e 320 -2 . Gr ad i ng t o c r ea t e be rms . ge rms can be c r ea t ed f or no i se and w i nd

bar r i ers or f or add i t i ona l so i l dep t h above un f avor ab l e subgr ade cond i t i ons , such as a h i gh
g roundwa t e r t ab l e.

aA

i
V
Cu
F i gur e 320 - 3 . Gr ad i ng t o c r ea t e l eve l a r eas . Re l a t i ve l y f l at gr ad i en t s a r e needed
for spor t s f i e l ds , ou t door t er races , and some t i mes f or a r eas nea r bu i l d i ngs .

0
M
M
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 320- 4

F i gur e 320 - 4 . Gr ad i ng t o mod i f y

ex i s t i ng l and f orms . Deep gu l l i es , nar -
row r i dges , or s t eep s l opes can be mod i f i ed
to crea t e mor e use fu l and a t t rac t i ve l and-
f orms.

F i gur e 320 -5 . Gr ad i ng f or i nc r eased

s i t e i n t e res t . Grad i ng can he l p empha -
s i ze a s i te ' s t opography or add i nt erest to
an o therw i se f l at s i te.

Percent age (of S l ope) : E l eva t i on of po i n t B = 48 347 mm Propor t i on (of S l ope) :

(158 .62 f t )
Pe rcen t age of s l ope is expressed as t he S l ope can a l so be expressed as a rat io of t he
numbe r of me t ers ( feet ) r i se in 100 m (100 E l eva t i on of po i n t A = 47 463 mm hor i zont a l d i s t ance to the ver t i ca l r ise, such
f t ) of hor i zont a l d i s t ance , typ i ca l l y re f er red (155 .72 f t ) as three to one (3 :1) . The ra t i o me t hod is
to as r i se / run . I f the s l ope r i ses 2 m (2 f t ) in used typ i ca l l y for s l opes 4 :1 (25%) or
Ver t i ca l d i f f erence D = 884 mm (2 . 90 f t ) s t eeper .
100 m (100 f t ) , i t is cons i dered a 2 percen t
s l ope . The percen t age of s l ope can be ca l - Hor i zont a l d i f f erence L = 35 357 mm
cu l a t ed by t he fo l l ow i ng f ormu l a :
Degree (of S l ope) :
(116 . 00 f t )
S l ope is expressed in degrees on l y on l arge-
D There f ore :
G = - X100 sca l e ea r t h-mov i ng pro j ec t s such as st r ip-
L D m i n i ng and o ther ext rac t i ve opera t i ons .
bIA G = - X100
C whe r e D = ver t i ca l r ise, mm ( f t ) L Spot E l eva t i ons:
L = hor i zont a l d i s t ance , mm ( f t )
G = grad i ent , Spot e l eva t i ons are used to est ab l i sh l imi ts
884 of s l ope , to l oca t e con t our l ines , and to
V F i gure 320-10 shows an examp l e prob- = - X100 prov i de de t a i l for es t ab l i sh i ng cont ro l
N 35 357
l em whe r e par t a is the l ong i tud i na l or cen- po i nt s tha t canno t be ob t a i ned v i a con t our
ter l i ne prof i l e of a proposed roadway and = 2 .5 l ines .
N
par t b is the same roadway shown in p l an .
The ac tua l ca l cu l a t i ons for the examp l e are : I t is common prac t i ce to i nd i ca t e the The e l eva t i on of any po i nt on an accu-
0 d i rec t i on and ra te of s l ope by use of an rate l y dr awn con t our p l an may be de t er -
M ar row , wh i ch a l ways po i nt s down t he s l ope . m i ned by i nt erpo l a t i on . On F i gure 320-11 ,
M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 320- 5

F i gure 320-6. Grad i ng re l a t ed t o good v i ews .

F i gure 320-7 . Gr ad i ng re l a t ed to bad v i ews .

bA
C

cd
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F i gure 320-8. Grad i ng t o f i t s t ruc tures to s i tes .

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T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 320- 6

F i gur e 320 - 9 . Gr ad i ng t o emphas i ze or con t ro l c i rcu l a t i on .

po i nt A l ies abou t 7/ ,o the d i s t ance f rom 3 . 0 GRAD I NG CONCEPTS f ace ma t er i a l , such as sand / grave l , or by
con t our 53 to con t our 54 ; thus , A has an the use of i nd i v i dua l l y e l eva t ed pavers .
approx i ma t e e l eva t i on o f 53 .7 . Int er - 3 .1 Schema t i c Gr ad i ng A l t e rna t i ves Each case requ i res an adequa t e dra i nage
po l a t i on assumes , of course , tha t s l opes are f or a De f i ned Ar ea sys t em benea t h the pavers to car ry of f the
un i form, wh i ch in many cases is not t rue in requ i red ra infa l l e f f ec t i ve l y . Re f er to Sec t i on
rea l i ty. There fore , i nt erpo l a t ed f i gures are S l opes o f l ess t han abou t 2 percent in the 610 : Roo f and Deck Landscapes , for mor e
approx i ma t i ons and shou l d no t be re l i ed on open l andscape appea r f l at to the human da t a re l a t ed to dra i nage of roof tops .
as much as surveyed spot e l eva t i ons for eye . Howeve r , in areas ad j acent to bu i l t
cruc i a l measur emen t s . s t ruc tures , even t he s l i ght est s l ope 3 .2 Schema t i c Gr ad i ng A l t e rna t i ves
becomes not i ceab l e because of the re l a- f or Open Ar eas
2 .3 MAK I NG A CONTOUR MAP t i onsh i p of the grade to mor t a r jo ints , roof
l ines, and o ther l eve l arch i tec tura l f ea tures . The re are severa l ways to so l ve grad i ng
prob l ems when sur round i ng bu i l d i ngs do
F i e l d Survey:
Pe r i me t e r Edge Leve l : no t fu l l y enc l ose an area to be gr aded and
Al l i nt ersec t i on po i nt s of a gr i d are ma r ked there is suf f i c i ent per i phera l space for t ran-
F i gures 320-14 t hrough 320-19 schema t i -
on the ground w i th t empor a ry s t akes ; t he s i t ion to sur round i ng areas . Such a w i de
e l eva t i ons of each i nt ersec t i on po i nt are ca l l y i l l ust rate a l t erna t i ve me t hods for range of a l t erna t i ves g i ves the des i gner t he
man i pu l a t i ng a sur f ace for dra i nage wh i l e
t aken w i th a t rans i t or l eve l and the e l eva- oppor tun i t y to reso l ve aes the t i c ob j ec t i ves
t i on da t a is p l ot t ed on a gr i dded p l an of t he a l l ow i ng at l east one per i phera l edge to wh i l e so l v i ng the eng i neer i ng prob l ems
s i te (F i gure 320-12) . Norma l l y , t he e l eva- rema i n l eve l . i nvo l ved . F i gures 320-24 t hrough 320-26
t i ons of cr i t i ca l h i gh or l ow po i nt s tha t fal l show schema t i c a l t erna t i ves for grad i ng
Two Pe r i me t e r Edges Leve l :
be t ween the i nt ersec t i ons are a l so l oca t ed open areas ; these a l t erna t i ves are espec i a l -
on the p l an . F i gures 320-20 and 320-21 schema t i ca l l y l y app l i cab l e to re l at i ve l y f l at sur f aces , such
i l l ust rate dra i nage schemes app l i cab l e as t enn i s cour t s and o ther t ypes of game
C P l ot t i ng Con t ours : when t wo per i me t er edges need to be cour t s .
l eve l .
tui Once al l spo t e l eva t i ons have been de t er -
3 . 3 Pr epa r i ng a S i t e Gr ad i ng P l an
m i ned , con t ours a t regu l ar i nterva l s [ typ i -
V ca l l y 1 000 mm , 500 mm , or 250 mm (5 f t ,
Ent i re Area Leve l :
Grad i ng of a s i te shou l d be t hough t of as a
2 f t , or 1 f t ) ] can be l oca t ed and p l ot t ed on Some c i rcums t ances , such as roo f top l and- sys t ema t i c process tha t beg i ns w i th t he
a map , as shown in F i gure 320-13 . O f t en scapes or enc l osed cour t yards , requ i re tha t ana l ys i s and unde rs t and i ng of the ex i st i ng
th i s can be done by eye , s i nce f ew con t our the ent i re sur f ace of the enc l osed area be s i te and ends w i th an overa l l de t a i l ed grad-
0 maps requ i re grea t prec i s i on . l eve l . F i gures 320-22 and 320-23 i l lust rate i ng p l an . F i gures 320-27 t hrough 320-31
N t wo ways tha t an area can rema i n l eve l and he l p i l lust rate th i s procedure . F i gure 320-

M st i l l dra i n proper l y by the use of porous sur -

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 320- 7
82 a t the end of th i s sec t i on shows an
examp l e o f a me t r i c grad i ng p l an .

S i te Ana l ys i s :
St udy the genera l l ay of the l and by us i ng
topograph i c maps and s i te visi ts .
1 . De t e rm i ne h i gh po i nts , l ow po i nts ,
r i dges , and va l l eys.
2 . No t e na tura l dra i nage sys t ems and
d i rec t i ons o f f l ow tha t ex i st on the s i te .

S i te Use Concep t :

De t e rm i ne how ex i s t i ng l and f orms wou l d

a f f ec t proposed use areas , such as bu i l d i ng
l oca t i ons , roads , park i ng areas , wa l kways ,
p l azas , and l awn areas .

Schema t i c Gr ad i ng P l an :
F i gur e 320 - 10 . F i gur i ng s l opes as
De f i ne genera l use areas , se t bu i l d i ng f l oor
pe r cen t .
areas by spot e l eva t i ons , and d i agram
dra i nage f l ow us i ng s l ope a r rows po i nt i ng F i gur e 320 -11 . Spo t e l eva t i on by
a l ong the d i rec t i on of f l ow . Th i s wi l l he l p in i n t e rpo l a t i on
t he fo l l ow i ng procedures :
1 . Deve l op i ng a genera l l and f orm concep t .
2 . Loca t i ng swa l es and sur f ace wa t e r f l ow.
3 . Loca t i ng dra i nage recept ac l es .
4 . Ca l cu l a t i ng wa t e r runof f for var i ous
areas .
5 . De f i n i ng an area tha t cou l d be a l t ered
( ra i sed or l owered) w i th l i mi ted i mpac t
on dra i nage or ex i st i ng t rees . Th i s area
cou l d be used to he l p ba l ance any sur -
p l us cut or f i l l .

F i gur e 320 -12 . Trans i t survey gr i d .

bA
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F i gur e 320 - 13 . Con t our s i n t e rpo l a t ed f rom gr i d .
a)
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0
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T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 320-8

F i gure 320-14. Pe r i me t e r edge F i gure 320-15 . Pe r i me t e r edge

l eve l -dra i n f rom r i dge l i ne to a l l l eve l -dra i n f rom s i ng l e h i gh po i n t .
edges.

F i gure 320-16 . Pe r i me t e r edge F i gure 320-17 . Pe r i me t e r edge

l eve l - s l ope t o cen t e r dra i n i n l e t . l eve l -a l l s l opes to dra i n i n l e ts a t
t he same grad i en t .

F i gure 320-18 . Pe r i me t e r edge F i gure 320-19 . Pe r i me t e r edge

l eve l -a l l s l opes to dra i n i n l e ts a t l eve l - s l ope away a t un i f orm grad i -
t he same grad i en t . en t .

i
V

lA
0 F i gure 320-20 . Two pe r i me t e r F i gure 320-21 . Two pe r i me t e r
N edges l eve l - s l ope f rom r i dge l i ne . edges l eve l -m i n i mum s l opes t o
t rench dra i n .
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T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 320- 9

F i gur e 320 -22 . Leve l sur f ace w i t h porous pav i ng .

F i gur e 320 - 23 . Leve l sur f ace w i t h e l eva t ed pave r s .

Grad i ng by Spo t E l eva t i ons: vats , depend i ng upon the sca l e of the be t ween the amoun t of ear th to be cut ou t
pro j ec t and topograph i c change . Make and the amoun t of ear th needed for f i l l .
Gr ade by spot e l eva t i ons and f orm pre l i mi -
cer t a i n tha t al l grad i ent s and s l opes are
nary contour i ng , us i ng t he fo l l ow i ng st eps w i th i n the max i mum / m i n i mum cr i ter i a F i na l Gr ad i ng P l an:
in the order shown (a l ways st r i ve to keep for a par t i cu l ar use , i .e . , l awn , roadway , 1 . Prepare f ina l road prof i l es .
d i s turbed areas as sma l l as poss i b l e) : ter race , and cut s l ope or embankmen t . 2 . Ind i ca t e changes in d i rec t i on or ra te of
1 . Se t t ent a t i ve grad i ent s and spot grades 4 . Comp l e t e al l con t our a l t era t i ons w i th i n s l opes .
on roads , wa l ks , and swa l es . Est ab l i sh the proper t y l ine or pro j ec t l imi ts . 3 . Show spot e l eva t i ons for al l cr i t i ca l
cr i t i ca l spot e l eva t i ons . po i nts , i nc l ud i ng manho l es , i nver ts ,
2 . Se t the bu i l d i ng grade c i rcui t , i .e ., f l oor Pre l i m i nary Cut -and-F i l l Ca l cu l a t i ons : dra i nage st ruc tures , tops and bo t t oms
e l eva t i on , steps , wa l l s , ter races , e t c . of al l wa l l s , st eps , and curbs a t i nt ersec-
3 . Dr aw in pre l i m i nary con tours a t 1 500 Do pre l i m i nary ca l cu l a t i ons ( i f needed) to t i ons and / or o ther cr i t i ca l po i nt s .
mm or 30 000 mm (5- or 10- f t ) i nter - de t e rm i ne whe t he r there is a ba l ance 4 . Dr aw proposed con tours and comp l e t e

t~A

L
V
ar
F i gur e 320 - 24 . Examp l es o f bas i c F i gur e 320 - 25 . Examp l es o f bas i c F i gur e 320 -26 . Examp l es o f bas i c
a r ea gr ad i ng . a r ea gr ad i ng . a r ea gr ad i ng .
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 320- 1 0

F i gur e 320 - 27 . S i t e ana l ys i s ( examp l e ) .

bA
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N F i gur e 320 - 28 . S i t e use concep t ( examp l e ) .
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T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 320- 1 1

F i gure 320-29 . Schema t i c grad i ng p l an ( examp l e ) .

F i gure 320-30 . Gr ade by spo t e l eva t i ons ( examp l e ) - Schema t i c D i agr am C

Cons i de r l and f orm , c i rcu l a t i on , and s t ruc t ures t oge t he r i n de t e rm i n i ng proposed gr ades.
1 . De t e rm i ne beg i nn i ng gr ade a t ex i s t i ng road. Cu
L
2. De t e rm i ne spo t e l eva t i on a t bu i l d i ng un i t ( l i m i t ed cut / f i l l ) or o t he r cr i t i ca l t i e- i n a reas , i . e . , park i ng , e t c.
3. De t e rm i ne t he pe r cen t age o f s l ope by measur i ng d i s t ance and r i se or fa l l be t ween po i n t s .
V
N
Gr ad i en t mus t be compa t i b l e t o cr i t er i a f or use i n t ended.
4. Se t gr ades ad j acen t t o s t ruc t ure i n keep i ng w i t h a rch i t ec t ura l cha r ac t e r and f unc t i ona l r equ i r emen t s o f bu i l d i ng.
5. De t e rm i ne pa r k i ng a r eas or l awn a r eas as re l a t es t o s l ope cr i t er i a (pa rk i ng a r ea s l ope and embankmen t s l ope ) .
6. De t e rm i ne s t orm wa t e r re t en t i on and sed i men t a t i on bas i ns .
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T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 320- 1 2

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O F i gur e 320 -31 . F i na l gr ad i ng p l an ( examp l e ) .

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T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 320 - 1 3

the f inal grad i ng pl an .

5 . Comp l e t e an est imate of the amount of
cut and fi l l based upon the proposed
grad i ng pl an, and, if needed , adjust the
amount of one or both to make them
ba l ance .

4 .0 GRAD I NG CR I TER I A

4 .1 Genera l Landscape E l emen t s

Recommended Grad i ents:
Grad i ng of outdoor areas is a i med at con-
t rol l ing sur face stormwa ter runof f wh i l e
prov id ing safe and ef f ic ient pedest r i an and
vehi cul ar movemen t . Essent ial ly, al l sur -
faces shou ld have some slope, or pi tch, for
proper dra i nage . It is bet ter to use the pre-
fer red rather than the m i n i mum grad i ents
shown in Tab l e 320-2 to a l low for the di f f i -
cul t ies of insta l lat ion and imper fect ions
dur ing the repa i r of sur faces . F igure 320-32
is an examp l e of typical grad i ents used for
sma l l st ructures, such as res idences F i gure 320-32 . St andards for grad i ng a round a typ i ca l bu i l d i ng .

Ear th f i l l aga i nst Bu i l d i ngs:

Ear th fi l l aga inst bui ldings may be des i rabl e Tab l e320-2 : RECOMMENDED GRAD I ENTS : GENERAL
for insul at ion or aesthet i c reasons . It is
i mpor tant to note, however , that soi l and Types o f a r eas Max i mum , % M i n i mum , % Pr e f e r r ed , %
re l ated mo i sture may cause decay and/or
St ree t s , dr i veways , and pa r k i ng a reas
promot e the growth of insects that may
2
damage or dest roy some of the mater i a l s Crown of i mproved s t ree t s 3 1
used in the const ruct ion of the bui lding . Crown of un i mproved st ree ts 3 2 2 .5

The exter ior sur fac ing and st ructura l sys- S l ope o f shou l de rs 15 1 2-3
t em of a bui lding de termi ne the he ight to Long i t ud i na l s l ope of s t ree t s 20 0 .5 1-10
wh i ch fill may be brought up aga inst a 0 .25 1-10
st ructure . F igures 320-33 through 320-38 Long i t ud i na l s l ope of dr i veways 20

are representat i ve examp l es . Long i t ud i na l s l ope o f pa r k i ng a reas 5 0 .25 2-3

Cross s l ope of pa r k i ng a rea 10 0 .5 1-3

4 .2 Ath l e t i c F i e l ds
Conc r e t e wa l ks
Recommended Grad i ents for Outdoor 10 0 .5 1-5
Long i t ud i na l s l ope o f s i dewa l ks
Spor ts:
Cross s l ope of s i dewa l ks 4 1 2
Tab l e 320-3 shows recommended gradi - Approaches , p l a t forms , e t c . 8 0 .5 2
ents for outdoor spor ts areas and p l ay ing
0 .5 2-3
sur faces . (Refer to Sect ion 520 : Recreat ion Se rv i ce a reas 10
and Athl et i c Faci l i t ies for more informa- Te r race and si t t i ng a r eas
t ion .) Conc r e t e 2 0 .5 1

Baseba l l and Sof tba l l : F l ags tone , s l a t e , br i ck 2 0 . 75 1

The const ruct ion of pl ay ing f ields usua l l y Lawn a r eas

invol ves a comb i na t i on of tur f and di r t sur - Recrea t i on , games , e t c . (noncompe t i t i ve ) 51 2-3 C
faces . Use m i n i mum grad i ents for these 2 0 .5 1
Gr assed a th l e t i c f i e l ds
sur faces un l ess subdra ins are int roduced or i
other spec ia l dra i nage prov i s ions are made . Lawns and grass a reas 25
5
1 5-10

10
V
Be rms and mounds 20
The expec ted ski l l levels of pl ayers and
the rules of appropr i ate spor t organi zat ions, Mowed s l opes 25 (3 :1) 20
N
such as the Nat iona l Col l egi ate Athl et i c Unmowed grass banks Ang l e of r epose 25
Assoc i at ion (NCAA) in the Un i ted States,
N
P l an t ed s l opes and beds 10 0 .5 3-5
typica l ly de termi ne the standards for grad-
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Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Archi tecture
 320 - 1 4

F i gure 320-33 . Typ i ca l masonr y venee r - t ype ex t er i or F i gure 320-34 . Typ i ca l wood - f r amed wa l l w i t h ex t er i or
wa l l . s i d i ng se t i nto a s l ope .

s.uC
H
bJJ
C

cd
i
V F i gure 320-35 . Typ i ca l venee r ed wa l l w i t h c raw l space F i gure 320-36 . Typ i ca l wood - f r amed and -s i ded wa l l
or basemen t . w i th c raw l space or basemen t .

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T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 320 - 1 5

F i gure 320-37 . Typ i ca l s l ab cons t ruc t i on w i t h masonr y F i gure 320-38 . Typ i ca l s l ab cons t ruc t i on w i t h f r ame wa l l
ext er i or wa l l . and s i d i ng .

aA
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F i gure 320-39 . Typ i ca l baseba l l

i nf i e l d grad i ng.
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T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 3ZA - 416

F i gur e 320 - 40 . A l t e rna t i ve gr ad i ng F i gur e 320 - 41 . A l t e rna t i ve grad i n t F i gur e 320 - 42 . A l t e rna t i ve gr ad i ng
pa t t e rn f or baseba l l f i e l d . pa t t e rn f or baseba l l f i e l d . pa t t e rn f or baseba l l f i e l d .

i ng . F i gures 320-39 t hrough 320-42 show Cour t Games : (AASHTO) . The s t andards for st ree ts and
typ i ca l a l t erna t i ves . loca l access roads in res i dent i a l , i nst i tut i on-
Mos t cour t games shou l d have a re l a t i ve l y a l , commerc i a l , and i ndust r i a l areas are
Footba l l / Soccer / F i e l d Hockey: f l at sur f ace , w i th no percept i b l e swa l es or
de t e rm i ned by loca l c i ty or coun t y s t an-
r i dges (excep t at the ne t l ine for t enn i s
Tur f footba l l f i e l ds requ i re a c rowned sur - dards .
cour t s) (F i gures 320-44 and 320-45) .
f ace s l op i ng f rom the cen t er of the f i e ld to Roadway des i gn cons i sts of t wo ma j or
a dra i nage sys t em beyond the s i de l i nes
phases : (1) a l i gnmen t of the road-g i v i ng i t
(F i gure 320-43) . Soccer and f i e ld hockey 4 . 3 Roadways
hor i zont a l and ver t i ca l d i rec t i on- and (2)
can have a 1 percent s l ope in one d i rec t i on
Grad i ng and A l i gnmen t : grad i ng t he ad j acent l andscape to the road
or can be p l ayed on a footba l l f i e ld w i t h
edge . The des i gner of a roadway shou l d go
cent er c rown i ng. The pr i nc i p l es and cr i ter i a for the des i gn o f beyond mere l y sa t i s f y i ng the eng i neer i ng
ma j or urban and rura l h i ghways have been requ i remen t s and see t he user as an ac t i ve
es t ab l i shed by the Ame r i can Assoc i a t i on o f p l ayer t o be choreographed t hrough the
St a t e H i ghway and Transpor t a t i on Of f i c i a l s l andscape .

The fo l l ow i ng cr i ter i a shou l d be cons i d-

ered dur i ng the grad i ng phase of t he
roadway :
1 . The percent age of s l ope can be ca l cu l a t ed by the fo l l ow i ng formu l a : G=D / L X 100 , 1 . Remove ex t ra soi l s to expose pot ent i a l
whe r e D=ver t i ca l r ise, L=hor i zont a l d i stance , and G=grad i en t (%) . v i stas (F i gure 320-46) .
2 . Grad i ng of ou tdoor areas is a i med a t cont ro l l i ng sur f ace s tormwa t er runof f wh i l e 2 . Use roads i de mounds to screen undes i r -
prov i d i ng safe and ef f i c i ent pedest r i an and veh i cu l ar movemen t . Essent i a l l y, al l sur - ab l e v i ews (F i gure 320-47) .
f aces shou l d have some s l ope , or p i tch, for proper dra i nage . I t is bet ter to use the 3 . I mprove the soi l ad j acen t to a road to
pre f er red rather than the m i n i mum grad i ent s shown in Tab l e 320-2 . Tab l e 320-3 enhance the growt h o f p l ants (F i gure
shows r ecommended grad i ent s for ou tdoor spor ts areas and p l ay i ng sur f aces . 320-48) .
3 . Roadway des i gn cons i sts of t wo ma j or phases : (1) a l i gnment of the road-g i v i ng i t 4 . B l end the new s l opes w i th the ex i st i ng
hor i zonta l and ver t i ca l d i rec t i on-and (2) grad i ng the ad j acent l andscape to the ter ra i n (F i gure 320-49) .
road edge .
4 . Typi ca l l y, swa l es are sha l l ow, have a parabo l i c cross sect i on, and are very w i de , Cr i ter i a for Road Des i gn :
wh i l e d i tches are deeper and have a nar rower geome t r i c conf i gura t i on (F i gure 1 . For cut s i de of sec t i on , see F i gure 320-50
320-52) . and Tab l e 320-4 .
5 . Grass swa l es (F i gure 320-54) t end not to erode i f ve loc i t i es do not exceed 1 200 2 . For f i l l s i de of sec t i on , see F i gure 320-51
aA
mm (4 f t ) per second . I f ve loc i t i es exceed 1 800 mm (6 f t ) per second , then some and Tab l e 320-4 .
f orm of nonvege t a t i ve ma ter i a l shou l d be used to cons t ruc t the swa l e , such as
-O
grave l , crushed stone , or r i prap (F i gure 320-55) . 4 . 4 De t a i l s and Spec i a l Cond i t i ons
i 6 . Severa l si te grad i ng t echn i ques can be emp l oyed to l imi t the si ze, shape , l ength ,
V and grad i ent of these s l opes and channe l s , thereby reduc i ng the vo l ume and ve l oc- Severa l typ i ca l e l emen t s f ound in a l and-
G) i ty of runof f (F i gures 320-64 to 320-67) . scape i nvo l ve spec i a l grad i ng . Some of t he
7 . The use of grave l , crushed stone , porous aspha l t , or other t ypes of porous pav i ng mos t common ones are d i scussed be l ow.
N a l l ows e i ther f l at ter or st eeper grad i ent s than bare soi l , but the i r use may not jus-
t i fy rad i ca l changes f rom the grad i ng and dra i nage s t andards norma l l y used in a Swa l es and D i t ches:

N reg i on .
Typ i ca l l y , swa l es are sha l l ow , have a para-
M bo l i c cross sec t i on , and are very w i de , wh i l e

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 320-1 7
Tab l e 320 - 3 . RECOMMENDED GRAD I ENTS : SPORTS

P l ay a r ea Gr ad i an t , % Cur ved 2-4 (bank )

Ar che r y 1 . 5-2 (cross s l ope ) Runn i ng t rack , s t r a i gh t away

Tur f 1 ( a l ong l eng th) C l ay or so i l sur f ace 0 . 5-1 ( to dra i n)

Aer i a l dar t s Same as t enn i s Syn t he t i c sur f ace 0 . 50.8 ( to dra i n)

Badm i n t on Runn i ng t rack , s t ra i gh t w i t h c i rcu l ar ends

Conc r e t e 1 . 25-1 .5 C l ay or so i l sur f ace 0 . 5-0 .8 ( to curb)

0 . 3-1 (100-300 mm)
Aspha l t 1 .5 (supe re l eva t i on)

C l ay 1 .5
Syn the t i c sur f ace 0 . 5-0 .8 ( to curb)
0 . 3-1 (100-300 mm)
Gr ass t ex or equa l 0 . 8-1
(supere l eva t i on)
Syn t he t i c tur f 0 . 8-1
Shu f f l eboa rd Leve l
Baseba l l
Skee t shoo t , gene r a l a r ea 1 . 5-2
Sk i nned i nf i e l d 1-1 . 25
Socce r Same as footba l l
Inf i e l d tur f 1 . 25-1
Sof tba l l Same as footba l l
Mound See F i gure 320 - 39
Speedba l l Same as footba l l
Ou t f i e l d tur f 1 . 25-1 .5
Tenn i s cour t s
Syn t he t i c tur f i nf i e l d / out f i e l d 0 .5
Conc r e t e 0 . 5-1 (cross s l ope )
Ba t t i ng a r ea c l ay , ear th , e t c . 0 . 5-0 .8 0 . 4-0 .5 ( end to end)

Bocc i 0 .5 ( a l ong l eng th) Aspha l t , ro l l ed on base 1

Baske t ba l l C l ay and grass 0 . 9-1

Conc r e t e 1-1 .5 Syn t he t i c sur f ace 0 . 5-0 .8

Aspha l t 1 . 25-1 .5 Syn t he t i c tur f 0 . 5-0 .8

Gr ass t ex or equa l 0 . 8-1 Te t he rba l l 1-2 ( f rom po l ed)

B i cyc l e Track - f i e l d even t s

Li t t l e e f for t 0-3 Sho t put , tur f a rea 1 (ax i a l c rown)

Med i um e f for t 8 Hamme r t hrow , tur f a r ea Same

Wa l k b i ke 20 Jave l i n , tur f a rea Same

Bow l i ng ( l awn) H i gh j ump Essent i a l l y l eve l

Tur f 0 - 0 . 25 Long j ump Essent i a l l y l eve l

Cur l i ng Leve l Po l e vau l t Essent i a l l y l eve l

Croque t No t e : Re f e r t o ru l es pub l i shed by NCAA and USLYA for mor e i n f orma t i on .

Sand , c l ay , or equa l 0 - 0 . 25 Sour ce : F rom Jot D . Carpen t er , Handbook o f Landscape Arch i t ec tura l
Cons t ruc t i on , Landscape Arch i t ec t ure Founda t i on , Wash i ng t on , D .C .
Deck t enn i s Same as t enn i s

F i e l d hockey Same as footba l l

Foo t ba l l

Tur f 1 . 5-2 t o s i des

Syn t he t i c tur f 0 . 5-1

Fenc i ng Leve l

Handba l l cour t 0 . 5-1

Hor seshoe ( l ong i tud i na l r i dge l eve l ) 1 . 5-2 t o s i des

L
Lac rosse Same as foo tba l l

Padd l e t enn i s Same as t enn i s

V
GJ
Quo i t s reve l

Quo i t enn i s Same as t enn i s

Ro l l er ska t i ng , recrea t i ona l

L i near s t ra i gh t away , conc r e t e 1-1 . 25 (p i t ch t o s i de) N

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T i me - Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Ar ch i t ec t ur e
 320 - 1 8

F i gur e 320 - 43 . Schema t i c grad i ns

f or f oo t ba l l / socce r / f i e l d hockey .

F i gur e 320 -45 . Schema t i c gr ad i ng f or ou t -

doo r t enn i s cour t .
F i gur e 320 - 44 . Schema t i c gr ad i ng f or ou t door baske t ba l l cour t .

aA
C

cu
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F i gur e 320 - 46 . Gr ad i ng t o expose F i gur e 320 - 47 . Gr ad i ng t o sc r een F i gur e 320 - 48 . Gr ad i ng t o f ac i l i t a t e
v i s t a. undes i r ab l e v i ew . be t t e r p l an t grow t h .
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T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 320- 19

F i gur e 320 - 49 . Gr ad i ng t o b l end

s l opes w i t h ex i s t i ng t e r ra i n .

F i gur e 320 - 50 . Cu t s i de o f c ross sec t i on t hrough road .

F i gur e 320 -52 . Swa l e and d i t ch

c ross sec t i ons .

F i gur e 320 -51 . F i l l s i de o f c ross sec t i on t hrough road .

d i t ches are deepe r and have a na r rowe r
geome t r i c con f i gura t i on (F i gure 320-52) .
Emp i r i ca l da t a re l a t ed to the hydrau l i c
proper t i es of d i t ches can be f ound in
Sec t i on 330 : S t ormwa t e r Managemen t
Swa l es are common l y used in grad i ng to
move wa t e r gent l y f rom one par t of the s i te
to ano t he r . The i r func t i on is to co l l ec t and
d i ver t t he f l ow of sur f ace runof f away f rom
cr i t i ca l par ts of a s i te . At the i r t erm i nus ,
Swa l es mus t e i ther spread the channe l i zed
wa t e r i nto shee t dra i nage or emp t y the C
wa t e r i nto a d i tch, s t ream, or unde rground
dra i nage sys t em . F i gure 320-53 i l lust rates i
the use of a swa l e to d i ver t wa t e r away
f rom a bu i l d i ng s i te .
V
The s l ope of the channe l de t e rm i nes the
ve l oc i ty of f l ow and consequen t l y the ero-
N
F i gur e 320 - 53 . Swa l es t o d i ve r t wa t e r a round bu i l d i ng . No t e tha t t he channe l
s i ve pot ent i a l . S i nce the s i de s l opes of the
w i dens and the s l ope d i m i n i shes as the swa l e approaches ex i st i ng grade .
swa l e do no t a f f ec t th i s rate of f l ow they
N
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T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 320- 20
may be much s t eeper and respond to o ther
des i gn cr i ter i a .

Grass swa l es (F i gure 320-54) t end no t to

e rode i f ve l oc i t i es do not exceed 1 200 mm
(4 f t ) per second for es t ab l i shed b l ue-grass
tur f or 1 800 mm (6 f t ) per second for
es t ab l i shed ta l l f escue tur f . Spr ead i ng
grasses , such as Be rmuda or St . Augs t i ne ,
exh i b i t s i mi l ar res i s t ance to eros i on . The
durab i l i ty of grasses wi l l vary cons i derab l y
t hroughou t var i ous c l i ma t i c reg i ons . In the
Un i t ed Sta tes , reg i ona l Na tura l Resource
Conserva t i on Serv i ces can be consu l t ed
abou t wh i ch na t i ve grasses to use for ero-
s i on cont ro l .

I f ve l oc i t i es exceed 1 800 mm (6 f t ) per

second , t hen some f orm o f nonvege t a t i ve
ma t er i a l shou l d be used to cons t ruc t t he
swa l e , such as grave l , crushed s tone , or
r i prap (F i gure 320-55) .

Dra i nage Channe l s w i th Unpro t ec t ed So i l :

Tab l e 320-5 l ists the ve l oc i t i es tha t wi l l no t

e rode aged dra i nage channe l s . F i gur e 320 - 54 . Typ i ca l gr ass swa l e F i gur e 320 - 55 . Typ i ca l d i t ch gr ad i ng .
1 . Ag i ng means a l l ow i ng t i me to i ncrease gr ad i ng.
the dens i t y and stab i l i ty o f the channe l
bed ma t er i a l t hrough the depos i t of si l t

F i gur e 320 - 56 . Gr ad i ng o f a t yp i ca l head wa l l .

cd
i
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a)
4-0 F i gur e 320 - 57 . Gr ad i ng cr i t er i a f or s l opes .

0
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T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 320- 2 1
in the i nterst i ces and the cemen t a t i on of
Tab l e 320 - 4 . SPAT I AL STANDARDS FOR ROADS
the soi l by co l l o i ds . New channe l s may
be sa f e l y opera t ed at l ess t han max i -
Pavement w i d t hs
mum des i gn ve l oc i t i es by the use of t yp-
S i ng l e- l ane road 3 000-4 200 mm (10-14 f t ) ical eros i on cont ro l measures , i nc l ud i ng
Two- l ane road 6 000-7 200 mm (20-24 f t ) t empora ry check s t ruc tures .
2 . Ve l oc i t i es shou l d be reduced for dep t hs
Four - l ane road 6 000-7 200 mm (20-24 f t ) e i ther d i rec t i on
of f l ow unde r 150 mm (6 in) and for
Pavemen t c r own wa t e r wh i ch may t ranspor t abras i ve
Na tura l soi l 15 mm : 300 mm (1/2 in : 1 f t ) ma t er i a l s .

Grave l , crushed s tone 10-15 mm : 300 mm Cu l ve r t s and Headwa l l s :

(3/8-1/2 in : 1 f t )

Int ermed i a t e- t ype b i tum i nous 5-10 mm : 300 mm

The grad i ng scheme and the des i gn of the
(1/4-3/8 in : 1 f t ) headwa l l for a cu l ver t mus t be tota l l y i nte-
gra t ed . F i gure 320-56 i l lust rates how a
H i gh- t ype b i tum i nous 3-5 mm : 300 mm
(1 / 8-1 / 4 in : 1 f t ) headwa l l and w i ngs serve as a re t a i n i ng
wa l l to a l l ow ful l exposure o f the cu l ver t
Concre t e 2 .5-4 mm : 300 mm
(1 / 10-3 / 16 in : 1 f t ) p i pe .

Br i ck or s tone 5 mm : 300 mm (1 / 4 in : 1 f t ) S l opes and Be r ms:

Shou l de r s The ang l e of s l opes shou l d be cons i dered in
M i n i mum w i dth 300 mm (1 f t ) regard to aesthe t i c , dra i nage , and ma i n t e -
nance needs .
M i n i mum des i rab l e w i d t h 600 mm (2 f t )

Pre f er red w i dth 2 400-3 000 mm (8-10 f t ) F i gure 320-57 shows how s t eep s l opes
used for ear th be rms or mounds can be
S l ope 15 mm : 300 mm (1 / 2 in : 1 f t )
(approx i ma t e l y 4% ) graded , us i ng the fo l l ow i ng ru l es of t humb :
1 . Prov i de for noneros i ve dra i nage a t t he
S i de sl opes
tops and bo t t oms of s l opes .
S l ope 4: 1 2 . Gr ade the tops of banks to be smoo t h l y
Back s l opes convex and the toes smoo t h l y concave .
3 . Gr ade the s l opes to b l end in w i th the
Ear th , m i n i mum 1 1/2 : 1
sur round i ng l andscape .
Ear th , pre f er red 2 : 1 or 3 : 1
St a i rs and Ramps:
Ledge rock , m i n i mum 1/4 : 1
Sha l e 1/2 : 1 St andards for ou t door sta i rs and r amps are
d i scussed mor e fu l l y in Sec t i on 240 :
F i l l s l opes
Ou t door Access i b i l i ty. Sta i rs and r amps
Ear th , m i n i mum 2 : 1 shou l d be des i gned as an i ntegra l par t o f
Ear th , pre f er red 4: 1 any overa l l grad i ng p l an (F i gure 320-58) .

D i t ches Ex i s t i ng Tr ees:
M i n i mum depth 300-600 mm (1-2 f t ) be l ow shou l der e l eva t i on
Grad i ng a round ex i st i ng t rees shou l d be
Max i mum i ns l ope 3 : 1 managed w i th grea t care , us i ng one or
Source : F rom Pub l i c Roads Adm i n i s t ra t i on , Ame r i can Assoc i a t i on of Sta te H i ghway Of f i c i a l s, St a t e mor e of the fo l l ow i ng t echn i ques :
H i ghway Depa r t men t s. 1 . F i gure 320-59 shows how to avo i d grad-
ing, cut t i ng , or f i l l ing above the root
zone of a t ree . For mos t spec i es th i s
means s t ay i ng out s i de t he dr i p l ine o f
the t ree . A l so , the we i gh t of the grad i ng
equ i pmen t dr i ven ove r the root zone
wi l l t ear root ha i rs and compac t the soi l , t71A
thereby rest r i ct i ng v i ta l wa t e r and a i r C
f rom f l ow i ng to and be i ng ass i m i l a t ed
by t he root s . tLS
L
2 . I f f i l l ing a round an ex i st i ng t ree canno t V
be avo i ded , t hen t he t ree mus t be pro-
t ec t ed . F i gures 320-60 and 320-61 i l lus-
t ra t e a typ i ca l me t hod of prot ec t i on .Th i s
t echn i que perm i t s adequa t e f l ow of a i r
and wa t e r to the roots o f t he t ree . 0
3 . F i gure 320-62 shows ano t he r way to N
crea t e a f l at area and at the same t i me M
T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 320 - 22

F i gur e 320 - 58 . Gr ad i ng o f s t a i rs and r amps . No t e tha

t read / r i ser ra t i os grea t er t han 2 :9 are adv i sab l e wheneve r poss i
b l e.

F i gur e 320 - 59 . Gr ad i ng nea r ex i s t i ng t r ees .

F i gur e 320 - 60 . Re t a i n i ng wa l l and dr a i nage f or ex i s t -

i ng t r ee i n a r ea o f f i l l (sec t i on) .

prot ec t ex i s t i ng t rees . A deck is con- Eros i on Con t ro l by Gr ad i ng. and t he pot ent i a l s l ump i ng o f h i l l s i des
st ruc t ed , w i th foot i ngs tha t do not d i s- (F i gure 320-64) .
turb the root sys t em a round a t ree . The Mos t eros i on is caused by f l ow i ng wa t e r .
The s i ze and shape of a wa t ershed , the Used s i ng l y or in comb i na t i on , d i vers i on
deck ' s l ayout can be ad j us t ed to the
poros i t y o f i ts soi l s, and the l ength and gra- swa l es , d i t ches , and d i kes can i nt ercept and
spec i f i c s i te cond i t i ons . When bu i l d i ngs
bA d i ent of i ts s l opes and channe l s are key d i ver t runof f f rom the f ace of a s l ope
or o ther such s t ruc tures are i nvo l ved , as
C shown in F i gure 320-62 , i t is be t t er to de t erm i nan t s cont ro l l i ng t he vo l ume and (F i gure 320-65) .
use l i ghtwe i ght foot i ngs w i t h craw l ve l oc i ty of runof f and the r i sk o f eros i on .
Severa l s i te grad i ng t echn i ques can be So i l S l i ppage:
i spaces ra ther t han on-grade s l abs w i t h
V compac t ed subgrades .
emp l oyed to l imi t the s i ze , shape , l ength ,
and grad i ent of these s l opes and channe l s ,
Severa l f ac tors may cause so i l masses
N a l t ered by e i ther cut t i ng or f i l l ing to s l ide .
F i gure 320-63 shows how grade beams t he reby reduc i ng the vo l ume and ve l oc i ty The mos t common causes are i mprope r
i nd p i ers can be used to suppor t wa l l s and of runof f . cut s or f i l ls and i nsuf f i c i ent a t t ent i on t o sur -

0
) they s t ruc tures w i t hou t hav i ng to cut t he
Grad i ent s can be reduced by ex t end i ng f ace and subsur f ace dra i nage charac t er i s-

N
na j or roots of ex i st i ng t rees .
the l ength of a s l ope . Th i s uses mor e l and , t i cs . ( In some reg i ons whe r e there are
bu t i t does reduce the amoun t of eros i on uns t ab l e so i l s there may be l oca l s t andards
M tha t have to be me t , i nc l ud i ng the use of

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 320- 23
vege t a t i ve or mechan i ca l anchors .) F i gures
Tab l e 320-5 . EROD I BI L I TY OF DRA I NAGE CHANNELS 320-66 and 320-67 i l lust rate a l t erna t i ves
W I TH UNPROTECTED SO I LS for grad i ng to stab i l i ze cut -and- f i l l banks .
Accep t ab l e Ve l oc i t y Eros i on cont ro l t echn i ques are cove red
mor e fu l l y in Sec t i on 640 : D i s turbed
Ma t e r i a l o f channe l bed Sha l l ow d i t ch , Deep cana l , m / s ( f t /s)
m/ s (f t /s) Landscapes .

F i ne sand or si l t , nonco l l o i da l 0 . 15-0 . 45 (0 .50-1 .50) 0 . 45-0 . 76 (1 . 50-2 .50) Grad i ng for Porous Paved Sur f aces :
Coarse sand or sandy l oam, nonco l l o i da l 0 . 30-0 . 45 (1 . 00-1 .50) 0 . 53-0 . 76 (1 . 75-2 .50)
The use of grave l , crushed s tone , porous
Si l ty or sand l oam, nonco l l o i da l 0 . 30-0 .53 (1 . 00-1 .75) 0 . 60-0 . 90 (2 . 00-3 .00) aspha l t , or o ther t ypes of porous pav i ng
i a l l ows e i ther f l at ter or s t eeper grad i ent s
C l ayey l oam or sandy c l ay, nonco l l o i da l 0 . 45-0 . 60 (1 . 50-2 .00) 0 .68-1 . 05 (2 . 25-3 .50)
than bare soi l , bu t the i r use may no t j ust i fy
F i ne grave l 0 . 60-0 . 76 (2 . 00-2 .50) 0 .76-1 . 50 (2 . 50-5 .00)
l rad i ca l changes f rom the grad i ng and
Co l l o i da l c l ay or nonco l l o i da l grave l l y l oam 0 .60-1 .0 (2 .00-3 .00) 1 .00-1 . 50 (3 . 00 5 .00) dra i nage s t andards norma l l y used in a
reg i on .

Some ar t i f i c i a l tur f sys t ems requ i re an

ex t reme l y porous subbase so tha t wa t e r
wi l l i mmed i a t e l y pene t ra t e t he sur f ace . Th i s
wa t e r mus t then be car r i ed away by a sub-
sur f ace dra i nage sys t em o f an appropr i a t e
capac i t y . Us i ng such a sys t em a l l ows p l ay
sur f aces to be graded f l at .

Pa rk i ng Ar eas:
Gr ad i ng of Pa r k i ng Ar eas - The m i n i mum
and max i mum grad i ent s requ i red for veh i c-
F i gur e 320 -61 . Re t a i n i ng wa l l and u l ar access and park i ng areas are of t en the
dr a i nage f or ex i s t i ng t ree i n a r ea o f ma j or de t erm i nan t s for the grad i ng p l an o f
f i l l (p l an) . a s i te . F i gure 320-68 i l lust rates how a park-
i ng lot can be s t epped down a s t eep s l ope .

blA
C

F i gur e 320 -62 . Cr aw l space and deck i ng nea r ex i s t i ng F i gur e 320 - 63 . Gr ade beam me t hod o f t r ee roo t V
pro t ec t i on. N
t r ees .
N

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 320- 24

F i gur e 320 - 64 . Eros i on con t ro l by r educ i ng gr ad i en t o f

s l opes .

F i gur e 320 - 65 . Gr ad i ng t o d i ve r t runo f f .

F i gur e 320 - 66 . St ab i l i za t i on t echn i ques f or cu t s on h i l l -

s i des .
F i gur e 320 - 67 . St ab i l i za t i on t echn i ques f or f i l l s on h i l l -
s i des .

As shown in Tab l e 320-2 , the r ecom- new pav i ng and s t ruc tures shou l d be con- runof f , serves to recharge the groundwa t e r
mended max i mum cross s l ope for a park i ng t a i ned w i th i n a s i te . The manne r in wh i ch and i ncrease t he mo i s ture con t en t o f sur -
area is 10 percen t . The s t eeper t rans i t i ona l th i s is ach i eved is usua l l y de t e rm i ned dur i ng round i ng soi l s .
area be t ween bays can be t aken up by a the grad i ng process . Quant i t i es o f wa t e r to
p l ant i ng bay and a r amp (max i mum 15 be re t a i ned can be ca l cu l a t ed w i t h the da t a 5 . 0 EARTHWORK PROCESSES
percen t s l ope) (F i gures 320-69 and 320- prov i ded in Sec t i on 330 : S t ormwa t e r
bQ 70) . Managemen t . 5 .1 Gr ad i ng As Pa r t o f a Sequen t i a l
C Des i gn Process
F i gure 320-71 shows how in ex t reme F i gure 320-73 i l lust rates t he a l t erna t i ve
c i rcums t ances s i ng l e - l oaded park i ng bays o f us i ng an ove r f l ow park i ng area as a A l t hough c i rcums t ances may vary f rom s i te
i may be used to f i t s t eep s i tes . Si mi l ar l y , a de t en t i on bas i n when a separa t e de t ent i on to s i te , mos t grad i ng opera t i ons proceed
V comb i na t i on of r amps and segmen t ed bas i n canno t be f i t ted i nto the scheme . accord i ng to the fo l l ow i ng s t eps .
park i ng bays may be used t o ach i eve a
F i gures 320-74 t hrough 320-76 i l lus- Prepara t i on of the Si te:
grad i ng so l ut i on on a s l ope w i th ex i s t i ng
vege t a t i on (F i gure 320-72) . t ra t e how swa l es may be f i l l ed w i th a
porous ma t er i a l , such as rock , to g i ve a C l ear i ng , Grubb i ng , and Remova l -Remove
0 Runo f f Con t ro l f rom Park i ng Areas- l eve l appea r ance and ye t ac t as mu l t i p l e des i gna t ed t rees and o ther t ypes of vege t a -
N Mor e mun i c i pa l i t i es requ i re tha t the re t ent i on bas i ns be t ween park i ng bays . t i on f rom an area to be graded . No t e tha t
in some cases i t is r ecommended tha t al l
M i ncreased S t ormwa t e r runof f caused by Th i s me t hod , in add i t i on to cont ro l l i ng

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 320-2 5

F i gure 320-69 . Examp l e of a r amp sec t i on

F i gure 320-68 . Examp l e o f a s t epped -down pa rk i ng
be t ween pa rk i ng a i s l es .
area .

F i gure 320-70 . Examp l e of an i s l and

sec t i on be t ween pa rk i ng bays .
F i gure 320-77 . Comb i ned s i ng l e and doub l e pa rk i ng bays to adap t t o s t eep
s l ope .

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vii
V

F i gure 320-72 . Segmen t ed pa rk i ng w i th

wa l l s and r amps t o save ex i s t i ng t rees . N
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T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 320- 26
grade s t akes se t by the eng i neer or sur -
TABLE 320 - 6 . Ea r t h and Rock - Mov i ng Eau i nmen t
veyor . Cu t t i ng and f i l l ing can be con-
duc t ed s i mu l t aneous l y . The f i l l por t i on
Mach i ne Charac t er i st i cs Use mus t be compac t ed accord i ng to prede -
Bu l l doze r Front - f i t t ed rec t angu l a r b l ade Push ear th or rock . L i m i t ed t e rm i ned cons t ruc t i on s t andards .
can be ra i sed or l owe r ed capac i t y ove r l arge d i s t ances 2 . Fi l l for p l ant ed areas shou l d be compac t -
Ang l edoze r Same pr i nc i p l e as f or a bu l l doze r Push ear th as i de t o l ef t or ed on l y enough to re t a i n 30 percen t
r i ght ra t he r t han ahead m i n i mum poros i t y.
3 . Fi l l ma t er i a l mus t be put down in 150-
S i deboom doze r Can t i l eve red b l ade on s i de o f Tr i m s l opes to an even ba t t er
mach i ne ad j us t ab l e i n ver t i ca l p l ane 200 mm (6-8 in) l ayers . Compac t and
test each l ayer to con f orm w i th spec i -
Gr ade r Cur ved sec t i on s t ee l b l ade ro t a t es Excava t e sha l l ow cu t s .
i n hor i zon t a l or ver t i ca l pos i t i ons Canno t ope r a t e on f i ed dens i t i es .
ver t i ca l s i t es 4 . Topso i l is added l ast to br i ng the grades
R i pper -scar i f i er St ee l t ee th , or t i nes , moun t ed Br eak up or scar i f y ha rd ,
to the l eve l s and s l opes shown on the
on a f r ame compac t ed ea r t h grad i ng p l ans .
Face shove l Ope r a t es a t i ts own l eve l . Excava t e c l ay , cha l k , and
Open - t ype bucke t or d i ppe r l oosened rock 5 . 2 Ea r t h and Rock - Mov i ng
is f i l l ed by dr i v i ng i t i nto Equ i pmen t
ma t e r i a l be i ng excava t ed
The re are many t ypes of equ i pmen t tha t
Sk i mme r S i m i l ar t o f ace shove l , w i t h mor e Sha l l ow d i gg i ng
res t r i c t ed movemen t and
can be used to do grad i ng . Tab l e 320-6
l owe r ou t pu t . W i l l produce shows some o f the mor e common t ypes
accur a t e f i n i shed l eve l and descr i bes the i r charac ter i st i cs , i nc l ud i ng
Backshove l or dr agshove l Wor k i ng s t roke is t owa rd t he i dea l for use i n con f i ned typ i ca l uses .
mach i ne . Excava t es a t a l eve l spaces
be l ow t ha t o f t he mach i ne ' s t racks 5 .3 I n f orma t i on on So i l and Rock
Tr enche r or d i gge r A l t erna t i ve t o t he backshove l Excava t i ng na r row , Ma t e r i a l
ver t i ca l -s i ded t r enches
The ini t ia l s i te des i gn and the eventua l
Drag l i ne Excava t i ng bucke t f i l l ed by Excava t i ng i n sof t ma t er i a l s grad i ng p l an shou l d be prepa red based
dr agg i ng i t t owa rd t he and swampy s i tes
mach i ne . Excava t es a t a l eve l
upon know l edge of the compos i t i on and
be l ow t ha t of t he mach i ne ' s t racks o ther charac ter i st i cs of the soi l and / or rock
to be moved . Th i s da t a can be ob t a i ned in
ex i s t i ng p l an t ma t er i a l to be r emoved Topso i l St r i pp i ng- a var i e ty o f ways , depend i ng upon the l eve l
shou l d be chopped and m i xed w i th topso i l . o f deta i l needed .
Th i s t echn i que of t en proves to be an exce l - 1 . St r ip to a spec i f i ed dep t h de t e rm i ned by
l ent way to he l p reest ab l i sh a s i mi l ar t ype o f eva l ua t i on o f the soi l . Th i s dep t h may Sources o f I n f orma t i on :
vege t a t i ve cove r. Sod shou l d be r emoved vary f rom 75 to 600 mm (3 in to 2 f t ) . Gene ra l soi l da t a in the Un i t ed St a t es is
or broken up by d i sks to preven t l ump i ng 2 . Stockp i l e the s t r i pped topso i l in l oca t i ons pub l i shed by t he U .S . Depa r t men t of
dur i ng reuse . Agr i cu l ture (USDA) and the Na t i ona l
out s i de of t he no-cut /no- f i l l l imi ts o f the
pro j ec t , c l ose to whe r e i t wi l l be used Resource Conserva t i on Serv i ce (NRCS) for
l ater. mos t states , on a coun t y -by - coun t y bas i s .

Excava t i on and Prepara t i on o f Subgr ade : Spec i f i c i n forma t i on on soi l s can be

1 . Cu t to the e l eva t i ons i nd i ca t ed on the ob t a i ned by bor i ngs or test p i ts at se l ec t ed
p l aces on a s i te . These soi l prof i l es can be
ana l yzed t o de t e rm i ne the i r e f f ec t on
des i gn and / or cons t ruc t i on cos t s .

Da t a on dep t h t o bedrock can be

ob t a i ned by rod sound i ngs for sma l l -sca l e
pro j ec t s or by bor i ngs made by powe r
augers .

bIA Typ i ca l So i l Prof i l e :

F i gure 320-77 i l lust rates a typ i ca l soi l pro-

f i le for the cent ra l Un i t ed St a t es . S i mi l ar
L
da t a can be f ound for o ther par ts of the
V Un i t ed St a t es v i a the NRCS , loca l un i vers i ty
or sta te agr i cu l tura l depar tmen t s , and o ther
ILA l oca l sources of i n forma t i on . In other coun-
t r i es there are of t en s i mi l ar sources of gen-
0 era l i zed soi l da t a .
N F i gur e 320 -73 . Ove r f l ow pa r k i ng a r ea used t o de t a i n s t ormwa t e r .
M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 320 - 2 7

F i gure 320-74 . Porous- f i l l s t ormwa t e r de t en t i on area

be t ween pa rk i ng bays (sec t i on) .

F i gure 320-75 . Porous- f i l l re t en t i on a rea be t ween

pa rk i ng bays (p l an) .

aA
C
cà
L

F i gure 320-76 . Porous- f i l l or s l ot swa l es for s t ormwa t e r

re t en t i on. 0
N
M

T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 2291 - 29

F i gur e 320 - 77 . Typ i ca l so i l pro f i l e . A so i l hor i zon i s a s i gn i f i cant l ayer o f so i l tha t has d i st i nc t charac t er i st i cs produced by so i
f orm i ng processes.

Rock in Re l a t i on to Gr ad i ng: dep ths . I t wi l l f rac ture a l ong the p l anes of

sed i men t a t i on .
Rock is genera l l y cons i dered to be any
ma t er i a l wh i ch requ i res b l ast i ng be fore i t
can be dug or moved by mach i nes .
Me t amorph i c : Me t amorph i c rock con-
s i sts of prev i ous l y i gneous or sed i men t a ry
Shr i nkage : Sh=(1-
C x 100

Whe r e :
rock tha t has been a l t ered by ex t reme hea t
In prepar i ng a grad i ng p l an tha t i nvo l ves
and pressure , e i ther at grea t dep t hs or Sw= % Swe l l
rock , the mos t use fu l da t a i nc l udes : (1) the a l ong t ec ton i c fau l t l ines, e t c . I t of t en Sh = % Shr i nkage
amoun t o f soi l cover , or dep t h of ear th to
exh i b i ts some ve i n i ng or fo l i at i on, wh i ch B = We i gh t of und i s turbed bank
rock , (2) how much of the t op l ayer rock is
may f rac ture na tura l l y as we l l as dur i ng L = We i gh t of l oose ear th
l oose and can be eas i l y broken , (3) how b l as t i ng and excava t i on . C= We i gh t of compac t ed ear th
much of the rock wi l l have to be b l ast ed ,
and (4) the bas i c t ype o f rock . As a genera l Swe l l and Shr i nkage : Examp l e : F i nd the % swe l l and % shr i nk-
ru l e o f t humb , the cos t o f b l ast i ng and age for ear th whose we i gh t s are :
mov i ng rock is typ i ca l l y 7 to 10 t i mes h i gh- When soi l or rock is dug or b l ast ed ou t o f
i ts or i g i na l pos i t i on , i t breaks i nto par t i c l es Bank measur e und i s turbed 1 474 kg / m 3
er t han mov i ng dry , deep , mode ra t e l y
or chunks , wh i ch crea t es mor e spaces and Loose measur e 1 218 kg / m 3
cohes i ve soi l .
adds to i ts bu l k . Th i s i ncrease in vo l ume is Compac t ed 1 730 kg / m 3
Rock is typ i ca l l y c l ass i f i ed i nto three ca l l ed swe l l . When soi l is p l aced in a new
ma j or groups . On l y a br i e f descr i pt i on of l oca t i on w i th nom i na l compac t i on , these Swe l l : Sw=~ B- 1 x 100
L
àp each is i nc l uded here . vo i ds are f i l l ed and some shr i nkage occurs .
Rock , on t he o t he r hand , swe l l s .
I gneous: I gneous rock is so l i d i f i ed f rom a
Compac t i on wi l l not compress rock excava - _1_474_1
mo l t en state , e i ther a t or benea t h the sur - x100=21%
i f ace of the ear th . I t is crysta l l i ne , typ i ca l l y
t i on to i ts or i g i na l vo l ume . Tab l e 320-7 1218
V shows a gu i de to he l p es t i ma t e t he amoun t

C
no t exh i b i t i ng a gra i n . Thus , i t breaks i r reg-
u l ar l y depend i ng on i ts compos i t i on . o f shr i nk or swe l l i nvo l ved w i th d i f f erent Shr i nkage : Sh= ' 1- x 100
t ypes of ma t er i a l s . The percen t age of swe l l
N Sed i men t a ry: Sed i men t a ry rock is made and shr i nk can be ca l cu l a t ed us i ng t he fo l - - 1- 1474 x
f rom the sed i men t a t i on of soi l , p l ant , and l ow i ng f ormu l a : 100 = 15%
1730

M
an i ma l rema i ns tha t have ha rdened as a
resu l t of pressure , t i me , and the depos i t i on
of na tura l cemen t s , typ i ca l l y a t ocean
Swe l l : Sw- L- 1 x 100

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 320-29
We i gh t s o f So i l and Rock Ma t e r i a l .

Tab l e 320-8 shows typ i ca l we i gh t s for a

range of ma ter i a l s , when in p l ace and a f ter
excava t i on .

5 . 4 Es t i ma t i ng Cu t and F i l l

Gene ra l Cons i de ra t i ons:

Techn i ques for es t i ma t i ng ea r t hwork quan-

t i t i es are on l y approx i ma t i ons . Th i s is t rue
for severa l reasons : (1) spot grades f rom
f i e ld surveys are typ i ca l l y accura t e on l y to
30 mm (0 .1 f t ) , (2) con tours shown on sur -
vey maps are l ega l l y accura t e on l y to one -
ha l f of the con t our i nterva l , and (3) the
amoun t of swe l l or shr i nkage canno t be
pred i c t ed w i th any h i gh degree of prec i -
s i on .
No t al l es t i ma t es of cut and f i l l need to
i nvo l ve the same degree o f accuracy. For
i ns t ance , in the ear l y s t ages of a s i te p l an i t
may be i mpor t an t to know in on l y genera l
t e rms whe t he r there can be a ba l ance o f
cut and f i l l .

Es t i ma t i ng Requ i red Gr ad i ng Quan t i t i es :

Prepara t i on of a pre l i m i nary s i te p l an
and re l a t ed grad i ng p l an can de t e rm i ne
whe t he r there wi l l be a ser i ous i mba l ance
of cut or f i l l . o f t en an i mba l ance can be
cor rec t ed by ra i s i ng or l ower i ng noncr i t i ca l
areas of a s i te des i gn or even by ra i s i ng or
l ower i ng the f in i sh grades for an ent i re s i te .
Tab l e 320-9 prov i des a qu i ck es t i ma t e of
the amoun t of ra i s i ng and / or l ower i ng
requ i red to cor rec t an i mba l ance of cut and
f i l l , once the amoun t of such i mba l ance is
known .

Thr ee me t hods are common l y used to pre-

pare es t i ma t es o f the quant i t i es of grad i ng
needed . Each one is br i e f l y d i scussed be l ow

Gr i d or Bor row P i t Me t hod :

The gr i d me t hod is re l at i ve l y s i mp l e , qu i ck ,
and easy to use . I t is use fu l for es t i ma t i ng
the excava t i on o f bu i l d i ngs , e t c . Th i s
me t hod prov i des a cons i derab l e degree of
accuracy (F i gure 320-78) .

Ave r age End-Area Me t hod : bf J

C
The ave rage end- a rea me t hod is common -
ly used to es t i ma t e vo l umes on l i near e l e-
men t s , such as roads and h i ghways . Cross L
sec t i ons are t aken at 15 000 - 30 000 mm
F i gur e 320 - 78 . Gr i d me t hod f or es t i ma t i ng ea r t h vo l ume . (50-100 f t ) i nterva l s perpend i cu l ar to the
cent er l i ne . The s i mp l es t ave rage end- a rea
procedure is to ave rage areas , mu l t i p l y by
the d i s t ance be t ween t hem , and then ,
assum i ng tha t th i s resu l ts in a cub i c - foot
N
M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 320- 30
f i gure , d i v i de by 27 to conver t to cub i c
yards .

Con t ou r Me t hod:

Th i s me t hod , when comb i ned w i th the

Con t our Me t hod Tabu l a t i on Form and
Summa r y Shee t (Tab l e 320-10) , prov i des
the fo l l ow i ng i n forma t i on :
1 . Tot a l area s t r i pped
2 . Topso i l s t r i pped
3 . Topso i l rep l aced ( i nc l ud i ng shr i nkage)
4 . Subso i l r emoved
5 . Subso i l rep l aced ( i nc l ud i ng shr i nkage)
6 . Tot a l area and vo l ume of ha rdscape
7 . Tota l area of so f t scape

Th i s me t hod is w i de l y used by l andscape

arch i tec ts because i t is very accura t e for
mak i ng f ina l grad i ng ad j us t men t s and for
prepar i ng cos t es t i ma t es . The s t ep-by-s t ep
process for us i ng the con t our me t hod is
out l i ned be l ow .

St ep 1 : De l i nea t e the no-cut /no- f i l l zone

t hroughou t the ent i re pro j ec t (F i gure 320-
80 and 81) and ca l cu l a t e the gross area in
cut and t he gross area in f i l l . Gross area
re fers to area de l i m i t ed by the no-cu t / no-
f i l l l ine and the l i mi ts of grad i ng l ine in cut
and f i l l zones respec t i ve l y.

St ep 2 : Measur e the tota l sur f ace area of

each con t our in cut or each con t our in f i l l
separa t e l y and en t er th i s area on the appro-
pr i a t e l ine nex t to the con t our numbe r .
Draw i ngs are common l y in d i g i ta l f orma t
a l l ow i ng area to be ca l cu l a t ed us i ng t he
compu t e r ; otherw i se , a p l an i me t er is used .

St ep 3 : De t e rm i ne t he dep t h of topso i l
to be s t r i pped and ca l cu l a t e the cub i c vo l -
ume separa t e l y for cut and f i l l us i ng the
gross areas en t ered at the t op of the t ab l e .
Ent er these f i gures (TS) in the summa r y
char t sec t i on o f Tab l e 320-10 on the appro-
pr i a t e Cu t and Fi l l l ines .
F i gur e 320 - 79 . Ave r age end - a r ea me t hod f or es t i ma t i ng ea r t h vo l ume ( sam- St ep 4 : Measur e the proposed ha rdscape
p l e prob l em) . Ca l cu l a t e t aper to ex i s t i ng gr ade St a t i on 0 to St a t i on 50, and l ast st a t i on areas in t he cut zone and t he f i l l zone and
to the end of grad i ng , by ave rag i ng. en t er the measur emen t s unde r co l umn H
area on the respec t i ve Cu t and Fi l l l ines .

TABLE 320 -7 . Es t i ma t i ng Shr i nk and Swe l l

4A
Amoun t p r oduced by 1 me t e r (1 yd) ,
A f t e r excava t i on du r i ng r ep l aced w i t h on l y mode r a t e
Ma t e r i a l t r anspor t o r s t ockp i l e Bo r r ow ya rd - compan i on
yd3)
Sand 0 . 83 m3 (1 .11 111 % swe l l 0 . 75 m3 (1 yd ) 0 . 66 n3 (0 . 88 yd3) 12 % shr i nkk

Common ea r t h 0 . 94 m3 (1 . 25 yd3) 125 % swe l l 0 . 75 m3 (1 yd3) 0 . 60 m3 (0 . 82 yd3) 18 I shr i nk

C l ay 1 . 00 m3 (1 . 43 yd3) 143 % swe l l 0 . 75 m3 (1 yd3) 0 . 65 m3 (0 . 87 yd3) 13 % shr i nk

Sho t rock 1 . 30 m3 (1 . 67 03 ) 167 % swe l l 0 . 75 m3 (1 yd3)

Grave l , l oose 0 . 75 m3 (1 yd3) 0 . 67 m3 (0 . 89 yd3) 11 % shr i nk

N ` Ma t e r i a l s used for compac t ed subbase wi l l exh i b i t h i ghe r shr i nkage l eve l s unde r t he appropr i a t e mo i s t ur e cond i t i ons and compac t i on t echn i que .
M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 320- 3 1
St ep 5 : Ca l cu l a t e t he vo l umes for hard-
Tab l e 320 -8 . WE I GHTS OF SO I L AND ROCK MATER I ALS scape in the cut and t he f i l l zones and en t er
these vo l umes unde r H vo l . i n the summa -
We i gh t Loose ry char t a t the appropr i a t e Cu t and Fi l l
i n bank , we i gh t ,
kg / m3 ( Ib / yd3 ) kg / m3 ( l b / yd3) l ines .
Ma t er i a l
C l ay St ep 6 : To de t e rm i ne the tota l non-
835 (1840)
paved area to rece i ve topso i l for p l ant i ng ,
Dry 1 044 (2300)
subt rac t tota l ha rdscape area (H area) f rom
L i ght 1 271 (2800) 981 (2160) the tota l no- cu t / no- f i l l zone pro j ec t area
Dense , tough , or we t 1 362 (3000) 1 021 (2250) by f i rst , subt rac t i ng the area of ha rdscape
in the cut zone f rom the tota l area in the
Ear th
cut zone ; then , subt rac t i ng t he area of
Dry 1 271 (2800) 1 017 (2240) ha rdscape in t he f i l l zone f rom t he tota l
We t 1 530 (3370) 1 256 (2700) area in the f i l l zone . En t er the resu l t i ng area
(2640)
in co l umn S (sof t scape) a t the l ines appro-
W i t h sand and grave l 1 407 (3100) 1 198
pr i a t e for Cu t and Fi l l .
Ear th and rock mi xture , such
as unc l ass i f i ed excava t i on 1 135-1 362 (2500-3000) 872-1 048 (1920-2310) St ep 7 : De t e rm i ne the th i ckness to
wh i ch the topso i l is to be rep l aced and ca l -
Grave l
cu l a t e separa t e l y the requ i red vo l umes for
Dry 1 475 (3250) 1 317 (2900)
the cut and the f i l l areas respec t i ve l y f ound
We t 1 634 (3600) 1 453 (3200) in St ep 6 . Ent er t he vo l umes in co l umn TR
Loam 1 226 (2700) 1 017 (2240) ( topso i l rep l aced) on the appropr i a t e l ines
for Cu t and Fi l l .
Rock , hard , we l l -b l as t ed
1 816 (4000) 1 216 (2680) St ep 8 : Ca l cu l a t e the gross cut and gross
Sand
f i l l vo l ume separa t e l y by us i ng the f ormu l a :
Dry 1 475 (3250) 1 317 (2900)
(3200)
, (5A1 +A2+A3+ A4 . . . .5A" )
We t 1 634 (3600) 1 453
6 66
Sands t one 1 880 (4140) 1 353-1 185 (2980 2610)
whe r e :
Source : Herber t L. N i cho l s , Jr. , Mov i ng the Ear th , D. Van Nos t rand Company , Pr i nce ton , New Jersey ,
1955 .

i
V
N

0
F i gur e 320 - 80. Con t our p l an me t hod f or es t i ma t i ng ea r t h vo l ume . N
on
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 320-32

F i gur e 320 -81 . Sec t i on f or con t our me t hod .

A= area of con t our p l anes measur ed

Tab l e 320 - 10 : CONTOUR METHOD FORM AND SUMMARY SHEET
be t ween or i g i na l and f i n i shed con-
tours

i= con t our i nt erva l (ver t i ca l d i s t ance

be t ween contours)

Ent er the vo l ume for the cut area unde r

C (cut ) on the Cu t l ine . Ent er the vo l ume
for the f i l l area unde r F (f i l l ) on the Fi l l l ine .

St ep 9 : Us i ng the f ormu l a SC = - C + R +
TR - TS, ca l cu l a t e the subso i l cut . Ent er t he
vo l ume cut in co l umn SC (subso i l cut ) on
the Cu t l ine .
St ep 10 : Us i ng the f ormu l a SF = - F + TS
- TR - R, ca l cu l a t e t he subso i l f i l l . Ent er t he
vo l ume f i l l in co l umn SF (subso i l f i l l ) on the
Fi l l l ine . (A nega t i ve answe r can be inter -
pre t ed as an i nd i ca t i on tha t add i t i ona l sub-
soi l may need to be r emoved in order to
make room for ha rdscape ma t er i a l s .)

St ep 11 : Comp l e t e the summa r y char t

by add i ng the co l umns ver t i ca l l y and i ncor -
pora t i ng shr i nkage f ac tors whe r e appropr i -
ate .

REFERENCES

Munson , A l be E. Cons t ruc t i on Des i gn for

Landscape Arch i t ec t s , McGr aw-H i l l , New
York , 1974 .
C Pa r ke r and MacGu i r e , James Ambrose ( ed.)
S i mp l i f i ed Si te Eng i neer i ng for Arch i t ec t s
cd and Bu i l ders , W i l ey , New York , 1991 .
L
V Un t e rmann ., R i cha rd K. Gr ade Easy , ASLA
(U Founda t i on , Wash i ng t on , DC , 1974 .
Wedd l e , Arno l d. Techn i ques of Landscape
N
Arch i t ec ture , He i nemann , London , 1979 .

N
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T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 320 - 33

~ l P~- I I

1 . Mos t gr ad i ng ope ra t i ons pro-

ceed accord i ng to t he f o l l ow i ng
s t eps : prepa ra t i on o f t he s i te ,
topso i l s t r i pp i ng , excava t i on and
prepa ra t i on o f subgr ade .

2. The ini t i a l s i te des i gn and t he

even t ua l gr ad i ng p l an shou l d be
prepa red based upon know l edge
o f t he compos i t i on and o t he r
charac t er i s t i cs o f t he soi l and / or
rock t o be moved . Th i s da t a can
be ob t a i ned f rom t he Na t i ona l
Resour ce Conse rva t i on Serv i ce
(NRCS) , or equ i va l en t i nt erna -
t i ona l agenc i es . Mo r e spec i f i c
i n f orma t i on can be co l l ec t ed
t hrough soi l bor i ngs and t es t
p i ts .

3. When so i l or rock is dug or b l ast -

ed ou t o f i ts or i g i na l pos i t i on , i t
breaks i nto par t i c l es or chunks ,
wh i ch crea t es mor e spaces and
adds t o i ts bu l k (Tab l e 320-7) .

4. Prepa ra t i on o f a pre l i m i nary s i te

p l an and re l a t ed gr ad i ng p l an
w i t h cu t and f i l l ca l cu l a t i ons can
de t e rm i ne whe t he r t he re wi l l be
a ser i ous i mba l ance of cu t or f i l l .

5 . The gr i d me t hod is use fu l f or

es t i ma t i ng t he excava t i on o f
bu i l d i ngs .

6. The ave r age end- a r ea me t hod i s

common l y used to es t i ma t e vo l -
umes on l i near e l emen t s , such as
roads and h i ghways .

7. The con t our me t hod is w i de l y

used by l andscape arch i t ec t s
because it is ve ry accura t e f or
mak i ng f i na l ad j us t men t s to t he
gr ad i ng and for prepa r i ng cos t
es t i ma t es .
: f i gure 320 - 82 . Me t r i c g r ad i ng p l an examp l e : Kuwa i t Pos t a l Se rv i ces Comp l ex ,
AC , I nc.

aA
C

i
V

N
M
T i me -Save r Standards f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 SECT I ON

S t ormwa t e r
Managemen t
941 IN 1111

Con t r i bu t or:
Robe r t D . Sykes , ASLA
Un i vers i t y o f M i nneso t a , Tw i n C i t i es
M i nneapo l i s , M i nneso t a

Techn i ca l Wr i t er :
Ky l e D. Brown

Rev i ewe rs :
Gr eg Kop i schke , ASLA
Wes t wood Pro f ess i ona l Serv i ces , Inc .
Eden Pra i r i e , M i nneso t a
N i cho l as T. D i nes , FASLA
Un i vers i t y o f Massachuse t t s
Amhe rs t , Massachuse t t s

1 . 0 Int roduc t i on 3 . 4 So i l St ab i l i ty 5 . 0 Runo f f Ca l cu l a t i ons

2 . 0 Des i gn I n f orman t s 3 . 5 W i l d l i f e Hab i t a t 5 .1 Runo f f Te rms
C
2 .1 Hydro l og i c Cyc l e 3 . 6 Wa t e r Supp l y 5 .2 Conve r t i ng Ra i nf a l l to Runo f f
2 .2 Prec i p i t a t i on and Runo f f 3 . 7 Qua l i t y-o f -L i f e 5 .3 Des i gn St orms
2 .3 Wa t e r shed Cond i t i ons 4 .0 Des i gn Procedures U .S . Wea t he r Bureau Maps
Land Cove r 4.1 Da t a Ga t he r i ng & Mapp i ng Stee l Formu l a
So i l s and Inf i l t rat ion Ra i nfa l l Da t a 5 .4 T i me o f Concen t ra t i on Techn i ques
I mperv i ousness S t orm Wo r ks and F l ow Da t a Shee t F l ow C
Mo i s t ure Cond i t i ons Topogr aphy Sha l l ow Concen t ra t ed F l ow
S l ope Land Cove r Gene ra l Ove r l and F l ow
3 . 0 S t ormwa t e r Des i gn I ssues So i l s 5 .5 So i l Conse rva t i on Serv i ce Runo f f i
3 .1 F l ood Prot ec t i on Bedrock and Wa t e r Tab l e Dep t hs Curve Numbe r Me t hod (U .S . Un i t s)
M i nor Sys t em 4 .2 Base L i ne Runo f f Ana l ys i s SCS Runo f f Vo l ume Ca l cu l a t i ons
Ma j or Sys t em Wa t e r shed Bounda ry De l i nea t i on SCS Curve Numbe r s
3 .2 Wa t e r Qua l i t y Prot ec t i on So i l -Cover Cl ass i f i ca t i on SCS Graph i ca l Peak D i scha rge
Sed i men t 4 .3 Schema t i c Des i gn St ra t eg i es Ca l cu l a t i ons i
Oxygen Demand Reproduc i ng Pr e -Deve l opmen t 5 . 6 Ra t i ona l Me t hod
Nut r i ent s Hydro l og i ca l Cond i t i ons App l i ca t i ons and L i m i t a t i ons
Heavy Me t a l s P l ace Deve l opmen t in Leas t Runo f f Coe f f i c i ent s
Chem i ca l Con t am i nan t s Cr i t i ca l Areas Peak D i scha rge Ca l cu l a t i ons
Pa t hogens F i t Deve l opmen t to Ter ra i n 5. 7 Sma l l S t orm Hydro l ogy
The rma l Po l l ut i on Ut i l i ze t he Na tura l Dra i nage Sys t em Schue l er ' s Shor t Cu t Me t hod
M
3. 3 Groundwa t e r Recha rge 4 . 4 Types o f Runo f f Ana l yses Sma l l S t orm Hydro l ogy WQV Me t hod
M
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 330- 2

Sma l l Storm Hydro l ogy Peak P i pe Ma ter i a l s 9 .0 F i l t rat ion Techn i ques
D i scharge Me t hod 7.0 Storage Techn i ques 9.1 F i l ter St r ips
6.0 ConveyanceTechn i ques 7.1 St age Storage Curves 9.2 Sand F i l ters
6.1 Mann i ng Formu l a 7.2 SCS Storage Vo l ume for De t ent i on 10 .0 Inf i l t rat ion Techn i ques
E l ement s of Open Channe l F l ow Bas i ns 10 .1 Genera l
Mann i ng ' s Equa t i on 7.3 Ra t i ona l Mass I n f l ow Me t hod Si t ing Cons i dera t i ons
F l ow Stabi l i ty and Cr i t ica l Depth 7.4 ' Cha i nsaw ' Wa t er Ba l ance Ana l ys i s Des i gn Cons i dera t i ons
6.2 Channe l s and Swa l es 7.5 Dry De t en t i on Ponds Protect i on Dur i ng Const ruc t i on
Grassed Channe l s 7 .6 We t De t ent i on Ponds 10.2 Inf i l t ra t i on Bas i ns
Dry and We t Swa l es 8 .0 F l ow Cont ro l Techn i ques 10 . 3 Recha rge Trenches
Des i gn Char t s 8 .1 Of f - l i ne D i vers i ons 10 . 4 B i ore t en t i on Ponds
6.3 Cu l ver ts 8 .2 We i rs and Leve l Spreaders 10 . 5 Inf i l t rat ion Beds
6.4 Storm Sewers 8 .3 Dra i n Inl ets 10.6 Inf i l t ra t i on We l l s
Des i gn F l ows Gra t e Inl ets at Low Po i nts 10.7 Porous Aspha l t Pavemen t
Des i gn Ca l cu l at i ons Curb Inl ets Re f erences
Ve loc i t i es
Manho l es

1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON

S
t ormwa t e r managemen t in l andscape
arch i t ec ture i nc l udes a broad range of
app l i ca t i ons and i ssues . I t i nc l udes
l ong- t e rm reg i ona l p l ann i ng conce rn i ng
l and areas measur ed in square k i l ome t ers . I t
a l so i nc l udes s i te des i gn whe r e l and areas
are mor e appropr i a t e l y measur ed in square
me t e rs . At every l eve l , s t ormwa t e r man -
agemen t is the pred i c t i on and d i rec t i on o f
the movemen t o f s t ormwa t e r runof f .

Many of the s t andards prov i ded in th i s

sec t i on vary w i th l oca l i ty and reg i ona l cl i -
ma t e . A l so , the i n forma t i on re l a t i ve to
wa t e r qua l i ty des i gn is prov i ded in the con-
t ext of a rap i d l y deve l op i ng know l edge
base and evo l v i ng prac t i ce . St ormwa t e r
managemen t is as much an ar t as a sc i ence ,
requ i r i ng j udgemen t in t he use of ava i l ab l e
da t a and app l i ca t i on of ca l cu l a t i ons and
t echn i ques . Reade rs shou l d check l oca l
prac t i ce and s t andards be fore app l y i ng the
i n forma t i on present ed .
C
2 .0 DESIGN I NFORMANTS
2 .1 Hydro l og i c Cyc l e
tu
C The hydro l og i c cyc l e is the g l oba l process of
ct i the ear th ' s wa t e r movemen t . The ene rgy F i gur e 330 -1 . The Hydro l og i c Cyc l e .
tha t opera t es the sys t em comes f rom the
i sun and the ear th ' s grav i ty (F i gure 330-1) .
In genera l , urban i za t i on loca l l y d i srupts the not typ i ca l l y ma j or f ac tors in sma l l wa t er - dra i ns runof f to tha t po i nt . The wa t e rshed
cd hydro l og i c cyc l e by sea l i ng the ground sur -
sheds . For s i te p l ann i ng and des i gn , has a topograph i ca l l y de t e rm i ned bound-
f ace w i th i mperv i ousness and compac t ed s t ormwa t e r managemen t focuses on the ary , cons i s t i ng of a l ine of r i dges and sadd l e
soi ls, sh i f t i ng prec i p i ta t i on f rom the inf i l t ra- es t i ma t i on of runof f f rom ra infa l l . po i nt s tha t d i v i des the l and cont r i but i ng
i t i on and subsur f ace runo f f pa th to t he sur - runof f wa t e r to the par t i cu l ar po i nt of con-
O f ace runof f pa th .
-W 2 .3 Wa t ershed Cond i t i ons cern , f rom areas tha t cont r i but e runof f
N e l sewhere .
2 .2 Prec ip i tat ion and Runof f The amoun t of runof f wa t e r tha t f l ows to a
par t i cu l ar po i nt in the l andscape is depen-
Prec i p i t a t i on occurs as ra infa l l , snowf a l l , or
M m i x tures of each . Snow and snowme l t are
den t upon the s i ze o f the wa t ershed , the

M por t i on o f l andscape tha t cont r i but es or

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 330- 3
c l ay so i l s . Paved sur f aces nega t e the inf i l - fa l l i ng on f l at ter s l opes is shed mor e s l ow l y ,
t ra t i on capac i t y o f so i l s . Urban soi l s can ac t a l l ow i ng mor e ra infa l l to inf i l t rate t han on
very much l i ke pavemen t because the s t eep s l opes .
porous s t ruc ture o f t he so i l has been
des t royed by compac t i on . 3 . 0 STORMWATER DES I GN I SSUES

I mpe rv i ousness : Many t rad i t i ona l dra i nage t echn i ques we r e

A ma j or i mpac t of urban i za t i on on deve l oped to address a na r rowe r se t of
s t ormwa t e r is the es t ab l i shment o f l arge i ssues than requ i red by today ' s s t andards .
areas of i mperv i ous sur f aces . I mperv i ous- Th i s sec t i on focuses on pr i nc i pa l des i gn
ness rad i ca l l y a l ters the wa t e r ba l ance of a i ssues for mode rn s t ormwa t e r managemen t .
s i te by i ncreas i ng runof f in t e rms o f bo t h
vo l ume and peak d i scharge . 3 .1 F l ood Pro t ec t i on

The a r r angemen t o f i mperv i ous areas F l ood prot ec t i on is typ i ca l l y de f i ned by t wo

genera l ca t egor i es in t e rms of l eve l o f r i sk :
re l at i ve to dr a i nageways has a power fu l
Ma j or f l ood i ng and m i nor f l ood i ng . Ma j or
i nf l uence ove r t he amoun t of runof f gener -
f l ood i ng put s l i ves and s i gn i f i cant s t ruc tures
a t ed (F i gure 330-2) . Whe r e runof f dra i ns
a t r i sk . M i nor f l ood i ng put s conven i ence
d i rec t l y f rom i mpe rv i ous sur f aces i nto
and m i nor st ruc tures at r i sk . (F i gure 330-3) .
dra i nageways , runof f is max i m i zed . Whe r e
F i gur e 330 -2 . D i agr amma t i c sec t i ons runof f dra i ns f rom i mperv i ous sur f aces as M i nor Sys t em :
show i ng runo f f and runon . shee t f l ow on t o perv i ous sur f aces (e .g.
grass) , runof f is m i n i m i zed . The f orme r case The m i nor sys t em m i n i m i zes the i nconve -
is t e rmed connec t ed i mpe rv i ousness n i ences assoc i a t ed w i th f requent l y occur r i ng
Land Cove r :
because i t is d i rect l y connec t ed to the s torms . Typ i ca l examp l es of these sys t ems
The charac t er of l and cover a f f ec ts i nter - dra i nage sys t em . The l at ter case is t e rmed are s torm sewe rs and roads i de or backyard
cept i on of ra infa l l . Genera l l y , l and cove r d i sconnec t ed i mpe rv i ousness . Si te des i gn swa l es . These sys t ems are usua l l y des i gned
w i th grea t er comp l ex i t y wi l l i nt ercept mor e tha t seeks to max i m i ze d i sconnec t ed to accommoda t e the 2, 5, or 10 year s t orm .
prec i p i ta t i on . The mos t comp l ex l and covers i mpe rv i ousness wi l l resu l t in l ess s t ormwa - M i nor f l ood i ng occurs when these sys t ems
are h i gh l y l ayered p l ant commun i t i es w i th t er runof f and be t t er wa t e r qua l i ty. over f l ow i nto ad j acent areas , resu l t i ng in a
vas t amoun t s of l eaf area tha t mus t be we t - t empora ry loss of the i r use for a shor t per i -
t ed be fore runof f is shed . One of the e f f ec ts Mo i s t ur e Cond i t i ons: od of t i me , but no s i gn i f i cant damage .
of urban i za t i on is the s i mp l i f i ca t i on of sur - We t sur f aces produce mor e runof f t han dry Ma j or Sys t em:
f aces . Ar t i f i c i a l sur f aces t end to be subs t an- sur f aces . Assump t i ons mus t be made abou t
t i a l ly l ess comp l ex t han na t i ve sur f aces , and an t eceden t mo i s ture cond i t i ons pr i or to a The ma j or sys t em is used wheneve r the
i nt ercept compara t i ve l y l ess ra infa l l . des i gn ra infa l l . Typ i ca l l y , norma l or ave rage m i nor sys t em capac i t y is exceeded . Th i s is
mo i s ture cond i t i ons are assumed . caused by the occur rence of an i nf requent
So i l s and Inf i l t ra t i on :
even t such as the 25 , 50 , 100 year s torm, or
Inf i l t rat ion i nto the ground is t he pr i mary S l ope : max i mum probab l e ra infa l l even t . Ma j or
cause of ra infa l l loss . Soi l t ype is t he pr i nc i - sys t ems may or may not be des i gned . In
The ave rage s l ope of a wa t e rshed a f f ec ts
pa l de t e rm i nan t of inf i l t rat ion . Sandy soi l s e i ther case , when runof f f l ow exceeds the
the amoun t of runof f gene ra t ed . Ra i n
inf i l t rate mor e wa t e r a t a f ast er ra te t han m i nor sys t em capac i ty , i t t akes an a l terna t i ve
rout e t hrough the l andscape . Wa t e rsheds
tha t have ma j or st ruc tures and popu l a t i ons
C
l oca t ed in the f l ow pa th of the ma j or sys t em
are sub j ec t to ma j or f l ood damage .
The amoun t of runof f wa t er tha t f l ows to a par t i cu l ar po i nt in the l andscape is depen-
Cu
dent upon the s i ze of the wa t ershed and i ts phys i ca l charac ter i st i cs . In the Un i t ed Sta tes , creeks and r i vers
tha t are par t of the ma j or sys t em are
to
cd
1 . Comp l ex l and covers (e .g . h i gh l y l ayered p l ant commun i t i es) resu l t in l ess runof f . i nc l uded in f l ood i nsurance s tud i es requ i red C
Urban i za t i on t ends to s i mp l i fy l and cover , of t en caus i ng an i ncrease in runof f vo l umes . by t he Of f i ce of Insurance and Haza rd
td
M i t i ga t i on of t he Federa l Eme rgency
2 . Soi l t ype is the pr inc ipa l de t erm i nant of inf i l t rat ion ra tes . Urban i za t i on t ends to resu l t Managemen t Agency ( FEMA) . F l ood i nsur - i
in grea t er i mperv i ous sur face , as we l l as compac t i on of the ear th, reduc i ng the pot en- ance stud i es typ i ca l l y es t i ma t e the magn i -
t ial for inf i l t rat ion of s tormwa t er. tude of f l oods assoc i a t ed w i th recur rence
i nterva l s f rom 10 to 500 years. F l ood i nsur -
3 . The p l acemen t of i mperv i ous sur f ace w i th i n a wa t ershed can s ign i f i cant l y a f fect runof f
ance stud i es a l so produce maps des i gna t i ng
rates . Si te des i gn tha t seeks to max i m i ze d i sconnec t ed i mperv i ousness wi l l resu l t in l ess i
of f i c i a l f l ood hazard areas expec t ed to be
s tormwa t er runof f and be t t er wa t er qua l i ty. O
i nunda t ed by the 100 year and 500 year
f l oods (or max i mum probab l e ra i nfa l l N
4 . A wa t ershed w i th st eep s l opes , t ight soi ls, h i gh i mperv i ousness , and mo i st , s i mp l e sur -
f aces wi l l produce far mor e runof f than the same s i ze wa t ershed w i th f l at s l opes , event ) . F l ood hazard maps are typ i ca l l y
coarse soi ls, no i mperv i ousness , and dry , comp l ex p l ant commun i t i es . ava i l ab l e for rev i ew a t coun t y and mun i c i - 0
I pa l of f i ces. M
M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330-4

F i gur e 330 -4 . Sha l l ow and deep inf i l -

t ra t i on / aqu i f e r r echa rge .

pot ab l e wa t e r f rom mun i c i pa l wa t e r sup-

pl i es, and heav i l y ch l or i na t ed sw i mm i ng
poo l wa t e r dumped i nto s t orm dra i ns dur -
i ng seasona l f l ush i ng .

Ch l or i de is a s i gn i f i cant runof f con t am i nan t

in areas whe r e sod i um ch l or i de (sa l t ) is used
as a w i nt er de i c i ng chem i ca l on pavemen t s .

O t he r chem i ca l con t am i nan t s , such as

i ndust r i a l chem i ca l s and pest i c i des , are
common l y f ound in urban wa t ers and sed-
F i gure 330-3 . Ma j or and m i nor f l ood i ng sys t ems i n suburban and urban l oca t i ons.
i men t . These i nc l ude oi l and grease , po l y-
ch l or i na t ed b i pheny l s (PCBs) , and po l y-
3 . 2 Wa t e r Qua l i t y Pro t ec t i on oi l s and greases , and tota l organ i c ca rbon cyc l i c a roma t i c hydroca rbons (PAHs ) .
(TOC) . The mos t common cause o f dep l e - Pest i c i des f ound in urban runof f and sed i -
In 1989 t he Un i t ed St a t es Env i ronmen t a l t i on of d i sso l ved oxygen is excess i ve nut r i -
Prot ec t i on Agency f ound tha t non-po i n t men t s i nc l ude a l dr i n, a l pha ch l ordane ,
ent l oads de l i vered to the wa t e r body. gamma ch l ordane , DDD , DDE , DDT , d i e l d-
source po l l ut i on cont r i but ed ove r 65 per -
r in, hept ach l or , l i ndane , me thoxych l or , and
cent of the tota l po l l ut i on l oad to i n l and Nut r i ent s :
t rans- nonach l or .
sur f ace wa t ers . S i nce then , s i gn i f i cant regu-
l a tory e f for ts have been made to reduce Nut r i ent l oad i ng is a ma j or cont r i butor to
sur f ace wa t e r qua l i ty degrada t i on . A ma j or Pa t hogens :
non-po i n t source con t am i na t i on of sur f ace
source o f these po l l ut ant s is care l ess use of Urban runof f po l l ut ant s i nc l ude d i sease
wa t ers based on sec t i ons 401 and 402 o f the
C l ean Wa t e r Ac t . Wa t e r qua l i ty prot ec t i on fer t i l i zers . Ca rbon (C) , N i t rogen (N) , and caus i ng bac t er i a and v i ruses . A common
sys t ems are typ i ca l l y des i gned to t rea t runof f Phosphorus (P) are t he pr i nc i pa l nut r i ent s measur e of pa t hogens in sur f ace wa t e r is
f rom a 30 mm (1 .25 i nch) ra infa l l , and a t wo assoc i a t ed w i th degrada t i on of wa t e r qua l - f eca l co l i form bac t er i a . L i mi ts for var i ous
i ty . Common measur emen t s are tota l n i t ro- l eve l s of cont ac t are of t en based on the
year ra infa l l , to prot ec t f rom eros i on .
C
gen , organ i c n i t rogen , tota l K j e l dah l n i t ro- numbe r of bac t er i a co l on i es per 100 mi l l i -
4) Sed i men t : gen (TKN) , n i t rates , ammon i a , tota l phos - l i ters of wa t e r samp l ed . A common l imi t for
pha t e (TP) and tota l organ i c ca rbon (TOC) . body con t ac t ( sw i mm i ng) is 400 c / 100m l .
The eros i on and sed i men t a t i on process
de l i vers the l argest l oad of po l l ut ant s i nto Paras i t e con t am i na t i on is becom i ng
1X Heavy Me t a l s:
i ncreas i ng l y i mpor t an t in s t ormwa t e r qua l i -
cd wa t e r bod i es tha t rece i ve runof f . Eros i on is
C Many me t a l s can reach tox i c l eve l s o f con- t y. Such paras i t es i nc l ude : Cryp t ospor i d i um
the remova l and suspens i on o f soi l i nto
cent ra t i on in s t ormwa t e r . The mos t com- pa rvum , En t amoeba hys to l y t i ca and
runof f f rom i ts norma l pos i t i on by fast
mon me t a l s in urban s t ormwa t e r are coppe r G i ard i a l amb l i a .
wa t e r ve l oc i t i es . Sed i men t a t i on is whe r e
i soi l par t i c l es drop ou t of the runof f f l ow (Cu) , l ead (Pb) and z i nc (Zn) . Others f ound
N The rma l Po l l ut i on:
w i th a reduc t i on in the ve l oc i ty of f l ow . i nc l ude arsen i c (As) , cadm i um (Cd) , chrom i -
Ci d um (Cr ) , i ron (Fe) , me rcury (Hg) , n i cke l (Ni ) , In the summe r , sus t a i ned wa t e r t empe ra -
Oxygen Demand: and se l en i um (Se) . Sed i men t l eve l s o f tures above 20° C (70° F) can be st ressfu l i f
s t reams , l akes and ponds prov i de an i nd i ca- no t l etha l to co l d wa t e r organ i sms such as
i The sus t enance of p l ants , an i ma l s and
t i on of po l l ut i on f rom heavy me t a l s . t rout and sa l mon . Such t empe r a t ur e
O m i c roorgan i sms in wa t e r bod i es is depen-
changes are common l y assoc i a t ed w i th the
den t upon the ava i l ab i l i ty o f d i sso l ved oxy- Chem i ca l Con t am i nan t s:
i nf l ux of i mperv i ous sur f aces i nto a wa t er -
gen (DO) . Oxygen demand can be est i -
Ch l or i ne (CI ) is tox i c to p l ant s and an i ma l s shed . In the summe r , unshaded i mperv i ous
ma t ed by d i rect measur e of DO , or by ind i -
in suf f i c i ent concen t ra t i ons . Sources o f sur f aces can have loca l a i r and ground t em-
M rect l y measur i ng b i o l og i ca l oxygen demand
(BOD) , chem i ca l oxygen demand (COD) , ch l or i ne con t am i na t i on i nc l ude t rea t ed pera tures 5° to 7° C (10° to 12° F) h i gher
M than vege t a t ed f i e lds and forests . Runo f f

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 330- 5
pass i ng ove r these sur f aces is hea t ed and 3 . 6 Wa t e r Supp l y l andscape , i t is typ i ca l l y necessary to cons i d-
de l i vered to sur f ace wa t e r bod i es . er l arger dra i nage sys t ems tha t ex t end we l l
Runo f f is harves t ed for dr i nk i ng wa t e r in beyond the s i te boundar i es . Si tes are usua l l y
3 . 3 G roundwa t e r Recha rge many commun i t i es . Wa t e r dr awn ( and par t of l arger wa t ersheds , wh i ch may be reg-
t rea t ed) f rom r i vers , l akes and ma j or u l a t ed by soi l and wa t e r conserva t i on d i s-
The rep l en i shmen t of groundwa t e r by ra in- s t reams for mun i c i pa l wa t e r supp l y sys t ems t r i cts or wa t e rshed di st r i cts . In the Un i t ed
fa l l inf i l t rat ion is known as recharge . I f comes f rom s t ormwa t e r runof f . Un t rea t ed States , there are a l so st a t e and f edera l
groundwa t e r is no t recharged , the wa t e r or par t i a l l y t rea t ed s t ormwa t e r is f requent - depa r t men t s w i th regu l a tory i nterests in
t ab l e drops . Porous soi ls, and areas whe r e l y used on s i te for i r r i gat i on and f i re prot ec- s t ormwa t e r managemen t and sur f ace wa t e r .
the ends of t i l ted porous bedrock l ayers are t i on purposes , par t i cu l ar l y in rura l areas .
exposed to i nf i l t rat i ng s t ormwa t e r , are 4 .1 Da t a Ga t he r i ng & Mapp i ng
zones whe r e groundwa t e r recharge occurs 3 . 7 Qua l i t y -o f -L i f e
(F i gure 330-4) . The l ayers of wa t e r bear i ng Ra i nf a l l Da t a :
Stud i es have f ound tha t cons t ruc t ed ponds
soi l and rock are aqu i f ers. I mperv i ous sur -
and we t l ands are rega rded as pos i t i ve In t he Un i t ed Sta tes , many mun i c i pa l and
f aces e l i m i na t e aqu i f er recharge capac i t y
a t t r i but es of p l aces to l i ve and wor k . The i r coun t y eng i neer i ng depa r t men t s deve l op
when p l aced in recharge areas .
presence prov i des open v i ews and v i stas . and ma i nt a i n s t andard i zed ra infa l l da t a for
3 . 4 So i l St ab i l i t y New ponds and we t l ands can de f i ne ne i gh- the des i gn of s t ormwa t e r managemen t
borhood and commun i t y boundar i es and fac i l i t i es . St a t e depa r t men t s of t ranspor t a-
C l ays , si l ts and organ i c so i l s become uns t a- est ab l i sh i mpress i ons o f pos i t i ve charac t er t i on are a l so good sources of cur rent ra i n-
b l e when we t . Poor l y managed sur f ace and at the i r en t ry po i nt s and a l ong roads . O t he r fal l da t a . Ano t he r good source is the U .S .
subsur f ace dra i nage can we t these so i l s s t ormwa t e r managemen t e l emen t s make Na tura l Resources Conse rva t i on Serv i ce
caus i ng t hem to swe l l w i th mo i s ture or i mpor t an t cont r i but i ons to t he tota l charac - (NRCS) t hrough the i r st a t e eng i neer i ng
heave w i th f rost ac t i on . Re f er to Sec t i on ter of a ne i ghborhood . For examp l e , the of f i ces . In many cases , s t ormwa t e r sys t ems
255 : Expans i ve So i l s for mor e i n forma t i on . presence or absence of curb and gut t er wi l l be requ i red t o mee t these ra infa l l
dra i nage sends a subt l e bu t unm i s t akab l e amoun t s . For schema t i c des i gn , or whe r e
3 . 5 W i l d l i f e Hab i t a t v i sua l message abou t whe t he r a p l ace is loca l ra infa l l da t a is no t ava i l ab l e , the ra i n-
P l ant s and an i ma l s depend on par t i cu l ar urban or rura l . These qua l i ty-of - l i f e e l e- fal l maps and des i gn s t orm i n forma t i on
wa t e r reg i mes and l eve l s of wa t e r qua l i ty. men t s are l i nked to s t ormwa t e r manage - prov i ded in subsec t i on 5 . 0 Runo f f
Urban i za t i on can change t he ava i l ab i l i ty men t dec i s i ons. Fur thermore , when inte- Ca l cu l a t i ons , may be used .
and qua l i ty of wa t e r needed to sust a i n gra t ed as par ts of overa l l pro j ec t des i gn ,
s t ormwa t e r e l emen t s may cont r i but e to S t orm Wor ks and F l ow Da t a:
hab i t a t . I t t ends to drast i ca l l y reduce or
e l i m i na t e base f l ow. In such cases the or i g- h i gher rea l est a t e ma r ke t va l ues . Loca l coun t y and mun i c i pa l eng i neer i ng
ina l p l ant spec i es are rep l aced by others depa r t men t s shou l d a l so have f l ow da t a on
mor e adap t ed to the new reg i me . The an i - 4 . 0 DES I GN PROCEDURES the s t reams , channe l s and s t orm sewe r l ines
ma l spec i es tha t depended on the or i g i na l tha t wi l l be rece i v i ng s t ormwa t e r f rom the
p l ant s a l so change . To des i gn an adequa t e s t ormwa t e r sys t em, s i te . Th i s i n forma t i on shou l d be ga thered
and assess i ts e f f ec t on the sur round i ng pr i or to des i gn .
O t he r i mpor t an t s t ormwa t e r wor ks da t a
i nc l udes bu t is no t l i mi t ed to : As-bu i l t s t orm
JJULZ sewe r p l ans and prof i l es , l oca t i ons and e l e-
va t i ons of in l ets (on and of f s i te) , p i pe da t a
Mode rn s tormwa t er managemen t mus t address a w i de var i e ty of i ssues not requ i red
of t rad i t i ona l t echn i ques . ( i nc l ud i ng s i ze , shape , ma t er i a l and l ength) ,
norma l and des i gned wa t e r sur f ace e l eva-
t i ons of nearby we t l ands , l akes and ponds C
1 . Prot ec t i on f rom f l ood i ng is typ i ca l l y cont ro l l ed by m i nor or conven i ence sys t ems , to N
hand l e f requent l y occur r i ng storms , and ma j or sys t ems tha t accommoda t e l arger , (na tura l or cons t ruc t ed) tha t are par t of t he
i nf requent event s ( i .e . 100 year ra infa l l s) . reg i ona l s t ormwa t e r managemen t inf ra-
N
st ruc ture , and type , i nver ts and s i zes o f any aA
2 . Wa t e r qua l i ty protec t i on f rom non-po i nt source po l l ut i on beg i ns by cont ro l l i ng sed i - wa t e r cont ro l st ruc tures assoc i a t ed w i th
ment , the l argest cont r i butor of po l l utants into wa t er bod i es . Con t am i nan t s i nc l ude tha t i nf rast ruc ture . C
ct i
nut r i ent l oad i ng , heavy me ta l s , chem i ca l s and pa thogens .
Topogr aphy.
3 . Areas of groundwa t e r recharge shou l d be preserved whe r e poss i b l e . Urban i za t i on in i
Good t opograph i c da t a is essent i a l to
recharge areas may rest r i ct inf i l t rat ion capac i ty due to i mperv i ous sur f ace .
de t e rm i ne wa t e rshed and ca t chmen t cd
4. Expans i ve soi l s may swe l l or become uns t ab l e when we t . Sur f ace and subsur f ace
boundar i es . In many cases , the l og i ca l mea -
sur i ng po i nt for s i te d i scharges l i es out s i de
3
dra i nage may be cr i t ical , par t i cu l ar l y i f st ruc tures are p l aced in these areas .
t he s i te boundar i es . In o ther cases , areas i
5 . P l ant and an i ma l l i fe tha t depend on par t i cu l ar wa t er reg i mes can be adverse l y af fect - ups t ream dra i n t hrough the s i te and mus t O
ed by urban i za t i on , as the amoun t and qua l i ty of wa t er changes . be accommoda t ed by des i gn proposa l s . As N
a resu l t , the quant i f i ca t i on o f runof f may
6 . Qua l i ty-of - l i fe va l ues such as open v i ews , commun i t y ident i ty, and recrea t i ona l oppor - requ i re of f -s i te t opogr aphy i n forma t i on .
tun i t i es are l i nked to s tormwa t er managemen t dec i s i ons . These amen i t i es of t en t rans- M
l ate to h i gher rea l est a t e marke t va l ues.
M
T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330 - 6

Mos t governmen t a l cont ro l s requ i re des i gns to ho l d runof f d i scharges at or be l ow

pre -deve l opmen t cond i t i ons . Th i s can be ach i eved in schema t i c des i gn through a
numbe r of st ra teg i es :

1 . Use s tormwa t er des i gn to s l ow runof f ve loc i t i es to pre -deve l opmen t cond i t i ons .
Ho l d i ng runof f vo l umes on s i te wi l l reduce ve l oc i ty wh i l e prevent i ng sed i ment a t i on
and eros i on .

2 . Use inf i l t rat ion st ra teg i es to mi t i ga t e the loss of perv i ous sur f ace tha t is character i st i c
of deve l opmen t .

3 . Use s i te des i gn to m i n i m i ze i mperv i ous sur faces , and remove t hem f rom dra i nage
pa t hways to the grea t est ext ent poss i b l e (F i gure 330-9) . Th i s of t en means rev i s i t ing
fundamen t a l assumpt i ons abou t des i gn .

4 . F i t deve l opmen t to the ter ra in, and p l ace i t in the l east cr i t ica l areas of the si te, away
f rom dra i nageways , s t eep s l opes , comp l ex p l ant commun i t i es , and porous soi l s .

5 . Use the na tura l dra i nage sys t em wheneve r poss i b l e . When feas ib l e , urban s t reams
shou l d be buf f ered w i th a m i n i mum of 8 me t ers (25 f t ) of und i s turbed forest , and an
add i t i ona l 15-30 me t ers (50-100 f t ) of managed vege t a t ed area .

F i gur e 330 -6 . Wa t e r shed bounda r y de l i nea t i on .

C Land Cove r : based on vege t a t i on t ypes present on the

s i te and by d i rec t observa t i on of the so i l s .
Land cover for ex i st i ng or pre -deve l opmen t
s t ormwa t e r runo f f es t i ma t i on is bes t Bedrock and Wa t e r Tab l e Dep t hs:
bA assessed in the f i e ld . A t r ia l de l i nea t i on can
C be comp l e t ed f rom aer i a l pho t ogr aphs for Dep t h to bedrock and wa t e r t ab l e a l so
f i e ld ver i f i ca t i on . Land cover da t a for pro- i nf l uence s i te runo f f pot ent i a l . Sha l l ow
posed s t ormwa t e r runof f es t i ma t i on is i mperv i ous bedrock and h i gh wa t e r t ab l e
i assessed f rom s i te p l ann i ng or schema t i c cond i t i ons can cause even sandy so i l s to
des i gn documen t s . have l i mi t ed absorpt i on of ra infa l l . H i gh
bedrock and h i gh wa t e r t ab l e cond i t i ons
So i l s : a l so l imi t the range of runof f managemen t
t echn i ques ava i l ab l e for use . S t ormwa t e r
So i l s da t a are essent i a l for al l runof f est i -
L inf i l t rat ion and s torm sewe r t echn i ques are
O ma t i on t echn i ques . In the Un i t ed Sta tes , par t i cu l ar l y l i mi t ed by h i gh bedrock and
F i gur e 330 - 7 . De l i nea t i ng a r eas o f
t he Depa r t men t of Agr i cu l ture so i l s surveys
cove r and so i l t ype . h i gh wa t e r t ab l e cond i t i ons . Excava t ed
are a s t andard source of soi l s da t a for th i s
ponds for s t ormwa t e r de t ent i on are un f ea -
purpose . Es t i ma t es of soi l t ex ture and inf i l -
s ib l e in h i gh bedrock areas . Cons t ruc t ed
t ra t i on pe r f ormance can a l so be made
M we t l ands , we t ponds and we t swa l es are
M mor e f eas i b l e w i th h i gh wa t e r t ab l e .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 330- i

F i gur e 330 - 8 . Loca t i on o f i mpe r v i ousness re l a t i ve t o dr a i nageways in conven t i ona l deve l opmen t .

F i gur e 330 - 9 . I mpe r vousness p l aced h i gh i n t he l andscape . No t e the l ack o f s t orm sewe rs .

4 .2 Base L i ne Runo f f Ana l ys i s In some s i tua t i ons , the 'po int ' of ana l ys i s t ype mus t be de l i nea t ed so tha t t hey may
may seem to be an edge . One examp l e of be ass i gned a runof f f ac tor . For examp l e , i f
A base l ine runof f ana l ys i s shou l d be deve l -
th i s is whe r e a s i te abu t s a l ake . The t i me of a b l ock of wood l and ex i sts ove r t wo d i f fer -
oped aga i ns t wh i ch des i gn proposa l s can concent ra t i on pa th may fo l l ow a swa l e to a en t soi l areas , the wood l and mus t be subd i -
be compa r ed for pe r f ormance . Mos t loca l
po i nt on the l ake edge . Howeve r , the ac tu- v i ded a l ong the bounda ry separa t i ng the C
cont ro l s requ i re des i gns to ho l d runof f d i s-
al runof f quant i t y is cont r i but ed al l a l ong an t wo soi l t ypes (F i gure 330-7) .
charges at or be l ow ex i s t i ng cond i t i ons . edge of the pond because runof f is gener -
The base l ine ana l ys i s demons t ra t es per for - a t ed by a subca t chmen t de f i ned by the 4 . 3 Schema t i c Des i gn S t r a t eg i es
mance of ex i s t i ng cond i t i ons . Ana l ys i s is t opogr aphy (F i gure 330-5) . Th i s can a l so bA
typ i ca l l y made in t erms of peak d i scharge Good s i te p l ann i ng can avo i d i ncreases in
occur a t s i te boundar i es .
f rom a spec i f i ed des i gn s t orm . runof f and reduce pot ent i a l i mpac t s on sur - C
Wa t e r shed Bounda r y De l i nea t i on : f ace wa t e r qua l i ty. Des i gn pe r f ormance cr i -
The ana l ys i s shou l d focus on the po i nt s ter i a shou l d i nc l ude : Peak d i scharges ,
whe r e runof f l eaves the si te, de l i nea t i ng the Once the po i nt s of ana l ys i s are se l ec t ed the runo f f vo l umes , wa t e rshed i nf i l t rat i on i
wa t e rsheds tha t cont r i but e wa t e r to these wa t e rshed boundar i es mus t be p l ot t ed . The capac i ty , ground wa t e r recharge , and wa t e r O
po i nt s . Runo f f ca l cu l a t i ons are pe r f ormed out l e t is the mos t conven i en t st ar t i ng po i nt qua l i ty. They can be addressed by focus i ng
for ex i st i ng (pre -deve l opmen t ) cond i t i ons , (F i gure 330-6) . Wor k uph i l l f rom the out l et , on the fo l l ow i ng st ra t eg i es .
est ab l i sh i ng the peak d i scharge and vo l ume in bo t h d i rect i ons , a t r i ght ang l es to the con-
at each d i spersa l po i nt . Pos t -deve l opmen t tour. When the t wo l ines join, the wa t e rshed Rep roduc i ng Pr e - Deve l opmen t i
runof f ana l ys i s mus t be made at these same bounda ry has been comp l e t e l y de f i ned . Hydro l og i ca l Cond i t i ons :
O
po i nt s us i ng the proposed s i te p l an , even
So i l -Cove r C l ass i f i ca t i on: The s t ra t egy of reproduc i ng pre -deve l op-
t hough the wa t e rshed boundar i es may have
d i f f erent conf i gura t i ons and areas due to men t cond i t i ons can be pursued by se t t i ng
Once the wa t e rsheds are de f i ned , areas pre -deve l opmen t ve l oc i t i es as the speed
deve l opmen t changes . w i th comb i na t i ons of s i mi l ar cover and soi l t arge t s for pos t -deve l opmen t cond i t i ons . M
M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330 - 8
Ve l oc i t y is the produc t of sur f ace f r i ct ion,
sur f ace shape , and s l ope . These charac t er -
ist i cs are de t e rm i ned by the t ypes o f sur -
f aces i nc l uded in des i gn proposa l s and the i r
re l a t i onsh i p to each o ther .

Grea t er vo l ume mus t be he l d on s i te in

order to reduce t he speed of wa t e r mov i ng
t hrough the out l e ts . De t a i n i ng wa t e r vo l -
ume a l so prov i des t he f undamen t a l s for
wa t e r qua l i ty t rea t men t . Mor e t han ha l f the
con t am i nan t s in sur f ace wa t e r are f rom
sed i men t s , and h i gh ve l oc i t y is the cause of
eros i on tha t produces sed i men t . The
des i gner tha t wor ks to s l ow wa t e r is wor k -
i ng for preven t i on of wa t e r qua l i ty i mpac t s
f rom eros i on .

Wa t e r vo l umes tha t are de t a i ned can be

reduced by i nf i l t rat i ng i t i nto t he ground .
Pre -deve l opmen t cond i t i ons a l mos t a l ways
have l arger amoun t s of inf i l t rat ing sur f ace
t han pos t -deve l opmen t cond i t i ons . The use
F i gur e 330 - 10 . C l us t e r deve l opmen t used t o pr ese r ve na t ura l dr a i nageways .
o f inf i l t rat ion t echn i ques rep l i ca tes na tura l
inf i l t rat ion, ma i n t a i ns groundwa t e r re-
charge , and reduces sur f ace f l ow.

aA
C

«3

i
O

0
M F i gur e 330 -11 . Urban s t r eam bu f f e r sys t em
M
T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330 - 9
Imperv i ous sur faces cont r ibute to h igher cu l -de-sac to f i t the branched dra i nage . me thods . In the Un i ted States, some jur is-
f low ve loc i t i es . Unnecessary pavement is Keep i mperv i ous sur faces sma l l and pl ace at di ct ions are now a lso requi r ing over l and
of ten bui l t into standard assumpt i ons about h i gher e l evat ions to max i m i ze shee t conveyance works (swa l es and channe l s) to
des ign, espec i a l l y in resident ia l deve l op- dra i nage f rom the i r edges . be des i gned for stabi l i ty at f lows produced
ment . Excess i ve f ront yard set backs and by the 2 year , 24 hour des ign storm to pro-
w i der roads to accommoda t e on-st reet Ut i l i ze the Na tura l Dra i nage Sys t em : tect aga inst eros ion . A wa ter ba l ance ana l y-
park i ng of ten add pavement area . Re- The natura l dra i nage paths shou ld be iden- sis shou l d be conduc t ed for des i gns that
visi t ing fundamenta l assumpt i ons can of ten t i f ied as par t of the si te ana lysis, a long wi th rely on ma i nta i n i ng permanent ponds , to
yie ld sav ings of pavement area and costs . suf f i c i ent buf fers to insure l ong term ensure that they won ' t dry up .
The re l at ionship of i mperv i ousness to integr i ty. F igure 330-10 shows the use of
dra i nage pa thways is a lso cr i t ical . Pl ac ing c luster or open space deve l opment to pre- 5 .0 RUNOFF CALCULAT I ONS
pavement s and roofs at h igh po ints in the serve st reams and dra i nageways . The
l andscape prov ides greater oppor tun i ty for Center for Wa t ershed Protect ion recom- 5 .1 Runo f f Te rms
vegetated perv ious sur faces to s l ow and mends a m i n i mum of 8 m (25 ft) of undi s- Ve loc i ty (V) : Ve loc i ty is d i stance t rave l ed
inf i l t rate runof f . F igure 330-8 shows a con- turbed ma ture forest on each side of urban over a g i ven t i me . It is the cr i t ical factor for
vent iona l approach to st reet p l acement dr i - st reams, wi th an addi t iona l 15 to 30 m (50 est i mat i ng and underst and i ng runof f
ven by an assumpt i on that curbs and storm to 100 f t) of managed vege ta ted area movemen t . Runof f ve loc i t ies are typica l ly
sewers shou ld be used . F igure 330-9 shows (F igure 330-11) . expressed in me ters per second (m/s) or
an a l ternat ive that p l aces pavement and feet per second ( f t /sec) .
roofs at h igher e l evat ions whi l e us ing nat - 4 .4 Types of Runo f f Ana l yses
ura l dra i nageways as much as poss ibl e . D i scharge (Q) : D i scharge is rate of
The ma j or and mi nor f lood protect ion sys- runof f f low, or vo l ume t rave l ing at a par t ic-
Storm sewers are unnecessary because tems, and the wa ter qua l i ty system shou ld
runof f f low near the houses is mi n i ma l and ular ve loc i ty. D i scharge is expressed in cubi c
be ana l yzed for each schemat i c des ign . me ters per second (m3 /s) or cubi c feet per
easi ly di ver ted around the houses , even for Ma j or f lood protect ion is usua l l y des i gned
100 year events . second ( f t ' /sec) . Runof f d i scharge (Q) for
for the 100 year , 24 hour des ign storm in cross-sect iona l shapes , such as channe l and
the U .S . us ing the SCS runof f me thods or p ipe sect ions, is equa l to ve loc i ty (V) t imes
P l ace Deve l opmen t
i n Leas t Cr i t i ca l Areas :
other comparab l e me thods . The me thod of area of f low (a) [Q = Va l .
ana lysis for a mi nor or conven i ence system
St ructures and paved sur faces shou l d not depends on the type of system p l anned . If Vo l ume of F l ow (Qvo l ) : As d i scharge
be p l aced on or near shore l ines, natura l a system of storm sewers is used for the cont inues through a cross-sect ion for a
dra i nageways , steep s lopes, areas of dense mi nor system, it is typica l ly des i gned for a per iod of t ime , the d i scharge can be mul t i -
vegetat ion, and areas where soi ls are f requent , shor t durat ion storm : typica l ly a pl ied by the l ength of t ime to arr ive at a
porous or erodibl e . 2, 5 or 10 year , one hour storm us ing the tota l vo l ume of f l ow (Qvo l ) . Tota l vo l ume
Rat iona l Me thod . If the mi nor system is an of f l ow is typi ca l ly expressed in cub i c
F i t Deve l opmen t to Ter ra i n: over l and system of swa l es, the SCS runof f me t ers (cub i c feet ) , or hec tare-me ters
Road pat terns and bui lding types shou ld be me thods and a 10 year , 24 hour rainfal l (acre- feet ) . Change in vo l ume (AQvo l ) wi th
se l ected to f i t l andforms . For examp l e , event is more common . respect to the f i l l ing or empty i ng of a con-
where topography is dendr i t i ca l ly dissect - ta iner of water , such as a pond or a l ength
Wa t er qua l i ty t rea tment works shou ld be of st ream or channe l , is s imp l y the di f fer-
ed, use a road pat tern such as a branched des i gned us ing the sma l l storm hydro l ogy
ence be tween rate of inf low (Qvol , , ) and
rate of out f l ow (QvoloUt ) over a per iod of
t ime [AQvo l = Qvo l ; - Qvo l o , J .
There are three pr imary types of stormwater management systems . Se l ect ion of the Hydrograph : A hydrograph is a summary
appropr i ate ana lysis me thod depends on the type of system, the ava i l abl e data, and of stormwa ter f lows . It is a record of f low C
local pract i ce: rates at a spec i f ic locat ion over a g i ven per i -
od of t ime . A hydrograph can be expressed
1 . M i nor System : Prov ides protect ion aga inst inconveni ences caused by f requent storms . in tabu l ar form show i ng d i scharges at spe-
Examp l es inc lude storm sewers and roads ide swa l es . Des i gned for 2, 5, or 10 year bA
ci f ic t imes in the per iod (Tabl e 330-1) , or as
storms . Al so known as the conven i ence system . May be des igned us ing the Rat iona l a graph plot of d i scharge versus t i me C
Me thod (more common for storm sewers) or SCS runof f me thods (more common for (F igure 330-12) . In the case of a graph, the
over l and systems) . area under the curve plot is the tota l vol -
ume of f l ow for the plot per iod . i
2 . Ma j or System : The path of runof f taken by inf requent storms when minor system is over - N
whe l med - may be des igned or natural . Des igned examp l es inc lude emergency spi l lways Peak rate of f l ow : The peak of the
for storm ponds and des ignated f loodways that protect against loss of l i fe and proper ty. hydrograph is the max i mum rate of f l ow.
Des igned for 100 year rainfal l or greater , typical ly us ing the SCS runof f me thods in the U .S . Predi ct ing and accommoda t i ng the max i -
mum or peak rate of f low is i mpor tant . Thi s L
3 . Wa ter Qua l i ty Protect ion System : Traps sed iment , f i l ters and inf i l trates runof f to peak rate of f low occurs when the f l ow
remove contaminants . Typica l ly des igned to t reat the vo l ume of runof f f rom a 30 mm through the point of ana l ys i s cons i sts of a N
(1 .25 in) rainfal l , and protect aga inst eros ion f rom 2 year rainfal ls . These systems drop of wa t er f rom every point in the
should be des igned us ing sma l l storm hydro logy me thods . wa tershed area.
M
fn
Time-Saver St andards for Landscape Archi tecture
 330 - 10

Tab l e 330-1 . EXAMPLE OF A TABULAR HYDROGRAPH

H dro ra h T i me (hrs) 12 .0 12 .1 12 .2 12 .3 12 .4 12 .5 6=12 12 .8 12 .9 13 .0

D i scharge (cfs) 0 .3 0 .8 1 .4 2 .1 3 .5 2 .8 2 .5 2 .2 2 .0 1 .7 1 .4

Tab l e 330 -2 . TYP I CAL DES I GN STORM STANDARDS

E l emen t / Sys t em Des i gn S t o rm

M i nor sys t em
s torm sewers 2, 4, 5, 10 year (Rat i ona l )
swa l es , stabi l i ty des i gn for eros i on protec t i on 2 year , 24 hour
swa l es , des i gn for capac i ty 10 year , 24 hour

Roads
h i gh vo l ume , crests & t angent s 10 year
F i gur e 330 - 12 . Examp l e hydrogr aph h i gh vo l ume , sag po i nts 50 year
p lot . co l l ector , crests, t angent s , sag po i nts 10 year
loca l , 250 ADT and under , crests & t angent s 5 year
loca l , over 250 ADT , crests & t angent s 10 year
loca l , sag po i nt 10 year

De t en t i on s t ruc tures
pr i nc i pa l sp i l l way , equa l pre -dev . d i scharge al l s torms 2 , 5 , 10 , 50 , 100 year
eme rgency sp i l l way 100 year
storage vo l ume , t emporary 10 year
(const ruc t i on sed i ment a t i on pond)
storage vo l ume , pe rmanen t 100 year

Pro t ec t i on of occup i ed and h i gh va l ue s t ruc tures 100 year

Des i gn s torms are usua l l y spec i f i ed in t erms of durat i on and f requency , for examp l e :
3 100 year , 24 hour ra infa l l event . Th i s means tha t in a g i ven year , the probab i l i t y of a
ra infa l l of thi s magn i tude or grea t er ac tua l l y be i ng observed is one percent every t i me i t ra i ns.

F i gur e 330 -13 . Ef f ec t s o f urban i za -

t i on on pr e - and pos t -deve l opmen t
IC
hydrogr aph p l o t s .

T i me o f Concen t ra t i on ( t j : The t i me
qA wa t e r t akes to f l ow f rom the mos t d i st ant
C po i nt in a wa t e rshed to i ts out l e t .
F i gur e 330 - 14. Base l i ne hydrogr aph w i t h s t orm pu l ses .
Cu Trave l t i me ( t t ) : The ave rage t i me for
wa t e r to f l ow t hrough a reach or o t he r
i s t ream or va l l ey segmen t tha t is l ess t han t i me l ine in hours or m i nu t es . Urban i za t i on ma i n t a i ned by s l ow sur f ace runof f and sub-
t he tota l l ength . Trave l t i mes can be com- t ends to drast i ca l l y change the hydro- stant i a l subsur f ace or groundwa t e r f l ows
pu t ed for segmen t s of a t i me of concen t ra - graphs . Peak d i scharges and vo l umes of tha t eme rge in the s t ream bed . Base f l ows
t i on pa th and summed to ar r i ve at a t i me of runof f i ncrease , and t i me of concent ra t i on prov i de a con t i nu i ng supp l y o f wa t e r w i th
concent ra t i on ( t t+t t+t t . . .+t t = tc) . becomes shor t er (F i gure 330-13) . the runof f f rom ra i ns torms produc i ng a
b. - pa t t ern of peaks as per turba t i ons in the
0 S t orm F l ows : S t orm f l ows are l arge , Base F l ows : Base f l ows are the s t eady
base f l ow (F i gure 330-14) .
i n f requent f l ows of runof f charac t er i zed by f l ows tha t con t i nue to occur a f t er the pu l se
h i gh peak d i scharges . They can cause of f l ow f rom a s t orm has subs i ded . Base 5 .2 Conve r t i ng Ra i nf a l l t o Runo f f
f l ood i ng or eros i on i f t hey are no t proper l y f l ow is the base l ine upon wh i ch the hydro-
accommoda t ed by des i gn . S t orm f l ows are graphs of s t orm f l ows are p l ot t ed . In na tur - Severa l me t hods have been deve l oped us i ng
M ma t hema t i ca l mode l s to sys t ema t i ca l l y
usua l l y d i sp l ayed in a hydrograph w i th a a l wa t ersheds , s t ream base f l ows are h i gh ,
M
T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330 - 1 1

accoun t f or ra i nf a l l l osses in t he conve rs i on Ra i nf a l l even t s a r e cons t ruc t ed f or spec i f - cy t o prov i de a means o f d i rec t l y compu t -
o f ra i nf a l l t o runo f f vo l umes . The ra i nf a l l ic dur a t i ons and f r equency and produce s t a - i ng ra i nf a l l i n t ens i t y g i ven t he s t orm dur a -
l osses a r e t e rmed abs t r ac t i ons . In i t i a l t i st i ca l ra i nf a l l dep t hs . Dur a t i on is t he l eng t h t i on re turn pe r i od , and r eg i on o f t he Un i t ed
abs t rac t i ons cons i s t o f l osses f rom cond i - o f t i me ove r wh i ch h i s tor i ca l ra i nf a l l dep t hs St a t es . I t may be used t o f i nd ra i nf a l l i n t en-
t i ons t ha t consume ra i nf a l l and mus t be a r e d i s t r i bu t ed f or purposes o f ana l ys i s , t yp- s i ty f or use w i t h t he Ra t i ona l Me t hod
sa t i s f i ed be f or e ra i nf a l l can become runo f f . i ca l l y expr essed in hour s . F r equency is t he
K
Con t i nu i ng abs t rac t i ons a r e l osses o f ra i n- probab i l i t y o f recur rence o f an even t t ha t
fa l l t ha t keep occur r i ng a f t er runo f f has produces a ra i nf a l l dep t h , t yp i ca l l y tc +b
begun . Componen t s o f in i t i a l abs t rac t i on expr essed in yea rs . F r equency is some t i mes
Whe r e :
i nc l ude : We t t i ng o f dr y sur f aces , evapor a - ca l l ed t he re t urn pe r i od . These st a t i st i ca l
I = In t ens i t y o f ra i nf a l l in
t i on , t ransp i ra t i on , f i l l i ng o f m i no r depr es - ra i nf a l l dep t hs a re used f or des i gn . m i l l i me t e rs pe r hour
s i ons , and i nf i l t ra t i on i n t o t he so i l .
In t ens i t y is t he ra t e a t wh i ch t he ra i n fa l l s, ( i n / hour )
Con t i nu i ng abs t rac t i ons i nc l ude : Evapora t i on ,
expr essed i n m i l l i me t ers pe r hour ( i nches
t ransp i ra t i on and con t i nu i ng i nf i l t ra t i on . t , =T i me o f concen t r a t i on in
pe r hour ) . In des i gn s t orms , t he i n t ens i t y is
Inf i l t ra t i on i s t yp i ca l l y t he l arges t compo - m i nu t es
t he ave r age i n t ens i t y f or t he dur a t i on .
nen t o f ra i nf a l l vo l ume l oss .
Des i gn dep t hs a r e conve r t ed t o ave r age K and b = Coe f f i c i en t s f or
Runo f f mode l s gene ra l l y produce runo f f i nt ens i t i es by d i v i d i ng by t he dura t i on . r eg i on o f t he U . S .
vo l umes and peak d i scha rges f rom ra i nf a l l and s t orm f r equency
da t a . Peak d i scha rges a r e ca l cu l a t ed by U .S . Wea t he r Bur eau Maps:
Va l ues f or K and b a r e prov i ded in Tab l e
es t i ma t i ng t he t i me t o peak d i scha rge ( t i me In 1961 He rsh f i e l d produced i sohye t a l 330 - 3 f or t he r eg i ons o f t he U . S . shown i n
o f concen t r a t i on) . maps o f des i gn ra i nf a l l dep t hs f or t he en t i re F i gure 330 - 19 .
Many me t hods and compu t e r progr ams Un i t ed St a t es . They we r e pub l i shed in t he

a r e ava i l ab l e t o conve r t ra i nf a l l t o runo f f , U . S . Wea t he r Bur eau Techn i ca l Pape r No . 5 . 4 T i me o f Concen t r a t i on

and t o es t i ma t e peak d i scha rges . Th i s sec - 40 , common l y re f e r red t o as TP- 40 . I t Techn i ques
t i on is l i m i t ed t o pr esen t i ng me t hods t ha t i nc l uded dur a t i ons f rom 30 m i nu t es t o 24
hour s and re t urn pe r i ods f or one yea r t o T i me o f concen t r a t i on may be es t i ma t ed by
a r e mos t common l y accep t ed in t he U .S .
d i v i d i ng t he f l ow pa t h i nto segmen t s o f s i m-
100 yea rs . These maps have become a
i l ar l and cove r and s l opes , de r i v i ng t rave l
5 . 3 Des i gn S t o r ms s t anda rd sour ce o f des i gn ra i nf a l l even t s .
t i me f or each segmen t and t hen ca l cu l a t i ng
The maps f or t he 2 , 5 , 10 and 100 year ,
Des i gn s t orms , or ra i nf a l l even t s , a r e st a- 24 hour ra i nf a l l even t s a re r eproduced he r e t he sum o f t he t rave l t i mes . D i f f e ren t t ypes
t i st i ca l abs t rac t i ons d r awn f rom ra i nf a l l o f f l ow requ i re d i f f e ren t t echn i ques f or es t i -
as F i gur es 330 - 15 t hrough 330 - 18 .
r ecords . They r epr esen t probab i l i t y est i - ma t i ng t rave l t i me ve l oc i t i es . These i nc l ude :
Twen t y - f our hour even t s prov i de t he ra i n-
ma t es o f expec t ed ra i nf a l l amoun t s in t e rms fa l l da t a needed t o use t he SCS me t hods . 1 . Shee t f l ow (Mann i ng K i nema t i c
o f i nt ens i t y , dur a t i on and f r equency . Tab l e So l u t i on) .
330 - 2 l i sts t yp i ca l des i gn s t orms used f or St ee l Formu l a : 2. Sha l l ow Concen t r a t ed F l ow (SCS
d i f f eren t e l emen t s . Sha l l ow Concen t r a t ed F l ow Gr aph) .
The St ee l f ormu l a i n t egra t es st a t i st i ca l da t a
3. Gene r a l Ove r l and F l ow- comb i nes
on ra i nf a l l i nt ens i ty , dura t i on and f r equen-
shee t f l ow and sha l l ow concen t r a t ed

Tab l e 330 - 3 . COEFF I C I ENTS FOR STEEL FORMULA

Reg i ons o f t he Un i t ed S t a t es
F r equency i n S t ee l 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 c
yea r s Coe f f i c i en t s

2 K 206 140 106 70 70 68 32

6 30 21 17 13 16 14 11

4 K 247 190 131 97 81 75 48 c

cd
b 29 25 19 16 13 12 12

5 K 247 190 131 97 81 75 48

i
b 29 25 19 16 13 12 12
Q)
10 K 300 230 170 111 111 122 60
6 36 29 23 16 17 23 13

25 K 327 260 230 170 130 155 67

L
b 33 32 30 27 17 26 10

50 K 315 350 250 187 187 160 65

b 28 38 27 24 25 21 8

100 K 367 375 290 220 240 210 77

b 33 36 31 28 29 26 10 M
M
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 330 - 1 2

c
a)
0
U
cS
C

L
0

M
F i gur e 330 -1 S . Two Year , 24 Hou r Ra i n f a l l Map o f t he Un i t ed St a t es (Af t e r He rsh f i e l d , TP-40)
M
T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330- 1 3

C
N

bQ
c~S
C

0
F i gure 330-16 . F i ve Year , 24 Hour Ra i nf a l l Map o f t he Un i t ed St a t es (Af t er Hershf i e l d , TP-40) M
M
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330- 1 4

C
N

G)
to
C

L
0

M F i gure 330-17 . Ten Year , 24 Hour Ra i nf a l l Map of t he Un i t ed St a t es (Af t er Hershf i e l d , TP-40)

M
T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330- 1 5

c
E
c
L

F i gure 330-18 . One Hundr ed Year , 24 Hour Ra i nf a l l Map of t he Un i t ed St a t es (Af t er Hershf i e l d , TP-40)
M
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 330 - 1 6

F i gur e 330 - 19 . Reg i ons o f t he Un i t ed St a t es f or use i n t he s t ee l f ormu l a .

f l ow (K i rp i ch Formu l a ) . Mann i ng ' s Equa t i on ( re fer to subsec t i on

4 . Channe l F l ow (Mann i ng ' s Equa t i on- 6 .1) .
re fer to subsec t i on 6 .1) . F i gur e 330 - 20. SCS gr aph o f ave r age
The SCS Sha l l ow Concen t ra t ed F l ow
gr aph (F i gure 330-20) may be used to ve l oc i t i es f or es t i ma t i ng t rave l t i me f or
Shee t F l ow: sha l l ow concen t r a t ed f l ow (U . S . un i t s) .
de t e rm i ne the ve l oc i ty of sha l l ow concen-
Shee t f l ow is f l ow over a p l ane sur f ace . In t ra t ed f l ow in U .S . un i ts. Th i s me t hod mus t
urban areas shee t f l ow is l i mi ted to abou t 25 be used to ca l cu l a t e t he sha l l ow concen- L = t he l ength of t rave l in m ( f t )
me t e rs (75 f t ) ove r a paved sur f ace and 45 t ra t ed f l ow segmen t s of tc when us i ng the S = t he ave rage s l ope of the
me t e rs (150 f t ) ove r a l awn sur f ace . In no SCS Graph i ca l Peak D i scharge Me t hod . t i me of concent ra t i on f l ow
case does shee t f l ow con t i nue for mor e than Once a ve l oc i ty is de t e rm i ned for sha l l ow pa th in me t e rs / me t e r ( f t / f t ) .
90 me t e rs (300 f t ) . Beyond these d i stances , concen t ra t ed f l ow, t rave l t i me may be com-
f l ow is cons i dered sha l l ow concen t ra t ed . pu t ed by the fo l l ow i ng f ormu l a :
S l ope is ca l cu l a t ed by d i v i d i ng ver t i ca l
The Mann i ng K i nema t i c So l ut i on may be L
Tt = d i f f erence in the end po i nt e l eva t i ons o f the
used to ca l cu l a t e ve l oc i ty of shee t f l ow in 3600V f l ow pa t h in me t ers ( f t ) by the hor i zont a l
U .S . un i ts . Th i s me t hod mus t be used to
l ength of the f l ow pa th in me t ers ( f t ) . Th i s
ca l cu l a t e the shee t f l ow segmen t s o f tc for Whe r e:
me t hod is d i rec t l y app l i cab l e for na tura l
t he SCS Graph i ca l Peak D i scharge Me t hod . Tt = t rave l t i me in hours
wa t ersheds , bare ear th over l and f l ow or
L = f l ow l ength in f ee t mowed grass over l and f l ow . Ad j us t men t s
Mann i ng K i nema t i c So l ut i on :
shou l d be made for o ther cond i t i ons :
V = ve l oc i t y in f ee t per second
0 . 007 (nL) °e
Tt = - Fo r genera l over l and f l ow and grassed
(. 55o4
P2 ) 0 Genera l Over l and F l ow : channe l s mu l t i p l y tc by 2 .
C
Whe r e : The K i rp i ch f ormu l a may be used w i th the - Fo r concre t e or aspha l t sur f aces mu l t i -
Tt = t rave l t i me in hours Ra t i ona l Me t hod to es t i ma t e the over l and p l y t c by0 .4 .
f l ow por t i on of t i me of concent ra t i on , com-
n = Mann i ng ' s roughness coe f f i - - Fo r concre t e channe l s mu l t i p l y t , by
b i n i ng shee t and sha l l ow concen t ra t ed
c i ent (Tab l e 330-15) 0 .2 .
C f l ow . I t may be app l i ed to separa t e seg-
L = f l ow l ength in f ee t men t s of f l ow to accoun t for the d i f f erent
t rave l t i mes genera t ed by l engths of d i f fer - 5 . 5 So i l Conse r va t i on Se rv i ce
i S = s l ope o f t he the hydrau l i c ent over l and f l ow sur f aces . Runo f f Cu r ve Numbe r Me t hod
grade l ine ( f l ow pa th) in f ee t ( U . S . Un i t s )
per foot K i rp i ch Formu l a : The So i l Conserva t i on Serv i ce (SCS) runof f
P2 = 2 year , 24 hour ra infa l l in t , = KL° .nS --0 385 curve numbe r me t hod is mos t accura t e for
i nches . ra infa l l amoun t s in the range of 1 to 12
L
Whe r e : i nches . For ra infa l l s unde r one i nch , t he
O Sha l l ow Concent ra t ed F l ow : sma l l s t orm me t hods are r ecommended .
t , = t i me o f concent ra t i on in
O t he r l i mi t a t i ons i nc l ude :
Sha l l ow concent ra t ed f l ow cont i nues unt i l i t m i nu t es
f i nds a de f i ned channe l in the t opography . 1 . I t shou l d no t be used for wa t e rsheds
0 The ve l oc i ty of f l ow for na tura l or cons t ruc t -
K = Cons t an t (0 . 0195 for S .I . l arge t han 20 square m i l es .
M ed channe l s mus t be ca l cu l a t ed us i ng un i ts ; 0 . 0078 for U .S . un i ts) 2 . I t shou l d on l y be used i f the curve
M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330- 1 7
Tab l e 330 - 4 . SCS CURVE NUMBERS ( CN ) FOR SELECTED AGR I CULTURAL , SUBURBAN AND URBAN LAND USES
( AMC I I , l a = 0 . 2S)

Land Use Desc r i p t i on Hydro l og i c So i l G r oup

A B C D
Ba re soi l , new l y gr aded a reas 77 86 91 94

Cu l t i va t ed l and : w i t hou t conserva t i on t r ea t men t 72 81 88 91

w i th conserva t i on t rea t men t 62 71 78 81
Pas ture or r ange l and grazed : poor , < 50% ground cove r 68 79 86 89
fa i r , 50 to 75% ground cove r 49 69 79 84
rVrnbg ï " v r ound cove r 39 61 74 80
Meadow , j zLk r aL. 5üruuryro t ec t ed f rom rz i raz inis, hay mowed 30 58 71 78
Wood or fores t l and : th i n s t and , poor cover , no mu l ch 45 66 77 83
good s t and , grazed , some mu l ch 36 60 73 79
good s t and , unde rbrush , mu l ch 30 55 70 77
O za . ~. . r rK . r r va , . arks , r~ol f courses , ceme t er i es , e t c . e rp
m"rAr i nrm i was t ur e ( above )
Comme r c i a l and bus i ness a reas (72% i m .: erv i ous) 89 92 94 95
Indust r i a l a reas (72% i m l : erv i ous) 81 88 91 93

Res i dent i a l areas ' ave r age l ot s i ze ave r age % i mpe rv i ous**

500 2 (1 / 8 acre ) or l ess 65 77 85 90 92

1000 m ' (114 acre) 38 61 75 83 87
1400 m2 (1 / 3 acre) 30 57 72 81 86
2000 m2 (1 / 2 acre) 25 54 70 80 85
4000 m ' (1 acre ) 20 51 68 79 84
Fa rms t eads - bu i l d i n " . . . - l ots 59 74 82 86

Paved ~wark i nFV areas , roof s , dr i veways , e t c . " ' 98 98 98 98

St ree t s and roads ( i nc l ud i ng r i gh t -o f -way area ) :
paved ; w i t h curbs and s t orm sewe rs - 98 98 98 98
paved ; w i th open roads i de d i t ches 83 89 92 93
grave l 76 85 89 91
di rt 72 82 87 89
' Curve numbe rs are compu t ed assum i ng roofs and pavemen t s dra in d i rect l y into st reets, park i ng areas where runof f is car r i ed away by s torm sewers. Perv i ous areas ca l cu l ated as
l awns in good cond i t i on .
" Curve numbe rs are compu t ed assum i ng connec t ed i mperv i ous sur faces , i .e ., the runof f f rom the house and dr i veway is d i rected towards the st reet w i th a m i n i mum of roof wa t er
d i rec t ed toward l awns whe re add i t iona l inf i l t rat ion cou l d occur . Perv i ous areas ca l cu l a ted as l awns in good cond i t i on .

" P , curve numbe r of 95 is some t i mes used in wa rme r areas of the Un i t ed States .

Tab l e 330 - 5. SCS CURVE NUMBERS (CN ) FOR SELECTED A I RD AND SEM I - AR I D LANDS ( AMC I I , l a = 0 . 25)

Cove r Type Hyd ro l og i c Hydro l og i c So i l G r oup

C
Cond i t i on A ** B C D

He rbaceous - m i x o f gr asses , weeds , sma l l amoun t l ow brush Poo r 80 87 93

Fa i r 71 81 89
Good 62 74 85
C
Oak - aspen - moun t a i n brush m i x o f oak brush , aspen , Poo r 66 74 79 cd
moun t a i n mahogany , b i t t er brush , map l e Fa i r 48 57 63
and o t he r brush Good 30 41 48 i
P i nyon - Jun i pe r - p i nyon j un i pe r or bo t h ; gr ass unde r s t or y Poo r 75 85 89
Fa i r 58 73 80
Good 41 61 71

Sageb rush w i t h gr ass unde r s t or y Poo r 67 80 85

i
Fa i r 51 63 70
Good 35 47 55
N
Dese r t shrub - ma j o r p l an t s i nc l ude sa l t bush , g r easewood Poo r 63 77 85 88
c r eoso t ebush , b l ackbrush , bur sage , pa l o ve rde , Fa i r 55 72 81 86
mes : . i u i t e and cac t us Good 49 68 79 84
Poor is l ess than 30% ground cover ( l i t ter , grass and brush overstory) ; Fa i r is 30 to 70% ground cover ; Good is more than 70% ground cover . M
. . Curve numbe rs for group A haveon l y been deve l oped for deser t shrub . M
T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330 - 1 8
numbe r is grea t er t han 40 .
Tab l e 330 -6 . EXAMPLE CALCULAT I ON OF SCS RUNOFF METHOD US I NG A 3. T, va l ues mus t be in the range f rom
COMPOS I TE WE I GHTED CN (U . S . UN I TS) 0 .1 to 10 hours .
4 . The wa t e rshed may have on l y one
Compu t e t he runo f f f rom 2 .8 i nch ra i nfa l l (P) on a 50 ac re ca t chmen t i n acre - f ee t . The ma i n s t ream, or i f mor e t han one , the
l and uses br eak down as f o l l ows : 30 ac res o f res i dent i a l a rea t ha t is 30 pe r cen t branches mus t have near l y equa l t i mes
i mpe rv i ous (ha l f in B so i l s , ha l f in C so i l s) ; 6 acres o f res i dent i a l a rea t ha t is 65 pe r cen t
i mpe rv i ous (a l l in C so i l s) ; 9 ac res o f road w i t h curbs and s t orm sewe rs (4 i n B so i l s ,
5 of concent ra t i on .
in C so i l s) ; and 5 ac res o f open space w i t h good cove r (a l l in C so i l s) .

1 . Se l ec t curve numbe r s f rom Tab l e 330 -4 for each so i l -cover comb i na t i on .

SCS Runo f f Vo l ume Ca l cu l a t i ons :
2 . Compu t e a we i gh t ed curve numbe r t o represen t t he ent i re ca t chmen t . In 1972 the U .S . So i l Conserva t i on Serv i ce
(SCS) deve l oped a me t hod for compu t i ng
Land cove r - so i l s Ac r es CN Ac r es x CM runof f f rom ra infa l l for urban areas . Th i s
Res i dent i a l ( 30% i mpe rv i ous ) B so i l s 15 72 1080 me t hod is represen t ed in prac t i ca l f orm by :
Res i dent i a l ( 30% i mpe rv i ous ) C so i l s 15 81 1215
(P - 0 .2S)2
Res i dent i a l ( 65% i mpe rv i ous ) C so i l s 6 90 540 Q
P + 0 .8S
Road w i t h curbs and s t orm sewe rs , B so i l s 4 98 392

Road w i t h curbs and s t orm sewe rs , C so i l s 5 98 490 Whe r e :

Open Space , good cond i t i on , C so i l s 5 74 370 Q = dep t h of d i rec t runof f in
i nches ,
To t a l s 50 4087
P = ra infa l l dep t h in i nches f rom
a 24-hour dura t i on s t orm

S = pot ent i a l max i mum re t en-

t i on in i nches , i nc l ud i ng ini -
t ial abs t rac t i on .

P may be f ound f rom the 24 hour dura -

t i on ra infa l l maps of the Un i t ed St a t es
shown as F i gures 330-15 t hrough 330-18 .
S can be ca l cu l a t ed by se l ec t i ng an appro-
pr i a t e curve numbe r (CN) and us i ng the
fo l l ow i ng f ormu l a :

1000
5= - - 10
CN

SCS Curve Numbe r s :

Curve numbe r s (CNs) have been de t er -
m i ned for mos t l and cover cond i t i ons by
the So i l Conserva t i on Serv i ce . Because inf i l -
t ra t i on is a ma j or var i ab l e , they have been
c l ass i f i ed i nto four soi l hydro l og i c groups by
soi l charac t er :
C
Group A: Sand , l oamy sand , or sandy
l oam soi l t extures . Have wa t e r t ransm i ss i on
ra tes grea t er t han 8 mm . (0 . 30 in) per hour .
bA
cd Group B : Si l t l oam or l oam soi l t ex tures .
C
çqj Ch i e f l y mode ra t e l y deep to deep , mode r -
a t e l y we l l to we l l dra i ned soi l s . Have wa t e r
t ransm i ss i on ra tes in the range of 4 to 8
i
mm (0 . 15 to 0 .30 in) per hour.

Group C : Sandy c l ay l oam soi l t extures .

Low i nf i l t rat i on ra t es when we t . Have
wa t e r t ransm i ss i on ra t es in the range of 1
i to 4 mm (0 . 05 to 0 .15 in) per hour.
O
Group D : C l ay l oam , si l ty c l ay l oam ,
sandy c l ay , si l ty c l ay or c l ay soi l t ex tures .
Have wa t e r t ransm i ss i on ra t es in t he range
M F i gur e 330 -21 . Map o f approx i ma t e bounda r i es f or SCS s t orm d i s t r i bu t i on
of 0.0 to 1 mm (0 .0 to 0 .05 in) per hour .
M t ypes f or t he Un i t ed St a t es .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 330- 1 9
Tab l e 330 -7 . la VALUES FOR RUNOFF CURVE NUMBERS ( IN U . S . UN I TS) Tab l e 330 - 8. ADJUSTMENT FACTOR
(F p) FOR PONDS AND
SWAMP AREAS
CN la i n . CN la i n . CN la i n . SPREAD THROUGHOU '
40 3 . 000 60 1 . 333 80 0 . S00 THE WATERSHED .

41 2 . 878 61 1 . 279 81 0 . 469

Pe r cen t age o f Pond
42 2 . 762 62 1 . 226 82 0 . 439 and Swamp Ar eas Fp
43 2 .651 63 1 . 175 83 0 . 410 0.0 . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . 1 . 00
44 2 . S45 64 1 . 12S 84 0 .381 0.2 . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . 0 . 97
1 .0 . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 .87
45 2 . 444 65 1 . 077 85 0 . 3S3 3 .0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 .75
46 2 . 348 66 1 . 030 86 0 . 326 5 .0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 0 .72
47 2 . 2S5 67 0 . 985 87 0 . 229
48 2 . 167 68 0 .941 88 0 . 273 The va l ues o f CN for var i ous l and uses
and cove r t ypes are g i ven in Tab l es 330-4
49 2 . 082 69 0 . 899 89 0 . 247
and 330-5 . A compos i t e we i gh t ed CN is
50 2 . 000 70 0 . 8S7 90 0 . 222 used for a wa t e rshed made up of severa l
51 1 . 922 71 0 . 817 91 0 . 198 comb i na t i ons of soi l t ypes and uses . The
va l ues g i ven assume tha t be fore the des i gn
52 1 . 846 72 0 . 778 92 0 . 174 ra infa l l occurs , a norma l amoun t of ra infa l l
53 1 . 774 73 0 . 740 93 0 .1S1 occur red in the prev i ous f i ve-day per i od
( for curve numbe rs represent i ng cond i t i ons
54 1 . 704 74 0 . 703 94 0 . 128
d i f f erent f rom those in these tab l es , consu l t
55 1 . 636 75 0 . 667 95 0 . 105 the SCS TR-55 pub l i ca t i on) .
56 1 .S71 76 0 . 632 96 0 . 083 Tab l e 330-6 i l lust rates a samp l e ca l cu l a-
57 1 . 509 77 0 . 597 97 0 . 062 t i on of runof f , us i ng the So i l Conserva t i on
Serv i ce Runo f f Curve Numbe r Me t hod .
58 1 . 448 78 0 . 564 98 0 .041
I 59 I 1 . 390 79 I 0 .532
SCS Graph i ca l Peak D i scharge Ca l cu l at i ons :
The peak d i scharge f rom a wa t e rshed in U .S .
Tab l e 330 - 9 . EXAMPLE CALCULAT I ON OF PEAK D I SCHARGE US I NG THE un i ts (cub i c f ee t per second) may be ca l cu-
SCS GRAPH I CAL METHOD (U . S . Un i t s) l a ted for 24 hour dura t i on ra infa l l even t s
us i ng the SCS Graph i ca l Peak D i scharge
Me t hod . I t is l i mi ted in app l i ca t i on to a s in-
g l e wa t ershed , w i th on l y one ma i n branch
(or i f mor e than one , the branches shou l d
have near l y equa l t i mes of concent ra t i on) ;
and i t canno t be used for rout i ng. I t is ca l cu-
l a ted us i ng the fo l l ow i ng formu l a :
qP = quAmQFP C
Whe r e :
qc = peak d i scharge in cub i c f ee t
pe r second ( f t3 / sec)

q~ = un i t peak d i scharge in C
f t3 / sec per square m i l e pe r
i nch of runo f f
i
Am = dra i nage area in square GJ
mi l es cd
Q = runof f dep t h in i nches

Fp = pond and swamp ad j ust - L

men t f ac tor

Runo f f dep t h is der i ved us i ng prec i p i ta-

t i on and curve numbe rs . Wa t e rshed area is
ca l cu l a t ed by d i rect map de l i nea t i on and
measur emen t . T i me o f concen t ra t i on is M
M
T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330- 20

F i gure 330-22 . Un i t Peak D i scha rges (qu) for Type I D i s t r i but i on S t orms (U .S . un i ts) .

C
(1)

bA
C
cd

i
O

0
M F i gure 330-23 . Un i t Peak D i scha rges (qu) for Type IA D i s t r i but i on S t orms (U .S . un i ts)
M
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 330-29

F i gure 330-24 . Un i t Peak D i scha rges (qu) f or Type 11 D i s t r i but i on S t orms (U .S . un i ts) .

C
N

b~A
cd
C
cd

i
O

0
F i gure 330-25 . Un i t Peak D i scha rges (qu) for Type I I I D i s t r i but i on S t orms (U .S . un i ts) . M
M
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 330- 2 2
f ound us i ng SCS me t hods descr i bed in sub-
sec t i on 5 .4 . The SCS ra infa l l d i st r i but i on t ype
is i dent i f i ed us i ng F i gure 330-21 . The un i t
peak d i scharge , q . , is ca l cu l a t ed us i ng the
rat io of ini t ia l abs t rac t i on to ra infa l l ( I r /P) .

Tab l e 330-7 l ists l a va l ues for runof f curve

numbe rs . Un i t peak d i scharge char t s for the
var i ous ra infa l l d i st r i but i on t ypes are i l lust rat -
ed in F i gures 330-22 through 330-25 . Va l ues
of Ia /P fa l l ing be t ween the curves may be
i nt erpo l a t ed , howeve r va l ues of l a /P shou l d
never be l ess than 0 .10, or grea t er than 0 . 50.

The pond and swamp ad j us tmen t f ac tor

(F P ) is f ound by ca l cu l a t i ng the percen t age of
pond and swamp area of the wa t ershed , and
consu l t i ng Tab l e 330-8 . No pond or swamps
may be l oca t ed on the t i me of concent ra t i on
pa th . I f they are , the SCS Tabu l ar Me t hod or
o ther rout i ng me t hod mus t be used to f i nd
the peak d i scharge ( refer to TR-55 Urban
Hydro l ogy for Sma l l Wa t ersheds , 1986 ed i -

F i gur e 330 - 26 . P l o t s o f ra t i ona l runo f f coe f f i c i en t s vs. ra i nf a l l i n t ens i t y

(a f t er Rossm i l l e r ) .

C
0)

C
Cu

cd

i
C

M
M F i gur e 330 - 27 . Nomog r aph f or t he so l u t i on o f t he Rossm i l l e r Equa t i on (U . S . un i t s) .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 330- 2 3
t ion, pub l i shed by the Soi l Conserva t i on
Tab l e 330 - 10 . RECOMMENDED RAT I ONAL FORMULA RUNOFF
Serv i ce for fur ther i nforma t i on) .
COEFF I C I ENTS " C "
Tab l e 330-9 i l l ust rates a samp l e ca l cu l a-
C va l ues t i on of peak d i scharge , us i ng t he SCS
Sur f ace Min. Max. Graph i ca l Me t hod .
St reet , aspha l t . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0 . 70 0 .95
St reet , concre t e . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . 0 .80 0 .95 5 . 6 Ra t i ona l Me t hod
Dr i ves and wa l ks . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 0 .75 0 .85 In 1889 , Ku i ch l i ng i n t roduced the Ra t i ona l
Roo f s . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . 0 .75 0 .95 Formu l a for es t i ma t i ng peak d i scharges of
Perv i ous areas , A so i l s* 0-11% s l opes . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . 0 .04 0 .09 runof f f rom ra infa l l in urban areas . I t
2-6% s l opes . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . 0 .09 0 .13 rema i ns one of the mos t w i de l y used and
s t eep s l opes . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 0 .13 0 .18 accep t ed me t hods of compu t i ng runof f .
Perv i ous areas , B so i l s* 0-1% s l opes . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . 0 .07 0 .12 The f ormu l a is :
2-6% s l opes . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . 0 .12 0 .17
s t eep s l opes . . .. . .. .. .. .. . . . 0 .18 0 .24 Q = KC I A
Perv i ous areas , C so i l s* 0-1% s l opes . . .. . .. .. .. .. . . . 0 .11 0 .16
Whe r e :
2-6% s l opes . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 0 .16 0 .21
s t eep s l opes . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. . 0 .23 0 .31 Q = Peak d i scharge of runof f in
Perv i ous areas , D so i l s* 0-11% s l opes . . .. . .. .. .. . . .. . 0 .15 0 .20 m 3 / ( f t 3/ sec)
2-6% s l opes . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . 0 .20 0 .25
K = Cons t an t (0 . 0028 for S .I un i ts ; 1 .0
s t eep s l opes . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . 0 .28 0 .38
for U .S . un i ts)

C = Runo f f coe f f i c i ent ( rat i o of runof f

Res i dent i a l s i ng l e- f ami l y de t ached . . . .. .. . . .. . . . .. .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . 0 .30 0 . 50 to ra infa l l )
mu l t i -un i ts , de t ached .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . 0 .40 0 . 60 I = Ra i nfa l l i nt ens i ty at t i me of con-
mu l t i -un i ts , a t t ached . . . . . .. . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . .. . . . . 0 .60 0 . 75
cent ra t i on in mm / h r ( i n/hr )
suburban lots, < .2 ha (0 .5 acre) .. . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . 0 .25 0 . 40
suburban lots, > .2 ha (0 .5 acre) .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 0 .30 0 . 45 A = Wa t e rshed area in hec t ares (acres)
Apa r t men t dwe l l i ng areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . .. . 0 .50 0 . 70
Indust r i a l l ight areas . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . 0 .50 0 . 80 App l i ca t i on and L i mi t a t i ons:
heavy areas . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . 0 .60 0 . 90
Assump t i ons i nt r i ns i c in t he Ra t i ona l
Parks and ceme t er i es . . . . . .. . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. . . . . 0 .10 0 . 25
Me t hod are :
P l aygrounds . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . 0 .20 0 . 40
1 . Ra i nf a l l i ntens i ty is un i f orm t hrough-
Ra i l road yard areas .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . 0 .20 0 . 40
ou t the dura t i on of the s torm and area
Un i mproved areas pas ture ( f l a t -steep) .. . . . . . .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. . . .. 0 .10 0 . 42
cu l t i va t ed ( f l a t -steep) .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. 0 .31 0 . 44 o f wa t e rshed .
2 . Peak d i scharge occurs at the t i me of
concent ra t i on ( i .e . i t is st i l l ra i n i ng a t t , ) .
3 . Dura t i on of t he ra infa l l is equa l to the
' Use m i n i mum va l ue for dense , l ayered woods , max i mum va l ue for good grass; so i l s re fer to SCS hydro l og i c groups
t i me of concent ra t i on .
4 . T i me of concent ra t i on i nc l udes t i me
for sa t i sf ac t i on o f ini t ia l abs t rac t i ons ,
Tab l e 330 -11 . RECOMMENDED ANTECEDENT MO I STURE CORRECT I ON
and shou l d neve r be cons i dered to be
FACTORS FOR THE RAT I ONAL FORMULA COEFF I C I ENT OF
RUNOFF " C " l ess than s i x m i nu t es .
C
Wh i l e these assump t i ons are no t ac tua l - N
ly t rue for al l ra i ns torms , t hey y i e l d prac t i ca l
Recur r ence Cor r ec t i on resu l ts for sma l l wa t e rsheds . N
I n t e rva l i n Yea r s Fac t or Cf blA
2 t o 10 1 .0 Runo f f Coe f f i c i ents : C
25 1 .1 Va l ues of t he runof f coe f f i c i ent (C) can be
50 1 .2 se l ec t ed f rom Tab l e 330-10 , or F i gure 330-
100 1 . 25 26 can be used to se l ect va l ues of C i f the
N
Note : the cor rect ion factor is appl i ed : C f x C . The product shou ld not ra infa l l i nt ens i ty ( I ) is known . To accoun t
exceed 1 .0 for an t eceden t mo i s ture cond i t i ons , C va l -
ues chosen f rom Tab l e 330-10 shou l d be
ad j us t ed for s t orms w i th re turn per i ods
i
ove r 10 years us i ng the mu l t i p l i ers shown O
in Tab l e 330-11 . Va l ues t aken f rom F i gures
N
330-26 and 330-27 do not need th i s
ad j us t men t .

I f SCS Curve Numbe r s (CN5) have been M

de t erm i ned , va l ues of C can be compu t ed by M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330-24
Tab l e 330 - 12 . EXAMPLE COMPUTAT I ON OF A WE I GHTED RAT I ONAL RUNOFF COEFF I C I ENT.

A C Produc t
Cove r Type (acres) (C x A)
Suburban deve l opmen t 3 .5 0 .53 1 .86
Park l and 0 .5 0 .34 0 .17
Roadway pavemen t 0 .7 0 .95 0 .67
Tot a l s : 4 .7 - 2 .7

Tab l e 330 - 13 . SMALL STORM VOLUMETR I C COEFF I C I ENTS (Rv) FOR URBAN RUNOFF

F l a t roo f s P i t ched roo f s sma l l Pe r v i ous Pe r v i ous

and l a rge and l a rge i mpe r v i ous a r eas , a r eas ,
unpaved i mpe r v i ous a r eas and sandy c l ayey
Ra i n f a l l pa r k i ng a r eas ( l arge na r row Paved so i l s so i l s
( m m) ( i nches) l ot s A groups C &D

1 0 .04 0 .00 0 .25 0 .93 0 .26 0 .00 0 .00

C 3 0 .12 0 .30 0 .75 0 .96 0 .49 0 .00 0 .00

5 0 .20 0 .54 0 .85 0 .97 0 .55 0 .00 0 .10

10 0 .39 0 .72 0 .93 0 .97 0 .60 0 .01 0 .15

15 0 .59 0 .79 0 .95 0 .97 0 .64 0 .02 0 .19
C
20 0 .79 0 .83 0 .96 0 .67 - 0 .02 0 .20
25 1 . 00 0 .84 0 .97 0 . 70 - 0 .02 0 .21
i
N 30 1 .25 0 . 86 0 .98 0 .74 - 0 .03 0 .22
38 1 . 50 0 .88 0 .99 0 .77 - 0 .05 0 .24

50 2 . 00 0 . 90 0 .99 0 .99 0 .84 0 .07 0 .26

L 80 3 .15 0 . 94 0 . 99 0 . 99 0 . 90 0 .15 0 .33
ar 125 4 .92 0 . 96 0 . 99 0 . 99 0 .93 0 .25 0 .45
Source : Pi t t , Rober t E . (Apr i l 1997) " Sec t i on 5 . Sma l l Storm Hydro l ogy " text for St ormwa t e r Qua l i t y Managemen t
Through the Use of De t ent i on Bas i ns - A Shor t Course on St ormwa t e r De t ent i on Bas i n Des i gn Bas i cs by Int egra t i ng
M Wa t e r Qua l i t y w i th Dra i nage Ob j ec t i ves . M i nneapo l i s , M i nneso t a: Un i vers i ty of M i nneso t a Con t i nu i ng Educa t i on and
M Ext ens i on .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 330 - 2 5

Tab l e 330 - 14 . REDUCT I ON FACTORS TO VOLUMETR I C RUNOFF COEFF I C I ENTS (R ) FOR D I SCONNECTED
I MPERV I OUS SURFACES '

Med i um t o h i gh Med i um t o h i gh
S t r i p comme r c i a l dens i t y dens i t y
Ra i n f a l l and shopp i ng r es i den t i a l w i t h r es i den t i a l
( mm) ( i nches ) cen t e r paved a l l eys w i t hou t a l l ey s
1 0 . 04 0 . 00 0 . 00 0 . 00
3 0 . 12 0 . 00 0 . 08 0 . 00
5 0 . 20 0 . 47 0 .11 0 .11
10 0 . 39 0 . 90 0 . 16 0 . 16
15 0 . 59 0 . 99 0 . 20 0 . 20
20 0 . 79 0 . 99 0 . 29 0 .21
25 1 . 00 0 . 99 0 . 38 0 . 22
30 1 . 25 0 . 99 0 . 46 0 . 22
38 1 . 50 0 . 99 0 . 59 0 . 24
50 2 . 00 0 . 99 0 .81 0 . 27
80 3 . 15 0 . 99 0 . 99 0 . 34
125 4 . 92 0 .99 0 . 99 0 . 46
' For l ow dens i t y res i dent i a l , use connec t ed va l ues for perv i ous sur f aces w i th c l ayey soi l f rom Tab l e 330-13 .
Source : Pi t t , Robe r t E . (Apr i l 1997) " Sec t i on 5 . Sma l l S t orm Hydro l ogy " t ext for S t ormwa t e r Qua l i t y Managemen t Throug f
the Use of De t ent i on Bas i ns - A Shor t Course on S t ormwa t e r De t en t i on Bas i n Des i gn Bas i cs by Int egra t i ng Wa t e r Qua l i t y
w i th Dra i nage Ob j ec t i ves . M i nneapo l i s , M i nneso t a : Un i vers i t y of M i nneso t a Con t i nu i ng Educa t i on and Ex t ens i on .

use of the Rossm i l l er Equa t i on . The homo - Genera l l y , t rea tmen t of runof f f rom a 25 Whe r e I is t he pe rcen t age of wa t e rshed
graph shown in F i gure 330-27 may be used mm (1 in) ra infa l l even t wi l l t rea t 85 to 90 i mperv i ousness (e .g . , use 70 whe r e 70% o f
to graph i ca l l y so l ve the Rossmi l l er Equa t i on percen t of the annua l ra infa l l vo l ume . In t he wa t e rshed area is i mperv i ous sur f ace) .
for Ra t i ona l coe f f i c i ents in U .S . un i ts. mos t areas , the f l ood-produc i ng i n f requent WQV in wa t e rshed m i l l i me t ers ( i nches)
ra infa l l even t s resu l t in on l y abou t t wo per - may then be ca l cu l a t ed by subs t i tut i ng the
Peak D i scharge Ca l cu l a t i on : cent of the annua l ra infa l l vo l ume . The des i gn ra infa l l amoun t in m i l l i me t ers ( i nch-
The Ra t i ona l Me t hod assumes un i f orm Cen t e r for Wa t e rshed Prot ec t i on in S i l ver es) for P in the f ormu l a :
cover of the l and sur f ace produc i ng runof f Spr i ng , Ma ry l and r ecommends us i ng a 30
mm (1 .25 in) ra infa l l even t as the des i gn WQV = (P) (RO
represent ed by the runof f coe f f i c i ent C . I f
the cover sur f aces are comp l ex , a compos i t e s t orm for wa t e r qua l i ty t rea t men t . The vo l - Examp l e: Ca l cu l a t e the runof f vo l ume for a
coe f f i c i ent mus t be compu t ed by we i gh t ed ume of runof f produced by sma l l s torms is 1 .2 hec t are shopp i ng cent er w i th 85% i mper -
averag i ng of C by area . the wa t e r qua l i ty vo l ume ( WQV) . v i ousness , for a 30 mi l l i me t er ra infa l l even t :
C
Ra infa l l i ntens i ty ( I ) is ca l cu l a t ed for the SCS me t hods of conver t i ng ra infa l l to R~= 0 .05 + 0 . 009(85) N
des i gn s torm and t i me of concent ra t i on us i ng runof f are no t ca l i bra t ed to produce accu-
ra te resu l ts for sma l l s torms . Two me t hods R~= 0 . 815
the Stee l Formu l a ( refer to subsec t i on 5 .3) .
for mak i ng accura t e WQV ca l cu l a t i ons are bA
T i me of concent ra t i on is ca l cu l a t ed us i ng the P = 30 mm (des i gn s torm)
K i rp i ch Formu l a for over l and por t i ons ( inl et Schue l er ' s Shor t Cu t Me t hod , and the Sma l l C
S t orm Hydro l ogy WQV Me t hod . WQV = (30) (0 . 815)
t i me) , and the Mann i ng Formu l a for channe l
f l ow por t i ons (d i tch or gut t er t i me) . = 24 . 45 wa t e rshed m i l l i me t ers
Schue l er ' s Shor t Cu t Me t hod:
i
Tab l e 330-12 i l lust rates an examp l e ca l - Schue l er ' s Shor t Cu t Me t hod of f ers a = 24 . 45 mm(1 / 1000 mm / m) (1 .2 O
cu l a t i on tha t uses the Ra t i ona l Me t hod
re l i ab l e a l t erna t i ve for s i tes tha t have pre- hec t are ) (10 , 000 M2 / hec t are)
w i th a compos i t e coe f f i c i ent . dom i nan t l y one l and cover t ype or whe r e a = 293 .4 cub i c me t e rs of runof f
qu i ck , genera l vo l ume es t i ma t e is des i red .
5 . 7 Sma l l S t orm Hydro l ogy
To use the shor t cut me t hod , f i nd the vo l u- Sma l l St orm Hydro l ogy WQV Me t hod.
O
Des i gn for wa t e r qua l i t y managemen t me t r i c runof f coe f f i c i ent (R, ) for the wa t er -
The Sma l l S t orm Hydro l ogy Me t hod uses
focuses on cap tur i ng and t rea t i ng the vo l - shed unde r ana l ys i s us i ng the formu l a :
runof f stud i es deve l oped by Pi t t and others
ume of wa t e r ra ther t han the peak d i s-
charge . The vas t ma j or i t y o f annua l runof f R , =0 . 05+0 . 0091 to i dent i f y va l ues of R, to ca l cu l a t e WQV.
Th i s me t hod prov i des grea t er accuracy
is produced by the sma l l s torms tha t occur M
mor e f requen t l y t han t w i ce a yea r . than the Shor t Cu t Me t hod . I t can be
fn

T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 330-26
Tab l e 330 - 15 . RECOMMENDED VALUES FOR MANN I NG ' S COEFF I C I ENT OF FR I CT I ON (n)

Va l ues o f n
Conveyance Type and Desc r i p t i on M i n i mum Des i gn Max i mum
C l osed Condu i t s : Concre t e p i pe , (des i gn = f l ow i ng ful l ) . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . 0 .011 0 . 012 0 . 013
St andard cor ruga t ed me t a l , rnd . & p i pe arch
(des i gn=f l ow i ng ful l , p l a in or ful l y coa t ed) . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . 0 . 018 0 . 024 0 . 024
St ruc . p l a te ( f i e ld bo l ted) , cor ruga t ed me t a l , f l ow i ng ful l .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . 0 . 030 0 . 030 0 . 033
Vi t r i f i ed c l ay p i pe . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . 0 . 012 0 . 013 0 . 014
Pl ast i c p i pe , smoo t h wa l l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . 0 .011
Open channe l s , l ined, st ra i ght a l i gnment :
Concre t e , formed , no f in i sh . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . .. . . . . 0 . 013 0 . 013 0 . 017
Concre t e , formed , t rowe l f in i sh . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. 0 . 012 0 . 012 0 . 014
Concre t e , formed , f loat f in i sh . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . 0 . 013 0 . 015
Grave l bo t tom , s i des f ormed concre t e . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. 0 . 017 0 . 020
Grave l bo t tom , s i des r andom s tone in mor t ar . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . 0 . 020 0 . 023
Grave l bo t tom , s i des dry rubb l e or r i p- rap . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . 0 . 023 0 . 033
Br i ck . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . 0 . 014 0 . 017
Cons t ruc t ed channe l s & swa l es , ma i nt a i ned vege t a t i on , f l ow 0 .6-1 .8 800 m / s (2-6 f t /sec) :
Dep t h of f l ow up to 200 mm (8 in) :
Be rmuda grass , Ken t ucky Bl uegrass , Buf f a l o grass :
Mowed to 50-100 mm (2-4 in) [ f l ow<_ 100 mm (4 in) ] 0 .15
Grasses 50-100 mm (2-4 in) tal l . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . 0 .03 0 .15
Good st and , any grass : He i ght abou t 300 mm (12 in) . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . 0 .09 0 .18
He i gh t to abou t 600 mm (24 in) . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . 0 .15 0 .30
Fa i r st and , any grass : He i gh t abou t 300 mm (12 in) . . . . .. .. . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 .08 0 .14
He i gh t to abou t 600 mm (24 in) . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . . . . . . . 0 .13 0 .25
Dep t h of f l ow 200-450 mm (8-18 in) :
Be rmuda grass , Ken t ucky B l uegrass , Buf f a l o grass :
Mowed to 50 mm (2 in) . . . . .. .. . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . 0 . 035 0 .05
Grasses 100-150 mm (4-6 in) tal l . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . 0 .04 0 .06
Good s t and , any grass : He i ght to abou t 300 mm (12 in) . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . 0 .07 0 .12
He i ght to abou t 600 mm (24 in) . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. . . . . . . . 0 .10 0 . 20
Fa i r st and , any grass : He i ght to abou t 300 mm (12 in) . . . . .. .. .. . . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. . . . . . . . 0 .06 0 . 10
He i ght to abou t 600 mm (24 in) . . . . .. .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. . . . . . . . 0 .09 0 .17
St ree ts and gut t ers : Concre t e gut ter , t rowe l ed f in i sh .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. 0 . 012
Concre t e gut t er w / aspha l t pavemen t , range smoo t h to rough . . . .. . . .. . .. . 0 . 013-0 . 015
Gut t ers w/ f l a t s l opes whe r e sed i men t may accumu l a t e add to above 0 . 002
Aspha l t pavemen t , range smoo t h to rough .. . . .. . .. . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . .. .. .. 0 . 013-0 . 016
Concre t e pavemen t , f loat f in i sh . . .. . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . .. . 0 . 014
Concre t e pavemen t , broom f ini sh . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . 0 . 016
Na tura l s t ream channe l s , sur f ace w i d th at bank fu l l f l ow l ess than 30 me t ers (100 f t ) :
Fa i r l y regu l ar sec t i on :
Some grass and weeds , l i t t le or no brush . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . 0 . 030 0 . 035
Dense growt h of weeds , f l ow dep t h we l l above weed he i ght .. .. .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 0 . 035 0 .05
C Some weeds , l ight brush on banks . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . 0 . 035 0 .05
N
Some weeds , heavy brush on banks . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . 0 .05 0 . 07
N Some weeds , dense w i l l ows on banks . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 0 . 06 0 . 08
For t rees in channe l , w i th some branches subme rged a t
h i gh f l ow, i ncrease al l of above va l ues by .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . . . . 0 . 01-0 .02
C For i r regu l ar sec t i ons , w i th poo l s , s l ight channe l meander ,
i ncrease al l of above va l ues by . . .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. 0 . 01-0 .02
Moun t a i n s t reams , no vege t a t i on in channe l , s t eep banks ,
i t rees and brush a l ong banks subme rged at h i gh f l ow :
N Bo t t om of grave l , cobb l es , f ew bou l ders . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. 0 . 04-0 . 05
Bo t t om of cobb l es to l arge bou l ders .. .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. 0 . 05-0 . 07

0
M
M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330- 27
app l i ed a t any des i gn l eve l and can be used Q = WQV in i nches .
to es t i ma t e a peak d i scharge as we l l as a
T i me o f concent ra t i on is compu t ed us i ng
runof f vo l ume . I t has four s t eps :
SCS me t hods (use a m i n i mum of 0 .1
1 . For ra infa l l dep th , P, se l ect a runof f
hours) . A un i t peak d i scharge (q, ) is ca l cu-
coe f f i c i ent f rom Tab l e 330-13 for each
l a t ed us i ng the norma l SCS Graph i ca l Peak
l and sur f ace .
D i scharge Me t hod descr i bed in subsec t i on
2 . Compu t e a we i gh t ed runof f coe f f i -
5 .5 . The peak d i scharge , qp, is f ound by :
c i ent , R , .
3 . For d i sconnec t ed i mperv i ous sur f aces , qP = q~(A) (WQV)
mu l t i p l y the appropr i a t e reduc t i on
Whe r e :
f ac tor f rom Tab l e 330-14 by the R~ to
f i nd a cor rec t ed va l ue . To use the qP = peak d i scharge in f t3/ sec .
reduc t i on f ac tors , t he i mperv i ous area q , = the un i t peak d i scharge in
above the perv i ous sur f ace shou l d be f t3/ sec pe r squa re m i l e per F i gur e 330 -28 . F l ow componen t s o f
l ess t han ha l f the perv i ous area . A l so , i nch of runof f channe l sec t i ons.
the f l ow pa t h t hrough the perv i ous
area shou l d be tw i ce the i mperv i ous A = the dra i nage area , in square
f l ow pa th . mi l es 330-29 shows t he formu l as for compu t i ng
the e l emen t s of channe l cross sec t i ons for
4 . Ca l cu l a t e WQV us i ng the f ormu l a : WQV = wa t e r qua l i ty vo l ume , in
d i f f erent channe l shapes .
WQV = (P) (R, ) wa t e rshed i nches .
Mann i ngs Equa t i on:
Examp l e : Ca l cu l a t e the runof f vo l ume 6 . 0 CONVEYANCE TECHN I QUES
for a 2 .6 acre sma l l shopp i ng cen t er wa t e r - The f l ow in open channe l s is a func t i on
shed hav i ng a 0 .8 acre f l at roof , 1 .5 acres of ve l oc i ty and the cross-sec t i ona l area of
The f undamen t a l conveyance t echn i ques
of paved park i ng lot and 0 .3 acres of open f l ow. Ve l oc i t y is a func t i on of s l ope , sur f ace
are : channe l s and swa l es , cu l ver ts , and
space (c l ayey soi l s) . Assume a 1 . 25 i nch roughness and cross-sec t i ona l shape . The
s t orm sewe rs . The i r cr i t i ca l des i gn re l a t i on- Mann i ng Formu l a is used to compu t e
ra infa l l even t and no d i sconnec t i on of
sh i ps are ve l oc i t y and vo l ume to ra te of d i s-
i mperv i ous sur f aces . The we i gh t ed vo l u- ve l oc i ty :
charge . Ve l oc i t y is the mos t comp l ex para-
me t r i c runof f coe f f i c i ent is : me t er , expressed in Mann i ng ' s Equa t i on . V =~K R I .67S05
f l at roof : 0 .8 acres x 0 .86 = 0 .7 ~
6 .1 Mann i ng Formu l a
park i ng lot : 1 .5 acres x 0 .98 = 1 .5 Whe r e :
W i t h the except i on of cu l ver ts , s t andard V = ve l oc i t y of f l ow in me t e rs
open space : 0 .3 acres x 0 .22 = 0 .1 des i gn of conveyance s t ruc tures assumes per second ( f t / sec)
st eady , un i form , open channe l f l ow cond i -
tota l : 2 .6 acres 2 .3 t i ons , no t pressure f l ow cond i t i ons . F l ow is n = Mann i ng ' s coe f f i c i ent of
caused by grav i ty . Un i f orm f l ow means f r i ct ion
We i gh t ed Rv = 2 . 3/2 .6 = 0 . 88 dep th , s l ope , ve l oc i t y and cross-sec t i on
R = hydrau l i c rad i us o f f l ow
rema i n cons t an t over the l ength o f the
Ca l cu l a t e wa t e r qua l i ty vo l ume cross-sec t i on in me t e rs ( f t )
channe l .
WQV =(P) (Rv)
S = l ong i tud i na l s l ope o f t he
_ (1 . 25) (0 . 88) = 1 .1 wa t e rshed E l emen t s o f Open Channe l F l ow:
hydrau l i c grade l ine (wa t er
i nches The cross-sec t i ona l componen t s of open sur f ace) in m / m ( f t / f t )
= 1 .1 in ( 1 /12 in/ f t ) channe l f l ow are shown on F i gure 330-28 . K = cons t ant (1 .0 for S . I . un i ts ; C
(2 .6 acres) (43 , 560 f t / acre) In des i gn ca l cu l a t i ons , the e f f ec t of channe l 1 . 486 for U .S . un i ts)
shape is cons i dered by us i ng the hydrau l i c
= 10 , 382 cub i c f ee t of runof f rad i us of the f l ow cross-sec t i on , based on In st eady , un i form open channe l f l ow, N
the f ormu l a : the s l ope o f the wa t e r sur f ace is para l l e l to bA
Sma l l S t orm Hydro l ogy Peak D i scha rge
the s l ope o f the channe l bo t t om . Tab l e
Me t hod: A 330-15 g i ves va l ues for Mann i ng ' s coe f f i -
R_
Whe r e sma l l s t orm peak d i scharges are P c i ent o f f r i ct ion (n) .
needed in U .S . un i ts , SCS curve numbe r s Whe r e : Two o ther a r rangemen t s of the Mann i ng L
can be ad j us t ed for use w i th the SCS TR-55 R = the hydrau l i c rad i us in f ormu l a are conven i en t in conveyance
Graph i ca l Peak D i scharge Me t hod . The me t ers ( feet ) des i gn . D i scharge (Q) can be expressed in
WQV is used w i th t he ra infa l l amoun t to t erms of t he Mann i ng Formu l a us i ng the
ca l cu l a t e a new curve numbe r (CN) by the A = the cross-sec t i ona l area in
fo l l ow i ng f ormu l a (Whe r e A = area of cross-
fo l l ow i ng f ormu l a : square me t e rs (square fee t ) à-
sec t i on o f wa t e r f l ow and V = ve l oc i ty) : 0
1000 P = we t t ed per i me t er in me t e rs
CN = Q=VA
( feet )
10 + 5P + 10Q ( Q 2 + 1 . 25QP) °5
The we t t ed per i me t er is the per i me t er of ' .Q = ( ~ A R ' 6 'S'
Whe r e :
P = des i gn ra infa l l dep t h
the con t a i n i ng cross sec t i on in con t ac t w i th n
M
in i nches wa t e r at the des i gn dep t h of f l ow . F i gure M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330- 2 8
S l ope (S) can t hen be expressed :

S
_f Vn
- (KRos7)

F l ow St ab i l i t y and Cr i t i ca l Dep t h :

The ve l oc i t y of f l ow re l at i ve to the o ther

cross-sec t i ona l charac t er i st i cs is i mpor t an t
to stab i l i ty. Cr i t i ca l ve l oc i ty occurs at cr i t i ca l
depth , the dep t h o f f l ow at wh i ch the d i s-
charge of the sec t i on is max i mum for a spe-
c i f ic ene rgy of f l ow . F l ow becomes very
uns t ab l e as cr i t i ca l f l ow is approached .
When f l ow is deepe r t han cr i t i ca l dep t h
(subcr i t i ca l f l ow) , ve l oc i t y is l owe r t han a t
cr i t i ca l dep t h (F i gure 330-30) . When f l ow is
sha l l ower t han cr i t i ca l dep t h (supercr i t i ca l
f l ow) , ve l oc i t y is h i gher t han a t cr i t i ca l
dep t h .
A common test of channe l sec t i on su i t -
ab i l i ty is to check t he des i gn dep t h or
ve l oc i ty aga i ns t cr i t i ca l depth , or t he cr i t i ca l
ve l oc i ty for t he sec t i on . I f des i gn va l ues are
w i th i n t en percen t of cr i t i ca l va l ues , the
des i gn is cons i dered uns t ab l e .

6 . 2 Channe l s and Swa l es

Open vege t a t ed channe l s and swa l es are
typ i ca l l y componen t s of the m i nor sys t em ,
and are des i gned to convey peak d i s-
charges of runof f . Al l vege t a t ed channe l s
prov i de s i gn i f i cant amoun t s of s torage and
inf i l t rat ion, and are exce l l ent t echn i ques for
reproduc i ng pr e -deve l opmen t hydro l og i c
cond i t i ons . For examp l e , the use of road-
s i de swa l es i ns t ead of curb and s t orm sewe r
in many cases can reduce peak d i scharges
be l ow pr e -deve l opmen t cond i t i ons . Th i s
resu l ts f rom the sheer quant i t y of swa l e
l ength and vo l ume .

F i gur e 330 - 29 . Hydr au l i c e l emen t s o f channe l sec t i ons . For ease o f cons t ruc t i on and hydrau l i c
per formance , swa l es are typ i ca l l y des i gned
C w i th t rapezo i da l cross-sec t i ons . Cross-sec-
t i on des i gn f i ts s i ze and dep t h to accommo -
da t e peak d i scharge us i ng hydrau l i c des i gn
char ts . A bo t t om w i d th and dep t h of f l ow
are se l ec t ed to hand l e the d i scharge f rom a
cd
C t wo year ra infa l l w i thou t reach i ng eros i ve
ve l oc i ty [1 .2 to 1 .5 m / s (4 .0 to 5 .0 f t /sec)
max i mum] . Add i t i ona l dep t h is added to
i accommoda t e the d i scharge f rom a t en year
N ra infa l l w i thou t erod i ng [2 .1 m / s (7 .0 f t /sec)
R3 max i mum] .

Swa l es and channe l s can be enhanced to

t rea t wa t e r qua l i ty vo l ume ( WQV) . In these
i
cases des i gn star ts by se l ec t i ng bo t t om
w i dth , dep t h and l ength suf f i c i ent to ho l d
the WQV. Add i t i ona l dep t h for the t wo

0 year and t en year ra infa l l s is prov i ded . F l ow

M a t WQV dep t h shou l d be no f ast er t han

0 .3 m / s (1 .0 f t / sec) and l ong enough to
M F i gur e 330 - 30 . Cr i t i ca l Dep t h and f l ow cha r ac t e r o f channe l s

T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 330 - 29

F i gur e 330 -31 . Bas i c channe l and swa l e t ypes .

crea t e a t l east 10 m i nu t es of t rave l t i me dra i n i ng i nto t he cu l ver t . Long i tud i na l to ca l cu l a t e the headwa t e r crea t ed by each
over i ts l ength . Examp l e sec t i ons of four s l opes shou l d be be t ween 1 % and 2% cond i t i on and assume t he wors t case pre-
bas i c channe l and swa l e t ypes are shown w i t hou t the use of check dams . S l opes may va i l s . Whe r e headwa t e r exceeds 1 .2 d i ame -
on F i gure 330-31 . Des i gn char t s for t rape- be s t eeper i f check dams are p l aced a l ong ters of p i pe above the cu l ver t inl et , ant i -seep
zo i da l sec t i ons w i th 2 :1 s i de s l opes are t he l eng th . For dry swa l es a 750 mm (30 in) co l l ars shou l d be a t t ached every 6 m (20 f t )
shown as F i gures 330-32 t hrough 330-34 . deep grave l bed w i th underdra i n shou l d be a l ong the cu l ver t bar re l , to prevent seepage
Bo t t om w i d ths shou l d not be w i de r t han 1 used ove r the bo t t om w i dth , and the cav i t a t i on a round the cu l ver t .
800 mm (6 f t ) to preven t bra i d i ng at l ow under l y i ng soi l bed shou l d be mode ra t e l y
F i gure 330-36 shows an examp l e of a
f l ows . O t he r shapes , s i de s l opes and bot - pe rmeab l e . So i l s unde r the we t swa l e s t andard ca l cu l a t i on w i t h the st eps out -
t om w i d ths can be des i gned us i ng a com- shou l d be und i s turbed . F l ow dep t h for
l i ned . F i gure 330-37 is a nomogr aph for
put er mode l to so l ve Mann i ng ' s Equa t i on . WQV shou l d not exceed 450 mm (18 in) .
so l ut i on of headwa t e r dep t h for in l et con-
Des i gn Char t s : t ro l . F i gure 330-38 is a nomogr aph for the
Gr assed Channe l s:
so l ut i on of head dep t h for out l e t cont ro l .
F i gure 330-31a is a dra i nage channe l WQV vo l ume or d i scharge (Q) in U .S . Bo t h nomogr aphs are for cor ruga t ed me t a l
des i gned to just convey runof f w i t hou t ero- un i ts for swa l es and channe l s is f ound us i ng p i pes . Ca l cu l a t i ons for o ther p i pe t ypes and
s i on or over - topp i ng . F i gure 330-31b is a des i gn char t s . An ini t ia l cross-sec t i on is shapes can be accomp l i shed w i th compu t e r
grassed channe l des i gned for f i l ter i ng the de t e rm i ned by se l ec t i ng a t r ial n and chan- programs or w i th nomogr aphs f ound in
WQV peak d i scharge . F l ow dep t h for ne l bo t t om w i d t h . Se l ec t the char t cor re- Hydrau l i c Des i gn o f H i ghway Cu l ver t s -
WQV shou l d not exceed 100 mm (4 in) . spond i ng to bo t t om w i d t h f rom F i gures Hydrau l i c Des i gn Ser i es No . 5 (1985) pub-
330-32 t hrough 330-34 . Use Qn to ent er C
Long i tud i na l s l opes shou l d no t exceed 4% l i shed by the Federa l H i ghway Adm i n i s-
or be l ess than 1 % . Use n = 0 .15 for wa t e r the char t (bo t tom) and f i nd a cor respond- t ra t i on ( FHWA- I P-85-15) . F i gure 330-39 is
qua l i ty dep t h . For deepe r f l ows , n var i es i ng Vn and dep t h a t the des i gn l ong i tud i na l a nomogr aph for f i nd i ng va l ues of cr i t i ca l a)
f rom 0 . 15 to 0 .03 . s l ope . Ve l oc i t y is f ound by d i v i d i ng Vn by n . dep th , d c , in c i rcu l ar p i pes . The bas i c
The process is repea t ed for each des i gn Cu
en t rance cond i t i ons and f l ow coe f f i c i ents C
Dry and We t Swa l es: s t orm us i ng an appropr i a t e n va l ue . for me t a l p i pe cu l ver t s are shown in F i gure
Channe l s w i t h s l opes w i th i n 10% o f the 330-40 .
F i gure 330-31 c is a dry swa l e tha t ponds
cr i t i ca l s l opes shown on the char t s shou l d
and inf i l t rates the WQV benea t h the swa l e In ac i d soi ls, me t a l cu l ver ts shou l d be L
be d i scarded , and a d i f f erent con f i gura t i on
out l e t . F i gure 330-31d is a we t swa l e tha t fu l l y paved or concre t e cu l ver ts shou l d be
(bo t t om w i d th) cons i dered .
s tores the wa t e r qua l i ty vo l ume benea t h used . F i gure 330-41 shows m i n i mum
the swa l e out l e t and exposes the wa t e r dep t hs of cove r ove r cu l ver ts requ i red to
6 .3 Cu l ver t s
t ab l e to crea t e a we t l and in the swa l e bot - d i st r i but e whee l l oads ove r the arch of the
t om . Storage shou l d dra i n s l ow l y over 24 Cu l ver t s are des i gned to wor k unde r i
bar re l . Cu l ver t s l opes may be a l mos t f l at , O
hours and is bes t cont ro l l ed w i th a v-no t ch pressure f l ow cond i t i ons as they cause and l i t t le add i t i ona l f l ow advan t age is
we i r cut i nto a check dam . Bo t h t ypes of wa t e r to back up at the in l et end of the N
ga i ned above a 2% s l ope .
swa l e shou l d have a forebay made w i t h a p i pe . F i gure 330-35 shows the var i ous cu l -
check dam at the cu l ver t ent ry i nto the ver t componen t s . The he i ght of wa t e r cre-
swa l e . The f orebay shou l d ho l d a vo l ume a t ed a t the in l et may be caused by in l et or M
equa l to 0 . 05 t i mes the i mperv i ous area out l e t const r i c t i on . St andard procedure is M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330- 30

+r
C
(1)
E0
bi
cd
C
W

td

i
O

F i gure 330-32 . Des i gn char t for t rapezo i da l channe l s (2 f t . bo t t om w i d th , 2 :1 s i de s l opes) .

M
M
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 330- 3 1

aA
c
cd

cd

E
0

F i gure 330-33 . Des i gn char t for t rapezo i da l channe l s (4 f t . bo t t om w i d th , 2 :1 s i de s l opes) . O

M
M
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 330- 32

c
a)
ECU
bA
s`

CU

E
0

0 F i gur e 330 - 34 . Des i gn cha r t f or t r apezo i da l channe l s (6 f t . bo t t om w i d t h , 2 :1 s i de s l opes ) .

M
M
T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ur
 330 - 3 3

6 .4 Storm Sewers
St orm sewe rs are usua l l y des i gned us i ng th(
Ra t i ona l Me t hod for the 10 year ra infa l
even t . Dura t i on is assumed equa l to th(
t i me of concent ra t i on a t the po i nt when
f l ow is ca l cu l a t ed . For sma l l sys t ems , des i gr
beg i ns by i dent i f y i ng inl et and manho l (
l oca t i ons , and connec t i ng st ra i ght p i pe run
be t ween manho l es (F i gure 330-42) . Man
ho l es prov i de p i pe -end access for c l ean i ng
and i nspec t i on , and may or may not be use(
as inl et st ruc tures . P i pes f rom in l ets to man
ho l es are not typ i ca l l y s i zed, as m i n i mun
p i pe s i ze is rare l y exceeded by inl et f l ow
M i n i mum p i pe s i ze is dependen t on the typ(
of p i pe used . Po l yv i ny l Ch l or i de (PVC) p ip(
may be as sma l l as 200 to 250 mm (8 to 1(
i nches) , wh i l e concre t e p i pe is typ i ca l l y a
l east 300 mm (12 i nches) . Des i gn focuses or
se l ec t i ng p i pe s i zes be t ween manho l es tc
car ry des i gn f l ows and se t t i ng i nver t e l eva
t i ons and p i pes s l opes . Prof i l es cut throug l
t he cent er l i ne o f p i pes and manho l es ar (
used to cont ro l manho l e depths , and p ip(
s l opes and i nver ts .

Des i gn F l ows:

Max i mum d i scharge t hrough c i rcu l ar p i pe-.

occurs when dep t h of f l ow is abou t 90 pe r F i gur e 330 - 35 . Componen t s o f cu l ve r t s .
cent of p i pe d i ame t er . S t orm sewe rs ar (
typ i ca l l y des i gned to f l ow ful l to the p ip(
t op . Th i s a l l ows a ma rg i n of sa f e t y in des i gr
ca l cu l a t i ons . P i pe s i zes and s l opes can b(
se l ec t ed to ma t ch ca l cu l a t ed runof f d i s
charges us i ng Tab l e 330-16 .

To se t p i pes at o ther s l opes , use F i gur (

330 - 43 to se l ec t p i pe s i zes and so l v(
Mann i ng ' s Equa t i on in U .S . un i ts . Ve l oc i ty
and dep t h of f l ow for des i gn d i scharges o
par t i a l l y ful l p i pes can be ca l cu l a t ed us i ng
Tab l e 330-17 . Fu l l -p i pe d i scharge is foun t
mu l t i p l y i ng ve l oc i ty by area . Area and ve l oc
i ty are f ound for the ful l p i pe sec t i or C
(hydrau l i c rad i us of c i rcu l ar p i pes = D i ame t er N
4) . Des i gn d i scharge as a rat io of ful l p ip(
d i scharge is used w i th the t ab l e to f i nd th(
des i gn dep t h of f l ow and the des i gn ve loc i - bA
ty f rom the ra t i o of ful l p i pe ve l oc i ty.
(u
C
Cu
Des i gn Ca l cu l a t i ons :

Des i gn ca l cu l a t i ons wor k downs t r eam f ror r F i gur e 330 - 36 . Examp l e cu l ve r t des i gn ca l cu l a t i on f orm . à. -
the uppe rmos t manho l e , s i z i ng the p i p( Cu
l eav i ng the manho l e to accommoda t e the
to the f i rst in l et p l us p i pe f l ow t i me to the bu i l d-up in p i pes . A ve l oc i ty of 0.9 m / s (3 .C
sum of al l f l ows ent er i ng the manho l e . Th(
manho l e of i nterest is used for the t i me of f t /sec) wi l l r emove heavy sands . Max i mur r
rout i ng of f l ows t hrough t he sys t em is han- concent ra t i on for the subsequen t subca t ch- ve l oc i ty is usua l l y 3 m / s (10 f t /sec) .
d l ed by us i ng a progress i ve l y l onger t i me of i
men t s . Whe r e branches converge , the O
concent ra t i on to accoun t for f l ow t i me tc Turbu l ence causes ve l oc i ty loss at man -
l onges t f l ow t i me is used .
the po i nt of concern . T i me of concent ra t i or ho l es . To compensa t e , the i nver ts of p i pes

0
to the uppe rmos t manho l e is the t i me of Ve l oc i t i es: ex i t i ng the manho l e mus t be l owe r thar
those o f ent er i ng p i pes . S i nce ex i t i ng p i pes
M
over l and f l ow (m i n i mum 5 m i nu t es) . Fo i
A s t andard m i n i mum des i gn ve l oc i ty of 0 .6 are l arger in d i ame t er t han ent er i ng p i pes
M
subsequen t subca t chmen t s , over l and f lovv
t i me is i gnored . The sum of over l and f lov, m / s (2 . 0 f t / sec) is used to preven t sed i men t the drop is accomp l i shed by ho l d i ng the

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 330 - 34

F i gur e 330 - 37 . Headwa t e r dep t hs f or cor ruga t ed me t a F i gur e 330 - 38 . Head f or s t anda rd cor ruga t ed me t a l p i pe
p i pe cu l ve r t s w i t h i n l e t con t ro l (U . S . un i t s) . cu l ve r t s f l ow i ng fu l l [ou t l e t con t ro l , n=0 . 024] (U . S . un i t s) .

P i pe Ma t er i a l s :
Typ i ca l p i pe ma t er i a l s i nc l ude re i nforced
concre t e p i pe (RCP) , cor ruga t ed me t a l p i pe
(CMP) , h i gh dens i t y po l ye thy l ene (HDPE)
p l ast i c p i pe and po l yv i ny l ch l or i de (PVC)
p l ast i c p i pe . A m i n i mum d i ame t e r o f 200
mm (8 i nches) is r ecommended to m i n i -
m i ze b l ockages . P i pes are a l so ava i l ab l e in
C ova l and arch shapes.

7 . 0 STORAGE TECHN I QUES

N
bl
St orage is used to reduce the peak d i s-
C cha rge f rom deve l oped cond i t i ons to the
F i gur e 330 - 39 . Cr i t i ca l dep t h , dc , nomog r aph f or c i rcu l ar p i pe (U .S . un i t s) .
pre -deve l opmen t l eve l . We t de t ent i on can
be used to i mprove wa t e r qua l i ty . De t en-
i t i on for f l ood prot ec t i on is bes t prov i ded on
p i pe tops (crowns) at the same e l eva t i on . ranges f rom 100 to 150 me t e rs (300 to 500 a reg i ona l bas i s ra ther t han on an i nd i v i dua l
cd At manho l es whe r e the p i pe run de f l ec ts f t ) . M i n i mum manho l e dep t h is a func t i on s i te bas i s . Genera l l y , s torage prov i ded in
3 ove r 45° the m i n i mum i nver t drop shou l d of headroom needed for ma i n t enance t he uppe r th i rd of a wa t e rshed wi l l reduce
be 75 mm (3 in) . worke rs . St andard i nter i or manho l e d i ame -
i ter is 1 200 mm (4 .0 f t ) . P i pe l engths are
downs t r eam f l ood i ng . Storage l oca t ed in
t he l ower th i rd o f a wa t e rshed wi l l genera l -
Manho l es : measur ed to the i ns i de of manho l e wa l l s . l y i ncrease f l ood i ng . Wa t e r qua l i ty de t en-
N Manho l es are usua l l y cus t om f abr i ca t ed of
The max i mum spac i ng be t ween manho l es t i on can be prov i ded anywhe r e in the
is a func t i on of c l ean i ng equ i pmen t capa - precas t conc re t e or heavy cor ruga t ed wa t e rshed tha t prov i des cap ture of the
bi l i ty, and is typ i ca l l y spec i f i ed by l oca l gov - me t a l , but may a l so be l a id up w i th un i t wa t e r qua l i ty vo l ume of runof f . Wa t e r
M e rnmen t s . Max i mum manho l e spac i ng masonr y in the f i e ld . qua l i ty de t ent i on is typ i ca l l y mos t econom-
M
T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330- 35

F i gur e 330 - 40 . Bas i c en t r ance cond i t i ons f or cu l ve r t s

F i gur e 330 -41 . M i n i mum p i pe cove r

ove r cu l ve r t s .

Tab l e 330 - 16 . QUANT I T I ES , VELOC I T I ES AND SLOPES FOR C I RCULAR SEWERS FLOW I NG FULL (U . S . Un i t s)

P i pe D i a .
i nches 2 . 0 f ps 3 . 0 f ps 4 . 0 f ps S . 0 f ps 6 . 0 f ps 7 . 0 f ps 8 . 0 f ps
8 Q 0 . 70 1 .1 1 .4 1 .8 2 .1 2 .4 2 .8
S* 3 .3 7 .5 13 .3 20 .8 30 .0 40 .7 53 .2
10 Q 1 .1 1 .6 2 .2 2 .7 3 .3 3 .8 4 .4
S* 2 .5 5 .6 9 .9 15 .5 22 .3 30 .3 39 . 6
12 Q 1 .6 2 .4 3 .1 3 .9 4 .7 5 .5 6 .3
S* 1 .9 4 .4 7 .8 12 .1 17 .5 23 .8 31 .0
15 Q 2 .5 3 .7 4 .9 6 .1 7 .4 8 .6 9 .8
S* 1 .4 3 .2 5 .8 9 .0 13 .0 17 .8 23 .0
18 Q 3 .5 5 .3 7 .1 8 .8 10 .6 12 .4 14 .2 C
S* 1 .1 2 .5 4 .5 7 .1 10 .1 13 .8 18 .1
21 Q 4 .8 7 .2 9 .6 12 .0 14 .4 17 .8 19 .2
S* 0 .92 2 .1 3 .7 5 .8 8 .3 11 .3 14 .7 (1)
24 Q 6 .3 9 .4 12 .6 15 .7 18 .8 22 .0 25 .2
S* 0 .77 1 .7 3 .1 4 .8 7 .0 9 .5 12 .4 C
23 .9 27 .9 31 .9 R3
27 Q 8 .0 11 .9 15 .9 19 .9
S* 0 . 66 1 .5 2 .6 4 .1 5 .9 8 .1 10 .5
30 Q 9 .8 14 .7 19 .6 24 .5 29 .4 34 .4 39 .3 L
7 .0 9 .2 N
S* 0 . 57 1 .3 2 .3 3 .6 5 .2
33 Q 11 .9 17 .8 23 .8 29 .7 35 .7 41 .7 47 .6
S* 0 . 50 1 .1 2 .0 3 .1 4 .5 6 .2 8 .1
36 Q 14 .1 21 .2 28 .3 35 .4 32 .4 49 .5 56 .6 L
S* 0 . 45 1 .1 1 .8 2 .8 4 .0 5 .5 7 .2 O
42 Q 19 .2 28 .9 38 . 4 48 .1 57 .7 67 .3 76 .9 N
S* 0 . 36 0 .82 1 .5 2 .3 3 .3 4 .5 5 .8
48 0 25 .2 37 .7 50 .3 62 .8 75 .4 88 .0 101 .0
0
S* 0 . 30 0 .68 1 .2 1 .9 2 .7 3 .7 4 .9
M
*S l opes are in thousandths of feet per foot M
T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 330- 3 6

F i gure 330-42 . Typ i ca l manho l e w i th i n l e ts .

Tab l e 330-17 . HYDRAUL I C CHARACTER I ST I CS OF C I RCULAR PI PE

Dep t h o f f l ow Par t i a l a r ea D i scha rge par t fu l l Ve l oc i t y par t l y fu l l

Ins i de d i ame t e r To t a l a r ea D i scha rge f l ow i ng fu l l Ve l oc i t y f l ow i ng fu l l
0 0 0 0
C 0 .05 0 .019 0 .005 0 .25
N 0 .10 0 .052 0 .021 0 .40
0 .15 0 .094 0 .049 0 .52
0 .20 0.143 0.088 0 .62
0 .25 0.196 0.137 0 .70
G 0 .30 0.252 0.195 0 .77
0 .35 0.312 0 .262 0 . 84
0 .40 0 .374 0 .336 0 . 90
i
0 .45 0 .437 0 .416 0 .95
0 .50 0 .500 0 .500 1 . 00
0 .60 0 .627 0 .671 1 .07
0 .70 0 .748 0 .837 1 .12
i 0 .80 0 .858 0 .977 1 .14
0 0 . 90 0 .950 1 .067 1 .12
0 . 95 0 .982 1 .075 1 .09
1 . 00 1 .000 1 .000 1 . 00
0
M
M
T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330 - 3 7

7 .2 SCS S t or age Vo l ume f or

De t en t i on Bas i ns

Th i s is a qu i ck manua l me t hod of es t i ma t i ng
the re l a t i onsh i p be t ween s torage vo l ume
and d i scharge in de t ent i on ponds w i thou t
ac tua l rout i ng ca l cu l a t i ons . I t is i n t ended
ma i n l y for schema t i c des i gn and has a b i as
t owa rd overs i z i ng ponds . I t shou l d no t be
used for f ina l pond des i gn whe r e an er ror in
s torage of 25 percent canno t be to l era t ed .
Mor e accura t e es t i ma t i on can be prov i ded
by compu t e r programs .

F i gure 330-45 may be used to f i nd e i ther

the vo l ume of s torage (V, ) needed to reduce
a peak d i scharge , or to f i nd the runof f d i s-
charge (qo) f rom a g i ven vo l ume of pond
s torage in U .S . un i ts . The f i rst case (mos t
common ) is used when runof f f rom deve l -
oped cond i t i ons mus t be he l d at or be l ow
pre -deve l opmen t peak d i scharge ra tes . The
second case is typ i ca l l y used to de t erm i ne
the e f f ec t of a known pond vo l ume on peak
d i scharge f rom a g i ven des i gn s torm .

7 .3 Ra t i ona l Mass I n f l ow Me t hod

Th i s me t hod cons t ruc t s a synthe t i c curve

represent i ng cumu l a t i ve s t orm runof f over
t i me us i ng the Ra t i ona l Formu l a and an IDF
curve . Th i s me t hod shou l d on l y be used for
sma l l ca t chmen t areas such as roof s and
park i ng lots . Ou t f l ow d i scharge ra t e is gen-
era l l y f i xed or assumed . The i nf l ow curve is
ca l cu l a t ed f rom runof f , t he ou t f l ow ' curve '
is ca l cu l a t ed f rom t he d i scharge ra te . The
max i mum d i f f erence be t ween the t wo is
the s torage vo l ume needed .

Tab l e 330-18 i l lust rates a samp l e s torage

ca l cu l a t i on us i ng the Ra t i ona l Mass Inf l ow
F i gur e 330 -43 . Nomog r aph f or p i pe s i z i ng and so l u t i on o f Mann i ng ' s Equa t i or
(U . S . un i t s) . me t hod .

7 .4 ' Cha i nsaw ' Wa t e r Ba l ance

ical i f prov i ded as par t of a d i st r i ct or A = sur f ace area of pond in Ana l ys i s
reg i ona l p l an . square me t e rs (square fee t ) C
Whe r e a pe rmanen t pond is i nt ended , i t is O
Mos t s torage bas i ns are cons t ruc t ed as 7 .1 S t age -S t or age Cur ves : a good prac t i ce to conduc t a wa t e r ba l ance
excava t ed bas i ns i f poss i b l e . Excava t i ng is ana l ys i s to see wha t wi l l l i ke l y happen to 0
typ i ca l l y l ess t echn i ca l , and l ess expens i ve , Prec i se pond vo l umes may be de t e rm i ned the wa t e r sur f ace ove r t i me . A wa t e r ba l - 4A
cd
t han cons t ruc t i ng ear th- f i l l dams for us i ng con tours and vo l ume es t i ma t i on . Th i s ance is a mon t h l y accoun t i ng of the e f f ec t C
embankmen t ponds . For schema t i c des i gn , me t hodo l ogy is used to deve l op s t age-s tor - on wa t e r sur f ace e l eva t i on of runof f , evap- cd
pond vo l ume may be rough l y es t i ma t ed by age curves for pond l eve l de t erm i na t i on ora t i on , and inf i l t rat ion . Mon t h l y ca l cu l a-
t he fo l l ow i ng formu l a : and for se t t i ng pond out l e t e l eva t i ons . A t i ons are con t i nued unt i l an annua l pa t t ern i
s t age -s torage curve is a p l ot of vo l ume is repea t ed . Th i s approach is dubbed
V = 1 DA s tored a t each poss i b l e wa t e r sur f ace e l eva - ' Cha i nsaw ' because i t is very rough , but
3 t i on . The po i nt s of the curve are usua l l y suf f i c i ent to ge t a genera l i dea of pond per -
p l ot t ed for each me t e r ( foot ) of pond f ormance . Tab l e 330-19 shows a por t i on of
Whe r e :
dep th , and then v i sua l l y i nt egra t ed i nto a an examp l e ca l cu l a t i on . i
V = vo l ume of wa t e r in cub i c O
curve tha t connec t s the po i nt s (F i gure
me t ers (cub i c fee t ) 330-44) . Da t a needs are : loca l ave rage mon t h l y
D = max i mum dep t h in me t e rs prec i p i ta t i on depths , loca l ave rage mon t h l y
( feet ) evapora t i on ra tes f rom l ake and reservo i r
sur f aces , and an es t i ma t e of mon t h l y inf i l -
M
t rat i on based on soi l s unde r the pond . In the
M

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 4 l A- :k f t

Tempor a ry ponds are usua l l y we t de t ent i on

ponds for t rapp i ng sed i ment , w i th the i r
respec t i ve des i gn s torms be i ng 2-year and
10-year , 24 hour even t s .
Sp i l l ways may be des i gned as cu l ver ts
w i th ant i -seep co l l ars or as comb i na t i ons o f
we i rs . Ou t f l ow dev i ce in l ets are p l aced a t
the pond bo t t om t o dra i n the pond com-
p l e te l y (F i gure 330-47) .

Max i mum dep t h of s torage is es t ab-

l i shed us i ng a s t age -s torage curve and the
des i gn pond vo l ume . The eme rgency spi l l -
way i nver t e l eva t i on is usua l l y se t 150 mm
(6 in) above the wa t e r sur f ace o f the pr i n-
c i pa l sp i l l way des i gn s t orm .

7 . 6 We t De t en t i on Ponds
F i gur e 330 - 44 . Examp l e o f a s t age - s t or age cur ve .
We t de t ent i on ponds are des i gned to have
a pe rmanen t poo l of wa t e r w i th add i t i ona l
vo l ume above the wa t e r sur f ace for han-
d l i ng runof f pu l ses . We t de t ent i on has
become a s t anda rd requ i remen t for
remova l of sed i men t f rom runof f . Temp -
orary s torage dep t hs can be added above
the sed i men t t rea t men t des i gn i f des i red .
The s t andard componen t s of a we t
de t ent i on pond sed i men t remova l are : a
forebay , a s torage bas i n and an out l e t st ruc-
ture (F i gure 330-48) . The forebay s l ows and
spreads runof f f l ow us i ng r i p- rap or a l eve l -
spreader or both . For the grea t es t e f f i c i ency ,
the s torage bas i n shou l d be l ong and nar -
row , w i th a t empora ry de t ent i on dep t h of
900 to 1 200 mm (3 .0 f t . t o 4 .0 f t ) .
F i gure 330-49 shows a typ i ca l cross-sec-
t i on for a we t de t ent i on pond . Sa f e t y is a
conce rn in pond des i gn . S l opes a l ong the
shore l i ne shou l d be gradua l (1 :4 or l ess)
and / or prot ec t ed by dense up l and p l ant i -
ngs . A 6 000 mm (20 f t ) f l at she l f (1 : 10
s l ope or l ess) shou l d be prov i ded a t the
C wa t er ' s edge i f poss i b l e. Sa f e t y f enc i ng
F i gur e 330 - 45 . SCS App rox i ma t e de t en t i on bas i n rou t i ng f or ra i nf a l l t ypes I ,
IA, I I and I l l . shou l d be avo i ded , un l ess no o ther a l t erna-
t i ve is ava i l ab l e .

Regu l a t i ons for sed i men t set t l i ng typ i ca l l y

U .S . the mon t h l y prec i p i ta t i on and evapora - de t e rm i ned by e i ther the SCS Me t hod or t arge t a 5 m i cron or 20 m i c ron par t i c l e for
C t i on ra tes are p l ot t ed on maps tha t may be t he Ra t i ona l Mass Inf l ow Me t hod . sed i men t remova l pe r f ormance . Tab l e 330-
ob t a i ned f rom the st a t e NRCS eng i neer i ng 20 shows t he m i n i mum wa t e r sur f ace area
A l l ponds shou l d have a t l east t wo t ypes
of f i ce . Inf i l t rat ion ra t es can be deve l oped for we t sed i men t a t i on ponds . Tab l es 330-
i of out l e ts : (1) a pr i nc i pa l sp i l l way and (2) an
f rom soi l da t a , or mor e accura t e l y f rom f i e ld 21 t hrough 330-23 show m i n i mum wa t e r
tests . In add i t i on , s t andard wa t e rshed da t a eme rgency or over f l ow sp i l l way (see F i gure
330-46) . The pr i nc i pa l sp i l l way is an out l e t sur f ace s i zes for sa t i s f ac tory remova l s a t
is needed and a s t age s torage -curve for t he each s t age of head ove r out l e t i nver ts for
pond mus t be cons t ruc t ed . s i zed to a re l ease ra te for the des i gned pond
vo l ume . The eme rgency sp i l l way prov i des var i ous out l e t t ypes . In genera l , v-no t ch
i an a l t erna t i ve re l ease pa th for cases when we i rs prov i de the grea t es t prec i s i on of f l ow
7 . 5 Dr y De t en t i on Ponds
O the pr i nc i pa l sp i l l way is b l ocked or the cont ro l and the sma l l es t pond areas.
Dry de t en t i on ponds are t yp i ca l l y capac i t y of the pond is exceeded . In pe rma -
des i gned to dra i n w i th i n 72 hours a f t er a nen t ponds , the pr i nc i pa l sp i l l way des i gn
ra i ns torm . D i scharge ra t e is cont ro l l ed a t or s t orm ranges f rom 10 year to 100-year , 24-
M be l ow pre -deve l opmen t peak d i scharge . hour ra i nfa l l . Eme rgency sp i l l ways are
M The des i gn vo l ume for sma l l ponds may be des i gned to pass a 100 year , 24 hour s torm .

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 330- 39
Tab l e 330 - 18 . EXAMPLE RAT I ONAL MASS I NFLOW STORAGE VOLUME CALCULAT I ON (U . S . un i t s )

De t e rm i ne t he amoun t of s torage needed on a 40 , 000 s . f . (0 . 92 acres) roo f t op (A) for a yea r s torm, g i ven a roo f dra i n
tha t wi l l d i scharge a max i mum o f 0 . 16 c . f .s . Assume runof f coe f f i c i ent (C) o f 1 . 0 .
The ca l cu l a t i ons t o produce t he vo l umes for t he i nf l ow and ou t f l ow curves , and t he resu l t i ng s torage requ i remen t s a t
each t i me i nterva l are shown in t he fo l l ow i ng t ab l e :

a b c d e f h
Ou t f l ow Ou t f l ow S t o r age
T i me I n f l ow vo l ume d i scha rge vo l ume i n r equ i r ed
in 1, T i me i n i n cu . f t . ra te in cu. f t . cu . f t .
M i n. A xC i n . / hr . Seconds (Co l . b - c - d) cfs (Co l . d - f ) (Co l . e -g )

10 092 7 . 02 600 3 , 875 0 , 16 96 3 , 779

15 092 5 . 76 900 4 , 769 0 . 16 144 4 , 625

30 0 . 92 3 . 80 1 , 800 6 , 293 0 . 16 288 6 , 005

60 092 2 .31 3 , 600 7 , 651 0 . 16 576 7 , 075

120 0 . 92 1 . 28 7 , 200 8 , 479 0 . 16 1 , 152 7 , 327

360 0 . 92 0 . 59 21 , 600 11 , 724 0 . 16 3 , 456 8 , 268`

720 092 0 . 38 43 , 200 15 , 102 0 . 16 6 , 912 8 , 190

I 1440 I 0 , 92 I 0 . 22 86 , 400 17 , 587 0. 16 I 13 , 824 3 , 763 I

` Max i mum s torage vo l ume
1

requ i red on roo f .

Tab l e 330 - 19 . PART I AL " CHA I NSAW r r WATER BALANCE CALCULAT I ON EXAMPLE (U . S. un i t s )

1 e l emen t / mon t h Ap r . May June Ju l y Aug. Sep t . Oc t . Nov . Dec. Jan.

2 mo . pr ec i p i t a t i on , 2 .1 3 .2 4 .1 3 .5 3 .6 2 .5 1 .9 1 .3 1 .6 1 .6
in .

3 s t a r t wa t e r 100 .0 102 .0 102 .5 103 .0 102 .0 102 .5 102 .5 102 .2 101 .5 103 . 4
sur f ace e l .
4 +runo f f vo l ume 2 .2 3 .4 4 .4 3 .7 3 .8 2 .7 2 .0 1 .4 1 .7 1 .7
f l ow i n t o pond
( ac . f t . )

5 new wa t e r
~ sur f ace e l .
103 .4 105 .4 105 .9 105 .7 105 .5 105 .2 104 .9 104. 0 103 .9 105 . 0
c
N
6 - dep t h o f 1 .1 2 .5 2 .4 2 .5 2 .5 2 .4 2 .5 2 .4 0 0
mon t h l y i n f i l t ra -
t i on ( c l ay a t 0. 04 134
i n / hr i n f t .
C
7 - dep t h o f avg. 3 0 .4 0 .5 0 .5 0 .5 0 .3 0 .2 0 .1 0. 4 0 .4
mo . ev ., f t .
103 .4 104 . 6
I ~:1. ( row Ss ur f
pond 1102 .0 102 . 5 103 .0 102 . 0 102 .5 102 .5 102 .2 1101 .5 i
8 c6 N

The star t ing wa ter sur face e l evat ion (Row 3) is the pond bot tom for the f i rst month the pond wi l l col lect runof f . For each month thereaf ter it is the end pond sur face
e l evat ion (Row 7) f rom the previous month.
Runof f vo l ume (Row 4) is found us ing the sma l l storm hydro l ogy me thod to conver t average month l y rainfal l depth into average month l y runof f depth (WQV) . L
Row 5 is found us ing the pond stage-storage curve . Us ing the curve's storage scale, the runof f vo l ume f rom Row 4 is added to the vo l ume for the depth in Row 3.
The cor respond ing new e l evat ion is found on the curve's stage sca le .
Row 6 va lues account for l eakage of the pond through a si l ty-clay sea l ( loss rate per hour t imes hours in the month) . In the examp l e , a sha l low pond is assumed to
have no inf i l t rat ion losses whi l e f rozen in the winter .
Note , prec ipi tat ion and evaporat ion are sti l l used in winter months to crude l y account for snowfa l l and evaporat ion f rom snow . Two year 's wor th of ca lculat ions are
usua l ly suf f icient to determi ne whe ther the pond wi l l fill and ma inta in a water sur face . M

T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 330 - 40

F i gur e 330 - 46 . De t en t i on pond w i t h pr i nc i pa l and eme rgency sp i l l ways .

F i gur e 330 - 47 . Schema t i c pro f i l e o f dry de t en t i on pond .

1 . Compu t e peak d i scharge for WQV Cw = we i r f l ow coe f f i c i ent f rom

8 . 0 FLOW CONTROL
us i ng the sma l l s t orm me t hod . Tab l e 330-24
TECHN I QUES
2 . Compu t e the peak d i scharge for the
L = the l ength of t he we i r in
" bypass " s torm us i ng the Ra t i ona l
8 .1 O f f - l i ne D i ve r s i ons me t e rs ( f t )
Formu l a or SCS TR-55 .
C Wa t e r qua l i ty cont ro l fac i l i t i es are prot ec t ed 3 . S i ze WQV d i scharge s lots , open i ngs H = head or he i gh t of t he wa t e r
f rom sed i men t scour by d i ver t i ng f l ows in or p i pe us i ng t he we i r f ormu l a for s i z- sur f ace above the we i r crest
excess of the WQV a round t hem , put t i ng i ng gra t e in l ets (see subsec t i on 8 .3 measur ed in me t ers ( feet ) ,
"of f - l i ne " f rom l arge s t orm f l ows . Dra i n In l ets) .
bA t hem shor t d i s t ance ups t ream
cu The bes t me t hod for accomp l i sh i ng th i s is 4 . S i ze ove r f l ow we i r for " bypass s torm" f rom the we i r
C to se t a d i vers i on we i r w i th i n the fac i l i ty to (see subsec t i on 8 .2 We i rs) .
cLf
be prot ec t ed tha t is equa l to t he des i gn Leve l spreaders are used to d i st r i but e
WQV e l eva t i on . The over f l ow we i r is s i zed 8 .2 We i r s and Leve l Spr eade r s f l ows even l y ove r a w i de area to m i n i m i ze
i to pass d i scharges in excess of t he WQV. eros i on or max i m i ze f i l ter ing by vege t a t ed
N We i r f l ow is i l l ust rated in F i gure 330-51 . sur f aces . Whe r e the we i r has a rec t angu l ar
D i vers i on st ruc tures can a l so be i nsta l l ed F l ow (Q) in m3 / s ( f t3/sec) over cres t ed crest , or t he crest is an ear then bank , and is
in the dra i nage ne t work ups t ream f rom the we i rs may be compu t ed us i ng t he we i r f l ow pos i t i oned t ransverse l y across the d i rec t i on
fac i l i ty t o be t aken of f - l i ne . In p i ped sys- equa t i on : of f l ow use the above equa t i on to ca l cu l a t e
a. t ems , a cont ro l box s t ruc ture (F i gure 330- Q = CwLH " the f l ow. Whe r e the we i r is pos i t i oned par -
O 50) is used . In open channe l sys t ems , a a l l e l to the f l ow (F i gure 330-52) d i ver t i ng
check dam can be se t d i agona l l y to d i ver t Whe r e : excess f l ow to the s i de of the ma i n d i rec-
t he WQV to the t rea t men t fac i l i ty and Q = quant i t y of d i scharge in t i on of f l ow ( rec t angu l ar crest ) use the
0 bypass excess f l ows ove r the dam . m3 / s ( f t3 / sec) Enge l s vers i on of the we i r f l ow f ormu l a :
M
M
Dra i nage ne t work d i vers i ons may be s i zed
by the fo l l ow i ng procedure : Q = 3 .32L°a3H1,67

T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture

F i gur e 330 - 48 . We t de t en t i on pond f or sed i men t r emova l .

F i gur e 330 - 49. Recommended c ross sec t i on f or we t de t en t i on pond .

8 .3 Dr a i n In l e t s D = dep t h o f pond i ng ove r the Curb In l e ts:

in l et in f t . C
F l ow t hrough in l et gra t es is bes t de t er - Whe r e the in l et is a curb open i ng and
m i ned w i t h compu t e r programs , or us i ng Whe r e the pond i ng ove r the gra t e is 100% of the f l ow is d i ver t ed i nto the inl et ,
des i gn char t s for spec i f i c in l et gra t i ngs and grea t er t han 0 .4 f t , use the or i f i ce f l ow to f l ow may be compu t ed in U .S . un i ts by : Q)
t ypes . ca l cu l a t e t he d i scharge t hrough the in l et : 1o
Q=0 . 71- (A+D) ' S
Gra t e In l e ts a t Low Po i n t s : Q = 0 . 6A \ / 2gD C
Whe r e :
Whe r e t he pond i ng over the gra t e is 0.4 Whe r e : Q = quant i t y of d i scharge in
f t or l ess, use the fo l l ow i ng a r r angemen t of f t / sec L
Q = quant i t y o f d i scharge in
t he we i r f ormu l a t o ca l cu l a t e the d i scharge
f t ' / sec L = l ength of in l et open i ng in f t .
t hrough the in l et in U .S . un i ts :
A = tota l area of c l ear open i ng a = any add i t i ona l depress i on of
Q = 3PH " in f t t he curb in l et be l ow the gut -
Whe r e : t er in f t . i
g = acce l era t i on f rom grav i ty , O
Q = quant i t y of d i scharge in 32 .2 f t / sec t D= dep t h o f pond i ng ove r the
f t3 / sec gut t er bo t t om in f t .
D = dep t h o f pond i ng over the
P = per i me t er of in l et open i ng in l et in f t . I f the curb in l et a l so has a gut t er gra t e ,
( i gnor i ng bars) in f t . i gnore t he e f f ec t of the gra t e in s i z i ng the M
rn
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330- 42
Tab l e 330-20 . M I N I MUM POND WATER SURFACE AREA AS A PERCENTAGE
OF DRA I NAGE AREA FOR SED I MENT PART I CLE CONTROL BY
LAND USE TYPE .

_Lan d Use f or 5 m i c ron con t ro l f or 20 m i c ron co nt ro l

Tota l l y paved areas 3 . 0% 1 . 1%
Freeways (urban) 2 . 8% 1 . 0%
Indust r i a l areas 2 . 0% 0. 8%
Commerc i a l areas 1 . 7% 0. 6%
Inst i tut iona l areas 1 . 7% 0. 6%
Res ident i a l areas 0. 8% 0. 3%
Open space areas 0. 6% 0. 2%
rnnc t r i u - f i nn t i ter ,. 1 . 5% 0. 5%
Source : Pi t t , Rober t E . (Apr i l 1997) t ext for St ormwa t e r Qua l i t y Managemen t Through the Use of De t en t i on Bas i ns -
A Shor t Course on St ormwa t e r De t ent i on Bas i n Des i gn Bas i cs by Int egra t i ng Wa t e r Qua l i t y w i t h Dra i nage Ob j ec t i ves.
M i nneapo l i s , M i nnesot a , Un i vers i ty of M i nneso t a Con t i nu i ng Educa t i on and Ext ens i on .

Tab l e 330-21 . M I N I MUM POND SURFACE AREA REQU I REMENTS IN U .S . UN I TS (acres) FOR 5 M I CRON PART I CLE
G17F r nFJTRA1 FAR STANDARD DEGREE V - NOTCH WE I RS

No t ch 22 . 5 30~ 45
Ang l e
Head F l ow Req ' d . Req ' d. F l ow Req ' d . Req ' d. F l ow Req ' d. Req ' d .
(ft) (c fs) s t or age a rea (c fs) s t or age a rea (c fs) s t or age a rea
(ac- f t ) (acres) (ac- f t ) (acres) (ac- f t ) (acres)
0 .5 0 .1 <0 .01 0 .01 0 .1 <0 .01 0 .02 0 .2 <0 .01 0 .03
1 .0 0 .5 0 .03 0 .1 0 .7 0 . 05 0 .1 1 .0 0 . 05 0 .2
1 .5 1 .4 0.1 0 .2 1 .9 0.2 0 .3 2 .9 0 .2 0 .5
2 .0 2 .8 0.3 0 .5 3 .8 0.3 0 .7 5 .9 0 .6 1 .0
3 .0 7 .8 1 .2 1 .4 11 1 .6 1 .8 16 1 .6 2 .8
4 .0 16 3 .3 2 .8 22 4.4 3 .8 33 5 .9 5 .8
No t ch 6 5 90 V 120
Ang l e
C
N Req ' d. Req ' d. F l ow Req ' d. Req ' d. F l ow Req ' d. Req ' d.
Head F l ow
(ft) (c fs) s t orage a rea (c fs) s t orage area (c fs) s t orage a rea
ac - f t (acres) (ac- f t (acres) (ac- f t ac res
bA
0 .5 0 .3 <0 .01 0 .05 0 .4 0 .02 0 .08 0 .8 0 . 04 0 .1
C
1 .0 1 .4 0 . 07 0 .3 2 .5 0 .2 0 .4 4 .4 0 .3 0 .8
1 .5 4 .0 0 .3 0 .7 6 .9 0 .6 1 .2 12 1 .7 2 .1
L
2 .0 8 .2 0 .8 1 .4 14 1 .5 2 .5 25 3 .3 4 .4
3 .0 28 3 .5 3 .9 39 6 .2 6 .8 69 12 12
4 .0 46 9 .5 8 .1 80 17 .0 14 140 30 25

0
L
Tab l e cons t ruc t ed for remova l of 5 m i cron par t i c l es (set t l ing rate of 0 . 004 cm/ sec )
For remova l of 20 m i cron par t i c l es (set t l ing rate of 0 . 06 cm/ sec ) mu l t i p l y tab l e va l ues by 0 . 067

Source : Pi t t , Rober t E . (Apr i l 1997) text for St ormwa t e r Qua l i t y Managemen t Through the Use of De t ent i on Bas i ns - A Shor t Course on St ormwa t e r De t en t i on
Bas i n Des i gn Bas i cs by Int egra t i ng Wa t e r Qua l i t y w i th Dra i nage Ob j ec t i ves . M i nneapo l i s , M i nneso t a: Un i vers i t y of M i nneso t a Con t i nu i ng Educa t i on and Ext ens i on

M
M
T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arc l i t tecture
 330-43
Tab l e 330 - 22 . M I N I MUM POND SURFACE AREA REQU I REMENTS I N U . S . UN I TS ( ac r es ) FOR 5 M I CRON PART I CLE
S I ZE CONTROL FOR STANDARD RECTANGULAR WE I R W I DTHS

We i r 2 .0 f t . 5 .0 f t . 10 . 0 f t .
Wi dth
Head F l ow ~ Req ' d. Req ' d. F l ow Req ' d. Req ' d . F l ow Req ' d . Req ' d
(ft) (c fs) s t or age a rea (c fs) s t or age a r ea (c fs) s t or age a r ea
(ac- f t ) (acres) (ac- f t ) (acres) (ac- f t ) (acres)
0 .5 2 .1 0 .1 0 .4 5 .7 0.3 1 .0 12 0.5 2 .0
1 .0 6 0 .5 1 .1 16 1 .2 2 .8 33 2 .4 5 .7
1 .5 10 1 .2 1 .8 29 3 .2 5 .0 59 6.3 10
2 .0 15 2 .3 2 .6 43 6.4 7 .6 90 13 16
3 .0 24 5 .7 4 .2 80 17 14 160 35 29
4 .0 32 11 .0 5 .6 110 34 20 250 71 43
We i r 15 f t . 20 f t . 30 f t .
Wi dth
Head F l ow Req ' d Req ' d F l ow Req ' d Req ' d . F l ow Req ' d . Req ' d .
(ft) (c fs) s t or age a rea (c fs) s t or age a rea (c fs) s t or age a r ea
(ac- f t ) (acres) (ac- f t ) (acres) (ac- f t ) (acres)
0 .5 17 0 .8 3 .0 23 1 .0 4.1 35 1 .5 6.1
1 .0 49 37 86 66 5.1 12 99 7 .3 17
1 .5 90 9 .9 16 120 13 21 180 20 32
2 .0 140 20 24 190 27 32 280 40 49
3 .0 250 54 44 340 72 59 510 110 89
4 .0 380 110 66 510 150 89 7801 2201 1401

Tab l e 330 - 23 . M I N I MUM POND SURFACE AREA REQU I REMENTS I N U . S . UN I TS ( ac r es ) FOR 5 M I CRON PART I CLE
S I ZE CONTROL FOR STANDARD D I AMETER DROP - TUBE STRUCTURES .

P i pe 8 i nch 12 i nch 18 i nch

Dia.
Head F l ow Req ' d . Req ' d . F l ow Req ' d Req ' d. F l ow Req ' d. Req ' d.
(ft) (c fs) s t or age a r ea (c fs) s t or age a rea (c fs) s t or age a rea
ac - f t (acres) (ac- f t ) (acres) (ac- f t ) (acres)
0 .5 0 .5 0 . 02 0 .9 0.9 0 .04 0 .2 1 .6 0 .07 0 .3
1 .0 0 .7 0 . 07 0.1 2 .2 0 .2 0 .4 4 .4 0 .3 0 .8
1 .5 0 .7 0.1 0.1 2 .2 0 .4 0 .4 6 .5 0 .8 1 .1
C
2 .0 0./ 0 .2 0.1 2 .2 0 .6 0 .4 6 .5 1 .4 1 .1
3 .0 0 .7 0.3 0.1 2 .2 0 .9 0 .4 6 .5 2 .5 1 .1
4.0 0./ 0 .4 0.1 2 .2 1 .3 0 .4 6 .5 3 .6 1 .1
P i pe 24 i nch 30 i nch 36 i nch
D i a. C

Head F l ow Req ' d . Req ' d . F l ow Req ' d. Req ' d. F l ow Req ' d. Req ' d.
(ft) (c f s) s t or age a rea (c fs) 2 . 1s t ora a rea (c fs) s t or age a rea
(ac- f t ) (acres) ge (ac- (acres) (ac- f t ) (acres)
ft)
0 .5 1 .6 0 .07 0 .3 1 .9 0 .08 0 .3 2 .0 0 .09 0 .4 tu
1 .0 5 .6 0 .4 1 .0 6.3 0 .4 1 .1 7 .2 0 .5 1 .3
1 .5 11 1 .1 18 13 1 .3 2 .3 16 1 .5 2 .8
L
2 .0 14 2 .1 2-4 21 2 .8 3 .7 27 3 .4 4 .7
0
3 .0 14 4 .5 2 .4 25 6 .9 4 .4 42 9 .4 7 .3
4 .0 14 6 .9 2 .4 25 11 4 .4 42 17 7 .3

M
M
T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 curb in l et to a l l ow for c l ogg i ng of gra t e by
debr i s .

9 . 0 F I LTRAT I ON TECHN I QUES

9 .1 F i l t er St r i ps
F i l ter st r ips t rea t wa t e r accep t ed as shee t
f l ow f rom sur f aces t hrough comb i ned f i l -
t er i ng and pond i ng (F i gure 330-53) . The
pond i ng por t i on is des i gned to ho l d the
WQV. F i l ter st r ip l ength mus t be equa l to
the edge o f the sur f ace shee t i ng runof f to
i t. Dra i nage area is l i mi t ed by over l and
shee t f l ow l imi ts of 25 me t e rs (75 f t ) for
pavemen t s and 45 me t ers (150 f t ) for per -
v i ous sur f aces . Tab l e 330-25 g i ves s i z i ng
cr i ter i a . St orms exceed i ng WQV are
bypassed t hrough be rm over f l ow sp i l l ways .

9 . 2 Sand F i l t ers
Sand f i l ters are sur f ace or unde rground
fac i l i t i es used to c l ean runof f wa t e r in
urban i zed areas whe r e space is l i mi ted (see
F i gure 330-54) . They genera l l y cons i st o f
three chambe rs . The f i rst chambe r is an of f -
l ine d i vers i on s t ruc ture to l imi t sand t reat -
men t to the WQV. The second is a pre-
t rea t men t chambe r to cap ture sed i men t
and f l oa t ab l e t rash . The th i rd chambe r is
t he sand f i l ter bed . The sand f i l ter bed has
an 450 - 600mm (18-24 in) sand l ayer tha t
F i gur e 330 - 50 . O f f -L i ne con t ro l s t ruc t ure w i t h d i ve rs i on . t raps and st ra i ns po l l ut ant s f rom s t ormwa -
t er be fore i t is co l l ec t ed by an underdra i n
sys t em . Pure sand or a m i x of pea t and
sand may be used for f i l ter med i a .

The vo l ume of the sand f i l ter chambe rs

shou l d be at l east 0 . 75WQV. Th i s vo l ume
shou l d be spl i t be t ween the pre t rea tmen t
chamber , the vo l ume above the sand bed
and the vo l ume of vo i ds in the sand bed . The
pre t rea tment and sand bed chambe rs shou l d
have l ength to w i d t h rat ios of 2 :1 or grea t er .
The ove r f l ow we i r in t he pre t rea tmen t
C

aA
C
Cu

F i gur e 330-51 . We i r f l ow t ypes and e l emen t s

F i gur e 330 - 52 . S i de d i ve rs i on we i r .

M
M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330 - 45

chambe r shou l d be s i zed for 0 . 67 WQV

peak d i scharge . The over f l ow we i r in the
sand chambe r shou l d be s i zed for 0 .33
WQV peak d i scharge . The area o f the sand
f i l ter bed is f ound by the f ormu l a :

dr
A, = WQV
( t r ) (k) (hr + df ) ,

Whe r e :
Ar = sur f ace area of sand bed in
square me t ers ( f t ' )
dt = sand f i l ter bed dep t h in
me t e rs ( f t )

k = coe f f i c i ent of permeab i l i t y

in me t e rs / day ( f t /day)
tr = t i me for WQV to f i l ter through
sand bed (use 40 hrs .)

hr= ave r age he i gh t of wa t e r

above sand in me t e rs ( f t ) hf
= 0 . 5h ,ax .

Use k = 1 .05 (3 .5) for sand and k =

0 .825 (2 .75) for 50-50 m i x ture o f pea t and
sand (pure pea t f l oats) . Sand bed is typ i ca l -
ly 0 .45 m (1 .5 f t ) deep , bu t shou l d no t
exceed 0 .6 m (2 .0 f t ) Sand shou l d be med i -
um aggrega t e concre t e sand . Pea t shou l d
be l oose , c l ean , shredded Reed Sedge
Hem i c t ype .

El
10 .1 Gene ra l
F i gur e 330 -53 . F i l t er St r i p .
Inf i l t rat i on t echn i ques coun t e r the add i t i on
of i mperv i ous sur f aces brough t by urban-
i za t i on . They are prac t i ca l whe r e soi l t ex-
tures perm i t reasonab l y rap i d inf i l t rat ion
ra tes . So i l s w i t h sa tura t ed i nf i l t rat i on ra t es
l ess than 6 .9 mm / hour (0 .27 i n /hour ) are
no t r ecommended for i nf i l t rat i on t ech-
n i ques . Tab l e 330-26 shows i nf i l t rat i on
ra tes for sa tura t ed soi l s .

S i t i ng Cons i dera t i ons:

N
The bo t t om of inf i l t rat ion bas i ns mus t be a t bp
l east 600 to 1 200 mm (2 to 4 f t ) above the
h i gh wa t e r t ab l e and a t l east 900 mm (3 f t ) C
cd
above bedrock to preven t po l l ut i on o f
groundwa t e r . The edge of i nf i l t rat i on
bas i ns and beds shou l d be a t l east 30 i
N
me t ers (100 f t ) f rom we l l s , and 3 me t ers
(10 f t ) f rom bu i l d i ngs . The bo t t om o f the
inf i l t rat ion rock bed shou l d be se t be l ow
the f rost l ine .
i
Tab l e 330-27 shows se l ec t i on cr i ter i a for O
inf i l t rat ion fac i l i t i es, i nc l ud i ng dra i nage area N
and l and use . Runo f f f rom pot ent i a l l y con-
t am i na t ed sources (e .g . comb i ned sewe r i M
over f l ows , snowme l t f rom roads and park- M
F i gur e 330 - 54 . Subsur f ace Sand F i l t er .
i ng lots, manu f ac t ur i ng or cons t ruc t i on M
T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 330 - 4 6

Tab l e 330 - 24 . VALUES OF WE I R FLOW COEFF I C I ENT C W

Bread t hs o f cres t o f we i r i n me t e rs f t
Head ,
H , in
me t e rs 0 . 15 0. 20 0 . 30 0. 45 0. 60 0. 75 0 . 90 1 . 20 1 . 50 3 . 00 4 . 50
(ft) (0 . 50) (0 . 75) (1 . 00) (1 . 50) (2 . 00) (2 . 50) (3 . 00) (4 . 00) (5 . 00) (10 . 00) (15 . 00)
. 06 2 . 80 2 . 75 2 . 69 2 .62 2 . 54 2 . 48 2 . 44 2 . 38 2 . 34 2 . 49 2 . 68
(0 . 2)
. 12 2 . 92 2 . 80 2 . 72 2 .64 2 .61 2 . 60 2 . 58 2 . 54 2 . 50 2 . 56 2 . 70
(0 . 4)
. 18 3 . 08 2 . 89 2 . 75 2 .64 2 . 60 2 . 60 2 . 68 2 .69 2 . 70 2 . 70 2 . 70
(0 . 6)
. 24 3 . 32 3 . 04 2 . 85 2 .68 2 . 66 2 . 60 2 . 67 2 . 68 2 . 68 2 . 69 2 . 64
(0 . 8)
E
. 30 3 . 32 3 . 14 2 . 98 2 .75 2 . 70 2 . 64 2 . 65 2 67 2 . 68 2 . 68 2 . 63
(1 . 0
. 36 3 . 32 3 . 20 3 . 08 2 . 86 2 . 77 2 . 65 2 . 64 2 . 67 2 . 66 2 . 69 2 . 64
(1 . 2)
. 42 3 . 32 3 . 26 3 . 20 2 . 92 2 . 89 2 . 68 2 . 64 2 . 65 2 .65 2 . 67 2 . 64
(1 . 4)
. 48 3 . 32 3 . 29 3 . 28 3 . 07 2 . 88 2 . 75 2 . 68 2 . 66 2 .65 2 . 64 2 . 63
1 .6
. 54 3 . 32 3 . 32 3 .31 3 . 07 2 . 85 2 . 74 2 . 68 2 . 66 2 .65 2 . 64 2 . 63
(1 . 8)
. 60 3 .32 3 .31 3 . 30 3 . 03 3 . 07 2 . 76 2 .72 2 . 68 2 .65 2 . 64 2 . 63
(2 . 0)
. 75 3 .32 3 . 32 3 . 31 3 . 28 3 . 20 2 . 89 2 .81 2 72 2 .67 2 . 64 2 . 63
(2 . 5)
. 90 3 .32 3 . 32 3 . 32 3 . 32 3 .32 3 . 05 2 . 92 2 73 2 . 66 2 . 64 2 . 63
(3 . 0)

I (3 B) I 3 .32 3 . 32 3 . 32 3 . 32T 3 .32 3 . 19 2 . 97 2 76 2 . 68 2 . 64 2 . 63

s i tes) shou l d not be a l l owed to en t er inf i l -

t ra t i on fac i l i t i es : Tab l e 330 - 25 . F I LTER STR I P DES I GN CR I TER I A.
Inf i l t rat ion fac i l i t i es mus t be l oca t ed of f -
l ine . Pre - t rea tmen t dev i ces , such as sed i - Pa r ame t e r Cr i t e r i a
men t forebays , shou l d i nt ercept runo f f S i ze Length , depth , w i d th needed to prov i de sur f ace
be fore i t is d i rec t ed i nto the inf i l t rat ion s torage for WQV
s t ruc ture . Sed i men t a t i on is the ch i e f cause Wi dth Equa l to area dra i n i ng to f i l ter
of inf i l t rat ion fac i l i ty fa i l ure . Length 8 m (25 f t ) , m i n i mum
S l oe 2 . 0% m i n i mum , 6 . 0% max i mum
Des i gn Cons i de ra t i ons: Dra i nage area , perv i ous sur f aces Max i mum over l a nd f l ow l ength = 45 m (150 f t )
Pre l i m i nary des i gn ca l cu l a t i ons may be based Dra i nage area , i mperv i ous sur f aces Max i mum over l and f l ow l ength = 25 m (75 f t )
on the soi l inf i l t rat ion ra tes shown in Tab l e
C
330-26 . F ina l des i gn of inf i l t rat ion fac i l i t i es
shou l d be based on f i e ld inf i l t rat ion tests con- Tab l e 330 - 26 . APPROX I MATE SATURATED I NF I LTRAT I ON RATES FOR
duc t ed at the e l eva t i on of the proposed bot - D I FFERENT SO I L TEXTURE CLASSE
t om of the inf i l t rat ion bas i n or bed .
Approx i ma t e sa t ur a t ed
Inf i l t rat ion fac i l i t i es shou l d be des i gned to SCS Hydro l og i c so i l i nf i l t ra t i on ra t es
inf i l t rate t he WQV for the dra i nage bas i n So i l t ex t ure c l ass so i l group ( i n / hr ) (m i n / i n) ( cm / hr ) (m i n / cm)
they serve . Dep t h is the cr i t ica l f ac tor con- Sand A 8 . 27 7 . 25 21 .01 2 .9
i t ro l l ing the conf i gura t i on of vo l ume . The Loamy Sand A 2 . 41 24 . 9 6 . 12 9. 8
4-1 dep t h of inf i l t rat ion fac i l i t i es is l i mi ted by the Sandy Loam A 1 . 02 58 . 8 2 . 59 23 . 2
need to emp t y i t w i th i n an a l l owab l e max i - Loam B 0 . 52 115 .4 1 . 32 45 . 5
mum pond i ng t i me , typ i ca l l y 48 to 72 hours .
Si l t Loam B 0 . 27 222 .2 0 . 69 87 . 0
i Prot ec t i on Dur i ng Cons t ruc t i on : Sandy C l ay Loam C 0 . 17 352 .9 0 . 43 139 . 5
O
4W C l ay Loam D 0 . 09 666 .7 0 . 23 260 . 9
The soi l areas used for inf i l t rat ion mus t
be prot ec t ed dur i ng cons t ruc t i on to pre- Si l ty C l ay Loam D 0 . 06 1000 . 0 0 . 15 400 . 0
vent compac t i on . Ho l d f ina l excava t i on of Sandy C l ay D 0 . 05 1200 . 0 0 . 13 461 . 5
0 the l ast 600 mm (2 f t ) needed to reach t he Si l ty C l ay D 0 .04 1500 .0 0 . 10 600 . 0
M bo t t om o f t he inf i l t rat ion bas i n or bed unt i l C l ay D 0 . 02 3000 .0 0 . 05 12 00 . 0
M

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 330-47
Tab l e 330 - 27 . I NF I LTRAT I ON TECHN I QUE SELECT I ON CR I TER I A .

So i l Type and M i n i mum In f i l t ra t i on Ra t e , cm / h r ( i nches / hour )

Loamy Sandy Sandy C l ay

Sand Sand Loam Loam S i l t Loam Loam C l ays
Techn i que 21 . 01 6 . 12 2 . 59 1 . 32 0 . 69 0. 43 <0 . 43
(8 . 27) (2 . 41) (1 . 02 (0 . 52) (0 . 27) (0 . 17) (<0 . 17)
Grassed Swa l es w i th
Check Dams
F i l ter St r i ps
Inf i l t rat ion Bas i ns
Recha rge Trenches
B i ore t ent i on Ponds
Inf i l t rat ion Beds
Inf i l t rat ion We l l s
Porous Pavemen t s

Dr a i nage Ar ea Sea r ed , hec t a r es (acres)

0 -2 2 -4 4 -6 6 -8 8 - 10 10 - 12 12 - 20
(0-5) (5-10) (10-15) (15-20) (20-25) 25 - 30 30-50)
Grassed Swa l es w i th
Check Dams
F i l ter St r i ps
Inf i l t rat ion Bas i ns
Recha rge Trenches 0
B i ore t ent i on Ponds 0

Inf i l t rat ion Beds

Inf i l t rat ion We l l s
Porous Pavemen t s

O t he r Res t r i c t i ons
G round - wa t e r S l ope i n M i n. M i n. Bu f f e r Si te No r ma l
Tab l e Dep t h , Pe r cen t D i s t ance D i s t ance Requ i r emen t s , Cons t r a i n t Dep t h
m (ft) t o We l l , to m (ft) Range , m
m (ft) Bu i l d i ng , (ft)
m ft
Grassed Swa l es w i th 0 6 1 2 <20
Check Dams (2-4)
F i l ter St r i ps 0 . 6-1 .2 <20
(2-4)
Inf i l t rat ion Bas i ns 0 .6-1 .2 <20 >30 >3 >6 0 .6-1 .5
(2 4) (>100) (>10) (>20) (2-5)
Recha rge Trenches 0 .6-1 .2 <20 >30 >3 >6 0 .6-1 .5
(2-4) (>100) (>10) (>20) (2-5)
B i ore t ent i on Ponds 1 . 8-2 .4 <20 >30 >3 >6 0 .6-1 .5
(6-8) (>100) (>10)
C
(>20) (2-5)
Inf i l t rat ion Beds 1 .2-1 .8 >30 >3 >6
(4-6) (>100) (>10) (>20)
Inf i l t rat ion We l l s 0 .6-1 .2 <20 >30 >3 >6 Res i dent i a l 0 .6-1 .5
(2-4) (>100) (>10) (>20) Roo f t o (2-5)
Porous Pavemen t s
I
0 .6-1 2
I I
>30 >3 >6
(2-4) (>100) (>10) (>20)

L
a f t er a l l o t he r s i te sur f aces have been f i n- t i on bas i n . Dep t h i s l i m i t ed by subsur f ace F = i nf i l t ra t i on ra t e o f t he so i l in N
i shed and e ros i on con t ro l measur es a re cond i t i ons and t he i nf i l t ra t i on capac i t y o f hour s
es t ab l i shed . Th i s pr even t s t he so i l s t ruc t ure t he so i l . Max i mum dep t h based on soi l
f rom be i ng p l ugged w i t h cons t ruc t i on Tp = max i mum a l l owab l e pond -
i nf i l t ra t i on is compu t ed by t he f ormu l a :
i ng t i me in hour s ( t yp i ca l l y
sed i men t . L
D - = (F) (Tp) 72 hours ) .
O
10 . 2 I n f i l t r a t i on Bas i ns :
Whe r e: Dmax may be f ur t he r r educed t o accoun t
Inf i l t ra t i on bas i ns a re ponds des i gned t o f or any l i m i t a t i ons f rom bedrock or wa t e r
Dmax = max i mum a l l owab l e
" l eak " i nto t he unde r l y i ng so i l . These f ac i l - t ab l e t o ar r i ve a t an a l l owab l e des i gn dep t h
dep t h based on
i t i es have a h i gh f a i l ure ra t e and shor t l i fe i f i nf i l t ra t i on
(D) . Pond a r ea is f ound by t r i a l and er ror ,
ho l d i ng t he des i gn dep t h cons t an t and
M
no t pro t ec t ed by an ups t r eam sed i men t a -
M
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 330-48

F i gur e 330 -55 . Recha rge t r ench .

F i gur e 330 - 58 : Inf i l t ra t i on We l l

vary i ng pond con f i gura t i on and area unt i l

pond vo l ume equa l s WQV.
The pond bo t t om shou l d be essent i a l l y
f lat , w i th no p i l ot channe l . F l ow i nto the
pond shou l d be d i s t r i but ed w i th a l eve l
spreader or f anned by r i p- rap to f l ow even-
ly across the pond bo t t om .

10 .3 Recharge Trenches
A recharge t rench is a mode rn French
Dra i n (F i gure 330-55) . These fac i l i t i es are
genera l l y p l aced of f - l i ne and prot ec t ed by a
f i l ter st r ip l oca t ed ups t ream .

Des i gn is approached s i mi l ar l y to de t en-

t i on bas i ns by de t e rm i n i ng the max i mum
a l l owab l e dep t h of the inf i l t rat ion rock por -
C
F i gur e 330 - 56 . B i or e t en t i on pond . t i on of t he t rench cross-sec t i on . Max i mum
dep t h based on soi l i nf i l t rat i on is compu t ed
N by a mod i f i ca t i on of t he above f ormu l a :

C Dmax = (F)1 TP~

Vr

Whe r e Vr is the vo i d rat io of the inf i l t ra-

L t i on rock . An inf i l t rat ion rock vo i d rat io of
N
0 . 40 is typ i ca l l y spec i f i ed . Dmax is fur ther
reduced as needed to ar r i ve at an a l l owab l e
des i gn dep t h (D) . A t rench w i d t h (W) is
assumed to mee t s i te needs and an e f f ec-
L
O t i ve cross-sec t i ona l vo i d area (Av) is com-
pu t ed by the f ormu l a :
A, = DWVr

F i gur e 330 - 57 : Inf i l t ra t i on Bed Trench l ength is t hen f ound by d i v i d i ng

M WQV by X .
M
T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 330 - 49
The inf i l t rat ion rock shou ld be comp l e te- 10 .5 Inf i l t rat ion Beds Areas w i th porous pavement shou ld be we l l
ly wrapped w i th f i l ter fabr i c to prevent sed- s igned to warn aga inst hazards to funct ion .
i ment p l ugg i ng . The top grave l layer is Inf i l t rat ion beds are an underground ver - Hazards inc lude l awn chemi ca l s in spi l ls and
repl aced as needed to restore inlet capac i ty. s ion of the recharge t rench (F igure 330- runof f , and use of norma l aspha l t for
57) . These faci l i t ies are genera l l y p l aced repa i rs or rep l acement .
10 .4 B i ore t ent i on Ponds of f - l ine and protected by a forebay and
di vers ion located upst ream .
The concept of bioretent ion was deve l oped REFERENCES
by the Pr ince George ' s County , Mary l and , Des i gn is the same as for inf i l t rat ion Arner rcar f Pub l i c Works Research
Depar tment of Env i ronmenta l Resources for recharge t renches ( refer to subsect i on Founda t i on (1981) Urban Stormwa t er
use in commerc i a l park ing lots, roads ides and 10 .3) , except that addi t iona l vo id area is Managemen t . Ch i cago, I l l inois : Amer i can
setback areas . It comb i nes physica l f i l ter ing int roduced into the cross-sect ion area by Pub l i c Works Assoc i at ion .
of runof f wi th biologica l process ing of runof f the per forated p ipe used to pour wa ter into
pol lutants . I t is simi lar to an inf i l trat ion pond the inf i l t rat ion rock area. Thi s addi t iona l Cl aytor , R i cha rd A (1995) Stormwa t er
but wi th a deep layer of pl ant ing soi l mi x at vo id space is incorporated by the formu l a : Managemen t - Pond Des i gn Examp l e For
the bot tom (F igure 330-56) . Bioretent ion Ext ended De t en t i on We t Pond. Si l ver
A, = (DW - Ap) Vr + Ap Spr ing, Ma r y l and: The Cent er for
works best wi th sma l l dra inage areas. Wa t e rshed Protect ion .
Bioretent ion ponds shou ld be located Where Ap is the cross sect ion area of the
per forated pipe . Very large per forated pipe Cl aytor , R i cha rd A . and Thomas R .
of f - l ine wi th over f l ow prov ided to remove sect ions may be used to prov ide a more Schue l er (1996) Des i gn of Stormwa t er
runof f amount s in excess of the WQV. F i l ter ing Systems . Si l ver Spr ing, Ma r y l and:
Pret reatment of of f - l ine f l ow to the pond space ef f ic ient bed cross-sect ion as soi l
depths a l low . The Cent er for Wa t e rshed Prot ec t i on .
shou ld cons i st of a vegetated swa l e at least Debo , Thomas N. and Andr ew l . Reese
6 me ters (20 f t) long . The bioretent ion sur - Both the inf i l t rat ion rock and per forated (1995) Mun i c i pa l Stormwa t er Manage -
face area (Af ) shou ld be : p ipe shou ld be comp l ete l y wrapped wi th men t . Boca Ra ton , F l or i da : Lew i s
f i l ter fabr i c to prevent sed i ment p l ugg i ng . Pub l i shers .
Af = 0 .05AdR v The p ipe shou ld be p l aced s lop ing toward
Where : the inlet manho l e to concent rate any sedi - Ferguson , Bruce K. (1994) Stormwa t er
Af = sur face area of bioretent ion ment where it can easi ly be removed . Inf i l t rat ion . Boca Ra ton , F l or i da : Lew i s
faci l i ty, m l (f t ' ) Pub l i shers .
10 .6 Inf i l t rat ion We l l s Hammer , Dona l d A . (1992) Crea t i ng
Ad = dra i nage area, MI (f tz) Freshwa ter We t l ands . Boca Ra ton , F l or i da:
inf i l t rat ion we l l s are used to inf i l t rate runof f Lew i s Pub l i shers .
R~ = vo lumet r i c runof f coef f i - f rom roof downspout s and other very sma l l
cient , sma l l storm dra i nage areas w i th fai r ly c l ean runof f Merr i t t , Freder i c S., M . Kent Lof t in, and
hydro l ogy me thod (F igure 330-58) . Des ign is essent ia l ly the Jona t han T. R i cke t t s , Ed i tors (1996)
same as for a recharge t rench or bed . A cr i t - Standard Handbook for Civi l Engineers,
Check the vo l ume capac i ty aga inst that Four t h Ed i t i on . New York: McGr aw-H i l l .
requi red to t reat the WQV , by the formu l a : ical des ign feature is an above ground over -
f low out l et to prevent wa ter f rom back i ng Schue l er , Tom (1995) Si te Pl ann ing for
df up downspout s or damag i ng the inf i l t rat ion Urban St ream Protect ion . Si lver Spr ing,
Af = WQV we l l i tsel f . Ma r y l and: The Cent er for Wa t e r shed
( t f ) (Whf + df)
Protect ion .
Where : 10 .7 Porous Aspha l t Pavemen t Schwab , G l enn O. , et . a l . (1981) Soi l and
Af = sur face area of bioretent ion Porous aspha l t pavement is basi ca l ly a Wa t er Conserva t i on Eng ineer ing, Th i rd
faci l i ty, m l (f t ' ) recharge t rench wi th a porous b i tumi nous Ed i t i on . New York : John W i l ey & Sons .
top l ayer used instead of grave l . The porous
df = pl ant ing soi l depth [1 .2 m pavement is a l ean aspha l t mi x over a sand
(4 .0 f t . )] + sand l ayer
[0 .3 m (1 .0 f t)] l ayer . A des ign gu ide and spec i f i cat ions for
porous pavement can be obta i ned f rom the
k = 0 .15 m/ day (0.5 f t . /day) Aspha l t Inst i tute ( refer to Sect ion 440 :
(si l t l oam soi l ) Sur fac ing and Pav ing, and Sect ion 820 :
Aspha l t for fur ther informat ion) . Des i gn is
tf = 3 days ( t ime to empty) the same as for a recharge t rench .
hf = 0.1 m (0 .2S f t ) [hm Porous pavement is best used where it
= 0 .1S m (0 .5 f t)] accepts runof f on l y f rom porous sur faces
The inf i l t rat ion area is p l anted wi th (grasses, etc .) It shou ld not be used for
spec i es s imu l at ing a terrest r ial forest com- park i ng areas because contami nants f rom
mun i ty and mu l ched . Pl ant ing shou ld be autos move di rect ly into the recharge
dom i na t ed by canopy t rees, but shou l d a lso t rench . In areas wi th ice and snow, porous
inc lude understory t ree, shrub, and herba- pavement shou ld not be used where it is
ceous ground cover l ayers . subj ect to t rack ing of de- i c ing sal ts onto
the pavement sur face .
To keep aspha l t pores open , porous M
pavement must be f requent l y vacuumed . M
Ti me-Saver St andards for Landscape Archi tecture
 SECT I ON

Pedes t r i an C i rcu l a t i on

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
N i cho l as T. D i nes
Con t r i bu t or :
Ga ry M. F i shbeck
Techn i ca l Wr i t e r :
Je f f rey D . B l ankensh i p
Rev i ewe r : *
Roge r B. Ma r t i n
Mar t i n-P i t z , I nc.
M i nneapo l i s , M i nneso t a

*Some da t a on St eps and Ramps were

comp i l ed by Rober t LaRocca and
St even Brosnan of Rober t LaRocca
& Assoc i a t es , San Franc i sco , Ca l i forn i a ,
and rev i ewed by Dav i d Arbegas t of Arbegas t ,
New t on & Gr i f f i th, Berke l ey , Ca l i forn i a ,
and R i chard V i gno l o , Landscape Arch i tec t ,
San Franc i sco , Ca l i forn i a .

' CONTENTS C
O
1 .0 Int roduc t i on Pedes t r i an Dens i t y Cr i ter i a W i d t hs
1 .1 Gene r a l
2 .3 V i sua l Cr i ter i a S l ope Cr i ter i a u
1 . 2 The Pedes t r i an Expe r i ence Eye Leve l s and Cone of V i s i on D i s t ance be t ween Land i ngs
Conven i ence V i sua l Percept i on 3. 4 Sea t i ng Cr i ter i a U
Amen i t i es 3 . 0 Spa t i a l St anda rds 3. 5 Handr a i l i ngs r
Spa t i a l Cons i dera t i ons
Sensory St i mu l i and Re l a t ed
3 .1 Pa t hway W i d t h and S l ope Cr i ter i a
3 .6 Pedes t r i an S i gnage
Re f erences
C
Gene ra l Cons i dera t i ons C
Cons i dera t i ons Ca l cu l a t i on of Wa l kway W i d t h (by
2 .0 Phys i ca l Charac t er i s t i cs of t he Pedes t r i an Formu l a ) i
2 .1 D i mens i ona l Cr i t e r i a Wa l kway S l ope Cr i ter i a
Human D i mens i ons and Ac t i v i ty 3 . 2 St a i rways S
Forwa rd Spa t i a l Bubb l es W i d t hs
2 .2 Movemen t Cr i ter i a Tread-R i ser Ra t i os N
He i gh t be t ween Land i ngs P
Wa l k i ng Ra t es
Accep t ab l e Wa l k i ng D i s t ances 3 . 3 Ramps

3
T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 340-2
1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON t ion po ints wi th wa l kways of adequa te
width, the two factors of or i entat ion and

P
edest r i an c i rculat ion is not easi ly dis- negot i at ion pl ay an i mpor tant role .
cussed in spec i f ic terms because of
the l arge d i f ferences in purpose In terms of or i entat ion, l andmark fea-
be tween var ious types of systems . Mos t tures and visua l cues can suggest purpose
urban pedest r i an c i rculat ion systems are and expec ted behav i or to the pedest r i ans
typica l ly perce i ved and ut i l i zed as a func- us ing the system . These may inc lude wa l k-
t ional dev i ce more than as med i a for aes- way w i dth (e .g ., w i der wa l kways suggest -
thet i c exper i ences , a character ist ic repre- ing greater impor tance) , forma l i ty (e .g .,
sentat i ve of park systems and other recre- curv i - l inear wa l kways suggest i ng a more
at iona l open spaces . Moreover , because re l ax ing exper i ence) , pav i ng mater i a l (e .g .,
pedest r i an c i rculat ion is an integra l par t of expens i ve or highl y ar t i cul ated mater i a l s
any par t i cul ar des ign scheme , it is di f f icul t suggest i ng greater impor tance) , and the
to di scuss the sub j ect removed f rom the presence and qua l i ty of anc i l lary features
context in wh i ch i t pl ays a role . ( the nature of wh i ch may suggest the pre-
dom i nant purpose of the wa l kway) .
Consequent l y , this sect ion is l imi ted to a
"genera l " di scuss ion of var ious aspects of Careful l y des i gned visua l cues ( inc luding
pedest r i an c i rculat ion . Spec i f i c s i tuat ions s ignage) can aid the pedest r i an in way-
may requi re research beyond the scope of f inding and in genera l or i entat ion wi th in a
this sect ion and dec i s ions based on profes- larger env i ronmenta l context . Thi s is espe-
siona l j udgment . cial ly i mpor tant in comp l ex env i ronments .
Negot i at ion refers to the relat ive ease of
1 .1 Genera l mov i ng f rom one dest inat ion to another.
Pedest r i an c i rcul at ion systems fal l into two Pedest r i an densi ty, inc lud ing conf l icts at
F i gure 340-1 . Spa t i a l modu l a t i on . broad categor i es : (1) those where the bas i c intersect ions and potent i a l gather i ng spots,
Modu l a t i on of space can occur both ver t i - st ructure of a system a l ready exists and (2) pl ays an i mpor tant role in this regard . But
ca l l y and hor i zonta l l y in an informa l , pas- those where no c i rcul at ion cur rent l y exists . other aspects a lso cont r ibute to di f f icul ty of
tora l context or an urban context . negot i at ion . These inc lude phys i ca l ob-
W i th exist ing systems , proj ects typi ca l ly st ruct ions (e .g ., t rash receptac l es, l ight f ix-
invol ve aesthet i c enhancement of the sys- tures, f lag pol es, park i ng meters , wa t er
t em by prov i s ion of var ious ameni t i es, hydrants, te l ephones , benches , etc .) ; the
i mproved v i ews, conven i ences , and i mage- presence of wa ter or ice on the wa l kway ;
abi l i ty. Thi s type of work invol ves i mprove- the nu i sance of excess i ve l i t ter ; seed and
ment of the "pedest r i an exper i ence " as f rui t dropp i ngs f rom overhang i ng vegeta-
much as it invol ves i mprovement of the t ion ; and excess i ve w i nd prob l ems .
funct iona l aspects of the system .
Pa thways shou ld be access ibl e to al l
In the case of new systems, c i rculat ion types of pedest r i ans, and some t i mes on a
must f i rst be laid out accord i ng to proposed se l ect ive basis, to emergency vehi c l es such
or igin and dest inat ion points and mus t as pol i ce cars, ambu l ances , and f i ref ight ing
have adequa t e w i dth to accommoda t e equ i pment .
expec ted loads of pedest r i an t raf f ic dur i ng
peak per iods of use . Par t of this process Amen i t i es:
inc ludes study ing aesthet i c aspects wh i ch
wi l l be careful ly integrated wi th the func- The purpose of any pedest r i an c i rculat ion
C t iona l aspects of the proposed syst em . system is the connect i on it of fers be tween
O var ious natura l or cul tura l amen i t i es ,
Add i t i ona l i nformat i on on var ious inc lud ing the at t ract ion of human act ivi ty .
aspects of pedest r i an c i rculat ion can be Soc i a l interact ion, both pass i ve and act ive,
found in other sect ions of this handbook , is ext reme l y i mpor tant and in many cases is
u inc lud ing 210 : Spat i a l Standards ; 240 : the pr i mary de termi nant regard ing en joy-
n Outdoor Accessibi l i ty ; 510 : Si te Furni ture ment of a pl ace .
a ofF i gure 340-2 . H i erarch i ca l order i ng and Features ; and 540 : Outdoor Light ing .
ou tdoor space . Not e the re l at ionships Because the act ivi ty of wa tch i ng other
r i be tween (a) pr imary, (b) secondary , and (c) 1 .2 The Pedes t r i an Exper i ence peop l e is appea l i ng to many , spaces to
gather wi th amp l e oppor tun i t i es to si t are
S ter t iary spaces. Conven i ence: crucial to the success of most places, espe-
e cial ly those in urban contexts .
The funct iona l aspect of a pedest r i an sys-
e t em is of pr i mary impor tance , and the qua l - I t has been observed that the avai labi l i ty
P i ty of this funct iona l aspect is measured in of food and the act ivi ty of eat ing is a st rong
0 terms of the " conven i ence " of fered by the st imulus wh i ch at t racts signi f i cant numbers
system . In addi t ion to the obv i ous requi re- of peop l e to a pl ace . For this reason, ven-
3 men t of connec t i ng al l or igin and dest ina-

Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Archi tecture

 340- 3

Tab l e 340-1 . COMMON SENSORY ST I MUL I I N PEDESTR I AN ENV I RONMENTS

Profess iona l and ama t eur Wa l l s and fences

Sensory ca t egory enter ta i nment St reet furni ture and features
W i nd Overhead wi res and cab l es
Examp l es of common st imul i Wa t er Arch i tecture
Wi ldl i fe Vege ta t i on
Tact i le Bel ls, ch imes , and whi st l es Wi ldl i fe
W i nd-b l own f l ags and fabr i cs Overa l l character of a p l ace
Tempera ture Si tes under const ruct i on
Movab l e furni ture
Humi d i ty Vendors Sur face textures
W i nd and breezes Co l or compos i t i ons
Prec ipi tat ion Mach i nery
Heat ing, vent i l at ion, and Tona l cont rasts
Benches and seatwa l l s coo l ing systems D iurna l change
Si t tabl e ground sur faces Foot t raf f ic on var ious pavement s Seasona l change
Bars, knobs , and hand l es Moon l i ght
Handra i l i ngs and armrests v i sua l N ight - l ight ing
Te l ephones , vend i ng and G l are and a l bedo
bank i ng mach i nes Spat i a l percept i on ( form, sca l e, etc .) V i ewsheds f rom i mpor tant
Textures under foot Form of obj ects vantage points
Vege ta t i on wi th in reach Propor t i on and sca l e of obj ects Genera l order
Wa t er Soc i a l act ivi ty Overa l l congruenc i es
Arch i tectura l facades Veh i cu l ar act ivi ty
Food and dr ink Promi nent l andforms O l factory
Human contact Vegetat i on
Wa t er features Veh i cu l ar emi ss i ons
Aud i tory M i sce l l aneous natura l features Odorous smoke
Sun and shadow Fresh ai r
Norma l t raf f ic no i se Ra in, snow, fog, mi st Fragrant vegetat i on
Excess i ve t ruck t raf f ic Smoke Restaurant doorways
Underground rumb l i ngs Li t ter Outdoor cafes
Ai r t raf f ic S i gnage Odorous l i t ter and debr i s
Di stant h i ghway no i se Re fuse areas
Echo Storef ront adver t i sements
W i ndow di spl ays Exhaust fans
Conversa t i on Posted bi l ls
Pl ay act ivi ty Bi l lboards
Mus i c and song

dors are of t en encour aged to opera t e in may en j oy par t i c i pa t i on in des i gned or men t s d i f f er in var i ous reg i ons and
pedes t r i an env i ronmen t s . managed env i ronmen t s . be t ween d i f f erent cu l tures as a func t i on of
accus t omed dens i t i es of peop l e , her i t age ,
Spa t i a l Cons i de ra t i ons: Tab l e 340-1 is a check l i st of var i ous sen- and soc i a l and env i ronmen t a l va l ues .
sory st i mu l i , some o f wh i ch are re l a ted to
The mos t comf or t ab l e human env i ron- p l easant exper i ences and others wh i ch are Forwa rd Spa t i a l Bubb l es:
men t s are those charac t er i zed by a re l a t i ve- unp l easant , and there fore , are norma l l y
l y s t rong degree of spa t i a l enc l osure . I t is avo i ded or m i t i ga t ed . Obv i ous l y , a check l i st Forwa rd spat i a l bubb l es , as i l l ust rated in
i mpor t an t to rema i n cogn i zan t no t on l y of of th i s sor t canno t be comprehens i ve , bu t i t F i gure 340-4 , re fer to the ex t ent of unob-
weak spa t i a l s t ruc tures in ou t door env i ron- does prov i de a st ar t i ng po i n t for sensory s t ruc t ed f orwa rd v i s i on he l d to be psycho-
men t s but a l so of the d i f f erences be t ween assessmen t of ex i st i ng or proposed pedes- l og i ca l l y comf or t ab l e for the ave rage
t rans i t i ona l space and noda l space t r i an env i ronmen t s . pedes t r i an unde r var i ous c i rcums t ances . As
men t i oned prev i ous l y , the spat i a l requ i re-
Because movemen t t hrough an env i ron- men t s for psycho l og i ca l comf or t wi l l d i f fer
men t is a v i sua l -spa t i a l sequent i a l (k i nes- 2 . 0 PHYS I CAL CHARACTER I ST I CS
across reg i ons and cu l tures .
thet i c) exper i ence , the " modu l a t i on " of OF THE PEDESTR I AN
t rans i t i ona l space and the "h i erarch i ca l Th i s i n forma t i on is use fu l when ca l cu l a t - n
order i ng " of noda l space are i mpor t an t Bas i c i n forma t i on on t he pedes t r i an is use- i ng the amoun t of c l ear space necessary to C
des i gn pr i nc i pa l s . ful in i ns t ances whe r e spat i a l s t andards do accommoda t e expec t ed numbe r s o f peop l e i -ri
_a
no t ex i st or whe r e ex i st i ng spa t i a l s t andards when the i nt ent is to ma i nt a i n a reasonab l e
F i gures 340-1 and 340-2 i l lust rate these are i napp l i cab l e . Re f erence can be made to degr ee of psycho l og i ca l comf or t . c
t wo pr i nc i p l es in genera l t e rms . r
phys i ca l charac t er i st i cs of the human f i gure
Use of a ma t hema t i ca l f ormu l a to de t er -
Sensory St i mu l i and Re l a t ed i tse l f in orde r to make ra t i ona l dec i s i ons
m i ne m i n i mum wa l kway w i d t hs requ i res C
abou t requ i red spa t i a l d i mens i ons and
Cons i de ra t i ons: tha t a dec i s i on be made on an accep t ab l e C
o ther deta i l s of a proposed pedes t r i an env i -
spat i a l bubb l e for each wa l kway be i ng con-
Aes the t i c aspec t s of pedes t r i an c i rcu l a- ronmen t . ir
s i dered . Re f er to 3 .1 in th i s sec t i on for use
t i on re fer to t he myr i ad of sensory and
i nt e l l ec tua l " expe r i ences " en j oyed by 2 .1 D i mens i ona l Cr i t er i a of th i s f ormu l a . e
pedes t r i ans when mov i ng t hrough var i ous
Human D i mens i ons and Ac t i v i t y .
env i ronmen t s . Des i gners shou l d rema i n
awa r e of the many env i ronmen t a l f ac tors F i gure 340-3 i l l ust rates approx i ma t e
tha t cont r i but e to the en j oymen t o f out - d i mens i ons of human f i gures in var i ous P
door p l aces , prov i d i ng a r i chness of exper i - ac t i v i ty pos i t i ons (see Sec t i on 210 : Spa t i a l
ence and a dep t h of mean i ng to al l who St andards , for mor e da t a) . Spa t i a l requ i re- M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 340- 4
pedes t r i ans i n pa r k i ng l ots , or on t r i ps w i t h- V i sua l Pe r cep t i on :
i n the i r commun i t i es.
Sense o f Spa t i a l Enc l osur e : An ex t e rna l
Pedes t r i an Dens i t y Cr i t er i a : enc l osur e is mos t comf or t ab l e when i ts ve r -
t i ca l p l anes a re one -ha l f t o one - t h i rd as
F i gur es 340 - 6 and 340 - 7 show pedes t r i an h i gh as t he w i d t h o f t he space enc l osed . I f
f l ow vo l ume , speed , and dens i t y f or wa l k - t he ra t i o fa l l s be l ow one - f our t h , t he space
ways and s t a i rways . Th i s i n f orma t i on can beg i ns t o l ack a sense o f enc l osur e ( F i gure
be used as a v i sua l gu i de f or es t i ma t i ng 340 -10) .
ex i s t i ng or proposed pedes t r i an t ra f f i c vo l -
umes and speed , and f or de t e rm i n i ng m i n - Soc i a l Commun i ca t i on : For a va r i e t y o f
i mum wa l kway w i d t hs by use o f t he ma t h - reasons , t he sca l e and f orm o f a space w i l l
ema t i ca l f ormu l a g i ven in 3 .1 o f th i s sec t i on . i n f l uence pedes t r i an behav i or and t he t ype
o f soc i a l commun i ca t i on t ha t may occur
2 . 3 V i sua l Cr i t e r i a w i t h i n t ha t space . Phys i ca l d i s t ances t ha t
br i ng peop l e i nto c l ose prox i m i t y , or sepa -
Eye Leve l s and Cone o f V i s i on : ra t e t hem , a re i mpor t an t des i gn cons i de r a -
The eye l eve l o f an ave r age adu l t i n a t i ons . Se t t i ngs mean t t o be conduc i ve t o
s t and i ng pos i t i on and a s i t t i ng pos i t i on is ac t i ve soc i a l commun i ca t i on , or t hose

i l l us t ra t ed i n F i gure 340 - 8 . Pedes t r i ans wi l l mean t t o a l l ow a ce r t a i n degr ee o f pr i vacy ,

f ocus mos t o f the i r a t t en t i on a t eye l eve l r equ i r e ca re f u l t hough t as t o t he degr ee o f

and be l ow dur i ng norma l pe r cep t i on o f eye con t ac t poss i b l e , and probab l e , w i t h i n

t he i r sur round i ngs . t he sca l e and l ayou t o f t he se t t i ng.

The human cone o f v i s i on (i . e . , t he f i xed I t is he l p f u l to possess a gene r a l unde r -

eye ) i s approx i ma t e l y 30 degr ees ver t i ca l l y s t and i ng o f t he capab i l i t i es and l i m i t a t i ons

and 60 degr ees hor i zont a l l y , w i t h ang l es o f o f norma l human v i s i on in t e rms o f soc i a l
acu t e v i s i on somewha t l ess t han th i s , as commun i ca t i on . Seve r a l examp l es a r e i l lus-
F i gu r e 340 - 3 . Human d i mens i ons i n i l l us t ra t ed in F i gure 340 - 9 . t ra t ed in F i gure 340 - 11 .
va r i ous ac t i v i t y pos i t i ons . These
d i mens i ons a r e approx i ma t e ave r age spa - Eye l eve l s and cones o f v i s i on a re espe -
t i a l r equ i r emen t s wh i ch a r e used pr i ma r i l y c i a l l y i mpor t an t in t e rms o f t he p l acemen t
as an a i d t o pro f ess i ona l j udgmen t , r a t he r and or i en t a t i on o f pedes t r i an s i gnage .
t han as s t anda rd cr i t er i a .

Tab l e 340 - 2 . AVERAGE WALK I NG RATES OF ADULT PEDESTR I ANS

2 . 2 Movemen t Cr i t e r i a
Type mm / m i n f t /mi n km / hr
Wa l k i ng Ra t es: Average adu l t 78 000 260 4.3

Tab l e 340 - 2 shows ave r age wa l k i ng ra t es Elder l y (75 yrs) 64 500 215 4
o f adu l t pedes t r i ans . The ave r age wa l k i ng
Bunch i ng 60000 200 3 .7
ra t e o f a pedes t r i an w i l l dec r ease as pedes -
St a i rways (go i ng down) 45600 152 2 .8
t r i an dens i t y on a wa l kway i nc r eases
and / or t he c l ea r space ahead o f t he pedes - St a i rways (go i ng up) 33 900 113 2
t r i an becomes l ess t han approx i ma t e l y 4
500 mm (15 f t ) . Pedes t r i an wa l k i ng ra t es
a re no t s i gn i f i can t l y a f f ec t ed by gr ade
nchanges o f 6 pe r cen t or l ess , bu t i n t ersec -
O t i ons , s t a i rways , esca l a tors , and turns t i l es
w i l l s l ow down movemen t .
la 1 . Spa t i a l bubb l es a re necessa ry in ca l cu l a t i ng accommoda t i ons for an expec t ed num-
Re f e r t o 3 .1 in th i s sec t i on f or i n f orma - be r of peop l e in va r i ous s i tua t i ons , w i t h t he i nt ent of ma i n t a i n i ng psycho l og i ca l
r t i on on ca l cu l a t i ng m i n i mum wa l kway comf or t (F i gure 340-4) .
C w i d t hs based on pedes t r i an wa l k i ng ra t es . 2 . The ave r age r ange of wa l k i ng d i s t ances tha t peop l e ( i n t he Un i t ed St a t es) a re t yp i -
ca l l y w i l l i ng t o wa l k be t ween ac t i v i t i es or f rom pa r k i ng a reas a re sub j ec t t o var i a t i on
Accep t ab l e Wa l k i ng D i s t ances :
depend i ng on purpose o f t he t r ip, c l i mac t i c cond i t i ons , or cu l tura l d i f f erences Mos t
n
F i gure 340 - 5 i l l us t ra t es t he ave r age r ange peop l e a re no t w i l l i ng t o wa l k d i s t ances grea t e r t han abou t 220 m (700 f t .) . (F i gure
340-5) .
ris o f wa l k i ng d i s t ances t ha t peop l e ( i n t he
3 . The human cone o f v i s i on has approx i ma t e l y a 30 degr ee ver t i ca l r ange and a 60
Un i t ed St a t es) a re t yp i ca l l y w i l l i ng t o wa l k .
degr ee hor i zont a l r ange . The eye l eve l (F i gure 340-8) o f an ave r age adu l t is 1 525
e Accep t ab l e d i s t ances w i l l va r y f rom t hese
mm (5 ' -2 " ) s t and i ng and 1 125 mm (3 ' -9 " ) s i t t i ng . Cones of v i s i on and eye l eve l s
ave r ages depend i ng on t he purpose o f t he
a re i mpor t an t in t e rms o f p l acemen t and or i en t a t i on o f pedes t r i an s i gnage .
t r i p , cu l tura l d i f f erences , c l i mac t i c cond i -
4. An ex t erna l enc l osure is t he mos t comf or t ab l e when t he ra t i o o f ver t i ca l p l ane t o
0 t i ons , e t c . , bu t t hese ave r ages g i ve a rough hor i zont a l p l ane is 1 : 4. I f t he ra t i o fa l l s be l ow 1 :4, t he space beg i ns to l ack a sense
i dea o f t he k i nd o f behav i or t o expec t f rom
of enc l osure (F i gure 340-10) .
3
T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 340- 5
ra te of movemen t . The numbe r of pedest r i -
ans (vo l ume ) pass i ng a s t a t i onary po i n t on
a pa t hway is expressed by un i t measure -
men t s of t i me , such as " pedes t r i ans per
m i nu t e " or " pedes t r i ans per hour . " Dens i t y
re fers to persona l buf f er zones , expressed
in t e rms of square me t e r (square fee t ) per
pedes t r i an . G i ven these cr i ter i a , pa t hway
w i d t hs can be ca l cu l a t ed us i ng t he s t andard
f l ow theory shown be l ow .

In th i s formu l a , pedes t r i an vo l ume (V)

re f ers to the numbe r of pedes t r i ans tha t are
expec t ed to pass any one po i nt on the
pa t hway each m i nu t e . (Re f er to F i gures
340-6 and 340-7 for i n forma t i on on pedes-
t r i an f l ow vo l umes . ) Space modu l es (M)
typ i ca l l y range f rom a m i n i mum of 0 . 46 m2
F i gur e 340 - 4 . Forwa rd spa t i a l bubb l es .
(5 f t2) per pe rson to 3 . 22 m2 (35 f t2) or
grea t er . (Re f er to F i gure 340-4 for i n forma -
t i on on space modu l es .) Wa l k i ng speed (S)
typ i ca l l y averages abou t 78 000 mm / m i n
(260 f t /mi n) , but of course can vary s i gn i f -
i cant l y depend i ng on the pr edom i nan t
act i v i t i es in the area , t he t ypes of pedes t r i -
ans , e t c . (Re f er to Tab l e 340-2 for i n forma -
t i on on wa l k i ng speeds .)

Expec t ed l oads of pedes t r i an t raf f i c are

de t e rm i ned t hrough observa t i on of s i mi l ar
pro j ec ts in o t he r areas , forma l stud i es , and

S
prof ess i ona l j udgmen t .

Pa t hway W i d t h = V M)

whe r e V =vo l ume , pedes t r i ans / m i nu t e

M = space modu l e ,
M2 ( f t2) / pedes t r i an

F i gur e 340 -5 . Range o f accep t ab l e wa l k i ng d i s t ances (U . S . c i t i es) . Mos t peo- S = wa l k i ng speed ,

p l e are no t w i l l i ng to wa l k d i s t ances grea t er than abou t 220 m (700 f t ) . m ( f t ) /m i nut e

Examp l e ca l cu l a t i on : G i ven vo l ume of

pedes t r i ans=200 / m i nu t e , m i n i mum space
STANDARDS ent i re w i d t h of mos t wa l kways . The edge
of a wa l kway ad j acent to a curbed roadway modu l e des i red = 1 . 67 m2 / pedes t r i an (18
f t2 ), pedes t r i an wa l k i ng speed (norma l ) _
3 .1 Pa t hway W i d t h and S l ope (i . e ., 750 mm (30 in) f rom t he st ree t edge )
Cr i t er i a is avo i ded by pedes t r i ans , as is the edge of 79 . 25 m / m i n (260 f t / m i nut e)
a wa l kway a l ong a bu i l d i ng f acade (i .e ., n
200 X 1 . 67 334
Gene ra l Cons i de ra t i ons : 450 to 750 mm (18 to 30 in) . These edges = = 4 . 22 m O
are used on l y unde r cond i t i ons of h i gh 79 .25 79 .25
W i d t hs of pedes t r i an pa t hways vary C
depend i ng on t he purpose and the ex i st i ng pedes t r i an dens i t y.
In th i s examp l e , the wa l kway w i d t h
or expec t ed i nt ens i ty of use . In genera l , a The presence of st ree t furn i ture and f ea r
wou l d have to be at l east 4 200 mm (13 .3
600 mm (24 in) w i d th for each pedes t r i an
is necessary , wh i ch sugges t s a m i n i mum
tures such as f i re hydrant s , t rees , park i ng
me t ers , t e l ephones , t rash recept ac l es ,
f t ) w i de to accommoda t e the g i ven f l ow of C
pedes t r i ans . n
pa t hway w i d t h of 1 200 mm (4 f t ) for pub- fount a i ns , scu l pture , and k i osks a l so
l ic wa l kways . When pedes t r i an f l ows are reduces the e f f ec t i ve w i d t h of a pa t hway. No t e tha t th i s f ormu l a can y i e l d answe rs a
s i gn i f i cant and grea t er prec i s i on requ i red in sugges t i ng very na r row wa l kway w i d t hs
Ca l cu l a t i on o f Wa l kway W i d t h (by S e
the de t erm i na t i on of wa l kway w i dth , mi n i - when l i ght pedes t r i an t raf f i c l oads are ca l -
mum accep t ab l e w i d ths o f a pa t hway can Formu l a ) : cu l a t ed . Such answe rs i mp l y tha t a com-
be ca l cu l a t ed us i ng the f ormu l a g i ven mon wa l kway w i d t h of 1 200 mm or 1 500
M i n i mum w i d t h for a pedes t r i an pa t hway
be l ow . mm (4 or 5 f t ) wou l d be adequa t e to
can be de t e rm i ned by ma t hema t i ca l ca l cu-
l at i on as a func t i on of expec t ed pedes t r i an accommoda t e the expec t ed t raf f i c l oad .
I t is i mpor t an t to r emembe r tha t pedes-
t r i ans as a group typ i ca l l y do not use the vo l ume , accept ab l e dens i ty , and des i rab l e
3
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 340- 6

Ave r age F I owVo l ume : 33 - 49 PMM (10-15 PFM) Ave rage F l ow Vo l ume : 66 - 82 PMM (20-25 PFM)
Ave r age F I owVo l ume : 23 PMM ' or l ess (7 PFM or l ess)
Ave r age Speed : 79 m / m i n (260 f t / m i n) Ave r age Speed: 70 - 76 m / m i n (230-250 f t / m i n) Ave rage Speed : 34-61 m / m i n (110-200 f t /m i n)
Ave r age Pedes t r i an Area Occupancy: . 5- .9 m2 / pe rson
Ave r age Pedes t r i an Area Occupancy: 3. 3 m? / pe r son or grea t e r Ave r age Pedes t r i an Ar ea Occupancy: 1 . 4-2 .3 m2 / pe rson
( 36 f t2 / person or grea t e r ) (15-25 f t 2 / pe rson) (5-10 f t2 / person)

Desc r i p t i on: V i r tua l l y unres t r i c t ed cho i ce o f speed ; m i n i mum Descr i pt i on : Wa l k i ng speeds par t i a l l y res t r i c t ed; pass i ng res t r i c t ed Descr i p t i on: Wa l k i ng speeds res t r i c t ed and f requent l y reduced t o
maneuve r i ng t o pass: c ross i ng and reve rse movemen t s unre - bu t poss i b l e w i th maneuve r i ng ; cross i ng and reverse movemen t s shuf f l i ng; f requen t ad j us t men t o f ga i t requ i red ; pass i ng i mposs i b l e
s t r i c t ed : f l ow approx i ma t e l y 257 , o f max i mum capac i t y . res t r i c t ed and requ i re s i gn i f i can t maneuve r i ng t o avo i d con f l i c t ; f l ow w i t hou t con f l i c t ; c ross i ngs and reverse movemen t s severe l y r es t r i c t -
reasonab l y f lu id and abou t 40-657 , o f max i mum capac i t y. ed w i th unavo i dab l e conf l i c t s ; f l ows a t t a i n max i mum capac i t y unde r
pressure , bu t w i th f requen t s t oppages and i nt er rupt i ons of f l ow.

CI E

Ave r age F l ow Vo l ume : 49 - 66 PMM (15-20 PFM) Ave rage F l ow Vo l ume : 82 PMM or mor e (25 PFM or mor e )
Ave r age F l ow Vo l ume : 23 - 33 PMM (7-10 PFM)
Ave r age Speed: 61-70 m / m i n (200 -230 k / m i n) Ave rage Speed : 0 -34 m / m i n (0-110 f t / m i n)
Ave r age Speed : 76 - 79 m / m i n (250 -260 f t / m i n)
Ave rage Pedes t r i an Ar ea Occupancy: 2. 3-3.2 m2 / pe rson Ave r age Pedes t r i an Area Occupancy : .9-1 .4 m2 / pe rson Ave rage Pedes t r i an Area Occupancy: .5 m2 / pe rson or l ess
(5 f t2/person or l ess)
(25-35 f t 2 / pe rson) (10-15 f t 2 / pe rson)

Desc r i p t i on Wa l k i ng speeds res t r i c t ed and reduced : pass i ng rare l y Descr i pt i on : Wa l k i ng speed r educed t o shuf f l i ng; pass i ng i mposs i b l e;
Descr i p t i on: Norma l wa l k i ng speeds on l y occas i ona l l y res t r i c t ed :
poss i b l e w i t hou t conf l i c t ; c ross i ng and reve rse movemen t s severe l y cross i ng and reverse movemen t s i mposs i b l e ; phys i ca l con t ac t f re-
some occas i ona l i nt er f erence in pass i ng : cross i ng and reverse move -
men t s poss i b l e w i th occas i ona l conf l i c t ; f l ow approx i ma t e l y 35 l o f res t r i c t ed w i th mu l t i p l e conf l i c t s; some probab i l i ty of momen t a r y quen t and unavo i dab l e: f l ow sporad i c and on t he verge o f comp l e t e
max i mum capac i t y. f l ow s t oppages when cr i t i ca l dens i t i es m i gh t be i nt erm i t t ent l y br eakdown and s t oppage .
r eached ; f l ow approx i ma t e l y 65 - 801 of max i mum capac i t y.
' PMM=pedes t r i ans pe r me t e r w i d t h o f wa l kway , pe r m i nu t e .
(PFM=pedes t r i ans pe r foot w i d t h o f wa l kway , pe r m i nu t e . )

F i gur e 340 -6 . Ave r age f l ow vo l ume , speed , and dens i t y (wa l kways ) .

I t is i mpor t an t to not e tha t th i s f ormu l a ter i a are based on user ab i l i t i es and des i gn s t a i rways bu i l t ob l i que l y i nto a s l ope) , but
does not t ake i nto accoun t the spat i a l ob j ec t i ves , and cross-s l ope cr i ter i a are these are haza rdous and shou l d be avo i ded
requ i remen t s of s t ree t furn i ture , soc i a l based on the need for pos i t i ve dra i nage , wheneve r poss i b l e . On very gent l e s l opes
ga ther i ng p l aces , or m i n i ma l use o f wa l k - depend i ng on pav i ng ma t er i a l . Porous of 0 .5 to 2 .0 percent , a s t a i rway can be
way edges . I f such f ea tures or c i rcum- pav i ng , for i ns t ance , does not requ i re as bu i l t to s l ope w i th the grade ra ther t han
n s t ances are i nvo l ved , t hen ad j us t men t s much of a cross-s l ope for dra i nage as a rema i n l eve l , in order to keep the bo t t om
O have to be made t o the overa l l w i d th of t he nonporous pav i ng ma t er i a l . r i ser a t a cons t an t d i mens i on . In add i t i on ,
pa t hway . Moreove r , th i s f ormu l a y i e l ds or as an a l terna t i ve , t he bo t t om of s t a i rway
m i n i mum ( func t i ona l ) wa l kway w i dths , no t 3 .2 St a i rways grade (B .S .) can be wa rped to ma i nt a i n a
u cons t ant a l ong the edge of t he bo t t om
opt i ma l w i d ths based on aes the t i c cr i ter i a.
r W i d t hs: t read .
O f t en wa l kway w i d t hs are des i gned to be
C much grea t er t han necessary for reasons of M i n i mum w i d t h for pub l i c s t a i rways shou l d Occas i ona l l y , t read w i d ths a l so vary for
n sca l e , propor t i on , e t c . be 1 500 mm (60 in) . M i n i mum w i d th for aes the t i c reasons and th i s is genera l l y
a pr i va t e s t a i rways shou l d be 1 050 mm (42
Consequen t l y , th i s f ormu l a is mor e o f t en f ound to be accep t ab l e as l ong as i t is
L in) . unde rs t ood tha t ascend i ng or descend i ng
used as a check aga i ns t a proposed des i gn
s scheme ra ther t han as a r ig id me t hod for such s t a i rways , typ i ca l l y re f er red to as ter -
Tread-R i ser Ra t i os :
de t erm i n i ng wa l kway w i d t hs . raced p l azas , is o f t en cumbe r some . Th i s is
P
Tread- r i ser rat i os are a l ways he l d cons t an t genera l l y accep t ab l e because t er raced
Wa l kway S l ope Cr i t er i a: w i th i n any par t i cu l ar s t a i rway or se t of p l azas are typ i ca l l y used as i nforma l ga ther -
s t a i rways , for ease of ascent or descent , i ng p l aces ra ther t han pure l y ut i l i tar i an
F i gure 340-12 prov i des l ong i tud i na l and
and for sa f e t y reasons . On rare occas i ons t rans i t i ona l spaces .
cross-s l ope cr i ter i a for wa l kways unde r var - r i ser he i ght s in s t a i rways wi l l vary (e .g .,
M i ous c i rcums t ances . Long i tud i na l s l ope cr i -

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 340- 7

F i gure 340-7. Ave r age f l ow vo l ume , speed , and dens i t y (s t a i rways) .

n
O
N

O (
r

F i gure 340-8 . Eye l eve l s of an ave rage adu l t . S

e
e
P

0
3
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 340- 8

F i gur e 340 - 9 . Norma l cone o f v i s i on . F i gur e 340 - 10 . Sense o f spa t i a l enc l osur e ou t door s .

In d i mens i ona l l y uncons t ra i ned s i tua- Add i t i ona l Cons i dera t i ons : may be cons i dered .
t i ons , emp l oy i ng a t read- r i ser rat io is up to 1. Ou t door s t a i rways shou l d be made eas- 5 . Treads shou l d be p i t ched downgr ade 2
the d i scre t i on of the des i gner . Cho i ce of a i er to ascend and descend t han i nter i or percent for dra i nage .
ra t i o wi l l depend on the des i red appea r ance s t a i rways . Peop l e t end to move a t
Nos i ng and Shadow L i ne Prof i l es :
and k i nesthe t i c exper i ence . grea t er ra tes ou tdoors than they do
Shadow l ines are o f t en i nc l uded in st eps for
i ndoors .
In d i mens i ona l l y cons t ra i ned s i tua t i ons aes the t i c reasons , used ma i n l y to g i ve a
2 . Inherent to a par t i cu l ar t read- r i ser rat io
( i . e ., whe r e the e l eva t i ons o f bo t h the t op " re f i ned" l ook to a s t a i rway . They can ,
is the ease a t wh i ch the s t a i rway can be
n and the bo t t om of a s t a i rway , or a se t of howeve r , be haza rdous i f l arge enough to
O ascended or descended , and conse -
s t a i rways , are g i ven) an appropr i a t e t read- ca t ch the toes of pedes t r i ans . Nos i ngs can
la quent l y , the sense of rhy t hm to be
r i ser rat io has to be de t e rm i ned tha t wi l l a l so ca t ch toes un l ess t hey are rounded .
exper i enced by the pedes t r i an . Idea l l y,
a l l ow a g i ven numbe r of s t eps ( i nc l ud i ng the k i nesthe t i c charac t er of a s t a i rway F i gure 340-14 shows var i ous nos i ng and
l and i ngs i f necessary) to " f i t " i nto the shou l d be congruen t w i th the charac t er shadow l ine prof i l es , some of wh i ch are
space .
C o f the env i ronmen t in wh i ch the sta i r -
way is a par t .
pot ent i a l l y haza rdous and there fore not
r ecommended , par t i cu l ar l y in pub l i c areas .
F i gure 340-13 is a qu i ck - re f erence char t
n 3 . S i ng l e st eps in a wa l kway are very dan- (Re f er to Sec t i on 240 : Ou t door Access-
a of typ i ca l t read- r i ser rat i os for ou t door
-L s t a i rways . As an a l t erna t i ve to t read- r i ser gerous and shou l d never be spec i f i ed . ibi l i ty, for mor e i n forma t i on .)
char ts , the fo l l ow i ng f ormu l a is common l y At l east t wo steps , but pre f erab l y three ,
shou l d be spec i f i ed , and the i r presence He i gh t be t ween Land i ngs:
used to de t e rm i ne accep t ab l e t read- r i ser
ra t i os for ou t door s t a i rways , espec i a l l y shou l d be announced consp i cuous l y He i gh t be t ween s t a i rway l and i ngs is an
a when f rac t i ons of an i nch are i nvo l ved . w i th ra i l ings, p l ant i ngs , or l i ght i ng .
4 . R i sers for ou t door s t a i rways shou l d be a
i mpor t an t cr i ter i on for psycho l og i ca l rea-
sons as we l l as for reasons of human
2R + T = 650 to 675 mm (26 to 27 in) m i n i mum of 115 mm (4 .5 in) and a
endur ance . A l t hough many bu i l d i ng codes
max i mum of 150 mm (6 in) . Unde r ut i l -
whe r e R = r i ser st a t e max i mum he i ght s of 3 600 mm (12
i tar i an c i rcums t ances a 175 (7 in) r i ser
3 T = t read f t ) , l esser he i ght s are r ecommended .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 340- 9
3 . 3 Ramps

W i d t hs :

Ramp w i d ths are de t e rm i ned accord i ng to

the t ype and i nt ens i ty o f use . One - way
t rave l requ i res a m i n i mum w i d t h of 900
mm (3 f t ) c l ear , whe reas t wo -way t rave l
requ i res a c l ear m i n i mum w i d t h of 1 500
mm (5 f t ) (F i gure 340-16) . I f turns occur a t
l and i ngs , adequa t e space for maneuve r i ng
whee l cha i rs mus t be prov i ded . (Re f er to the
Ame r i cans w i th D i sab i l i t i es Ac t Access i b i l i ty
Gu i de l i nes (ADAAG ) for a comprehens i ve
comp i l a t i on of d i mens i ona l cr i ter i a and to
st a t e and l oca l codes .)

S l ope Cr i t er i a :

Ramp s l opes shou l d be no grea t er than

1 :12 or 8 .33 percent (F i gure 340-12) . Curb
cuts are an except i on , 1 :8 or 12 percen t
be i ng accep t ab l e i f the runn i ng d i s t ance is
l ess than 900 mm (3 f t ) .

D i s t ance be t ween Land i ngs :

Land i ngs shou l d be prov i ded w i th i n every 9

000 mm (30 f t ) or l ess of r amp l ength
(F i gure 340-16) .

3 . 4 Sea t i ng Cr i t er i a
Benches shou l d be des i gned to ensure
grea t es t comf or t for the i nd i v i dua l . F i gure
340-17 i l l ust rates pre f er red he i gh t and
sea t i ng ang l e for ou t door benches . (Re f er
to Sec t i on 510 : S i te Furn i ture .)

Sea t wa l l s are typ i ca l l y 400 to 450 mm

(16 to 18 in) w i de and be t ween 400 to 450

F i gur e 340 -11 . I nhe r en t capab i l i t i es o f human v i s i on i n t e rms o f soc i a l com-

mun i ca t i on (no t t o sca l e ) .
n
In t e rms of env i ronmen t a l psycho l ogy , i t In t e rms of human endurance , i t shou l d O
is known tha t abrup t changes in ground be r emembe r ed tha t e l der l y and hand i -
l eve l s , even as l i t t le as 300 to 500 mm (1 to capped i nd i v i dua l s use st a i rways , and the i r
1-1 / 2 f t ) can decrease i ncent i ve to pro- abi l i t i es are mor e l i mi t ed t han the average ,
ceed . Changes of 1 800 mm (6 f t ) or mor e phys i ca l l y hea l thy adu l t . For th i s reason , al l ucrl
are f ound to be s t rong l y d i scourag i ng . For
th i s reason , he i ght s be t ween sta i r l and i ngs
changes in e l eva t i on shou l d be des i gned
w i th an unde rs t and i ng of the d i vers i ty of
C
are bes t des i gned so an adu l t of ave rage human ab i l i ty tha t ex i sts among membe r s n
he i ght s t and i ng on one l and i ng can see the of the popu l a t i on . (Re f er to Sec t i on 240 : ri
ground p l ane of the nex t h i gher l and i ng Ou t door Access i b i l i ty , for mor e i n forma t i on
( i . e ., 1 500 mm (5 f t ) or l ess (F i gure 340- on the abi l i t i es o f e l der l y and hand i capped e
15) . Converse l y , he i gh t be t ween l and i ngs is i nd i v i dua l s.)
some t i mes made to be grea t er t han 1 500 e
F i gure 340-15 summa r i zes severa l F i gur e 340 -12 .
mm (5 f t ) to e f f ec t i ve l y cont ro l s i ght l i nes in
i mpor t an t cons i dera t i ons for the des i gn of Wa l kway s l ope cr i t er i a .
con j unc t i on w i th o ther des i gn e l emen t s .
ou t door s t a i rways and l and i ngs .

T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 340- 1 0
R I SER TREAD
ed o f f or turned under for sa fety reasons . Des i gners and Env i ronment a l P l anners
Th i s deta i l is espec i a l l y i mpor t ant for indi - (MAUDEP) , Inc., New York , 1971 .
100 450 - 475
v i dua l s w i th i mpa i red v i s ion . (Re f er to
(4" ) ADAAG for more i nforma t i on .) Kagan , L .S ., A Pedest r i an P l ann i ng Pro-
106. 25 437.5 - 462 .5 cedure Manua l , vo l . II , Repor t no . FHWA-
Add i t i ona l Cons i dera t i ons : RD-79-46 , Depar tmen t of Transpor ta t i on ,
(4 . 25" ) (17.5 - 18.5" ) 1 . Handra i l i ngs on both s ides of a sta i rway Federa l H i ghway Admi n i st ra t i on , Of f i ce of
112.5 425 - 450
or ramp are i mpor t ant because some Research and Deve l opmen t , Env i ron-
peop l e have one-s i ded st rength . men t a l Des i gn and Cont ro l D i v i s i on ,
(4 . 5" ) (17 - 18 " )
2. Ext ra-w i de sta i rways shou l d have cen-
Na t i ona l Techn i ca l Informa t i on Serv i ce ,
118. 75 412 .5 - 437.5 ter ra i l ings for grea t er conven i ence . Spr ingf i e ld, Vi rgini a , 1978.
(4 . 75" ) (16 .5 - 17 .5" ) Handra i l i ngs shou l d be no more than
6 000 mm (20 f t ) apar t. Lynch , Kev i n. The I mage of the Ci ty,
125 400 - 425 Harvard Un i vers i ty Press , Cambr i dge ,
3. Ra i l ings shou l d cont i nue across i nterme-
(5 ")
(16-17 ' ) d i ate l and i ngs . 1960 .
131 . 25 387 .5 - 412.5 4. Ra i l ings shou l d be capab l e of suppor t -
Lynch , Kev i n and Gary Hack. Si te P l ann i ng ,
i ng 114 kg (250 Ibs) of we i ght .
(5 . 25" ) (15 .5 - 16 .5" ) 3d ed. , The M I T Press, Cambr i dge , 1984.
5. Handra i l i ngs for chi ldren, at a l ower
137. 5 375 - 400
he i ght than that spec i f i ed for adul ts, are Pushkarev , Bor i s, w i th Je f f rey M. Zupan.
(15-16 " ) some t i mes adv i sab l e and are a l so usefu l Urban Space for Pedest r i ans , The M I T
143. 75 362. 5 - 387.5
on ramps for i nd i v i dua l s who use Press, Cambr i dge , 1975.
whee l cha i rs .
(5 . 75" ) (14.5 - 15 .5" ) Ramsey , C. G. and H. R. S l eeper.
150 350-375
3 . 6 Pedes t r i an S i gnage Arch i tectura l Graph i c Standards , 8th ed.,
(6 .) (14 - 15" )
John Ray Hoke Jr., ed., Wi l ey , New York ,
Des i gn and p l acemen t of s i gns for use by 1994 .
156. 25 337. 5 - 362 . 5 pedest r i ans i nvo l ves cons i dera t i on of v i sua l
(6 . 25 " ) (13 . 5 - 14. 5" ) f ield, sca l e of let ters, propor t i on of l et ters, Rudof sky , Bernard. St ree ts for Peop l e ,
and cont rast be tween l et ters and back- Doub l eday , New York , 1969 .
162.5 325 - 350
ground (F i gures 340 - 20 and 340 -21) . Unt ermann , R. K . Pedest r i an Ci rcu l at ion,
(6 .5" ) (13 -14 " )
The Ame r i can Soc i e t y of Landscape
168. 75 312. 5 - 337. 5 REFERENCES Arch i tects , Wash i ngton , D .C ., 1974 .
(6 . 75" ) (12 .5 - 13. 5" )
Cu l l en , Gordon . The Cu pus, Townscape , Why t e , W i l l i am H. The Soc i a l Li fe of Sma l l
175 330 - 325
Van Nos t rand Re i nho l d , New York , 1971 . Urban P l aces , The Conserva t i on
(7) (12 - 13" )
From, J. l. Pedest r i an P l ann i ng and Des i gn , Founda t i on , Wash i ngton , D . C., 1980.
181 . 25 287. 5-312 .5
Me t ropo l i t an Assoc i a t i on of Urban
(7 . 25 " ) (11. 5" -12 . 5" )

F i gur e 340 - 13 . Qu i ck r e f e r ence cha r t

o f t yp i ca l t read- r i sers ra t i os f or ou t door
s t a i rways i n mm ( f t ) . Check s t a t e codes
whe r e app l i cab l e .

mm (14 and 18 in) in he i ght , 400 mm (16

in) be i ng mos t pre fer red . Re f er to Sec t i on
n
931 : Sea t i ng Wa l l s , in this handbook for
O
examp l es of sea t i ng wa l l deta i l s.

3 . 5 Hand r a i l i ngs
u Handra i l i ngs are i mpor t ant on al l sta i rways
C and ramps , and shou l d a l l ow a secure and
n comfor t ab l e gr ip for max i mum suppor t .
(F i gure 340 -18) .
i
Handra i l i ng he i ghts for outdoor stai r-
ways and ramps typi ca l l y range f rom 750
to 850 mm (30 to 34 in) (F i gure 340 -19) .
Mun i c i pa l codes shou l d a l ways be checked
a to ensure con f ormance of proposed
he i ghts . The ends of ra i l ings shou l d ext end
beyond the top and bot tom step by 300 to F i gu r e 340 - 14 . Typ i ca l nos i ng and shadow l i ne pro f i l es . Check state codes whe re
450 mm (12 to 18 in) and shou l d be round- app l i cab l e .
3
T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 340 - 1 1

1 . M i n i mum w i d th for a pedest r i an

pa t hway can be de t e rm i ned by
ma thema t i ca l ca l cu l a t i on as a func-
t i on of expec t ed pedes t r i an vo l -
ume (V) , accept ab l e dens i t y(M) , and
des i rab l e ra te o f movemen t (S) .
There fore , pa t hway w i d th = !,
V(M) / S .

2 . M i n i mum w i d th for s t a i rways

shou l d be 1 500 mm (60 in) for pub-
l ic spaces and 1 050 mm (42 in) for
pr i va te spaces .

3 . Recommended t read- r i ser rat ios for

ou tdoor s t a i rways can be ca l cu-
l ated us i ng the formu l a 2R( r i ser ) +
T( t read) = 650 to 675 mm (26 to 27
in) . R i sers for ou t door s t a i rways
shou l d be a m i n i mum of 115 mm
F i gur e 340 - 15 . S t a i rway he i gh t and l and i ng propor t i ons. Check st a t e codes
(4 .5 in) and a max i mum of 150 mm
whe r e app l i cab l e.
(6 in) . Unde r ut i l i tar i an c i rcum-
st ances a max i mum 175 (7 in) r iser
may be cons i dered .

4 . Land i ngs shou l d be prov i ded every

9 000 mm (30 f t ) or l ess of r amp
l ength . He i ght s be t ween sta i r l and-
i ngs shou l d be a max i mum of 1 500
mm (5 f t ) to a l l ow an average adu l t
s t and i ng on one l and i ng to see the
ground p l ane of the nex t h i gher
l and i ng .

5 . Ramp s l opes shou l d be no grea t er

than 1 :12 or 8 . 33% (F i gure 340-
12) . Curb cuts may be 1 :8 or 12% i f
the run is l ess than 900 mm (3 f t ) .

6 . Sea twa l l s are typ i ca l l y 400 to 450

mm (16 to 18 in) w i de and be t ween
350 and 450 mm (14 and 18 in) in
he i ght .
n
7 . Handra i l i ng he i ght s for ou t door O
s t a i rway and ramps typ i ca l l y range
f rom 750 to 850 mm (30 to 34 in) .
The ra i l ing ends shou l d ex t end
beyond the top and bo t t om s t ep by r
300 to 450 mm (12 to 18 in) .
C
F i gur e 340 - 16 . D i mens i ona l cr i t er i a f or t wo - way hand i cap r amp . M i n i mum
n
c l ear w i d t h for one -way t rave l is 900 mm (36 in .) . Check st a t e codes whe r e app l i cab l e.

3
T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 340- 1 2

F i gure 340-17 . Pre f er red he i gh t and sea t i ng ang l e for ou t door benches .
D i mens i ons shown a r e f or op t i ona l doub l e - and s i ng l e -bench con t our.

n
O
la

u
C
c
a
e
d
P
F i gure 340-18 . Pre f er red handra i l i ng prof i l es .
0
3
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 340 - 1 3

HANDRA I L I NG HE I GHTS R I SER / TREAD RAT I 0S

825 mm (2 ' - 9 " ) 150 / 350 mm (6" /14" ) TO 175 / 325 (7 / 13 " )

850 mm (2 ' - 10" ) 125 / 800 mm (5" / 16" ) TO 150 / 337 (6 " 113 .5" )

HANDRA I L I NG HE I GHTS FOR RAMPS : 800 t o 850 mm (2 ' - 8 " t o 2 ' - 10" )

F i gure 340-19 . Handra i l i ng he i gh t s for ex t er i or sta i rs and r amps.

n
O

u
r
F i gure 340-21 . M i n i mum l eg i b i l i ty
for cap i t a l l e t t er he i gh t for pedes t r i - C
an s i gnage . Unde r norma l day l i gh t cond i - n ti
t i ons w i t h an angu l a r d i s t or t i on o f 0 .a
degrees , approx i ma t e l y 15m / 25m o f cap i - ri
t a l l e t t er he i gh t can be t aken as a gu i de l i ne
f or m i n i ma l l eg i b i l i t y. e
e
a.

T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 SECTION ~ ~ .

B i cyc l e C i rcu l a t i on

11141
.I11111111

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
N i cho l as T. D i nes
Con t r i bu t or:
Edwa rd Mac l eod and Te r ran t e Reckord
MacLeod Reckord Landscape Arch i t ec t s
Sea t t l e , Wash i ng t on
Rev i ewe rs :
M i chae l Dom f e l d
B i cyc l e Progr am Coord i na t or
Wash i ng t on St a t e Depa r t men t of
Transpor t a t i on

A l ex Sor t un
D i rec tor , Nor t hwes t e rn Un i vers i t y
Tra f f i c Ins t i tut e
Evans t on , I l l ino i s

CONTENTS
1 . 0 Int roduc t i on Gene ra l 6 .3 In forma t i on Sys t ems
2 . 0 Types of Use rs M i n i mum Cur ve Rad i i for Tra f f i c Con t ro l Dev i ces
2 .1 Bi cyc l i sts
2 . 2 Moun t a i n B i kes
Unbr aked Turns
5. 4 Int ersec t i ons
Types o f S i gnage
P l acemen t o f S i gns
c
3 .0 Pr i ma ry Types o f B i keways Conf l i c t s a t Int ersec t i ons Pavemen t Ma r k i ngs
3 .1 B i cyc l e Pa th Bi cyc l i sts Turn i ng Le f t across Tra f f i c 6 .4 Si te Furn i sh i ngs
3 .2 B i cyc l e Lane Veh i cu l ar Tra f f i c Ent er i ng f rom or Racks and Lock i ng Dev i ces for
3 .3 W i de Ou t s i de Lane Turn i ng to t he R i ght B i cyc l es
F i xtures for Bi cyc l e Rou t es
Û
3 .4 Sha red Roadway M i db l ock Cross i ngs
4 .0 Rou t e Se l ec t i on and P l ann i ng F r eeway Ramp Cross i ngs B i keway L i ght i ng
4 .1 B i cyc l e Tra f f i c Gene ra t ors Unde rpasses and Ove rpasses 6 .5 Bar r i ers and Separa tors
4 .2 Scen i c and Recrea t i ona l Amen i t i es
4 .3 Ter ra i n
Curb Ramps
6 .0 Des i gn E l emen t s
Fences and P l ant i ng
Pa i n t ed L i nes
û
4 .4 Cont i nu i t y 6 .1 Pav i ng and Sur f ac i ng Tra f f i c Bu t t ons
4 .5 W i d t h of B i keways Aspha l t 6. 6 B i keway P l ant i ngs
Re f erences
m
4 .6 Nega t i ve Fac tors Conc re t e
5 .0 Des i gn Cr i ter i a Soi l Cemen t
5 .1 B i cyc l e Speed St one Ch i p Aggr ega t e
Stab i l i zed Ear th
3
5 .2 S i gh t / Stopp i ngD e nc ista
5 .3 Cur ve Rad i i 6 .2 Dra i nage of B i keway Sur f aces

T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 341-2
1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON

T he increas ing use of bi cyc l es in the

Un i ted States makes it imperat i ve to
des ign bicyc le faci l i t ies wi th f ewer
conf l icts be tween such systems and other
modes of t rave l .
Such i mproved systems are norma l l y
found in the form of a b i keway , def ined as
" any road, path, or way , wh i ch in some
manner is speci f ical ly des ignated as be ing
open to bi cyc l e t ravel , regard l ess of
whe ther such faci l i t ies are des i gnated for
the exc lus i ve use of bi cyc l es or are to be
shared wi th other modes of t ranspor tat ion"
(Amer i can Assoc i at ion of State H i ghway
and Transpor tat ion Of f icials) .
To des ign qua l i ty bi cyc l e faci l i t ies, an F i gure 341-1 . Bi cyc l e pa th .
understand i ng of bicycl ists and the i r ob j ec-
t ives is i mpor tant .

1 TYPES OF USERS
2 .1 Bi cyc l i sts
Bicycl ists fal l into two ma j or categor i es :
1 . The recreat iona l bicycl ist , who uses
the bicyc le for p l easure or exerc i se
2 . The funct iona l bicycl ist , who uses the
bicyc le as an a l ternat i ve form of
t ranspor tat ion to school , to work , or
to shop
Mos t bicycl ists use a bi cyc l e for both
funct iona l and recreat iona l reasons .
Bi keways must be des i gned to accord wi th
a corr idor 's exist ing character ist i cs rather
than wi th nar row l y de f i ned user t rai ts or
purposes . F i gure 341-2 . Bi cyc l e l ane .
M i n i mum standards must be empha - 3 .1 Bi cyc l e Pa th an i ndependent r ight -of -way, and for the
s i zed to accommoda t e a ful l range of user
types wh i l e opt imi z ing safety for al l . pr i mary use of bi cyc l es (F igure 341-1) .
Bicyc le pa th refers to a faci l i ty separated
f rom motor t raf f ic by an open space or bar -
2 .2 Moun t a i n B i kes r ier e i ther wi th in the road r ight -of -way or
Al though the pr i mary focus of this sect ion
is the des ign of faci l i t ies for tour ing bi cy- x
n cles, the use of mounta i n bi kes is increas-
O
ingly popu l ar. Mount a i n b i k ing typica l ly
occurs on al l trai l systems, and the integra- There are four pr imary types of b i keways wh i ch are des i gned to accommoda t e the
t ion of b i k ing into ex i st ing trai l systems is a recreat iona l and funct iona l needs of bicycl ists .
V
r cha l l enge for prov iders around the count ry .
1 . Bicyc le path : Ideal wi th ded i cated r ight -of -way and separate furnishings, 2 400-
C 1 3 600 mm (8-12 f t ) m i n .

û The Amer i can Assoc i at ion of State 2 . Bicyc le l ane : Par t of road but separated by mark ings or textured str ip, 1 500-
1 800 mm (5-6 ft) mi n .
H i ghway and Transpor tat i on Of f i c i a ls
m (AASHTO) classi f ies four pr i mary types of
b i keways . These are descr ibed be l ow. 3 . W i de outs ide l ane : Less desi rable, but common , 4 200 mm (14 f t ) mi n .
1 4. Shared roadway : Common , but has highest potent ia l for conf l ict wi th autos,
1 500-1 800 mm (5-6 f t ) mi n .
3
Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Archi tecture
 341 -3
3 .2 Bi cyc l e Lane
Bicyc le l ane refers to a por t ion of a roadway
wh i ch has been des i gnated by st r iping,
signing, and pavement mark i ngs for prefer -
ent ial or exc lus i ve use by bicycl ists (F igure
341-2) .

3 .3 W i de Ou t s i de Lane
W i der r i ght -most through t raf f ic l anes,
(usua l ly 4 200 mm (14 f t) mi n .) to a l low the
bicycl ist and motor i st to share the same
l ane wi th mi n i ma l conf l ict and no adverse
ef fects on t raf f ic f low.

3 .4 Shared Roadway
Shared roadway refers to a r ight -of -way
des i gnated by s igns or permanent mark i ngs F i gure 341-3 . Shared roadway or w i de outs i de l ane .
as a bi cyc l e route, but wh i ch is a l so shared
wi th pedest r i ans and motor i sts (F igure 341-
3) .

4 . 0 ROUTE SELECT I ON
AND PLANN I NG

The se l ect ion and p l ann i ng of a b i keway

route depends on a comb i na t i on of severa l
factors : (1) bicyc le t raf f ic generators, (2)
sceni c and recreat iona l ameni t i es, (3) cont i -
nui ty, (4) terrain, (5) adequa te space , and
(6) negat i ve factors .
4 .1 B i cyc l e Traf f i c Genera tors
An est imated range of 5 to 10 km (3 to 6
mi ) covers most recreat iona l and funct iona l F i gure 341-4 . Max i mum uph i l l grades .
bicyc le t r ips . These can be ident i f ied wi th a
spec i f ic t raf f ic generator inc luding : accepted max i mum uphi l l grades (based on
4 .3 Ter ra i n
1 . Res ident i a l concent rat ions l ength of grade) .
Studi es indi cate that if grad i ents exceed 5
2 . Schoo l s percent there wi l l be a sharp drop in the
l ength of uphi l l grade that bicycl ists wi l l tol -
3 . Parks and recreat iona l faci l i t ies erate . F igure 341-4 i l lust rates common l y
4 . Commun i t y act ivi ty centers
5 . Emp l oyment concent rat ions
n
6 . Shopp i ng and commerc i a l centers Proper route se l ect ion requi res : O
NOTE: For most types of t r ips in urban areas 1 . Ident i f icat ion of traf f ic generators and ant i c ipated user types wi thin a 5-10 km (3-6
of up to 8 km (5 mi ) , the bi cyc l e and the mi ) ci rcui t . c
motor vehi c l e requi re about the same t rave l
t ime. 2 . Link ing sceni c and recreat ional potent ia l of mul t i -use route to secure broad user
interest . C
4 .2 Scen i c and Recrea t i ona l
Amen i t i es 3 . Mapp i ng and inspect ing physica l route condi t ions to determine : û
a . Extent of uphi l l grades to stay wi thin acceptabl e gradi ent /di stance rat ios .
The va lue of a b i keway as an amen i ty is b . Potent ia l for uninter rupted and di rect pathways to encourage f requent use .
enhanced by i ts c lose prox imi ty and con- c . Ava i l abl e widths to a l low for proper setbacks for signs, l ights, benches, etc . m
nect ion to parks or other sceni c and recre- (Refer to F igure 341-5) .
at iona l at t ract ions . The most var i ed and d . Obstac l es and negat i ve contextua l physica l factors, inc luding adj acent st ructures
at t ract ive routes wi l l be used most of ten . or t ranspor tat ion mode conf l icts
3
Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Archi tecture
 341 - 4

4 .4 Cont i nu i t y
Cont inu i ty is i mpor tant to assure a re lat ive-
ly di rect t r ip and cont i nuous path w i thout
excess i ve out -of - the-way t rave l (wh i ch
tends to d i scourage use) .
4 .5 W i d t h of B i keways
Factors to cons i der when de t ermi n i ng
widths for b i keways must inc lude :
1 . The spat ial d i mens i ons of bicycl ist and
bi cyc l e
2 . Maneuver i ng space requi red for ba l -
anc i ng
3 . Add i t iona l c l earances requ i red to
avo id obstac l es (F igure 341-5)
4 . Ant i c ipated vo l umes of t raf f ic
NOTE : Des i gners shou l d assume that in
many cases two-way t ravel wi l l occur on
F i gure 341-5 . W i d t hs of b i keways . separa t ed b i cyc l e paths, regardl ess of des ign
i ntent i ons. Appropr i ate widths shou l d be
prov i ded.
4 .6 Nega t i ve Fac tors
Factors that negat i ve l y inf luence the se l ec-
t ion of a route for a b i keway inc lude phys-
ical obstac l es such as e l evated embank -
ments , f reeways and interchanges, busy
ar ter ials, and potent i a l conf l icts wi th other
modes of t ravel .

5 . 0 DES I GN CR I TER I A

M i n i mum levels of safety can be prov i ded

by careful l y cons ider ing bi cyc l e speed,
s ight /stopp ing di stances, curve radi i , inter-
sect ion des ign, widths, sur fac ing, and pro-
tect ion f rom hazards .
F i gure 341-6 . M i n i mum s i ght / stopp i ng d i st ances 5 .1 Bi cyc l e Speed
Des i gn speed refers to the speed for wh i ch
a bicyc le pa th is des i gned . A des ign speed
shou ld be chosen that is at least as fast as
the prefer red speed of the faster bicycl ists.
n In genera l , a m i n i mum des ign speed of 32
O km/ h (20 mph) shou ld be used . However ,
when downh i l l grades exceed 4 percent or
la where st rong tai l w i nds of ten exist , a high-
er m i n i mum des ign speed of 48 km/ h (30
r mph) may be adv i sabl e . On unpaved sur -
C faces, a l ower m i n i mum des ign speed can
e be used .
û
5 .2 S i ght / Stopp i ng D i s t ance
m Si ght /stopp i ng di stance is the physi ca l dis-
tance requi red for a bicycl ist to see an
obst ruct ion and come to a comp l e te stop .
F igure 341-6 shows m i n i mum s ight /stop-
F i gure 341-7 . S i ght / s topp i ng d i s t ances for crest ver t i ca l curves. p ing di stances for var ious des ign speeds
M
Time-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 341 - 5

and grades based on a tota l percep t i on and

brake reac t i on t i me of 2 .5 seconds and a
coe f f i c i ent of f r i ct i on of 0 .25, to accoun t
for the poor we t -sur f ace brak i ng charac t er -
ist i cs of mos t b i cyc l es .

F i gure 341-7 is used to se l ec t the m i n i -

mum l ength of ver t i ca l curve necessary to
prov i de m i n i mum s i ght / s topp i ng d i s t ances
a t var i ous speeds on crests . The eye he i ght
of the ave rage b i cyc l i st is assumed to be 1
350 mm (4-1 / 2 f t ) and the he i gh t of the
perce i ved ob j ec t is assumed to be zero .

F i gure 341-8 shows t he m i n i mum c l ear -

ance tha t shou l d be used for l i ne-of -s i ght
obs t ruc t i ons on hor i zont a l curves . The
des i red l atera l c l earance is ob t a i ned by
ent er i ng F i gure 341-8 w i th the s i ght / s top-
p i ng d i s t ance f rom F i gure 341-6 and the
proposed hor i zont a l rad i us of curva ture . F i gur e 341 - 8 . La t e ra l c l ea r ances on hor i zon t a l curves .

NOTE : To avo i d head-on b i cyc l e acc i dents ,

l a tera l c l earances on hor i zont a l curves
shou l d be ca l cu l a t ed based on the sum o f
the s i ght / s topp i ng d i s t ances for b i cyc l i sts
t rave l i ng in oppos i t e d i rec t i on a round the
curve . Whe r e th i s is no t poss i b l e , cons i dera-
t i on shou l d be g i ven to w i den i ng t he pa t h
through the curve , i nsta l l i ng a ye l l ow cent er
st r ipe , and i nsta l l i ng a CURVE AHEAD warn-
i ng s i gn.

5 . 3 Cur ve Rad i i

Gene ra l :

The des i gn speed chosen de t e rm i nes the

appropr i a t e curve radi i . I f b i keways are par t
of a mo t or veh i c l e roadway , t hen no
changes in radi i are needed . I f separa t e
fac i l i t i es are p l anned , then the curves
shou l d be des i gned to a l l ow unbraked turns
a t a prescr i bed des i gn speed .

M i n i mum Curve Rad i i for Unbr aked

Turns: F i gur e 341 - 9 . Supe r e l eva t i on and cur ve w i den i ng. These t wo dev i ces he l p b i cy
c l es negot i a t e sma l l - rad i i curves .
M i n i mum curve radi i for unbraked turns are R = m i n i mum rad i us of curva ture , mm 5 . 4 I n t e rsec t i ons
based on t he b i cyc l e speed , t he rate of ( f t)
supere l eva t i on , and the coe f f i c i ent of f r i c- Conf l i c t s a t Int ersec t i ons :
V = des i gn speed , km / h (mph) n
t i on be t ween b i cyc l e t i re and pavemen t . A l arge share o f b i cyc l e- re l a t ed acc i dent s O
e = supere l eva t i on , 2 % max . occur at i nt ersec t i ons o f st reets and b i ke-
M i n i mum curve radi i for b i keways can
be der i ved f rom the fo l l ow i ng f ormu l a . A f = coe f f i c i ent of f r i ct i on (var i es f rom ways because of the con f used com i ng l i ng
supere l eva t i on ra te of 2% shou l d be used 0 . 17 to 0 .27) of b i cyc l es , mo t or veh i c l es , and pedes t r i -
c
ans . Ma j or prob l ems occur f rom the fo l l ow- r
to prov i de adequa t e dra i nage of the sur -
f ace and accommoda t e hand i cap access i -
NOTE: Th i s formu l a is for paved sur f aces i ng cond i t i ons : C
on l y. Fr i c t i on f ac tors for unpaved sur f aces
bi l i ty . Grea t er ra t es of supere l eva t i on may 1 . Bi cyc l i sts turn i ng l ef t across t raf f i c
wou l d be l ess t han ha l f o f those for paved
be used in un i que c i rcums t ances whe r e
sur f aces . û
t i ght er radi i are requ i red . Howeve r , supere l - 2 . Bi cyc l i sts cross i ng an i nt ersec t i on
eva t i on ra tes shou l d no t exceed a max i - Avo i d shor t - rad i us curves at the bo t t om when veh i cu l ar t raf f i c is ent er i ng
mum of 0 . 05 m / m (0 .05 f t / f t ) . of a l ong grade . W i den i ng the b i keway a t f rom or turn i ng to the r i ght m
shor t - rad i us curves is r ecommended to com
V2 pensa t e for the i ncreased opera t i ng space 3 . Fa i l ure to y i e l d by both b i cyc l i sts and
R
15( e + f ) whe re , requ i red by a b i cyc l i st l ean i ng through a motor i s t s
curve (F i gure 341-9) . 3
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 341-6
The t ypes o f prob l ems encoun t e red in
these three s i tua t i ons vary w i th the t ype of
b i keway. Int ersec t i on prob l ems are nonex -
i stent w i th b i cyc l e pa ths by v i r tue of the i r
comp l e t e separa t i on f rom veh i cu l ar t raf f i c .
The i nt ersec t i on prob l ems of a b i cyc l e l ane
and of a w i de out s i de l ane or a shared
roadway are s i mi l ar . B i cyc l e l anes represent
the mos t comp l ex se t of i nt ersec t i on prob-
l ems because al l three of the above - l i s t ed
prob l ems are i nvo l ved and so l ut i ons to con-
f l i cts be t ween motor i s t s and b i cyc l i sts are
expec t ed , g i ven the obv i ous dema rca t i on
of the i r separa t e doma i ns .

Conf l i c t po i nt s and so l ut i ons for each

prob l em are descr i bed be l ow.

B i cyc l i s t s Turn i ng Le f t ac ross Tra f f i c.

The re are severa l ways for b i cyc l i sts to turn

F i gur e 341 - 10 . I n t e rsec t i on con f l i c t po i n t s f or l e f t t urn i ng b i cyc l i s t s . l ef t across veh i cu l ar t raf f i c, each one pos i ng
ser i ous hazards to the r i der. F i gure 341 - 10
i l lust rates the many i nt ersec t i on conf l i c t
po i nt s tha t ex i st when a b i cyc l i st turns l ef t
across t raf f i c .

Pa th A in F i gure 341 - 10 shows the b i cy-

c l ist l eav i ng t he b i keway l ane on the far
r i ght and , l i ke a mo t or veh i c l e , mov i ng to
the cent er l ane pos i t i on to execu t e a l ef t
turn . Th i s a l t erna t i ve accept s the es t ab-
l i shed des i res of b i cyc l i sts to be t rea t ed as
veh i c l e opera tors ra ther than as pedest r i -
ans , but i t exposes the b i cyc l i sts to s i de-
sw i pes and to the fa i l ure of au tomob i l es
go i ng in e i ther d i rec t i on to y i e l d the r i ght -
o f -way . Many b i cyc l i sts never the l ess
choose th i s a l t erna t i ve un l ess a d i f f erent
rout e is manda t ed .

Pa th B in F i gure 341 - 10 shows the b i cy-

c l ist cross i ng the i nt ersec t i on in the r i ght
F i gur e 341 -11 . Prob l em o f l e f t t urn i ng b i cyc l i s t s . I f au t o t raf f i c i s mode r a t e l ane and , when t raf f i c a l l ows , execu t i ng a
heavy , b i cyc l i sts can turn lef t , f l ow i ng w i t h the t raf f i c. 90-degree l ef t turn across the st ree t . Th i s
a l t erna t i ve is cons i dered cont rary to the
es t ab l i shed des i res of b i cyc l i sts to be t reat -
ed as veh i c l e opera tors ra ther than as
pedes t r i ans , and i t may be s l i ght l y con fus-
ng to motor i s t s because the b i cyc l i st is
n
O behav i ng ne i ther l i ke a motor i s t nor l i ke a
B i keway des i gn is based upon the fo l l ow i ng sa f e t y i ssues : pedes t r i an . Th i s so l ut i on present s severa l
hazards f rom through- t rave l i ng veh i c l es as
1 . Des i gna t ed des i gn speed , typ i ca l l y 32 km / h (20 mph) , up to 48 km / h (30 mph) for Ne l l as f rom veh i c l es turn i ng in f ront of the
c sus t a i ned down hi l l runs . bi cyc l i st . A l ess con f us i ng sys t em is one tha t
:a i ls for t he b i cyc l i st to wa l k the b i ke across
C 2 . S i ght / s topp i ng d i st ance and re l ated c l earances may requ i re pa th w i den i ng at hor i -
both st reets , prec i se l y l i ke a pedes t r i an , but
zont a l curves , and mark i ngs at i ntersec t i ons and some ver t i ca l curve crests .
; ome b i cyc l i sts may ob j ec t to such an
c nconven i ence .
3 . Curve radi i range f rom 28 500 -165 500 mm (95-565 f t ) depend i ng on des i gn
speed , and supere l eva t i on ra tes range f rom 1 . 0-2 . 0% , depend i ng on speed , rad ius , Pa th C in F i gure 341 - 10 shows the b i cy-
and c l i ma t e . c l ist weav i ng across the approach st ree t
B and , a t the f i rst gap in the t raf f i c, proceed-
4 . Potent i a l conf l i cts at i ntersec t i ons / cross i ngs due to turns across t raf f i c by both ng wrong -way t hrough the i nt ersec t i on .
cyc l i sts and motor i s t s . -h i s approach is cons i dered very c l anger -
M
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 341- 7

F i gure 341-12 . Prob l em o f l e f t -

turn i ng b i cyc l i sts . When auto t raf f i c is
modera t e to heavy , bi cyc l i sts of ten stop
at far corner and wa i t for a break in
t raf f i c.

F i gure 341-13 . Prob l em o f l e f t -

turn i ng b i cyc l i sts . I f auto t raf f i c is very
heavy , some b i cyc l i sts may choose to
wa l k the i r b i cyc l es w i th pedest r i ans .

n
O
ti
F i gure 341-14 . Int ersec t i on conf l i c t la
po i n t s. When veh i cu l ar t raf f i c is enter ing
f rom or turn i ng r i ght. cr
C
c

FE

3
T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 341- 8

F i gur e 341 - 15 . I n t e rsec t i on con f l i c t

po i n t s . When veh i cu l ar t raf f i c is ent er i ng
f rom or turn i ng r i ght ( i nden t ed r i ght - turn
l anes) .

F i gur e 341 - 16 . Prob l em o f en t e r i ng

or r i gh t t urn i ng au t o t ra f f i c . One
a l t erna t i ve is to w i den the r i ght l ane to
g i ve b i cyc l i sts the oppor tun i t y to maneu -
ver a round r i ght - turn i ng au t o t ra f f i c.

ous and i t shou l d be d i scouraged or pre- t ant to gran t the r i ght -o f -way to b i cyc l i sts . st ra i ght t hrough the i ntersec t i on , as shown
ven t ed wheneve r poss i b l e . F i gures 341-14 and 341-15 show i nt ersec- in F i gure 341-19 .
t i on conf l i ct po i nt s for th i s s i tua t i on .
F i gures 341-11 , 341-12 , and 341-13 M i db l ock Cross i ngs:
i l lust rate three common so l ut i ons to the I f au t o t raf f i c on cross-st ree ts is mode r -
n prob l em of l e f t - turn i ng b i cyc l i sts . a t e to heavy , a poss i b l e so l ut i on to the An a t -grade cross i ng cou l d be used when
O b i ke pa ths or b i ke l anes mus t cross a road-
prob l em is to make the r i ght - turn l anes
Veh i cu l ar Tra f f i c En t er i ng f rom or Turn i ng ex t ra w i de to g i ve b i cyc l i sts the oppor tun i - way w i t h re l a t i ve l y l ight t raf f i c at m i db l ock .
«3
to t he R i gh t : ty to maneuve r a round the turn i ng veh i c l es I t shou l d be made to i nt ersec t the roadway
(F i gure 341-16) . Th i s k i nd of open- f i e l d as c l ose to a r i ght ang l e as poss i b l e so tha t
rc A ser i ous prob l em ex i sts whe r e there are
approach is rep l e t e w i th user uncer t a i nt y the b i cyc l i sts wi l l be ab l e to see the oncom-
des i gna t ed veh i cu l ar r i ght - turn l anes wh i ch
and i nherent dange r . S i gns shou l d a l ways i ng t raf f i c in bo t h d i rec t i ons (F i gure 341-
force mo t or veh i c l es i nto the b i keway in
be used to a l er t r i ght - turn i ng motor i s t s to 20) . I t is a l so usua l l y appropr i a t e to STOP
b i ke l ane and shared roadway cond i t i ons .
c b i cyc l i sts on the i r r i ght . F i gures 341-17 and the b i cyc l e t raf f i c in de f erence to the mo t or
Many motor i s t s do not see b i cyc l i sts com-
t raf f i c . Ove rpasses or underpasses shou l d
c i ng f rom the rear e i ther because t hey are 341-18 show poss i b l e so l ut i ons to the

m preoccup i ed w i th o ther mo t or veh i c l es or

because of the b l i nd spot to the r i ght rear
prob l em for roadways w i th i nden t ed r i ght -
turn l anes .
be cons i dered i f these b i keways have to
cross mor e heav i l y t rave l ed roadways .

of mos t au tomob i l es . A l so , mos t motor i s t s I f the au t o t raf f i c on cross-st ree ts is l ight ,

are not accus t omed to l ook i ng for b i cyc l i sts the b i keway l anes m i gh t be t t er con t i nue
on roadways , and some are s i mp l y re l uc-

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 341 - 9

F i gur e 341 - 17 . Prob l em o f en t e r i ng

or r i gh t t urn i ng au t o t ra f f i c . In th i s
i ns t ance , i t is pr i mar i l y the respons i b i l i ty
o f the b i cyc l i st to unde rs t and the i nheren
dange r a t the ma j or conf l i c t po i n t .

F i gur e 341 - 18 . Prob l em o f en t e r i ng

or r i gh t t urn i ng au t o t ra f f i c . Th i s a l ter -
na t i ve usua l l y requ i res tha t the b i cyc l i st
s top at t he ma j or conf l i c t po i n t and wa i t
for a break in r i ght - turn i ng t raf f i c, and
shou l d be avo i ded.

I`
O

F r eeway Ramp Cross i ngs: pass or overpass shou l d be v i sua l l y obv i ous shou l d no t be grea t er t han 1 :12, or abou t 8
r
and shou l d prov i de the eas i est and sa f est percent . (Re f er to Sec t i on 240 : Access and
Bi cyc l i sts shou l d be encour aged to cross a l t erna t i ve to cross i ng the roadway (F i gure Egress : Ou t door St andards , and Sec t i on C
i nt ersec t i ons ear l y enough to be eas i l y seen 341-22) . 241 : Access and Egress : Arch i t ec tura l and
by ex i t i ng veh i c l es whe r e b i keways fo l l ow Transpor t a t i on Gu i de l i nes , for mor e i nfor - c
h i ghways or f reeways w i t h of f r amps Curb Ramps : ma t i on .)
(F i gure 341-21) .
A r amped curb shou l d be prov i ded when a
6 . 0 DES I GN ELEMENTS
m
Unde rpasses and Ove rpasses : b i keway encoun t e rs a roadway curb
(F i gure 341-23) . These s t ruc tures a l so per -
Ramp grades for e i ther underpasses or Des i gn e l emen t s may be grouped i nto
m i t cross i ngs by whee l cha i rs , baby car -
overpasses shou l d pre f erab l y be no s t eeper three ca t egor i es : 1 . Pavemen t ma t er i a l s
than 5 percent . The approach to t he under -
r i ages , e t c . The max i mum runn i ng grade
3
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 341- 1 0

F i gure 341-19 . Prob l em o f en t er i ng

or r i ght turn i ng au t o t ra f f i c . I f auto
t ra f f i c i s l i ght , b i cyc l e t ra f f i c can con t i nue
s t ra i gh t t hrough t he i n t e rsec t i on and
shou l d be t r ea t ed as a veh i c l e.

F i gure 341-20 . M i db l ock i nt ersec-

t i on . The b i keway shou l d c ross t he road-
way as c l ose t o r i gh t ang l es as poss i b l e .

F i gure 341-21 . F r eeway r amp cross-

i ngs . B i keways shou l d c ross f r eeway
n r amps ea r l y enough t o be seen by r i ght -
O t urn i ng t ra f f i c .

u
c
r
C
e
û
a
c
m
1
3
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 341 - 1 1

F i gure 341-22 . Underpass and overpass .

and assoc i ated requ i rements , 2 . Path sup- deter iorat ion occurs, a sea l coat of bi tumi -
por t st ructures for safety, comfor t , and ut i l - nous aspha l t or aspha l t i c concrete can be
i ty, and 3 . Pa th def in ing e l ements for gen- appl i ed . (Refer to Sect ions 810 : Soi ls and
era l aesthet i c and cul tura l appropr i ateness. Aggrega tes , 820 : Aspha l t , and 830 :
Concrete , for more informat ion .)
6 .1 Pav i ng and Sur f ac i ng
Stone Ch i p Aggrega t e :
Some types of b i keways share the pave-
ment of an exist ing roadway , and const ruc- Stone ch ip aggrega te is mos t useful when
t ion cons iderat ions are spec i f ic to veh i cu l ar the b i keway is to be used pr imar i l y for
t raf f ic . However , if a st reet or shou l der is recreat iona l purposes . Thi s mater i a l creates
w i dened or a separate b i keway is con- f ewer dra i nage prob l ems than the other
st ructed, the pavement shou l d be a types of pav ing, a l though it requi res st ruc-
smooth , nons l i ck sur face and have a thi ck- tura l edg i ng (e .g., wood , meta l , or plast ic)
ness capab l e of suppor t i ng norma l -s i ze to conta in the aggrega te . (Refer to Sect ion
ma i nt enance vehi c l es . 810 : Soi ls and Aggregates , for more infor -
ma t i on .)
Thi s sect ion does not inc lude deta i l ed
i nforma t i on about the const ruct ion of Stabi l i zed Ear th :
pavement s for bi cyc l e routes . However , the Stabi l i zed ear th is perhaps the least expen-
fo l lowing notes on var ious pavement ma t e-
sive way to create a paved sur face for a
r ials are of fered as a genera l overv i ew, and b i keway . However , it is a l so the least
references to other appropr i ate sect ions are durab l e and requi res the most ma i nt enance
g i ven
to keep it in good cond i t ion . (Refer to F i gure 341-23 . Curb r amp .
Aspha l t : Sect ions 810 : Soi ls and Aggregates , and
440 : Sur fac ing and Pav ing, for more infor - snowp l ows may dest roy these . Transverse
Hot -mi x aspha l t is the most popu l ar pav i ng ma t i on .) (or ang l ed) bar or honeycomb grates are
mater i a l used for b i keways . (Refer to prefer red . Mos t bicycl ists wi l l avo id r iding
Sect ion 820: Aspha l t , for more informa- 6 .2 Dra i nage of B i keway Sur f aces over a l most any type of grate . Dra i nage
t ion .) Bi keway sur faces shou ld be pi tched at least grates nar row the ef fect i ve width of a bi ke-
2 percent (depend i ng on the texture and way and may cause r iders to swerve into
Concre te : compos i t i on of the sur fac ing mater i a l ) to t raf f ic or other bicycl ists . They shou ld be n
prov i de pos i t i ve dra i nage . (Refer to des i gned and located to mi n i mi ze danger O
Concre te is the second most f requent l y to bicycl ists and avo i ded where possibl e .
used pav i ng mater i a l for b i keways . The f in- Sect ions 320 : Grad i ng Techn iques , and
ish shou l d be l ight ly textured to prevent 330 : Si te Dra inage , for more informat ion .)
6 .3 Informa t i on Sys t ems cr
s l ipper iness when we t . Un l ess sawed joints Cont i nuous curb i ng shou ld be inter rupt -
are used, convent i ona l cont ract ion and Near l y al l s igns and mark i ngs p l aced on
ed intermi t tent l y to a l low for dra i nage of C
const ruct ion joints in the pavement cause the b i keway and any ad j acent hard sur - publ i c st reets and h i ghways for the benef i t
rhythmi c bumps wh i ch are annoy i ng to faces . Sur face dra in inlets shou ld be pro- of the motor i st a lso app l y to the bicycl ist .
some r iders . (Refer to Sect ion 830 : û
v ided if the curbs are not inter rupted . Traf f ic Cont ro l Dev i ces :
Concrete , for more informat ion .) Dra i nage grates wi th slots runn i ng paral lel y
to the l ine of bicyc le t ravel can catch bi cy- Bas i c pr inc ipl es govern i ng the des ign and B
Soi l Cement : use of t raf f ic cont rol dev i ces are set for th in
cle whee l s , damag i ng r ims and caus i ng
Soi l cement is occas iona l l y used for bi ke- acc idents (F igure 341-24) . Some commun i - the 1988 Manua l on Un i form Traf f ic
ways , a l though it wi l l deter iorate much t ies sol ve the prob l em by temporar i l y we l d- Cont ro l Dev i ces (MUTCD) (pt . 9 : Bi cyc l e
sooner than e i ther aspha l t or concrete . If ing t ransverse bars over exist ing grates, but Faci l i t ies) , produced by the U . S . 3
Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Archi tecture
 341- 1 2

F i gur e 341 - 24 . Haza rds o f dr a i nage gr a t es .

Depa r t men t of Transpor t a t i on . Th i s source Gu i de s i gns prov i de roads i de i n forma - Ca re shou l d be t aken to p l ace s i gns-par -
i dent i f i es f i ve bas i c requ i remen t s tha t a t i on to or i ent and ass i st users geograph i ca l - t i cu l ar l y those at the l ower he i gh t s -whe re
t raf f i c cont ro l dev i ce shou l d mee t to be l y. Typ i ca l l y , gu i de s i gns are of mos t use to they wi l l no t be obscured by other common
e f f ec t i ve ; it shou l d : b i cyc l i sts who are unf am i l i ar w i th t he l ay- e l emen t s such as pa rked cars or vege t a t i on .
ou t of an area or fac i l i ty . St andard gu i de B i cyc l e-or i ent ed wa rn i ng s i gns shou l d be
1 . Ful f i l l a need
s i gns i nc l ude t he BIKE ROUTE s i gn , supp l e - pos i t i oned f ar enough in advance of the
2 . Command a t t ent i on men t a ry p l a t es such as BEG I N or END , and cond i t i on to a l l ow t i me for percept i on and
d i rec t i ona l p l a t es w i th a var i e ty of a r row response , based upon des i gn speeds and
3 . Convey a c l ear , s i mp l e mean i ng des i gna t i ons . s i ght / s topp i ng d i s t ances (F i gure 341-6) .
4 . Command respec t of road users P l acemen t shou l d be such tha t a sa f e hor i -
P l acemen t o f S i gns:
zont a l d i s t ance of 1 000 mm (3 f t ) is ma i n-
5 . Prov i de adequa t e t i me for response t a i ned be t ween the edge of the b i keway
Gu i de s i gns , such as BIKE ROUTE and
St andards of des i gn , p l acemen t , opera - supp l emen t a l p l a tes , shou l d be p l aced sur f ace and t he neares t pro j ec t i on of t he
t i on ma i n t enance , and un i form i t y have whe r e a rou t e beg i ns , ends , changes d i rec- s i gn .
been care fu l l y deve l oped to mee t these t ion, or i ntersec ts w i th o ther b i keways .
Pavemen t Ma r k i ngs:
requ i remen t s . Ca re shou l d be t aken no t to Int ermed i a t e gu i de s i gns shou l d be prov i d-
emp l oy a spec i a l t rea t men t when a s t an- ed to reassure b i cyc l i sts of the i r pos i t i on i f Pavemen t ma rk i ngs are used to re i nforce
da rd t rea tmen t wi l l serve the purpose . d i s t ances are grea t be t ween ma j or dec i s i on s i gnage by prov i d i ng add i t i ona l i n forma -
po i nt s . S i gns wa rn i ng motor i s t s tha t b i cy- t i on . They are par t i cu l ar l y use fu l for b i ke-
NOTE: In the Un i t ed States , the MUTCD can c l ists may be encoun t e red , and v i ce versa ,
of t en be f ound in l oca l and st a t e h i ghway ways s i nce they , mor e t han s i gns , are
shou l d be prov i ded whe r e a b i keway i nter - d i rec t l y in t he bi cyc l i st ' s norma l zone of
eng i neer i ng of f i ces.
sec ts a road or s i dewa l k , a t the beg i nn i ng v i s i on . St r i p i ng and message stenc i l s are t he
Types o f S i gnage : and end of a b i keway , and at po i nt s whe r e mos t common f orms of pavemen t ma rk -
l arge numbe r s of b i cyc l i sts may be expec t - i ngs .
S i gns are ca t egor i zed i nto three bas i c t ypes : ed (e .g ., schoo l s and parks) .
(1) regu l a tory , (2) warn i ng , and (3) gu i de . Bi cyc l e l anes are norma l l y de l i nea t ed by
S i gns erec t ed a t the roads i de shou l d be a so l id, pa i nt ed l ine 100 or 150 mm (4 or 6
Regu l a tory s i gns i n form users of t raf f i c moun t ed w i t h the l owe r edge of the s i gn in) w i de be t ween the b i cyc l e l ane and the
n l aws and regu l a t i ons gove rn i ng move - no l ess than 1 500 mm (5 f t ) above the roadway . Wh i t e is t he s t andard co l or for
O men t s , park i ng , speeds , e t c ., and i nd i ca t e pavemen t on rura l roadways , and 2 100 b i cyc l e l ane- re l a t ed pavemen t mark i ngs .
ru l es tha t wou l d otherw i se no t be appar - mm (7 f t ) above the pavemen t in res i den- Some exper i men t a t i on has been done w i th
la
ent , such as MOTOR VEH I CLES PROH I B- t ial , bus i ness , and comme rc i a l d i st r i cts and o ther co l ors in a t t emp t s to i ncrease recog-
ITED , NO PARK I NG , or B I CYCLES ONLY. on expressways . Howeve r , these he i ght s n i t i on , bu t t he Na t i ona l Adv i sory
r respond to the motor i st ' s f i e ld o f v i s i on .
Wa rn i ng s i gns ca l l the user ' s a t t ent i on to Comm i t t ee on Un i f orm Tra f f i c Con t ro l
C pot ent i a l l y haza rdous cond i t i ons and S i gns on roadways wh i ch i nc l ude b i cyc l e Dev i ces conc l uded tha t o ther co l ors had
shou l d be p l aced suf f i c i ent l y in advance of l anes shou l d be p l aced a t a l owe r l eve l cor - poor v i s ib i l i ty charac t er i s t i cs and we r e
û the hazard to a l l ow for respons i ve ac t i on . respond i ng to the bi cyc l i st ' s f i e ld of v i s i on . unaccep t ab l e for b i cyc l e l ane ma rk i ngs .
The BI KE-X- I NG warn i ng , for examp l e , is S i gns on i so l a t ed b i cyc l e rout es can be Add i t i ona l cross-st r i p i ng ( zebra st r i p i ng) is
moun t ed 1 200 to 1 500 mm (4 to 5 f t ) o f t en used to i ncrease v i s ibi l i ty at i nt ersec-
m used to a l er t motor i s t s to p l aces whe r e a
b i keway crosses a st reet or roadway . O t he r above the pavemen t , and s i gns a l ong road- t i ons .
examp l es i nc l ude BUMP , PAVEMENT ways tha t are i n t ended spec i f i ca l l y for b i cy-
c l i sts may be moun t ed a t a l owe r he i gh t . St enc i l ed message ma rk i ngs are norma l -
ENDS , DIP, ROAD NARROWS , and NAR - ly wh i t e , w i th a m i n i mum l et ter and a r row
ROW BR I DGE .
3 he i gh t of 1 200 mm (4 f t ) . and i nc l ude such

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 341 - 1 3

F i gur e 341 -25 . S t or age l ocke rs and r acks.

messages as STOP , YI ELD , PED-X- I NG , p l ac i ng pa i nt ed pavemen t ma rk i ngs at cr i t - 6 . 4 S i t e Furn i sh i ngs

SLOW , RR X- I NG , and BI KE LANE , supp l e- i ca l s topp i ng po i nt s and to l i mi t the i r
occurence . Pa i nt ed pavemen t s can reduce Racks and Lock i ng Dev i ces for B i cyc l es .
men t ed w i th an a r row i nd i ca t i ng t he d i rec-
t i on o f t rave l . BIKE LANE or BI KE ONLY f r i ct ion, mak i ng s topp i ng mor e d i f f i cu l t and Three pr i mary me t hods for park i ng b i cyc l es
messages shou l d be p l aced a t the beg i n- i ncreas i ng t he dange rs of s i des l i p . and prot ec t i ng t hem f rom the f t are :
n i ng of a b i keway , at i nt ersec t i ons w i th Pavemen t ma rk i ngs are some t i mes l ess v i s-
roadways and o ther fac i l i t i es, a t m i dpo i n t s ib l e in areas whe r e snow is a prob l em , 1 . Enc l os i ng t he b i cyc l e in a l ocker , cab i -
on l ong b l ocks , and downs t r eam of ma j or thereby reduc i ng the i r e f f ec t i veness . ne t , or o ther l ockab l e space
dr i veways . Ca re shou l d be t aken to avo i d
2 . Rende r i ng the b i cyc l e i noperab l e by
weav i ng a cha i n and l ock t hrough the
f rame and whee l s
3 . Lock i ng the b i cyc l e to a rack , post , or
1 . Sur f ac i ng ma t er i a l s vary in t erms of sui tabi l i ty, cost and durab i l i ty . Durab l e eas i l y
o ther s t a t i onary ob j ec t
ma i nt a i ned pavemen t s wh i ch con f orm to access ib i l i ty regu l a t i ons are r ecommended .
The f i rst and th i rd me t hods are mos t
2 . Pos i t i ve dra i nage shou l d accommoda t e the pavemen t and b i keway t ype to mi n i - e f f ec t i ve (F i gure 341-25) . Lockers e f f ec-
m i ze hazards . A 2% m i n i mum cross-s l ope is des i rab l e . Loca t e dra i n st ruc tures of f t i ve l y preven t the f ts and re l i eve the b i cyc l i st
of the pa th to m i n i m i ze acc i dent s due to se t t l ement or heav i ng of st ruc ture at of the need to car ry heavy cha i ns and l ocks ,
pav i ng sur f ace . bu t t hey are space consum i ng and expen-
s i ve to insta l l . Dev i ces wh i ch prov i de l ater -
3 . Traf f i c cont ro l / i nforma t i ona l sys t ems such as s i gnage and pavemen t mark i ngs faci l i - al suppor t on l y at one whee l l eave the b i cy-
ta te use . c l e vu l nerab l e to damage .
a . S i gn post shou l d be se t -back at l east 900 mm (3 f t ) f rom pa th edge , and bo t t om
s i gn edge shou l d be se t 1 500-2 100 mm (5-7 f t ) above grade for proper visibi l i ty. B i cyc l e racks and park i ng fac i l i t i es shou l d
b . Li mi t numbe r of s i gns to m i n i m i ze confus i on . be l oca t ed as c l ose to des t i na t i ons as poss i -
c . Use s i gns pr i mar i l y to ma r k route , regu l a t e use , and prov i de sa f e ty warn i ngs as b l e w i t hou t i nt er f er i ng w i th pedes t r i an t ra f - n
requ i red . f i c . Storage fac i l i t i es t oo far away [mor e O
t han 15 000 mm (50 f t )] encour age the
4 . L i ght i ng at i ntersec t i ons and a l ong pa th are essent i a l for sa fety and ut i l i ty, and typ i - b i cyc l i st to a t t ach the b i cyc l e to the neares t
ca l l y range f rom 6-10 Ix (0 .6-1 .0 fc) . t ree , l i ghtpo l e , or park i ng me t e r . Loca t e
a . P l acemen t of l ights and other pa th furn i sh i ngs requ i re des i gn coord i na t i on to s t orage fac i l i t i es whe r e there is v i sua l i
prevent a c l ut tered appearance a l ong the pa th . superv i s i on , l i ght i ng , and she l t er f rom
b . Benches , racks , and other furn i sh i ngs requ i re s i gn i f i cant se tbacks f rom pa th to
prevent conf l i cts
i nc l emen t wea t he r . ci
5 . Bar r i ers and separa tors such as f enc i ng , p l ant i ngs , and pa i nt ed l ines, are used to
F i x tures for B i cyc l e Rou t es: Z
B
de l i nea t e fac i l i t i es and uses . Depend i ng upon the charac t er , sca l e , and
a . Ra i sed or t extured sur f ace bar r i ers may pose a hazard in l e f t - turn or in h i gh ant i c i pa t ed use of a b i keway , such e l emen t s
speed cond i t i ons . Choose bar r i er t ype appropr i a t e to fac i l i ty use .
b . P l ant i ngs requ i re proper se t -backs to a l l ow for sa f e ty c l earances and adu l t p l ant
as she l t ers , benches , tab l es , gr i l ls, rest
rooms , t rash recept ac l es , bu l l e t i n boards , 1
growth . Se l ec t spec i es for sa f e ty and ma i n t enance cons i dera t i ons . t e l ephones , and dr i nk i ng fount a i ns may be
prov i ded . 3
T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 341 - 1 4

F i gur e 341 - 27 . Conven i ence t o b i cyc l i s t s . Trees can

reduce w i ndspeeds by up to
50 percen t for a d i s t ance downw i nd 20 t i mes the he i gh t o f the w i ndbr eak.

F i gur e 341 - 26 . Conven i ence t o b i cy -

c l i sts . Tree canop i es can reduce the
amoun t o f ra i nfa l l reach i ng the b i cyc l i st .

Insta l l at i on and ma i n t enance costs are a

ma j or de t erm i n i ng factor , espec i a l l y w i t h
wa t e r and to i l et fac i l i t i es . S i mp l e rest s tops
whe r e b i cyc l i sts can pu l l of f the b i keway
and rest or en j oy a v i ew are obv i ous l y
much l ess expens i ve , and t hey can add
much to the a t t rac t i veness of a recrea t i ona l
fac i l i ty.

B i keway L i gh t i ng :

B i keway l i ght i ng requ i remen t s vary f rom 6

l ux ( Ix) [0 .6 foo t cand l es ( fc) ] in parks and F i gur e 341 - 28 . Conven i ence t o b i cyc l i s t s . Dec i duous t rees prov i de shade i n sum-
s i mi l ar areas , to 10 Ix (1 . 0 fc) in comme rc i a l me r and a l l ow l i ght through in w i n t er.
areas , to 20 Ix (2 .0 fc) a t i nt ersec t i ons w i th
heav i l y t ra f f i cked st ree ts . Comme r c i a l areas requ i res mor e space than does f enc i ng. e i ther a l one or in comb i na t i on w i th pa i nt ed
w i th ex i s t i ng i l l umi na t i on may requ i re no Ca re shou l d be t aken to spec i f y p l ant s w i th l ines . Th i s me t hod prov i des a v i sua l and
add i t i ona l l i ght i ng . The pos i t i on i ng of new appropr i a t e growt h hab i ts to mee t c l ear - tact i l e wa rn i ng to the motor i s t s wh i l e st i l l
l um i na i res shou l d be such tha t b i cyc l i sts are ance requ i rement s , and to avo i d thorns or a l l ow i ng l ane changes and access to dr i ve-
excess i ve f ru i t dropp i ngs . S i ng l e s t andard ways . Howeve r , the ra i sed but tons , or
back l i gh t ed aga i ns t approach i ng t raf f i c .
t rees may a f ford a be t t er mu l t i -purpose o t he r ra i sed e l ement s , are dange rous to
(Re f er to Sec t i on 540 : Ou t door L i ght i ng ,
for mor e i n forma t i on .) op t i on due to a pot ent i a l for canopy e f f ec ts cyc l i sts and may make l ef t turns d i f f i cu l t .
(Re f er to Sec t i on 550 : P l ant s and P l ant i ng ,
6 . 5 Ba r r i e rs and Sepa r a t or s and Sec t i on 240: Ou t door Access i b i l i ty) . 6 . 6 B i keway P l an t i ngs
n B i keways wh i ch share or are i mmed i a t e l y Pa i n t ed L i nes : P l ant s can reduce head l i ght g l are and t raf -
O ad j acen t to a roadway may be de l i nea t ed f i c dus t and can preven t acc i dent a l
The s i mp l es t and l east expens i ve b i keway crossovers when used t o prov i de a v i sua l
la as descr i bed be l ow.
de l i nea t i on is the pa i nt ed l ine . I t can con- and phys i ca l bar r i er be t ween b i cyc l e and
Fenc i ng and P l an t i ngs : t i nue t hrough i ntersec t i ons , a l l ow b i cyc l i sts
mo t or veh i c l e t raf f i c . P l ant ma t er i a l s can
r to l eave the l ane to make l ef t turns , and
a l so m i t i ga t e the d i scomfor t s of wea t he r . A
C Fenc i ng prov i des the l east space consump-
t i ve phys i ca l bar r i er to cont a i n the pa th for
perm i t au t omob i l es to ent er dr i veways . A
d i sadvan t age of pa i n t ed l i nes is the l ack of
canopy o f dec i duous and con i f erous t rees
O e i ther screen i ng or sa f e t y reasons . Fenc i ng ove r a b i keway , for i ns t ance , can reduce
a phys i ca l bar r i er or tact i l e wa rn i ng to pre-
û shou l d be deep l y se tback f rom the pa t h for the amoun t of ra infa l l reach i ng b i cyc l i sts by
ven t the enc roachmen t of mo t or veh i c l es .
sa f e t y reasons . Many f enc i ng opt i ons are as much as 20 to 40 percen t (F i gure 341-
c Pa i nt tha t wi l l no t become s l i ppery when
ava i l ab l e and may be comb i ned w i th v i ne 26) . Lea f bu i l dup may requ i re i ncreased
B we t shou l d be spec i f i ed .
cove r to sof t en l ess expens i ve open w i re or ma i n t enance .
s i mp l e rai l f enc i ng (Re f er to Sec t i on 450 : Tra f f i c Bu t t ons : Dense p l ant i ng of t rees in a row , per -
Fences , Screens , and Wa l l s) . Shrub p l ant i - pend i cu l ar to preva i l i ng w i nds and para l l e l
Ra i sed and re f l ec tor i zed t raf f i c bu t tons are
ng is an e f f ec t i ve screen i ng opt i on , bu t to the b i keway , can reduce w i nd speeds by
3 some t i mes used to de l i nea t e b i ke l anes ,

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 341 - 1 5

50 percen t for a d i s t ance downw i nd o f U.S . Depa r t men t o f Transpor t a t i on . The

REFERENCES
f rom 10 to 20 t i mes the he i gh t of the w i nd- Na t i ona l B i cyc l i ng and Wa l k i ng S t udy :
break (F i gure 341-27) . Transpor t a t i on Cho i ces for a Chang i ng
Ame r i can Assoc i a t i on o f St a t e H i ghway Amer i ca , F i na l Repor t , Wash i ng t on , D . C.,
Ex t remes of hea t and co l d can a l so be and Transpor t a t i on Of f i c i a l s (AASHTO) .
1992 .
mod i f i ed by care fu l se l ec t i on and use o f Gu i de for the Deve l opmen t of New B i cyc l e
Fac i l i t i es, Wash i ng t on , DC , 1991 . U . S. Depa r t men t o f Transpor t a t i on , The
p l ant ma t er i a l s . Dec i duous t rees can pro- Na t i ona l B i cyc l i ng and Wa l k i ng Study , Case
v i de shade f rom t he sun in the wa rm sea- Ca l i forn i a Depa r t men t of Transpor t a t i on . St udy No . 24 : Cur ren t P l ann i ng Gu i de l i nes
sons , a l l ow sun l i ght to pene t ra t e to the B i keway P l ann i ng & Des i gn , reproduced
and Des i gn St andards Be i ng Used By St a t e
ground in t he coo l seasons , and m i n i m i ze f rom H i ghway Des i gn Manua l , 4th Ed i t i on , and Loca l Agenc i es for B i cyc l e and
d i urna l t empe ra t ure changes by t rapp i ng Chap t e r 1000 , Sac ramen t o , CA , Ju l y 1993 .
Pedes t r i an Fac i l i t i es, Wash i ng t on , D . C.,
hea t and reduc i ng i ts l oss t hrough rad i a t i on Forest er , John . Bi cyc l e Transpor t a t i on : A Augus t , 1992 .
to the a t mosphe r e (F i gure 341-28) . P l ant Handbook for Cyc l i ng Transpor t a t i on
mass i ngs can a l so a l ter snow dr i f t i ng pa t - U . S . Depa r t men t o f Transpor t a t i on .
Eng i neers , 2nd Ed i t i on , M I T Press , Cam- Se l ec t i ng Roadway Des i gn Trea t men t s to
t erns and me l t i ng ra tes t hrough mi croc l i - br i dge , MA , 1994 .
Accommoda t e Bi cyc l es , McLean , VA,
ma t e mod i f i ca t i on . (Re f er to Sec t i ons 260 :
McCoy , M i chae l & Ma r y A l i ce Stoner . January , 1994.
C l i ma t e and Energy , and 550 : P l ant s and
Moun t a i n B i ke Tra i l s : Techn i ques for
P l ant i ng , for mor e i n forma t i on on mi croc l i -
Des i gn , Cons t ruc t i on & Ma i n t enance ,
ma t e cont ro l .)
B i kecent enn i a l , M i ssou l a , MT , 1991 .
The d i sadvan t ages of p l ant i ngs i nc l ude U . S. Consume r Produc t Sa f e t y
the consump t i on of a subst ant i a l amoun t of Comm i ss i on . B i cyc l e Use and Haza rd
space and poss i b l e con f us i on a t i nt ersec- Pa t t erns in t he Un i t ed Sta tes , Wash i ng t on ,
t i ons whe r e the p l ant ed st r ip mus t be bro- D . C. , June , 1994 .
ken . Trees p l ant ed in a row be t ween the U . S . Depa r t men t o f Transpor t a t i on .
t wo modes of t ranspor t a t i on prov i de a
Manua l on Un i f orm Tra f f i c Cont ro l Dev i ces
v i sua l , psycho l og i ca l , and l i mi t ed phys i ca l
(MUTCD) , B i cyc l e Fac i l i t i es , U . S. Super -
bar r i er and t ake up l ess space t han heavy i n t enden t o f Documen t s , Wash i ng t on , DC ,
shrub mass i ngs . 1988.

n
O

la

c
m
1
3
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 SECT I ON

Veh i cu l a r C i rcu l a t i on

Con t r i bu tor :
Robe r t Zo l om i j
Land Des i gn Co l l abora t i ve
Evans t on , I l l ino i s

Techn i ca l Wr i t e r :
Je f f rey D . B l ankensh i p

Rev i ewe rs :
N i cho l as T. D i nes
Un i vers i t y o f Massachuse t t s / Amhe r s t
Amhe r s t , Massachuse t t s

G l en Er i ckson
Ba r t on -Ashman Assoc i a t es , Inc .
Evans t on , I l l inoi s

Cha r l es W. Har r i s
Ha rva rd Un i vers i t y
Gr adua t e Schoo l o f Des i gn
Depa r t men t of Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
Cambr i dge , Massachuse t t s

1 .0 In t roduc t i on S i gh t / Stopp i ng D i s t ance Pavemen t W i d t hs

1 .1 Gene r a l Pass i ng S i ght D i s t ance Pavemen t Crowns
1 . 2 C l ass i f i ca t i on of Veh i cu l ar C i rcu l a t i on 3 . 4 Int ersec t i on Des i gn E l emen t s
3 .0 Roadway Des i gn E l emen t s
Sys t ems Types o f Gr ade Int ersec t i ons
1 .3 C i rcu l a t i on Pa t t erns
1 .4 Bas i c Des i gn Gu i de l i nes and Pr i nc i p l es
3.1 Hor i zon t a l A l i gnmen t
Gene ra l Des i gn Cr i ter i a for Hor i zont a l
Int ersec t i on Curves
A l i gnmen t and Prof i l e a t Int ersec t i ons
c
A l i gnmen t S i ght D i s t ances a t Int ersec t i ons
2 . 0 Des i gn Con t ro l s Componen t s o f Hor i zont a l A l i gnmen t 4 .0 Pa rk i ng
2 .1 Gene ra l Roadway St anda rds Ca l cu l a t i on of C i rcu l ar Curves
4.1 Si te P l ann i ng Cons i dera t i ons
2 .2 Dr i ver Charac t er i s t i cs Supere l eva t i on
4. 2 Gene r a l Layou t o f Pa rk i ng Ar eas c
Reac t i on to Ex t erna l St i mu l i Pavemen t W i den i ng on Curves s ..
V i sua l Fac tors in Percept i on and
Ident i f i ca t i on
S i ght D i s t ance on Curves
3 .2 Ver t i ca l A l i gnmen t
5 .0 Pavemen t s and Curbs
5.1 Pavemen t s : Gene r a l Cons i dera t i ons
Cr
Tot a l Dr i ver Response T i me Componen t s o f Ver t i ca l A l i gnmen t R i g i d Pavemen t s
Var i ab i l i ty of Dr i vers Ca l cu l a t i on of Symme t r i ca l Ver t i ca l F l ex i b l e Pavemen t s

s
Behav i or o f Dr i vers Curves 5. 2 Shou l de rs : Gene r a l Cons i dera t i ons
c
Ef f ec t of C l i ma t e on Dr i vers Ca l cu l a t i on of Unsymme t r i ca l Ver t i ca l Shou l der W i d t hs
2 . 3 Veh i cu l ar Charac t er i s t i cs Curves Shou l der Cross S l opes
Des i gn Veh i c l e M i n i mum Cres t Ver t i ca l Curves 5. 3 Curbs : Gene r a l Cons i dera t i ons
Ope r a t i ng Charac t er i s t i cs Pass i ng S i ght D i s t ance on Ver t i ca l Types of Curbs
2. 4 Des i gn Speed (by Roadway Types)
2. 5 S i ght D i s t ance
Curves
M i n i mum Sag Ver t i ca l Curves
Curb Ma t er i a l s
Re f erences N
Cr i ter i a for Measur i ng S i ght D i s t ance 3 . 3 Cross-Sec t i ona l E l emen t s
M
T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 342-2
1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON t rat ive, p l ann ing, and des ign purposes . a l low through- t raf f i c movemen t
Cl assi f i cat ions are usua l l y based on t raf f ic be tween and across urban areas wi th
1 .1 Genera l vo l umes , speed, genera l des ign requi re- di rect access to abut t ing proper t i es .

T
ments , and ma i nt enance requ i rements . They are sub j ect to cont ro l of
he automob i l e is one of the bas i c con- ent rances, exi ts, and curb use .
s iderat ions in si te p l ann i ng and In the most bas i c c lassi f icat ion system
des i gn . Of t en vehi cul ar c i rcul at ion for des ign work , h i ghways and st reets are 3 . Co l l ector st reet systems : these sys-
pat terns set the sca le and form of future typica l ly grouped into the fo l lowing four t ems a l low t raf f ic movemen t be tween
deve l opment . As a resul t , understand i ng categor i es (F igure 342-1) . ma j or ar ter ials and local st reets, wi th
the role of vehi cul ar c i rcul at ion in the si te di rect access to abut t ing proper t i es.
1 . Freeway systems : ( inc luding express-
p l ann i ng process is cr i t ical to sat isfying i ts Traf f ic cont rol is usua l l y prov i ded by
ways and parkways) : these systems
funct ions . stop s igns on the side st reets .
a l low rapid and ef f ic ient movemen t of
l arge vo l umes of through- t raf f i c 4 . Loca l st reet systems : these systems
1 .2 Cl ass i f i ca t i on of Veh i cu l ar be tween and across urban areas . They a l low loca l t raf f ic movemen t and
Ci rcu l a t i on Sys t ems have l imi ted access wi th grade-sepa- di rect access to abut t ing proper t i es .
Roadway systems are grouped into a num- rated interchanges . Parkways are an i mpor tant type of recre-
ber of di f ferent c lassi f icat ions for admin i s- 2 . Ma j or ar ter ial systems : these systems at iona l c i rculat ion route, faci l i tat ing the

Tab l e 342-1 . TYPI CAL ROADWAY PATTERNS

Adv a n t ages D i sadvan t ages

Gr i d Pa t t e rn " S i mp l i c i t y , regu l ar i t y " V i sua l mono t ony

" Ease o f l ayou t ( eng i nee r i ng) " D i srega rd o f t opogr aphy

" Conven i en t access " Vu l nerab i l i t y t o t hrough t ra f f i c

" Good or i ent a t i on , easy t o f o l l ow " Lack o f d i f f erence be t ween

heav i l y and l i ght l y t rave l ed ways

" Good on l eve l l and

" Su i t ab l e for comp l ex d i s t r i but ed f l ow

Rad i a l Pa t t e rn

" Good d i rec t l i ne o f t rave l " No t good when ne i ther or i g i n nor

des t i na t i on a re re l a t ed t o cen t e r

" D i f f i cu l t for serv i ce

" Causes prob l ems i n l oca l f l ow and

crea t es d i f f i cu l t bu i l d i ng s i tes

C l ass i c Pa t t e rn

" Favors t he spec i a l i za t i on o f " Ve ry sens i t i ve t o i nt er rupt i ons

n ma j or vs . m i nor ar t er i es a t s i ng l e po i nt
O " Makes t he i nt ersec t i on prob l em
manageab l e by d i s t r i but i ng i ns t ead
o f concen t ra t i ng a t cen t e r

c
r
C
r
L i nea r Sys t em

s
c " F l ow pr i mar i l y be t ween t wo po i n t s

" Typ i ca l l y f ound a l ong ra i l roads ,

cana l s , h i ghways
" Lack o f f ocus

N
3
Time-Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Archi tecture
 342 - 3

1 .3 C i r cu l a t i on Pa t t e rns change is des i rab l e

c . Ex i st i ng and p l anned t ranspor t a t i on
Var i ous roadway pa t t erns are common l y i nf rast ruc ture
used to l ay ou t a veh i cu l ar c i rcu l a t i on sys-
t em (Tab l e 342-1) . d . Tra f f i c "des i re l i nes"
e . Topograph i c f ea tures
1 . 4 Bas i c Des i gn Gu i de l i nes and
f . Eco l og i ca l f ac tors
Pr i nc i p l es
g . Cu l tura l and h i stor i c f ac tors
The des i gn o f veh i cu l ar c i rcu l a t i on sys t ems
h . Scen i c oppor tun i t i es
i nvo l ves bo t h aes the t i c j udgmen t and
sound eng i nee r i ng prac t i ce . A we l l - i . Soc i a l , econom i c , and pol i t i ca l st ruc-
des i gned roadway shou l d ha rmon i ous l y f i t tures
i nto the sur round i ng l andscape wh i l e ma i n- j . Sa f e t y
t a i n i ng the dr i ver ' s s i te l ines and v i ews . k . Acqu i s i t i on and deve l opmen t costs
These aes the t i c ob j ec t i ves requ i re tha t t he
I . Ope ra t i on and ma i n t enance costs
des i gner v i sua l i ze t he three -d i mens i ona l
aspec t s of a roadway , i nc l ud i ng the var i ous 2 . The l oca t i on of a roadway mus t be
F i gur e 342-1 . Typ i ca l veh i cu l a r c l as-
comb i na t i ons o f hor i zont a l and ver t i ca l respons i ve to na tura l forces and f ea-
s i f i ca t i on sys t em .
curves , of cut s me rg i ng smoo t h l y w i th f i l ls, tures .
and of s i de s l opes b l end i ng we l l w i t h the 3. The l oca t i on and des i gn of a roadway
ter ra i n . mus t i nc l ude cons i dera t i on of i ts e f f ec t
e f f i c i ent movemen t of l arge vo l umes of
A roadway , howeve r , is pr i mar i l y a t rans- on ad j acent proper t i es in t e rms of
t raf f i c t hrough areas of h i gh scen i c qua l i ty . no i se and f umes . (Re f er to Sec t i on
They usua l l y proh i b i t t rucks , buses , and por t a t i on med i um . I t mus t be des i gned and
560 : Sound Cont ro l , for mor e i nfor -
o ther comme rc i a l t raf f i c . bu i l t to fac i l i tate the sa f e movemen t of
ma t i on .)
veh i c l es . To ach i eve th i s ob j ec t i ve , t he
On-s i t e dr i ves and roads re f er to veh i cu- des i gn of a roadway mus t i ncorpora t e the 4. A roadway shou l d be so a l i gned and
l ar access rout es w i th i n a s i te ; they repre- cr i ter i a of s t rength , sa fety , and un i form i t y cons t ruc t ed as to preserve and accen-
sent a ca t egory of c l ass i f i cat i on f i ner than common to sound eng i neer i ng prac t i ce . tua t e the bes t qua l i t i es of the l and-
tha t of the loca l st ree t sys t em . scape , prov i d i ng for a var i e ty of v i sua l
The fo l l ow i ng are genera l des i gn gu i de - exper i ences .
Mos t of th i s sec t i on wi l l focus on the l i nes and pr i nc i p l es t o cons i der when
des i gn and cons t ruc t i on of on-s i t e roads des i gn i ng veh i cu l ar c i rcu l a t i on sys t ems a t 5 . The ver t i ca l and hor i zont a l a l i gnmen t
and pa rkways , a l though des i gn s t andards , of a roadway shou l d be care fu l l y coor -
any sca l e :
t echn i ques of l ayout , and me t hods of con- d i na t ed to f i t i nto the l andscape .
1 . The l oca t i on of a roadway shou l d be
s t ruc t i on app l y to al l ca t egor i es o f veh i cu l ar
based on a survey o f al l re l evant f ac tors . 2 . 0 DES I GN CONTROLS
c i rcu l a t i on . Des i gn and cons t ruc t i on mea -
These i nc l ude but are not l i mi ted to :
sures appropr i a t e to each ca t egory wi l l
depend upon the l oca l prac t i ces and a . Present and proposed l and uses and 2 .1 Gene r a l Roadway S t anda rds
requ i remen t s se t by cont ro l l i ng pub l i c t raf f i c ways
Tab l e 342-2 is a compa ra t i ve summa r y of
author i t i es . b . Areas whe r e r edeve l opmen t or
des i gn s t andards for ar ter i a l , co l l ector , and

Tab l e 342 -2 . SUMMARY OF M I N I MUM DES I GN STANDARDS FOR URBAN STREETS

Co l l ec t or St r ee t s Loca l St r ee t s
Pr i nc i pa l Ar t e r i a l

Freeways and O t he r M i nor Ar ter i a l s S i ng l e-Fam i l y O t he r S i ng l e-Fam i l y O t he r

Des i gn n
E l emen t s Expressways Res i dent i a l Areas Res i dent i a l Areas O
65(40) 50(30) 50(30) 50(30) 30(20) 50(30)
Des i gn Speed, 95(60)
km/ h (mph)
2 2-4
Numbe r of 4 up 4 up 4-6 2 4
c
r
Traf f ic Lanes
W i dth of Traf f i c 3 660 (12' ) 3 660 (12 ' ) 3 660 (12' ) 3 660 (12' ) 3 660 (12' ) 3 050 (10 ' ) 3 355 (11' ) ci
Lanes , mm ( f t ) r

3 050 (10 ' ) 3 050 (10 ' ) 3 050 (10 ' ) 3 050 (10 ' ) 2 440 (8' ) 3 050 (10' )
W i d th of Curb 3 660 (12' )
Park i ng Lane or u
Shou lder , mm ( f t )
18 290 (60 ' ) 18 290 15 240 - 18 290 18 290 - 24 385 t
W i dth of 36 575 up 36 575 up 30 480 - 36 575
(120 ' up) (100-120 ' ) (80' ) (50-60 ' ) (60-80 ' )
R i ght -of -way , (120 ' up)
mm (f t)

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 342-4
loca l st ree ts . Tab l es 342-3 and 342-4 g i ve
s t andards for co l l ec tor and l oca l st ree ts Tab l e 342 -3 . COLLECTOR STREET DES I GN STANDARDS
based on ter ra i n and deve l opmen t dens i t y.
- Lev e l Ter ra i n Ro l l i ng Ter ra i n H i l l y Ter ra i n
2 .2 Dr i ve r Cha rac t e r i s t i cs
R i gh t -o f -way W i d th , 21 335 (70' ) 21 335 (70 ' ) 21 335 (70' )
mm ( f t )
Because dr i ver charac t er i st i cs are a ma j or
f ac tor in the des i gn of veh i cu l ar c i rcu l a t i on Pavemen t W i d th , 10 975 - 12 190 10 975 - 12 190 10 975 - 12 190
mm ( f t ) (36' to 40' ) (36' to 40 ' ) (36' to 40' )
sys t ems , human l i mi ta t i ons and behav i or
mus t be unde rs t ood and t aken i nto Type of Curb Ver t i ca l Face Ver t i ca l Face Ver t i ca l Face
accoun t . The success o f t he des i gn is
S i dewa l k W i dth , 1 525 (5' ) 1 525 (5' ) 1 525 (5' )
dependen t upon a t horough unde rs t and i ng mm ( f t )
of the dr i ver . An unde rs t and i ng not on l y o f
S i dewa l k D i s t ance 3 050 (10' ) 3 050 (10 ' ) 3 050 (10' )
ave rage human phys i ca l and men t a l l i mi ta- F rom Curb Face ,
t i ons , bu t a l so o f t he range of user per for - mm ( f t )
mance , is i mpor t an t for sound j udgmen t in M i n i mum S i ght 76 200 (250' ) 60 960 (200' ) 45 720 (150' )
the des i gn of t raf f i c cont ro l s and opera t i ng D i s t ance , mm ( f t )
measures .
Max i mum Gr ade 4% 8% 12
Reac t i on to Ex t erna l St i mu l i : M i n i mum Spac i ng 396 240 (1300 ' ) 396 240 (1300 ' ) 396 240 (1300 ' )
A l ong Ma j or Traf f i c
Reac t i ng to ex t erna l st i mu l i i nvo l ves a ser i es Rout e , mm ( f t )
of even t s wh i ch are i nherent l y re l a t ed to Des i gn Speed , 55 (35) 50(30) 40(25)
human phys i ca l f ac tors : km / h (mph)
1 . Percep t i on : see i ng the st i mu l i for the M i n i mum Cent er l i ne 106 680 (350 ' ) 70 105 (230' ) 45 720 (150 ' )
f i rst t i me a l ong w i th o ther perce i ved Rad i us , mm ( f t )
ob j ec t s .
2. Ident i f i ca t i on : the i dent i f i ca t i on and
unde rs t and i ng of t he st i mu l i .
3 . Judgmen t : the dec i s i on-mak i ng
process.
4 . Reac t i on : the phys i ca l execu t i on of t he
dec i s i on .
The tota l t i me requ i red to perce i ve and
reac t to a s t i mu l us is t he sum of the above
four f ac tors , re f er red to as PI JR .

V i sua l Fac tors i n Percep t i on and

Ident i f i ca t i on :
F i gur e 342 -2 . V i sua l acu i t y cone . F i gur e 342 - 3 . Pe r i phe r a l v i s i on .
V i sua l Acu i t y : V i sua l acu i t y re f ers to the
f i e ld of c l earest v i s i on . The mos t acu t e
v i s i on is l i mi ted to a na r row cone of 3 to 5 Co l or V i s i on : Genera l l y , ful l co l or v i s i on t i me o f 2 .0 seconds be used for i nt ersec t i on
degrees ; howeve r , s i ght is fa i r l y c l ear w i th i n is no t of grea t i mpor t ance in dr i v i ng s i ght d i s t ances . Whe r eve r poss i b l e , grea t er
a cone of 10 to 12 degrees (F i gure 342-2) . because mos t peop l e who are co l or b l i nd PI JR t i mes shou l d be used .
Per i phera l V i s i on : Per i phera l v i s i on l earn to compensa t e . In genera l , t he eye is
n mos t sens i t i ve to b l ack and wh i t e or b l ack Var i ab i l i ty o f Dr i vers :
re fers to the f i e ld of v i ew w i th i n wh i ch an
O i nd i v i dua l can see ob j ec t s w i t hou t c l ear and ye l l ow comb i na t i ons .
The var i ab i l i ty o f dr i vers and the i r a t t i tudes
deta i l or co l or. The f i e ld of norma l per i ph- w i t h respec t to age , sex , a t t ent i veness ,
Tot a l Dr i ver Response T i me :
era l v i s i on in humans var i es f rom 120 to know l edge , ski l l of dr i v i ng , nervousness ,
3 Tot a l dr i ver response t i me (PIJR) i ncreases
c 180 degrees (F i gure 342-3) . and i mpa t i ence are i mpor t an t f ac tors and
r w i th t he numbe r of cho i ces and the com- mus t be t aken i nto accoun t when est ab l i sh-
C Dep t h Pe rcep t i on : Dep t h percep t i on p l ex i ty o f the j udgmen t requ i red . PI JR t i mes i ng des i gn cr i ter i a . Des i gn va l ues are nor -
r re fers to the ab i l i ty to es t i ma t e d i s t ance and are used to de t e rm i ne sa f e s topp i ng d i s- ma l l y based on sa t i sfy i ng the needs of t he
speed . t ances , sa f e approach speeds a t i nt ersec- 85 t h percent i l e dr i vers , w i th m i nor cons i d-

s
G l are and Recove ry : G l are recovery t i me t i ons , and the l ength of the ye l l ow i nterva l era t i on g i ven to t he var i ab i l i ty o f the 15t h
c
( i . e ., the t i me requ i red to recover f rom the used for t raf f i c s i gna l s . percent i l e who represent poorer dr i vers .
e f f ec ts of g l are a f t er a l ight source has The Ame r i can Assoc i a t i on of St a t e H i gh-
passed) , is approx i ma t e l y 6 or mor e sec- Behav i or o f Dr i vers:
way and Transpor t a t i on Of f i c i a l s (AASH-
onds when mov i ng f rom l ight to dark areas TO) r ecommends tha t a m i n i mum PI JR A sense of reason wi l l gove rn the behav i or
N and abou t 3 seconds when mov i ng f rom
da rk to l i ght areas .
t i me o f no l ess t han 2 .5 seconds be used to of mos t dr i vers , but ne i ther dr i vers nor
de t e rm i ne sa f e s topp i ng d i s t ances for a l l pedes t r i ans wi l l reac t cons i st ent l y to con-
3 ranges of speed , and tha t a m i n i mum PI JR t rol s and regu l a t i ons tha t seem unreason-

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 342 - 5

a t i ng charac ter i st i cs of wh i ch are used to

Tab l e 342-4. LOCAL STREET DES I GN STANDARDS es t ab l i sh h i ghway des i gn cont ro l s . For pur -
poses of geome t r i c des i gn , the des i gn veh i -
Leve l Te r r a i n Ro l l i ng Te r r a i n H i l l y Te r r a i n c l e shou l d have d i mens i ons and a m i n i mum
R i ght -o f -way W i d th , 18 290 (60 ' ) 18 290 (60' ) 15 240 - 18 290 turn i ng rad i us l arger t han tha t of al l veh i -
mm (ft) (50' to 60' ) c l es in i ts c l ass .
Pavemen t W i dth , 6 705 - 10 975 6705 - 10 975 8230 - 10 975
(22' to 36' ) (27' to 36' ) Ope r a t i ng Cha rac t e r i s t i cs:
mm ( f t ) (22' to 36 ' )

Type of Curb Ver t i ca l Face Ver t i ca l Face Ver t i ca l Face Three opera t i ng charac t er i st i cs tha t inf lu-
0 - 1 525 (0' to 5' )
ence roadway des i gn are turn i ng rad i us ,
S i dewa l k W i d th , 0 - 1 525 (0' to 5' ) 0 - 1 525 (0' to 5)
acce l era t i on , and brak i ng d i s t ance .
mm (ft)
S i dewa l k D i s t ance 0 - 1 830 (0' to 6' ) 0 - 1 830 (0' to 6' ) 0 - 1 830 (0' to 6' ) Turn i ng Rad i i : The turn i ng rad i i o f the
F rom Curb Face , des i gn veh i c l e are used to de t e rm i ne spat i a l
mm (ft)
d i mens i ons for maneuve r i ng on roads and
M i n i mum S i ght 60 960 (200 ' ) 45 720 (150' ) 33 530 (110 ' ) in park i ng areas .
D i st ance , mm (f t)
8% 15 Acce l era t i on : Acce l era t i on da t a are used
Max i mum Gr ade 4%
to de t e rm i ne :
M i n i mum Spac i ng 152 400 - 304 800 152 400 - 304 800 152 400 - 304 800
(500 ' to 1000 ' ) (500 ' to 1000 ' ) (500 ' to 1000 ' ) 1 . The t i me requ i red to cross an i nt ersec-
A l ong Ma j or Tra f f i c
Rout e , mm ( f t ) t i on f rom a s t a t i onary pos i t i on .
Des i gn Speed , 50(30) 40(25) 30(20) 2 . The d i s t ance requ i red to pass ano t he r
km / h (mph) veh i c l e .
M i n i mum Cent er l i ne 76 200 (250 ' ) 53 340 (175' ) 33 530 (110' ) 3 . The gap accep t ance .
Rad i us , mm (ft)
The ra te of acce l era t i on of passenger
veh i c l es is f rom 6 .4 to 9 .7 km / h per second
(4 to 6 mph per second) , wh i ch is equa l to
1 .8 t o 2 .7 m / s (6 to 9 fps) . The ra t e o f
Tab l e 342-5 . SAFE COEFF I C I ENTS OF FR I CT I ON ( F )
acce l era t i on for t rucks is f rom 2 .4 to 3 .2
km / h pe r second (1' / z to 2 mph per sec-
Assumed Speed for Cond i t i ons , Sa f e Coe f f i c i ent
Des i gn Speed , ond) , or 0 .6 to 0 .9 m / s (2 to 3 fps) .
km / hr (mph) km / h (mph) of Fr i ct i on (F)

45(28) 0. 36 Brak i ng D i s t ance : The brak i ng ab i l i ty of

50(30)
a mo t or veh i c l e and the forward- f r i c t i on
65(40) 60(36) 0 .33
f ac tor be t ween t i res and pavemen t de t er -
80(50) 70(44) 0 .31 m i ne the s l ow i ng and s topp i ng abi l i t i es of
95(60) 85(52) 0 . 30 the veh i c l e . Tab l e 342-5 prov i des sa f e co-
e f f i c i ents of f r i ct ion to be used in the for -
105 (65) 90(55) 0 . 30
mu l ae tha t fo l l ow.
115(70) 95(58) 0 . 29
2 . 4 Des i gn Speed
(by Roadway Types )

ab l e . Th i s phenomenon mus t be t aken i nto Low sun ang l es in morn i ng or l ate a f ter - The va l ue of a road is of t en j udged by the
cons i dera t i on when es t ab l i sh i ng regu l a t i ons noon can cause near l y tota l d i sso l ut i on o f conven i ence , sa f e ty , and economy by
and cont ro l s . the dr i ver ' s v i sua l f i e l d . The resu l t is wh i ch i t t ranspor t s goods and peop l e . The
momen t a r y b l i ndness and an inab i l i ty t o speed adop t ed by a dr i ver depends upon n
E f f ec t o f C l i ma t e on Dr i ve rs: d i scern v i sua l i n f orma t i on read i l y. four genera l c i rcums t ances : O
Var i ous c l i ma t i c f ac tors such as pa t t erns of Wheneve r poss i b l e , roads shou l d be 1 . The phys i ca l charac t er i st i cs o f a road
a l i gned to m i n i m i ze such prob l ems .
w i nd movemen t , t empera ture , prec i p i ta- and i ts sur round i ngs
t ion, and sun ang l e can a f f ec t the dr i ver ' s
2 . 3 Veh i cu l a r Cha r ac t e r i s t i cs 2 . The wea t he r cond i t i ons cu
percept i on of the road and the dr i ver ' s con-
sequen t behav i or . The phys i ca l charac t er i s t i cs of veh i c l es
3 . The presence of o ther veh i c l es C
us i ng a roadway wi l l de t e rm i ne the geo- 4 . The speed l i mi tat i ons , e i ther l ega l or r
V i sua l i n forma t i on i ncreases in d i rec t me t r i c des i gn and cons t ruc t i on of the road- by cont ro l dev i ces
propor t i on to the amoun t of l ight re f l ec t ed
way . For genera l des i gn use , ma j or c l ass
on the ob j ec t . Consequen t l y , c l i ma t i c con-
d i t i ons can obscure the dr i ver ' s percep t i on .
Ra i n , fog , and m i s t a t n i ght crea t e the
group i ngs shou l d be de t e rm i ned and repre-
sent a t i ve-s i ze veh i c l es es t ab l i shed w i th i n
Wh i l e any one of these may govern , the
e f f ec ts of these c i rcums t ances are a l mos t
a l ways comb i ned . An approx i ma t e l y un i -
s
c

e
each c l ass .
grea t es t v i sua l prob l ems . Such c l i ma t i c f orm speed is genera l l y the a i m o f mos t dr i -
e f f ec ts crea t e d i f f i cu l ty in de t erm i n i ng the vers. Prov i s i on shou l d be made for a speed
N
Des i gn Veh i c l e :
s i ze of the ob j ec t in f ront of the veh i c l e , i ts wh i ch sat i sf i es mos t dr i vers . The speed cho-
d i s t ance ahead , and the speed a t wh i ch A des i gn veh i c l e is a represent a t i ve mo t or sen for des i gn shou l d be tha t typ i ca l l y used
tha t ob j ec t is mov i ng . veh i c l e , the we i gh t , d i mens i ons , and oper - M
T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 342- 6

F i gur e 342 - 4. Ave r age veh i c l e eye

he i gh t .

F i gur e 342 -5 . Assumed ob j ec t

he i gh t f or c res t ver t i ca l cur ves .

F i gur e 342 -6 . Componen t s o f s i gh t / s t opp i ng d i s t ance .

by dr i vers unde r f avorab l e wea t he r The m i n i mum s i ght / s topp i ng d i s t ance is f = coe f f i c i ent of f r i ct i on
cond i t i ons . a func t i on of t wo e l emen t s . The f i rst is the be t ween t i res and pave -
Des i gn speed : Des i gn speed is the max - d i s t ance t rave l ed a f t er the obs t ruc t i on men t (Tab l e 342-5)
i mum sa f e speed a road is eng i nee red to comes i nto v i ew bu t be fore the dr i ver
hand l e unde r norma l opera t i ng cond i t i ons . app l i es t he brakes . Dur i ng th i s per i od of
percep t i on and reac t i on , the veh i c l e t rave l s As in the same examp l e (F i gure 342-6) ,
Sugges t ed des i gn speeds for roads of var i -
ous c l ass i f i ca t i ons are g i ven in Tab l e 342-6 . a t i ts ini t ia l ve l oc i ty. The second d i s t ance is the brak i ng d i s t ance for a speed of 40 mph
t raversed wh i l e the dr i ver brakes the veh i - wou l d be as fo l l ows :
The se l ec t i on of a des i gn speed shou l d be
c l e to a s top (F i gure 342-6) .
done w i th grea t care . Once se l ec t ed , al l V=40mph
per t i nent geome t r i c des i gn wi l l be re l a t ed Percept i on and Brake Reac t i on T i me :
to t he chosen va l ue . The f ormu l a for de t erm i n i ng the percept i on f = 0 . 60
and brake reac t i on d i s t ance is :
2 . 5 S i gh t D i s t ance 401
PR = 1 .47( t ) (V) d = 30(0 .60)
The des i gn of a sa f e and e f f i c i ent veh i cu l ar
c i rcu l a t i on sys t em depends on the ab i l i ty of whe r e PR = percep t i on and reac t i on d i s- 1600
18
d_
the dr i ver to see a suf f i c i ent d i s t ance ahead t ance , f t
wh i l e mov i ng a l ong a roadway.
t = percep t i on p l us reac t i on
Cr i t er i a for Measur i ng S i gh t D i s t ance : t i me , seconds (2 .5 seconds) = 89 f t

1 . He i gh t o f eye : the eye he i gh t o f t he V = ini t ia l speed , mph Tot a l St opp i ng D i s t ance : The f ormu l a for
ave rage dr i ver in a passenge r veh i c l e is de t erm i n i ng t he tota l d i s t ance (D) requ i red
1 150 mm (3 f t 9 in) above the road Examp l e (F i gure 342-6) : G i ven tha t the to s top the veh i c l e is there fore (F i gure
sur f ace (F i gure 342-4) . ini t i a l speed = 40 mph , 342-6) :
2 . He i gh t of ob j ec t : an ob j ec t he i gh t of PR = 1 .47( t ) (V) D = PR+d
n 150 mm (6 in) is cus tomar i l y assumed
= 1 . 47(2 . 50) (40) 2
O for measur i ng s topp i ng d i s t ances for = 1 .47( t ) (V) + -
crest ver t i ca l curves (F i gure 342-5) . = 147 f t 30 f
For pass i ng s i ght d i st ances , the ob j ec t Brak i ng D i s t ance : Once the dr i ver has
c = 1 . 47(2 .5) (40) + 402
r he i ght is 1 350 mm (4' /2 f t ) , wh i ch is gen- perce i ved and reac t ed to an obs t ruc t i on , (30) (0 . 60)
C era l l y the cur rent passenge r veh i c l e body the approx i ma t e brak i ng d i s t ance of a veh i -
= 147 + 89
r he i ght above the pavemen t . c l e on a l eve l , dry roadway can be de t er -
m i ned by use of the fo l l ow i ng f ormu l a: = 236 f t
S i gh t / St opp i ng D i s t ance :
V1 Tab l e 342-7 l ists for both we t and dry
S i ght d i s t ance is t he l ength of road ahead d=
t v i s i b l e to the dr i ver. The m i n i mum s i ght d i s- 30 f pavemen t s the r ecommended m i n i mums
t ance ava i l ab l e on any st re tch of road regard i ng ac tua l ini t ia l speeds , percep t i on
whe r e d = brak i ng d i s t ance , f t
shou l d be suf f i c i ent to enab l e a veh i c l e and brake reac t i on t i mes , and coe f f i c i ents
V= ini t ia l speed , mph of f r i ct i on .
t rave l i ng a t or near the des i gn speed to
N s top be fore reach i ng an ob j ec t in i ts pa t h . Ef f ec ts of Gr ades on St opp i ng : The
des i gn va l ues g i ven for m i n i mum
3
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 342- 7
Tab l e 342 - 6 . DES I GN SPEEDS (BY ROADWAY TYPES)

H i ghway Type Des i gn Speed , km / h ( mph )

Inter , t , i l e Rura l 105(65)

Rura l H i ghways 90(55)

F l a t Ter ra i n 90(55)

Ro l l i ng Ter ra i n 80 - 90 ( 50 - 55 )

Rough Ter ra i n 50 - 80 ( 30 - 50 )

Urban Int ers t a t e

Through Ar eas o f Concen t r a t ed Deve l opmen t 80(50) m i n i mum

Through Ar eas o f Mode r a t e Deve l opmen t 65 - 90 ( 40 - 55 )

Urban Expr essways 65 (40) m i n i mum

Through Ar eas o f Concen t r a t ed Deve l opmen t 5000 ) m i n i mum

Through Ar eas o f Mode r a t e Deve l opmen t 50 - 80 (30 - 50)

M i nor Res i den t i a l St ree t s 40(25)

Access Roads - Rec rea t i ona l Deve l opmen t 25 - 40 (15 - 25)

Dr i ves - S i t e Access Roads 15 - 30 (10 - 20)

Not e : The se l ect i on of the des i gn speed shou l d be done w i th grea t care on the premi se tha t once se l ected, al l per t i nent geome t -
r ic des i gn shou l d be re l ated t o the va l ue se l ec t ed.

s i ght / s topp i ng d i s t ances in Tab l e 342-7 Second , t rucks of t en t rave l mor e s l ow l y

assume a brak i ng d i s t ance on a l eve l road- t han passenger veh i c l es .
way. I f the veh i c l e is t rave l i ng uphi l l , the
brak i ng d i s t ance is decreased . Converse l y , i f Pass i ng S i gh t D i s t ance:
the veh i c l e is t rave l i ng downh i l l , the brak- I t is o f t en necessary on t wo- l ane roads to
i ng d i s t ance is i ncreased . When a h i ghway prov i de an oppor tun i t y to pass s l ow mov -
is on a grade , the brak i ng d i s t ance is i ng veh i c l es . Tab l e 342-8 g i ves the mi n i -
expressed by t he formu l a : mum pass i ng s i ght d i s t ance .
F i gur e 342 -7 . C l ass i f i ca t i on o f c i rcu-
d = v2
3 . 0 ROADWAY DES I GN l ar curves .
30 ( f ±G)
ELEMENTS
whe r e G = grade of the road (uph i l l
grades are +, downh i l l 3 .1 Hor i zon t a l A l i gnmen t Componen t s o f Hor i zon t a l A l i gnmen t :
grades are - )
Gene ra l Des i gn Cr i ter i a for Hor i zon t a l Hor i zon t a l a l i gnmen t is genera l l y com-
A l i gnmen t : posed o f t wo geome t r i c componen t s (see
F i gure 342-7) :
Examp l e : G i ven tha t V = 40 mph and In add i t i on to the spec i f i c des i gn cont ro l s
tha t G = - 10% , 1 . St ra i ght l ines ( t angent s) .
descr i bed in 2 .0 of th i s sec t i on , a numbe r of
genera l des i gn cr i ter i a shou l d be cons i dered 2 . C i rcu l ar curves (arcs) .
V2
D = 1 . 47( t ) (V) + when deve l op i ng the hor i zont a l a l i gnmen t
30 ( f ±G) Tangen t s : Tangen t s are the mos t com-
for a roadway : mon e l emen t of hor i zont a l a l i gnmen t . They n
= 1 . 47(2 . 5) (40) + 402 1. A l i gnmen t shou l d be as d i rec t as pos- are the shor t es t d i s t ance be t ween t wo O
30 (0 . 60-0 .10) s ibl e , bu t respec t fu l of t opogr aphy po i nt s and t he eas i es t to l ay ou t .
and o ther cr i t i ca l na tura l or cu l tura l Charac t er i s t i cs of t angen t s i nc l ude t he fo l -
= 147 + 107 f ea tures . l ow i ng : u
c
= 254 f t 2. Longe r curves are pre f er red to those 1 . They can prov i de c l ear or i ent a t i on .
wh i ch sat i sfy m i n i mum rad i i . 2 . They are pred i c t ab l e and t end to C
Var i a t i ons Due t o Veh i c l e Type :
3 . Abrup t changes f rom st ra i ght l ines to encourage excess i ve speeds.
r
M i n i mum s i ght / s topp i ng d i s t ances der i ved la
f rom the above f ormu l a re f l ect passenge r sharp curves shou l d be avo i ded . 3 . They are j ust i f i ab l e in f l at ter ra i n, bu t u
car opera t i on on l y. Trucks , espec i a l l y the 4. Sha rp compound and broken-back in ro l l ing ter ra i n t hey can be aes the t i - u_
l arger and heav i er un i ts , requ i re a l onger curves shou l d be avo i ded (see F i gure ca l l y un i nt erest i ng , mono t onous , and S
s topp i ng d i s t ance for a g i ven speed t han do 342-7) . f a t i gu i ng . O
passenge r veh i c l es . Howeve r , t wo f ac tors 5 . Abrup t reversa l in a l i gnmen t ( i .e ., S
t end to coun t erac t the need for add i t i ona l C i rcu l ar Curves (Arcs) : C i rcu l ar curves
curves) w i t hou t t rans i t i ona l t angen t s are cons t ruc t ed f rom par ts of c i rc l es ra ther
brak i ng d i s t ance for t rucks . F i rst , the t ruck shou l d be avo i ded . N
opera tor is ab l e to see subst ant i a l l y f ar ther t han parabo l as (as in ver t i ca l curves) .
Severa l common c l ass i f i ca t i ons of c i rcu l ar
because of a h i gher pos i t i on in the veh i c l e . 3
T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 342- 8
Tab l e 342 - 7 . S I GHT I NG TO STOPP I NG - M I N I MUM D I STANCE

Pe r cep t i on and Br ake Reac t i on S i gh t / S t opp i ng D i s t ance

Des i gn Assumed T i me , D i s t ance , Coe f f i c i ent Brak i ng Compu t ed , Rounded

Speed , Speed for sec mm ( f t ) of Fr i ct ion D i s t ance mm ( f t ) for Des i gn ,
km / h Cond i t i on , on Leve l , mm ( f t )
(mph) km / h (mph) mm ( f t )

Des i gn Cr i ter i a - We t Pavemen t s

50 45 2 .5 31 395 0 . 36 22 250 53645 60 960

(30) (28) (103 ' ) (73' ) (176' ) (200' )

65 60 2 .5 40 235 0 . 33 39 930 80 160 83 820

(40) (36) (132' ) (131' ) (263' ) (275' )

80 70 2 .5 49 075 0.31 63 400 112 470 106 680

(50) (44) (161' ) (208' ) (369' ) (350' )

95 85 2 .5 58 215 0 .30 91 440 149 655 144 780

(60) (52) (191' ) (300' ) (491' ) (475' )

105 90 2 .5 61 570 0 . 30 102 415 163 980 167 640

(65) (55) (202' ) (336 ' ) (538' ) (550' )

Compa ra t i ve Va l ues - D r y Pavemen t

50 50 2 .5 33 530 0 .62 14 630 48 160

(30) (30) (110' ) (48 ' ) (158 ' )

65 65 2 .5 44 805 0 . 60 27 125 71 935

(40) (40) (147' ) (89 ' ) (236 ' )

80 80 2 .5 55 780 0 . 58 43 890 99 670

(50) (50) (183 ' ) (144' ) (327 ' )

95 95 2 .5 67 055 0 . 56 65 225 132 285

(60) (60) (220 ' ) (214' ) (434' )

105 105 2 .5 72 540 0 . 56 76 505 149 045

(65) (65) (238 ' ) (251' ) (489 ' )

Tab l e 342 -8 . RECOMMENDED DES I GN VALUES FOR PASS I NG S I GHT D I STANCE FOR TWO - LANE H I GHWAYS

Des i gn Speed

Assumed Speeds ,
km l h (mph) 50(30) 65(40) 80(50) 95(60) 115(70)

Passed Veh i c l e 40(26) 55(34) 65(41) 75(47) 85(54)

Pass i ng Veh i c l e 60(36) 70(44) 80(51) 90(57) 105(64)

Pass i ng S i ght D i s t ance , 335 280 457 200 548 640 640 080 762 000
mm ( f t ) (1100 ' ) (1500 ' ) (1800 ' ) (2100 ' ) (2500 ' )

n F i gure 342-9 i l lust rates a samp l e c i rcu l ar

curves are i l l ust ra ted in F i gure 342-7 .
O curve ca l cu l a t i on : G i ven are t wo t angen t s
F i gure 342-8 i l l ust rates t he geome t r i c com-
ponen t s of a c i rcu l ar curve . T=R t an a2 w i t h bear i ngs N50E and S30E . A curve w i th
a 1000- f t rad i us is des i red .
u
c Ca l cu l a t i on o f C i rcu l ar Curves:
C = 2R s in a Supe re l eva t i on:
C Formu l as necessary to ca l cu l a t e the compo - 2
Supere l eva t i on re fers to the cross s l ope of a
r nent s of c i rcu l ar curves (F i gure 342-8) are
as fo l l ows : E=T t an a4 road f rom t he out s i de edge to the i ns i de
edge measur ed in me t e rs (ver t i ca l l y) per

s
D = 5729 . 58 D = 100a me t e r (hor i zont a l l y) . Supere l eva t i on is nec -
or
M=R I 1 - cosa l essary on h i gher -speed curves to count er -
2 ac t cent r i fuga l force and to prov i de a sa f e
L= 100a or L _ (n) (R) a coe f f i c i ent of f r i ct ion be t ween t i res and
D 180 whe r e a = ang l e
roadway sur f ace (F i gure 342-10) .
N 5729 . 58 to = 3 . 14
Max i mum Ra t es of Supere l eva t i on : The
R=
D max i mum ra te of supere l eva t i on on a road-
3
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 342 - 9

Sur f ace Ra t e o f (E)

Urban St reets and 0 . 06
Expressways
(w i th snow and i ce)
Rura l Roads 0 . 08
(w i th snow and i ce)
Urban Expressways 0 . 10
Rura l Roads 0 .12

Des i gn Speed , Coe f f i c i en t o f

km / h (mph ) S i de Fr i c t i on (F)
15 (10) 0 . 18

25(15) 0 . 18
30(20) 0 . 17

40(25) 0 .17
50(30) 0 . 16
55(35) 0 .16

65(40) 0 .15
70(45) 0 .15
80(50) 0. 14
90(55) 0 . 14
95(60) 0 . 13

105(65) 0 . 13

way i s con t ro l l ed by seve ra l f ac t ors (Tab l e

342-9) :
1. Reg i ona l c l i ma t i c cond i t i ons .
2. Te r ra i n cond i t i ons .
3. Type o f a r ea (e . g . , rura l ve rsus urban) .
4. F r equency and speed of veh i c l es .

Max i mum Degr ee o f Cur va t ur e : The

max i mum degr ee o f curva t ure , or t he m i n-
i mum rad i us , is a l i m i t i ng va l ue f or a g i ven n
F i gu r e 342 - 8 . Geome t r i c componen t s o f a c i r cu l a r cu r ve (hor i zon t a l a l i gn-
des i gn speed . I t can be de t e rm i ned f rom O
men t ) .
t he max i mum ra t e o f supe r e l eva t i on and la
t he max i mum s i de - f r i c t i on f ac t or . The m i n -
i mum sa f e rad i us (R) can be ca l cu l a t ed c
d i rec t l y by use o f t he f o l l ow i ng f ormu l a :
r
1 . FUR is t he tota l t i me i t t akes t o perce i ve an ex t erna l st i mu l i , i dent i f y t he st i mu l i , make C
V2 (E + F)
a j udgmen t , and reac t . R= or R = 85 ' 900 r
2 . Thr ee ope r a t i ng charac t er i s t i cs tha t i n f l uence roadway des i gn a re t urn i ng rad i us , 15 (E + F) Vz

sc
acce l era t i on , and br ak i ng d i s t ance .
3 . The eye he i gh t of t he ave r age dr i ver in a passenge r veh i c l e is 1 125 mm (3 f t 9 i n)
above t he road sur f ace (F i gure 342-4) . whe r e E = ra t e o f roadway supe r -
4. The f ormu l a f or de t e rm i n i ng t he tota l d i s t ance (D) requ i red to s t op a veh i c l e on gr ade e l eva t i on , f t / f t
is :
z F = max i mum coe f f i c i en t o f
V
D = 1 . 47( t ) (V) + s i de f r i c t i on (Tab l e 342 -10) f 'V
30 ( f t G)
V = veh i c l e speed , mph
3
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 342- 1 0
Tab l e 342 - 11 . MAX I MUM DEGREE OF CURVATURE AND M I N I MUM RAD I US FOR L I M I T I NG VALUES OF E AND F

Des i gn Speed , Max , Max , To t a l , M i n i mum Rad i us , Max i mum Degr ee Max i mum Degr ee
km / h (mph ) E F E and F mm ( f t ) o f Cur ve o f Cur va t ur e ' -

0 . 17 0 . 23 35 355 (116 ' ) 49 . 39 49 .0

30(20) 0 . 06

39 930 (131 ' ) 31 . 61 31 .5

40(25) 0 . 06 0 . 17 0 . 23

83 210 (273 ' ) 20 . 99 21 .0

50(30) 0 . 06 0 . 16 0 . 22

55(35) 0 . 06 0 . 16 0 . 22 113 080 (371 ' ) 15 . 43 15 .5

11 . 27 11 .5
65(40) 0 . 06 0 . 15 0 . 21 154 840 (508 ' )

70(45) 0 . 06 0 . 15 0 . 21 195 985 (643 ' ) 8 . 91 9 .0

0 . 06 0 . 14 0 . 20 251 155 (824 ' ) 6 . 95 7 .0

80(50)

90(55) 0 . 06 0 . 14 0 . 20 306 020 (1004 ' ) 5 . 68 5 .5

95(60) 0 . 06 0 . 13 0 . 19 385 570 (1265 ' ) 4 . 53 4 .5

105(65) 0 . 06 0 . 13 0 . 19 452 325 (1484 ' ) 3 . 86 4 .0

30(20) 0 . 08 0 . 17 0 . 25 32 615 (107 ' ) 53 . 69 53 .5

40(25) 0 . 08 0 . 17 0 . 25 50 900 (167 ' ) 34 . 36 34 .5

5090 ) 0 . 08 0 . 17 0 . 24 76 200 (250 ' ) 22 . 91 23 .0

55(35) 0 . 08 0 . 16 0 . 24 103 630 (340 ' ) 16 . 83 17 .0

65(40) 0 . 08 0 . 15 0 . 23 141 425 (464 ' ) 12 . 35 12 .5

70(45) 0 . 08 0 . 15 0 . 23 178 920 (587 ' ) 9 . 76 10 .0

80(50) 0 . 08 0 . 14 0 . 22 230 430 (756 ' ) 7 . 56 7 .5

90(55) 0 . 08 0 . 14 0 . 22 279 500 (917 ' ) 6 . 25 6 .5

95(60) 0 . 08 0 . 13 0 . 21 348 690 (1144 ' ) 5 .01 5 .0

0 . 08 0 . 13 0 . 21 409 040 (1342 ' ) 4 . 27 4 .5

105 (65)

30(20) 0 . 10 0 . 17 0 . 27 30 175 (99 ' ) 57 . 98 58 . 0

40(25) 0 . 10 0 . 17 0 . 27 46 940 (154 ' ) 37 . 11 37 . 0

0 . 16 0 . 26 70 410 (231 ' ) 24 . 82 25 . 0

5000 ) 0 . 10

55 (35) 0 . 10 0 . 16 026 95 705 (314 ' ) 18 . 23 18 .0

65(40) 0 . 10 0 . 15 0 . 25 130 150 (427 ' ) 13 . 42 13 .5

70(45) 0 . 10 0 . 15 0 . 25 164 895 (541 ' ) 10 . 60 10 .5

80(50) 0 . 10 0 . 14 0 . 24 211 530 (694 ' ) 8 . 25 8 .5

90(55) 0 . 10 0 . 14 0 . 24 256 030 (840 ' ) 6 . 82 7 .0

0 . 10 0 . 13 0 . 23 318 210 (1044 ' ) 5 . 47 5 .5

95(60)

0 . 10 0 . 13 0 . 23 373 07 ' ) (1224 ' ) 4 . 68 4 .5

105(65)

30(20) 0 . 12 0 . 17 0 . 29 28 040 (92 ' ) 62 . 27 62 .5

cr 40(25) 0 . 12 0 . 17 0 . 29 43 890 (144 ' ) 39 . 85 40 .0

0 . 12 0 . 16 0 . 28 65 225 (214 ' ) 26 . 72 26 .5

50(30)
C 55(35) 0 . 12 0 . 16 0 . 28 89 000 (292 ' ) 19 . 63 19 .5

65(40) 0 . 12 0 . 15 0 . 27 120 395 (395 ' ) 14 . 50 14 .5

c
s
0 . 12 0 . 15 0 . 27 152 400 (500 ' ) 11 . 45 11 .5
70(45)

0 . 12 0 . 14 0 . 26 195 680 (642 ' ) 8 . 93 9 .0

80(50)

0 . 12 0 . 14 0 . 26 236 525 (776 ' ) 7 . 38 7 .5

90(55)

95 (60) 0 . 12 0 . 13 0 . 25 292 610 (960 ' ) 5 . 97 6 .0

N 105(65) 0 . 12 0 . 13 0 . 25 343 815 (1128 ' ) 5 . 08 5 .0

Numbe rs rounded-of f .

T i me - Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Ar ch i t ec t ur e

 342- 1 1

F i gur e 342 - 9 . Ca l cu l a t i on o f c i rcu l ar cur ves .

Pavemen t W i den i ng on Curves :

O f t en , on t wo- l ane roads , pavemen t

w i den i ng is des i rab l e on sharp curves for
the fo l l ow i ng reasons (F i gure 342-13) :
1 . Tendency for dr i vers to shy away f rom
the pavemen t edge .
2. Increased t ransverse veh i c l e w i d t h
because the f ront and rear whee l s do
not t rack .
F i gur e 342 - 10 . Supe r e l eva t i on F i gur e 342 -11 . Supe r e l eva t i on 3 . Added w i d th because o f the s l ant ed
( examp l e ) . runo f f . pos i t i on of the f ront of the veh i c l e re l -
a t i ve to t he roadway cent er l i ne .

Tab l e 342-13 g i ves pavemen t w i den i ng

va l ues for t wo- l ane roadways .

S i gh t D i s t ance on Curves:

As a veh i c l e t rave l s a round a hor i zont a l

curve , any obs t ruc t i on nea r t he i ns i de edge
o f the road wi l l b l ock the dr i ver ' s v i ew
ahead (F i gure 342-14) . Any par t i cu l ar com-
b i na t i on of the sharpness of the curve w i th
the pos i t i on of an obs t ruc t i on es t ab l i shes a
hor i zont a l s i ght d i s t ance , wh i ch is the
grea t es t d i s t ance a t wh i ch a dr i ver can see
an ob j ec t l y i ng in the roadway . To prov i de n
sa f e opera t i on , th i s hor i zont a l s i ght d i s- O
t ance mus t equa l or exceed the sa f e s top-
p i ng d i s t ances for each des i gn speed (Tab l e
c
F i gur e 342 - 12 . Supe r e l eva t i on l oca t i on and runo f f .
342-14) .

3 .2 Ver t i ca l A l i gnmen t C
R = rad i us of curve , f t Tab l e 342-12 l ists m i n i mum supere l eva- Componen t s o f Ver t i ca l A l i gnmen t :
s,.
la
Tab l e 342-11 l ists the max i mum degree t i on runo f f l eng ths for var i ous des i gn
The ver t i ca l p l ane , or prof i l e , of a road or
of curva ture and the m i n i mum rad i us for speeds and supere l eva t i on ra t es .
dr i ve is essent i a l l y made up of t wo geome t -
des i gna t ed des i gn speeds . t
Supere l eva t i on Loca t i on and Runo f f : In r ic componen t s (F i gure 342-15) :
Supere l eva t i on Runo f f : Supere l eva t i on genera l , supere l eva t i on runof f is assumed 1. Inc l i ned st ra i ght l ines ( i .e . , t angen t
runof f is the l ength of roadway requ i red t o to run i nto the t angen t . F i gure 342-12 grades) .
prov i de a t rans i t i on f rom t he norma l road shows tha t f rom 60 to 80 percent o f the
l ength o f runof f shou l d be l oca t ed on the
2 . Ver t i ca l curves . N
c rown to a fu l l y supere l eva t ed sec t i on or
v i ce versa (F i gure 342-11) . t angen t .
3
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 342- 1 2
St ep 3 (F i gure 342-19) : De t e rm i ne t he
m i dd l e ord i na t e (e) [m i dd l e ord i na t e (e) is
equ i va l ent to 1 / 8 t he a l gebra i c d i f f erence
(A) t i mes the l ength of the parabo l a in sta-
t i ons] :

e = ' / a (g2 - g , )L / 100

= ' / s [ -7 - (+4) 1 300 / 100

=1 1 / 8x3
= 4 .12 f t

St ep 4: F i nd the e l eva t i ons on the curve

a t i n t ermed i a t e st a t i ons . E i ther of t wo
me t hods may be emp l oyed (see be l ow) .

No t e : E l eva t i ons on t he ver t i ca l curve

F i gur e 342 -13 . Pavemen t w i den i ng
(of fse ts) are a l ways de t e rm i ned a t even 50-
on curves .
or 100- f t st a t i ons , a l t hough the curve may
no t necessar i l y beg i n or end a t a 50- or
100- f t st a t i on . I t is not necessary to ad j us t
the curve to star t and end on a stat i on,
a l t hough i t does some t i mes s i mp l i f y the
ca l cu l a t i ons .

F i rst me t hod [m i dd l e ord i na t e (e) me t hod] :

The m i dd l e ord i na t e me t hod for de t erm i n i ng
e l eva t i ons on the curve i nvo l ves the use of the
m i dd l e ord i na t e (e) as de t erm i ned in s t ep 3
above . The formu l a for the m i dd l e ord i na t e (e)
me t hod is :
F i gur e 342 - 14 . S i gh t d i s t ance on
hor i zon t a l cur ve .
0 = e [ (d i st ance to sta t i on f rom BVC or
Gr ades : Max i mum grades for roads vary EVC) / (' /2) ]2
cons i derab l y , depend i ng upon ter ra i n ,
speed , capac i ty , and use of the road . Tab l c Examp l e (F i gures 342-27 and 342-28) :
342-15 shows t he re l a t i onsh i p be t wee r 01 (st a t i on 8 + 50)
max i mum grades and des i gn speeds fo i
ma j or roadways . Max i mum grades for sec- = 4 .12 (50 / 150)2
onda ry roads may be abou t 2 percent =4 .12 (0 . 111)
s t eeper . In ex t reme cases , s t eeper grades
for re l a t i ve l y shor t l eng ths may be = 0 .46 f t
cons i dered .
02 (st a t i on 9 + 00)
Ver t i ca l Curves : Ver t i ca l curves are con-
= 4 .12 (100 / 150) 2
s t ruc t ed f rom par t s o f parabo l as ra ther thar
c i rc l es, and connec t t wo d i f f erent grades of = 4 .12 (0 . 444)
n t angen t s . F i gure 342-15 shows t he var i ous
O = 1 .83 f t
t ypes of ver t i ca l curves . F i gure 342-16 i l lus-
t rates t he geome t ry o f a ver t i ca l curve . F i gur e 342 - 15 . Componen t s o f ve r . 03 (st a t i on 10 +00)
t i ca l curves .
c Ca l cu l a t i on o f = 4 .12 (100 / 150) 2
r sec t i on for de t e rm i n i ng t he m i n i mur r
Symme t r i ca l Ver t i ca l Curves:
C l engths of crest or sag ver t i ca l curves .) = 4 .12 (0 . 444)
r Ca l cu l a t i ons for a symme t r i ca l ver t i ca
2 . De t e rm i ne t he a l gebra i c d i f f erence (A ; = 1 .83 f t
curve a re shown be l ow and bas i ca l l y
of the grade t angen t s :
i nvo l ve a f i ve-s t ep process . 04 (sta t i on 10 +50)
c A= g2 -g1
St ep 1 (F i gure 342-17) : = 4 .12 (50 / 150) 2
t
e _ -7 - (+4)
1 . Loca t e and de t e rm i ne the l ength ol =4 .12 (0 . 111)
the ver t i ca l cur ve - t he st a t i ons ( l engths) of = - 11%
BVC and EVC (beg i nn i ng and end of ver t i - = 0 . 46 f t
N ca l curve) . (Re f er to i n forma t i on l ater in thi<
St ep 2 (F i gure 342-18) : De t e rm i ne the
Da t a for the above curve can be record-
e l eva t i ons a l ong the grade t angen t s a t each
ed us i ng the f orm shown in Tab l e 342-16 .
M 50- f t st a t i on .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 342-13
X - L(g , )
A

300(4)
11

= 109 . 09 f t

Thus , t he h i gh po i n t is l oca t ed 109 .09 f t

f rom BVC , or a t sta t i on 9 + 09 .09 .
2 . De t e rm i ne t he e l eva t i on of the h i gh
po i n t on the ver t i ca l curve by ca l cu l a t -
i ng the grade t angen t e l eva t i on at sta-
t i on 9 + 09 .09 .

° / , °° x 109 .09 = 4 .36 f t

190 .25 (BVC e l eva t i on) + 4 . 36 = 194 .61

3. De t e rm i ne the of fse t f rom the grade

t angen t to the curve a t the h i gh-po i nt
st a t i on ( 9 + 09 . 09 ) by us i ng e i ther of
the t wo prev i ous l y shown me t hods :

e Me t hod eo Me t hod

(109 .09 ~' eo(109 . 09 ~2

On P = e - OnP = -
150 300

= 4 .12 (0 .53) = 16 .5 (4 .13)

= 2 .18 = 2 . 18

Thus , the grade t angen t e l eva t i on is :

F i gur e 342 - 16. Geome t r y o f a ver t i ca l cur ve . (9 + 09 .09) - of fse t (h i gh po i nt ) = h i gh-
po i nt e l eva t i on on ver t i ca l curve : 194 .61 -
Second me t hod [end ord i na t e (eo) 04 = 16 .5 ( 2°° /80° ) 2 2 .18 = 192 .43 f t a t st a t i on 9 + 09 .09 .
me t hod] : Al terna t i ve l y , the end ord i na t e
= 16 .5 x 0 . 44 Ca l cu l a t i on o f Unsymme t r i ca l Ver t i ca l Curves .
me t hod can be used to de t e rm i ne e l eva-
t i ons on a ver t i ca l curve a t i nt ermed i a t e = 7 .33 f t Some t i mes an unsymme t r i ca l ver t i ca l
st a t i ons (F i gure 342-22) . ( 25 ° /300) 2
curve , ra ther than a symme t r i ca l (or equa l -
Os = 16 .5
1 . De t e rm i ne sta t i on grades a l ong g1 t angent ) curve , may mor e c l ose l y f i t cer ta i n
grade t angen t . [No t e tha t of fse t (eo) is = 16 .5 x 0 .69 requ i remen t s of the ter ra i n . The t erm i no l o-
equa l to 4 t i mes the m i dd l e ord i na t e gy app l i ed to t he unsymme t r i ca l curve a l so
= 11 .46 f t app l i es t o the symme t r i ca l curve , excep t
(e) as prev i ous l y ca l cu l a t ed .]
Da t a for t he above curve can be record- tha t the m i dd l e po i nt (M) on the chord and
2. De t e rm i ne of fse ts at st a t i ons f rom the
the m i dd l e po i nt (C) on the parabo l i c curve
g, grade t angen t us i ng the fo l l ow i ng ed us i ng the f orm shown in Tab l e 342-17 .
are not l oca t ed m i dway be t ween the BVC
f ormu l a : St ep 5 : and EVC (F i gure 342-23) .
d i s t ance f rom BVC to st a t i on ~2
0 - eo ( 1 . Ca l cu l a t e the hor i zont a l d i s t ance f rom Ca l cu l a t i ons for de t erm i n i ng e l eva t i ons
L the BVC to the h i gh or l ow po i nt on the a l ong an unsymme t r i ca l ver t i ca l curve are
prof i l e o f a ver t i ca l curve : as fo l l ows (F i gure 342-24) :
Examp l e :
L(g , ) St ep 1 : De t e rm i ne the a l gebra i c d i f fer -
0, = 16 .5 ( 50 /3°°) 2
X = c
r
A whe r e : ence (A) of the grade t angen t s :
= 16 .5 x 0 . 027
X = f rom the BVC to the h i gh A=g2 - g ,
u
r
= 0 . 46 f t or l ow po i n t la
= -8 - (+4) = -12
02 = 16 .5 ( ' °° /3oo)2 L = l ength of ver t i ca l curve
t
St ep 2: De t e rm i ne the m i dd l e ord i na t e (e) :
= 16 .5 x 0 . 111 g, = ent er i ng grade 1 , -12
e - x A / 100
= 1 .83 f t A = a l gebra i c d i f f erence 2( l , - h)
03(e) = 16 . 5(150 / 300)2

= 16 .5 x 0 . 25
Us i ng the prev i ous examp l e ' s prob l em ,
the resu l ts are as fo l l ows :
- 250 x 350
2 (250+350)
x 12 / 100 N
= 4 .12 f t 3
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 342- 1 4

F i gure 342-17 . Ca l cu l a t i on of sym-

me t r i ca l ver t i ca l curve ( examp l e
prob l em) .

F i gure 342-18 . Ca l cu l a t i on of sym-

me t r i ca l ver t i ca l curve ( examp l e prob-
l em) . F i gure 342-21 . Ca l cu l a t i on o f sym-
me t r i ca l ver t i ca l curve : End ord i na t e
(e) me t hod ( examp l e prob l em) .

F i gure 342-19 . Ca l cu l a t i on o f sym-

me t r i ca l ver t i ca l curve ( examp l e prob-
l em) .

F i gure 342-22 . Unsymme t r i ca l ver t i -

ca l curve .

n
O
a

C
a

c
:c
F i gure 342-20 . Ca l cu l a t i on o f sym-
N me t r i ca l ver t i ca l curve : M i dd l e ord i -
na t e (e) me t hod ( examp l e prob l em) .
F i gure 342-23 . Ca l cu l a t i on o f
unsymme t r i ca l ver t i ca l curve ( exam-
p l e prob l em) .
3
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 342- 15
Tab l e 342 - 12 . LENGTHS REQU I RED FOR SUPERELEVAT I ON RUNOFF ( TWO - LANE PAVEMENTS )

Leng t h o f Runo f f (L) , mm ( f t ) f or Des i gn Speed , km / h (mph )

Supe r - 30 40 50 55 65 70 80 90 95 105
e l eva t i on (20) (25) (30) (35) (40) (45) (50) (55) (60) (65)
Ra t e

3 660 (12 ' ) Lanes

0 .02 22 860 27 430 30 480 35 050 38 100 42 670 45 720 50 290 53 340 57 910
(75 ' ) (90' ) (100 ' ) (115 ' ) (125' ) (140' ) (150' ) (165' ) (175' ) (190' )
0 . 04 22 860 27 430 30 480 35 050 38 100 42 670 45 720 50 290 53 340 57 910
(75 ' ) (90' ) (100' ) (115 ' ) (125 ' ) (140' ) (150' ) (165' ) (175' ) (190' )

0 . 06 25 910 30 480 33 530 36 575 38 100 42 670 45 720 50 290 53 340 57 910
(85 ' ) (100' ) (110' ) (120 ' ) (125 ' ) (140' ) (150' ) (165' ) (175' ) (190' )

0. 08 36 575 41 150 44 195 48 770 51 815 54 865 57 910 62 485 65 530 70 105
(120 ' ) (135' ) (145' ) (160 ' ) (170 ' ) (180' ) (190' ) (205' ) (215' ) (230' )
0 . 10 45 720 50 290 54 865 59 435 64 010 68 580 73 150 77 725 82 295 88 390
(150 ' ) (165' ) (180' ) (195 ' ) (210 ' ) (225' ) (240' ) (255) (270' ) (290' )
0 . 12 54 865 60 960 65 530 71 630 76 200 76 200 88 390 94 490 99 060 105 155
(180 ' ) (200' ) (215' ) (235 ' ) (250 ' ) (250' ) (290' ) (310' ) (325' ) (345' )
3 050 (101 ) Lanes
0 . 02 22 860 27 430 30 480 35 050 38 100 42 670 45 720 50 290 53 340 57 910
(75 ' ) (90 ' ) (100' ) (115 ' ) (125 ' ) (140 ' ) (150' ) (165' ) (175' ) (190' )
0 . 04 22 860 27 430 30 480 35 050 38 100 42 670 45 720 50 290 53 340 57 910
(75 ' ) (90 ' ) (100' ) (115 ' ) (125 ' ) (140 ' ) (150' ) (165' ) (175' ) (190' )

0 . 06 22 860 27 430 30 480 35 050 38 100 42 670 45 720 50 290 53 340 57 910
(75 ' ) (90 ' ) (100' ) (115 ' ) (125 ' ) (140 ' ) (150' ) (165' ) (175' ) (190' )
0 . 08 30 480 33 530 36 575 39 625 42 670 45 720 48 770 51 815 54 865 57 910
(100' ) (110 ' ) (120' ) (130 ' ) (140 ' ) (150 ' ) (160' ) (170' ) (180 ' ) (190' )

0 . 10 38 100 42 670 45 720 50 290 53 340 51 815 60 960 65 530 68 580 73 150
(125' ) (140 ' ) (150' ) (165 ' ) (175 ' ) (170 ' ) (200' ) (215' ) (225 ' ) (240 ' )

0 . 12 45 720 50 290 54 865 59 435 64 010 68 580 73 150 77 725 82 295 88 390
(150' ) (165) (180' ) (195' ) (210 ' ) (225 ' ) (240 ' ) (255' ) (270 ' ) (290 ' )

M i n i mum Cres t Ver t i ca l Curves:

Tab l e 342-13 . PAVEMENT W I DEN I NG VALUES ( TWO - LANE ROADS) , [ MM (FT) ]
On al l crest ver t i ca l curves , the l ength o f
the curve shou l d perm i t sa f e s topp i ng d i s- Degr ee 7. 2-m l ane des i gn speed , km / h 24- f t . l ane des i gn speed , mph
t ances (F i gure 342-25) . of
cur ve 48 64 80 96 30 40 50 60
Two bas i c f ormu l as ex i st for de t e rm i n i ng
the l ength of a ver t i ca l curve in t e rms o f 1 0 .0 0.0 0 .0 0.0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0
s i ght d i s t ance(s) and a l gebra i c d i f f erences
2 0 .0 0.0 0 .0 150 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .5
in grade :
3 0 .0 0.0 150 150 0 .0 0 .0 0 .5 0 .5
When S is l ess t han L :
4 0 .0 150 150 300 0 .0 0 .5 0 .5 1 .0

L=
AS 2
100 (1/ /2h , + ' \ /2h2)2
5 150 150 300 300 0 .5 0 .5 1 .0 1 .0 C
6 150 300 300 450 0 .5 1 .0 1 .0 1 .5
7 150 300 450 0 .5 1 .0 1 .5
When S is grea t er t han L : c

Cr
8 300 300 450 1 .0 1 .0 1 .5 r

200 ( \ / /2h, _ + 1`2h2)2 9 300 450 600 1 .0 1 .5 2 .0

L=2S - .-
A 10-11 300 450 1 .0 1 .5

whe r e : L = hor i zont a l l ength of the ver t i - 12-14 .5 450 600 1 .5 2 .0

ca l curve , f t

S = s i ght d i s t ance , f t
15-18

19-21
600

750
2 .0

2 .5
t
A = a l gebra i c d i f f erence in 22-25 900 3 .0
grades , 26-26 .5 1 050
Source: AASHTO , A Po l i cy on Geome t r i c Des i gn of Rura l H i ghways , 1965 .
3 .5
N
h , = he i ght of eye above road-
way sur f ace , f t M
T i me -Saver S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 342- 1 6
So l ut i ons to these equa t i ons based on
Tab l e 342 - 14 . S I GHT I NG TO STOPP I NG D I STANCE ON HOR I ZONTAL CURVE t he above cr i ter i a of eye he i gh t and veh i c l e
M( FT) : M - M I DDLE ORD I NATE he i ght (F i gure 342-26) are g i ven in Tab l e
342-20 , f rom wh i ch can be f ound the m i n-
S i gh t / i mum l ength o f ver t i ca l curve necessary to
Des i gn s t opp i ng
speed d i s t ance Degr ee o f cur ve ma t ch a requ i red pass i ng s i ght d i s t ance for
km / h m a l gebra i c d i f f erences in grades up to 10
(mph ) (it) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 percen t .
48 - 60 1 .5 1 .8 2 .1 2 .4 2 .7 3 .0
(30) (200) - - - - - (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) M i n i mum Sag Ver t i ca l Curves:
64 90 - - 1 .8 2 .4 3 .0 3 .6 4 .2 4.5 5 .4 6.0 6 .3 Cr i ter i a tha t are cr i t i ca l for de t erm i n i ng the
(40) (300) - - (6) (8) (10) (12) (14) (15) (18) (20) (21)
m i n i mum l engths of sag ver t i ca l curves
80 135 - 2 .4 3 .9 5.4 6 .6 8 .1 9 .3 10.5 - - - i nc l ude :
(50) (450) (8) (13) (18) (22) (27) (31) (35) - -
1 . Head l i ght i l l umi na t i on .
96 195 2 .4 5 .7 8 .4 - - - - - - - -
2 . R i der comf or t .
(60) (650) (8) (19) (28)
3 . Dra i nage cont ro l .
Des i gn S i gh t /
speed d i s t ance Degr ee o f cur ve 4 . Genera l appea rance .
km / h m
(mph ) (ft) 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Head l i gh t s i ght d i s t ance has been used
48 60 3 .3 3 .3 3 .6 3 .9 4 .2 4 .5 4 .8 4 .8 5 .1 5 .4 as the ma j or cont ro l l i ng f ac tor . When a
(30) (200) (11) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (16) (17) (18) veh i c l e t raverses a sag ver t i ca l curve a t
64 90 6 .9 7 .5 8 .1 8.7 9 .3 9 .9 10 .5 - - - n i ght , t he por t i on of the h i ghway i l l umi na t -
(40) (300) (23) (25) (27) (29) (31) (33) (35) - - - ed , and there fore the s i ght d i s t ance , is
80 135 - - - - - - - - - -
dependen t upon the pos i t i on of the head-
(50) (450) - - - - - - - - - - l i ghts and the d i rec t i on of the l ight beam
(F i gure 342-27) .
96 195 - - - - - - - - - -
(60) (650) - - - - - - - - - -
The fo l l ow i ng t wo f ormu l as show the
re l a t i onsh i p be t ween l ight beam d i s t ance ,
l ength o f ver t i ca l curve , and a l gebra i c di f -
f erence :
Tab l e 342 - 15 . RELAT I ON OF MAX I MUM GRADES TO DES I GN SPEED
( MA I N H I GHWAYS) , ( % SLOPE ) When S is l ess than L :
AS '
Des i gn speed , km / h L=
mph 400+3 . 55
Type o f t opogr aphy 48 64 80 96 104 112 When S is grea t er t han L :
(30) (40) (50) (60) (65) (70)

F l at 6 5 4 3 3 3 400+3 .55
L = 2S -
7 6 5 4 4 4 A
Ro l l i ng
Sour ce : AASHTO , A Po l i cy on Geome t r i c Des i gn o f Rur a l H i ghways , 1965. whe r e S = l i ght beam d i s t ance , f t

A = a l gebra i c d i f f erence in grades ,

h2 = he i ght of ob j ec t above roadway d i f f erence in grades , and l ength of ver t i ca l
sur f ace , f t curve are as fo l l ows : L= l ength of sag ver t i ca l curve , f t

So l ut i ons to these equa t i ons based on When S is l ess than L : So l ut i ons to these equa t i ons based on the
n
cr i ter i a of eye he i gh t and f i xed ob j ec t above cr i ter i a are g i ven in Tab l e 342-21 .
O ASp 2
he i ght (see F i gure 342-25) are g i ven in L=
3290 3 . 3 Cross -Sec t i ona l E l emen t s
Ili Tab l e 342-19 , f rom wh i ch can be de t er -
m i ned the m i n i mum l ength of ver t i ca l curve Pavemen t W i d t hs :
c
r necessary to ma t ch a requ i red s topp i ng
When S is grea t er than L :
The sa f e t y and comf or t of the dr i ver is
U s i ght d i s t ance for a l gebra i c d i f f erences in
L=2Sp -
3290
r grades up to 25 percent . A i nf l uenced by the w i d t h and cond i t i on of
the pavemen t sur f ace . Because of upwa rd
Pass i ng S i gh t D i s t ance on Ver t i ca l Curves: t rends in t raf f i c vo l umes , veh i c l e speed , and
u

sc
whe r e Sp =pass i ng s i ght d i st ance , f t w i d t h of t rucks , t wo- l ane roads have
Cr i ter i a used for de t erm i n i ng pass i ng s i ght
i ncreased f rom ear l y w i d ths of 4 800 and
d i s t ances on crest ver t i ca l curves are : a dr i - A = a l gebra i c d i f f erence in grades ,
5 400 mm (16 and 18 f t ) to present w i d ths
ver eye he i gh t of 1 125 mm (45 in) and a
o f 6 600 to 7 800 mm (22 to 26 f t ) . Lane
he i gh t of 1 350 mm (54 in) for an over -
com i ng veh i c l e (F i gure 342-26) . L = m i n i mum l ength of ver t i ca w i d ths of 3 000 to 3 900 mm (10 to 13 f t )
N curve , f t are now common . The de t erm i na t i on of
Equa t i ons tha t express the re l a t i onsh i p pavemen t w i d th depends on many f ac tors ,
3 ha f - aan nncc i nn c i vhf r l i c fnnra Anahrn i r i nc l ud i ng :

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 342 - 1 7

Pavemen t Crowns :
Tab l e 342 - 16 . VERT I CAL CURVE DATA FORM : M I DDLE ORD I NATE (E)
METHOD ( EXAMPLE PROBLEM DATA) Pavemen t s on t angen t s and on f l at curves
are c rowned for pos i t i ve dra i nage of wa t e r
Intersect ion stat ion 9 + 50 El evat ion 196 .25 VC no . 2
Al gebra i c di f ference -7 - (+ 4) = -11 Curve l ength 300 f t of f the roadway sur f ace (F i gure 342-28) .
BVC stat ion 8 + 00 El evat ion 190 .25 Tab l e 342-24 g i ves r ecommended ranges
EVC stat ion 11 + 00 El evat ion 185 . 75 of cross-s l ope for var i ous t ypes of pave -
M i dd l e ord inate (e) ' / H( -11)300 / 100 - 4 12 f t
men t sur f aces .
D i s t ance Tangen t
f rom gr ade vc vc 3 . 4 I n t e rsec t i on Des i gn E l emen t s
St a t i on BVC or EVC e l eva t i on ord i na t e e l eva t i on
BVC 8 + 00 00 . 00 190 . 25 00 . 00 190 .25 Types o f Gr ade Int ersec t i ons :
8 + 50 50 . 00 192 . 25 00 . 46 191 .79 F i gure 342-29 shows var i ous t ypes of
9 + 00 100 . 00 194 . 25 01 .83 192 .42 grade i nt ersec t i ons .

v 9 + 50 150 . 00 196 . 25 04 .12 192 .13 Int ersec t i on Curves :

10+00 100 . 00 192 .75 01 .83 190 .92 M i n i mum Rad i i for Sharpes t Turns : When
10+50 50 . 00 189 .25 00 . 46 188 .79 turn i ng space is m i n i ma l , as at unchanne l ed
EVC 11 +00 00 . 00 185 .75 00 . 00 185 .75
i nt ersec t i ons , t he m i n i mum turn i ng rad i us
of t he des i gn veh i c l e is the cont ro l l i ng f ac-
tor in the des i gn of the curve .

M i n i mum Rad i us for Turn i ng Speed :

Tab l e 342-25 g i ve des i gn cr i ter i a for curves
a t var i ous dr i v i ng speeds .

. ,i
1 . Supere l eva t i on , the cross s l ope of a
road f rom the outs i de edge to the
i ns i de edge , is necessary on h i gher -
speed curves to count erac t cent r i fuga l
F i gur e 342 - 24 . Ca l cu l a t i on o f unsym- F i gur e 342 - 26 . Pass i ng s i gh t d i s t ance force and to prov i de a sa f e coe f f i c i ent
me t r i ca l ver t i ca l cur ve: M i dd l e ord i na t e on c res t ver t i ca l cur ve . of f r i ct ion be t ween t i res and roadway
(e) me t hod ( examp l e prob l em) . su r face.

2 . The m i n i mum sa f e rad i us (R) on a

hor i zonta l curve can be ca l cu l a ted by
use of the fo l l ow i ng formu l a :
V2 85 , 900 (E+F)
R= or R=
15 (E+F) V2
whe re E = rate of roadway supere l eva-
t ion, F = max i mum coe f f i c i ent of s i de
f r i ct ion (Tab l e 342-10) , V = veh i c l e O
speed , R = rad i us of curve .

F i gur e 342 -25 . S i gh t / s t opp i ng d i s- F i gur e 342 - 27 . Head l i gh t s i gh t d i s-

3 . Ver t i ca l curves are cons t ruc t ed f rom
par ts of parabo l as ra ther than c i rc l es,
c
t ance on c res t ver t i ca l cur ve . t ance on sag ver t i ca l cur ve . and connec t t wo d i f ferent grades or C
1. Dens i t y / i nt ens i t y o f l and use . t rucks , buses , e t c .) .
t angent s . F i gure 342-15 shows the
var i ous t ypes of ver t i ca l curves . F i gure
r
342-16 i l lust rates the geome t ry of a
c
s
2. Park i ng ( i .e . , of f -st ree t versus on- 7. D i s t ance be t ween edge of pave -
ver t i ca l curve .
st reet ) . men t and any obs t ruc t i ons a l ong
3. Whe t he r a l i gnmen t is smoo t h the roads i de .
4 . The a l gebra i c d i f f erence (A)
and con t i nuous . Tab l e 342-22 g i ves r ecommended m i n i - be t ween the i ncom i ng grade of the
4. Speed of t raf f i c . parabo l i c curve and the ou t go i ng
N
mum w i d ths for t wo- l ane roads based on
t raf f i c vo l umes and speed . Tab l e 342-23 grade can be ca l cu l a t ed us i ng the for -
5. Vo l ume of t raf f i c . mu l a: A = g2 - g, .
g i ves r ecommended ranges o f pavemen t
6. Type of t raf f i c (i .e ., au tomob i l es ,
w i d th based on use . 3
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 342 - 1 8

A l i gnmen t and Prof i l e a t Int ersec t i ons :

Tab l e 342 - 17 . VERT I CAL CURVE DATA FORM : END ORD I NATE (EO)
For sa f e t y reasons , hor i zont a l a l i gnmen t at METHOD ( EXAMPLE PROBLEM DATA)
i nt ersec t i ons shou l d be hand l ed as shown
Intersec t i on st a t i on 9 + 50 E l eva t i on 196 .25 VC no . 2
in F i gure 342-30 . F i gure 342-31 i l lust rates A l gebra i c d i f f erence -7 - (+4) = - 11 Curve l ength 300 f t
pre f erab l e grade cr i ter i a for i nt ersec t i ons . BVC St a t i on 8 + 00 E l eva t i on 190 .25
EVC St a t i on 11 + 00 E l eva t i on 185 . 75
S i gh t D i s t ances a t Int ersec t i ons : E l eva t i on of ent er i ng grade at EVC st a t i on 202 .25
End ord i na t e (eo) 16 . 50
I t is i mpor t an t tha t s i ght l ines are unob-
Tangen t
s t ruc t ed a l ong both roads of an i nt ersec t i on D i s t ance r i se or Tangen t
and across the i r corners for d i s t ances suf f i - f rom drop f rom gr ade VC VC
c i ent to a l l ow dr i vers approach i ng the i nter - S t a t i on BVC BVC , f t e l eva t i on ord i na t e e l eva t i on
sec t i on s i mu l t aneous l y to see each o ther in BVC 8+00 00 . 00 0.0 190. 25 00 .00 190. 25
t i me to preven t co l l i s i on (F i gure 342-32) . 50 . 00 2 .0 192 . 25 00 .46 191 . 79
8+50
Uncon t ro l l ed Int ersec t i ons : At uncon- 9+00 100 . 00 4 .0 194. 25 01 .83 192 .4
t ro l l ed i nt ersec t i ons , dr i vers mus t be ab l e to
V 9+50 150 . 00 6.0 196 .25 04 .12 192 . 13
recogn i ze a hazard in suf f i c i ent t i me to s l ow
down be fore reach i ng t he i nt ersec t i on . For 10+00 200 . 00 8 .0 198 .25 07 .33 190. 92
t wo roads of known des i gn speeds , t he 10+50 250 . 00 10 .0 200 .25 11 .46 188. 79
m i n i mum s i ght t r i ang l e (F i gure 342-32) can
EVC 11 +00 300 . 00 12 .0 202 .25 16 .50 185 .75
be de t e rm i ned f rom Tab l e 342-26 .

Con t ro l l ed Int ersec t i ons on M i nor

Roads : At cont ro l l ed i nt ersec t i ons on m i nor Tab l e 342 - 18 . VERT I CAL CURVE DATA FORM : UNSYMMETR I CAL CURVE
roads , the dr i ver o f a s t opped veh i c l e mus t ( EXAMPLE PROBLEM DATA)
be ab l e to see enough of the crossroads to
cross w i thou t dange r of co l l i s i on (F i gure Intersec t i on stat i on 10 + 50 F l eva t i on 160 . 30 VC no . 4
342-33) . A l gebra i c d i f f erence -8 - (+4) = 12 Curve l ength 600 f t
BVC st a t i on 8 + 00 E l eva t i on 150 . 30
Tab l e 342-27 prov i des the necessary d i s- EVC st a t i on 14 + 00 E l eva t i on 132 . 30
M i dd l e ord i na t e (e) [ (250 X 350) / [2(250 + 350) ] ] x 12 / 100 = 9 . 59 f t
t ances needed a l ong the h i ghway f rom the
i nt ersec t i on for var i ous des i gn veh i c l es .
D i s t ance Tangen t
f rom gr ade VC VC
4 . 0 PARK I NG S t a t i on BVC or EVC e l eva t i on ord i na t e e l eva t i on

BVC 8+00 0 150. 30 0 . 00 150 . 30

Th i s sec t i on does not i nc l ude de t a i l ed i nfor -
8+50 50 152 . 30 0 .38 151 . 42
ma t i on on park i ng d i mens i ons , lot s i zes ,
hand i capped park i ng s t andards , or t ruck 9+00 100 154. 30 1 .53 152 . 77
l oad i ng and dock i ng s t andards . Such i nfor - 9+50 150 156. 30 3 .45 152 . 85
ma t i on can be f ound in Sec t i ons 210 :
10+00 200 158. 30 6 .14 152 . 16
Spa t i a l St andards , and 240 : Ou t door
Access i b i l i ty. V 10+50 250-350 160 .30 9 . 59 150 .71

11 +00 300 156 .30 7 . 00 149 .3

Th i s sec t i on prov i des genera l i n forma -
t i on on s i te p l ann i ng and the l ayout of 11 +50 250 152 .30 4 . 89 147 .41
park i ng areas . 12 +00 200 148 .30 3 . 16 145 . 14

4 .1 S i t e P l ann i ng Cons i de r a t i ons 12 +50 150 144 .30 1 .73 142 . 57

n
O 13 +00 100 140 .30 0 . 77 139 . 53
Thorough cons i dera t i on shou l d be g i ven to
i nt egra t i ng the des i gn o f bu i l d i ngs and 13 + 50 50 136 .30 0 . 19 136 .11
s t ruc tures w i th park i ng areas and re l a t ed EVC 14+00 0 132 .30 0 . 00 132 . 30
c i mprovemen t s . Res i dent i a l , comme rc i a l ,
r
i ndust r i a l , i nst i tut i ona l , recrea t i ona l , and
C Ac t i v i t i es l i ke p i cn i ck i ng ca l l for w i de r sta l ls c i se l y in the cent er of t he stal l , nor wi l l they
o ther t ypes of pro j ec ts al l have par t i cu l ar
r to make the hand l i ng o f bu l ky i t ems in and a l ways dr i ve in al l the way. I f sta l l s are t oo
park i ng requ i remen t s and shou l d be
ou t of cars eas i er. In shopp i ng cent ers nar row , dr i vers wi l l i gnore dema rca t i on
p l anned accord i ng l y. When park i ng l ayout s
ul whe r e car ts are used , w i de r sta l l s are mor e l ines and l ap ove r i nto ad j o i n i ng sta l l s .
u_ are deve l oped s i mu l t aneous l y w i th bu i l d i ng
des i rab l e , as compa r ed to a l l -day park i ng
S p l ans , i ne f f i c i ent park i ng c i rcu l a t i on can be areas for of f i ce worke rs .
In any park i ng area , hand i capped park-
O avo i ded . i ng spaces or a passenge r l oad i ng zone
I f exper i enced a t t endan t s are to park shou l d be l oca t ed as c l ose as poss i b l e to the
The park i ng hab i t s of users have a cars , a i s l es a t l east 1 200 mm (4 f t ) na r row- shor t es t access i b l e pa t h of t rave l to bu i l d-
t r emendous i nf l uence on s t andards . Urban
N er can be used for 90-degree park i ng. i ngs .
dr i vers wi l l usua l l y accep t na r rowe r sta l l s
Des i gners shou l d a l so be m i nd fu l o f t he
than wi l l dr i vers in rura l or suburban areas .
3 f ac t tha t dr i vers typ i ca l l y wi l l not park pre-

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 342- 1 9
Tab l e 342 - 19 . VERT I CAL CURVE LENGTHS (L) NECESSARY TO OBTA I N A REQU I RED S I GHT / STOPP I NG D I STANCE ,
r M ( Fn l

S i gh t / A l geb r a i c d i f f e r ence , %
Des i gn s t opp i ng
speed d i s t ance
km / h m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
( mph ) (ft)

32 33 . 0 - - - - - - 6 .0 13 .5
(20) (110) - - - - - - (20) (45)

40 45 - - 6 .0 20 .1 30 .0 37 .5
(25) (150) - - - - (20) (67) (100) (125)

48 60 - 15 .3 36 .0 50 .1 60 .0 68 .7
(30) (200) - (51) (120) (167) (200) (229)

96 75 . 0 - - 10 .2 45 .0 66 .0 80 .4 93 .9 107 .4
(35) (250) - - (34) (150) (220) (268) (313) (358)

64 90 . 0 19 .2 38 .7 57 .9 77 .4 96 .3 115 .8 135 .3 154 .5

(40) (300) (64) (129) (193) (258) (321) (386) (451) (515)

72 112 . 5 30 .3 60 .3 90 .6 120 .6 150 .9 181 .2 211 .2 241 .5

(45) (375) (101) (201) (302) (402) (503) (604) (704) (805)

80 135 . 0 43 .5 87 .0 130 .5 173 .7 217 .2 260 .7 304 .2 347 .7

(50) (450) (145) (290) (435) (579) (724) (869) (1014) (1159)

80 165 . 0 64 .8 129 .6 194 .7 259 .8 325 .2 389 .4 454 .5 519 .3

(50) (550) (216) (432) (649) (866) (1084) (1298) (1515) (1731)

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

19 .5 24 , 0 27 , 9 31 .2 33 .9 36 .3 39 .0 41 .4
(65) (80) (93) (104) (113) (121) (130) (138)

43 .2 48 .3 5 . 13 57 .9 62 .7 67 .5 72 .3 77 .1
(144) (161) (177) (193) (209) (225) (241) (257)

77 .1 85 .8 94 .5 102 .9 111 .6 120 .3 128 .7 137 .4

(257) (286) (315) (343) (372) (401) (429) (458)

120 .6 134 .1 147 .6 160 .8 174 .3 187 .8 201 .3 214 .5

(402) (447) (536) (581) (626) (671) (492) (715)

173 .7 193 .2 231 .9 251 .1 270 .3 289 .8 212 .4 309 .0

(579) (644) (708) (773) (837) (901) (966) (1030)

271 .5 301 .8 331 .8 362 .1 392 .4 422 .4 452 .7 482 .7

(905) (1006) (1106) (1207) (1308) (1408) (1509) (1609)

391 .2 434 .4 521 .4 564 .9 608 .4 651 .9 477 .9 695 .4

(1304) (1448) (1593) (1738) (1883) (2028) (2173) (2318)

584 .1 649 .2 714 .0 779 .1 843 .9 908 .7 973 .8 1038 .6

(1947) (2164) (2380) (2597) (2813) (3029) (3246) (3462)

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

44 .1 46 .8 492 51 .9 54 .6 57 .0 59 . 7 62 .4 64 .8
(147) (156) (164) (173) (182) (190) (199) (208) (216)

81 .9 87 .0 91 .8 96 .6 101 .4 106 .2 111 .0 115 .8 120 .6

(273) (290) (306) (322) (338) (354) (370) (386) (402)

145 .8 154 .5 163 .2 171 .6 180 .3 188 .7 197 .4 206.1 214 .5

(486) (515) (544) (572) (601) (629) (658) (687) (715)

228 .0 241 .5 254 .7 268 .2 281 .7 295 .2 308 .4 321 .9 335 .4 ci .

(760) (805) (849) (894) (939) (984) (1028) (1073) (1118)

328 .2 347 .7 366 .9 384 .0 405 .6 424 .8 444 .3 463 .5 507 .0

C
(1352) (1416) (1481) (1545) (1609) i-
(1094) (1159) (1223) (1288)
_t i d
513 .0 543 .3 573 .3 603 .6 633 .6 663 .9 694 .2 724 .2 754 .5

s
(1710) (1811) (1911) (2012) (2112) (2213) (2314) (2414) (2515) c

738 .6 782 .1 825 .6 869 .1 912 .6 956 .1 999 .6 1042 .8 1086.3

(2462) (2607) (2752) (2897) (3042) (3187) (3332) (3476) (3621)

1103 .4 1168 .5 1233 .3 1298 .4 1363 .2 1428 .0 1493 .1 1557 .9 1622 .7

(3678) (3895) (4111) (4328) (4544) (4760) (4977) (5193) (5409)
N
3
T i me - Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Ar ch i t ec t ur e
342 - 20

Tab l e 342 - 20 . VERT I CAL CURVE LENGTHS (L) NECESSARY TO OBTA I N THE FOLLOW I NG PASS I NG S I GHT
D I STANCES , [ M ( FT) ]

Pass i ng A l gebr a i c d i f f e rence , %

Des i gn s i gh t
speed d i s t ance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

48 330.0 - 165 .0 330 .9 441 .3 551 .7 662 .1 772 .5 882 .6 993 .0.6 993 .0
(30) (1100) - (550) (1103) (1471) (1839) (2207) (2575) (2942) (3310) (3678)

64 450.0 - 406 .5 615 .6 820 .8 1025 .7 1230 .9 1436 .1 1641 .3 1846 .5 2051 .7
(40) (1500) - (1355) (2052) (2736) (3419) (4103) (4787) (5471) (6155) (6839)

80 540.0 93 .0 591 .0 886 .2 1181 .7 1477 .2 1772 .7 2068 .2 2363 .4 2658 .9 2954 .4
(50) (1800) (310) (1970) (2954) (3939) (4924) (5909) (6894) (7878) (8863) (9848)

96 630 .0 273 .0 804 .3 1206 .3 1608 .3 2010 .6 2412 .9 2814 .9 - - -

(60) (2100) (910) (2681) (4021) (5361) (6702) (8043) (9383) - - -

104 690 .0 393 .0 964 .8 1447 .2 1929 .6 2412 .0 2894 .1 - - - -

(65) (2300) (1310) (3216) (4824) (6432) (8040) (9647) - - - -

De t a i l s and Dev i ces , i nc l udes r epr esen t a t i ve 4. Expens i ve t o repa i r .

de t a i l dr aw i ngs o f va r i ous pavemen t s and
R i g i d Pavemen t Des i gn Cons i de r a t i ons :
curbs .
To ar r i ve a t t he prope r des i gn o f r i g i d con -
Th i s sec t i on i nc l udes gene r a l i n f orma t i on c r e t e pavemen t s , t he f o l l ow i ng f ac t ors
on pavemen t s and curbs , i nc l ud i ng i nfor - mus t be cons i de r ed :
ma t i on on t he advan t ages and d i sadvan- 1 . Whee l l oads.
t ages o f va r i ous t ypes o f pavemen t s .
2 . Subg r ade (modu l us of subgr ade

5. 1 Pavemen t s : Gene r a l Cons i de r a t i ons reac t i on) .

3 . Pro t ec t ed or unpro t ec t ed corne rs .
Pavemen t s f or veh i cu l a r use a r e gene r a l l y
4 . Un i f o rm or t h i ckened edge .
d i v i ded i nto t wo ma i n ca t egor i es , r i g i d
pavemen t s and f l ex i b l e pavemen t s . The 5 . Qua l i t y of conc r e t e ( f l exura l
t wo va ry in t e rms o f cons t ruc t i on me t hods , s t reng t h) .
durab i l i t y , and cos t .
Pavemen t Subgr ade : The subgr ade so i l s
R i g i d Pavemen t s: mus t be o f un i f orm ma t e r i a l and dens i t y t o
prov i de sa t i s f ac t ory pavemen t pe r f or -
R i g i d ( e . g . , conc r e t e ) pavemen t s have a mance . The suppor t i ng powe r o f t he sub-
h i gh compr ess i ve s t reng t h , wh i ch t ends t o gr ade is expr essed as va l ues o f K , t he mod -
F i gur e 342 - 28 . Pavemen t c r owns . d i s t r i but e t he l oad ove r a re l a t i ve l y w i de u l us o f subgr ade reac t i on .
a r ea .
Pro t ec t ed or Unpro t ec t ed Corne r s : S i nce
4 . 2 Gene r a l Layou t o f Pa r k i ng Ar eas The advan t ages o f prope r l y cons t ruc t ed j o i nt s a r e requ i red f or conc r e t e pav i ng
r i g i d pavemen t s i nc l ude : because o f expans i on and con t rac t i on , t he
A ma j o r cons i de r a t i on i n t he des i gn o f any
pa r k i ng a r ea is s i mp l i c i t y . Pa r k i ng a rea ! 1 . Low ma i n t enance cos t s. s t reng t h o f t he pavemen t wi l l be l os t
be t ween sepa r a t e s l abs. Pro t ec t ed corne rs
shou l d no t be comp l ex or des i gned in suc l - 2. Long l i fe , w i t h ex t r eme durab i l i t y.
a re t hose a t wh i ch prov i s i on is made f or
a manne r as t o t es t a dr i ver ' s pa t i ence . 3 . H i gh va l ue as a base f or f u t ur e
t rans f er r i ng a t l eas t 20 pe r cen t o f t he l oad
resur f ac i ng w i t h aspha l t .
The t hr ee bas i c d i mens i ons o f any pa rk - ac ross t he i n t e rven i ng j o i nt s by means o f
i ng l ayou t a r e : (1) t he l eng t h and w i d t h of 4. Load d i s t r i bu t i on ove r a w i de area , aggr ega t e i n t er l ock , dowe l s , or keys .
ca r sta l l s , (2) t he w i d t h o f a i s l es , and (3) t he t he re f ore dec r eas i ng base and sub- Unpro t ec t ed corne rs a r e t hose a t wh i ch
ang l e be t ween ca r sta l l and a i s l e . A i s l e gr ade r equ i r emen t s . t he r e i s no t adequa t e prov i s i on f or l oad
w i d t h is re l a t ed t o sta l l w i d t h and ang l e of 5. Ab i l i t y t o be p l aced d i rec t l y on poor t r ans f e r ence .
sta l l s . W i t h a w i de r sta l l , i t is poss i b l e t o use so i l s .
Pavemen t Jo i n t s : Jo i nt s a r e a l ways nec -
a s l i ght l y na r rowe r a i s l e .
6. No damage f rom o i l s and gr ease . essa ry i n r i g i d pavemen t s (1) t o pe rm i t
7. S t rong edges . expans i on and con t r ac t i on o f t he conc r e t e
5 . 0 PAVEMENTS AND CURBS
due t o t empe r a t ur e and mo i s t ur e changes ,
The d i sadvan t ages o f r i g i d pavemen t s (2) t o re l i eve wa rp i ng and cur l i ng s t resses
Th i s sec t i on does no t i nc l ude de t a i l ed i nfor - i nc l ude : wh i ch resu l t f rom t empe r a t ur e and mo i s -
ma t i on on t he cons t ruc t i on o f va r i ou!
1 . H i gh in i t i a l cos t s . ture gr ad i en t s w i t h i n t he s l ab , and (3) as a
pavemen t s and curbs . Spec i f i c i n f orma t i or
cons t ruc t i on exped i en t t o sepa r a t e a r eas o f
on t he des i gn and cons t ruc t i on o f t hese 2 . Jo i nt s requ i red f or con t r ac t i on and
expans i on . conc r e t e p l aced a t d i f f eren t t i mes .
e l emen t s is i nc l uded in
Sec t i ons 820
Aspha l t and 830: Conc r e t e . D i v i s i on 900 3. A gene ra l l y rough r i d i ng qua l i t y.

T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 342 - 21

Tab l e 342 -21 . M I N I MUM SAG VERT I CAL CURVE LENGTHS (L) NECESSARY TO OBTA I N L I GHT BEAM
D I STANCE , [ M (FT) ]

S i ght /
s t opp i ng
and l i ght - A l gebra i c d i f f erence . %
Des i gn beam
speed d i s t ance
km / h m
(mph) (ft) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10
32 33 .0 7 .2 18 .9 26 .7 32 .4 36 .9 41 .4 46 .2
(20) (110) - - (24) (63) (89) (108) (123) (138) (154)

40 45 .0 - - 20 .7 34 .5 43 .8 51 .0 58 .5 65 .7 72 .9
(25) (150) - - - (69) (115) (146) (170) (195) (219) (243)
48 60.0 - - 9 .9 37 .5 54 .0 65 .4 76 .5 87 .3 98 .1 109 .2
(30) (200) - (33) (125) (180) (218) (255) (291) (327) (364)

56 75 .0 - - 22 .5 54 .3 73 .5 88 .2 102 .9 117 .6 132 .3 147 .0

(35) (250) - (75) (181) (245) (294) (343) (392) (441) (490)

64 90 .0 - - 35 .1 68 .4 93 .0 111 . 6 130 .2 149 .1 167 .7 186 .3

(40) (300) - - (117) (228) (310) (372) (434) (497) (559) (621)

72 112 .5 - - 53 .7 96 . 6 123 .3 147. 9 172 .5 197 .1 221 .7 246 .3

(45) (375) - (179) (322) (411) (493) (575) (657) (739) (821)

80 135 .0 - - 72 .6 121 .8 153 .9 184.5 215 .4 246 .0 276 .9 307 .5

(50) (450) - - (242) (406) (513) (615) (718) (820) (923) (1025)

88 165 .0 - 97 .5 155 .7 195 .3 234.3 273 .3 312 .3 351 .3 390.3

(55) (550) - (325) (519) (651) (781) (911) (1041) (1171) (1301)

96 195 .0 - - 122 .4 189 .3 237 .0 284.4 331 .8 379 .2 426 .0 473 .7

(60) (650) - - (408) (631) (790) (948) (1106) (1264) (1421) (1579)

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
32 33 .0 51 .0 55 .5 60 .0 64 .8 69 .3 74.1 78 .6 83 .1 87 . 9 92 .4
(20) (110) (170) (185) (200) (216) (231) (247) (262) (277) (293) (308)

40 45 .0 80 .4 87 .6 94 .8 102 .3 109 .5 116.7 124 .2 131 .4 138 .6 145 .8

(25) (150) (268) (292) (316) (341) (365) (389) (414) (438) (462) (486)

48 60 .0 120 .0 130 .8 141 .9 152 .7 163 .5 174 .6 185 .4 196.5 207 .3 218 .1
(30) (200) (400) (436) (473) (509) (545) (582) (618) (655) (691) (727)

56 75 .0 161 .7 176 .4 191 .1 205 .8 220.5 235 .2 249 .9 264 .6 279 .3 294 .0
(35) (250) (539) (588) (637) (686) (735) (784) (833) (882) (931) (980)

64 90 .0 204 .9 223 .5 242 .1 260 .7 279 .3 297 .9 316 .5 335 .1 353 .7 372 .3
(40) (300) (683) (745) (807) (869) (931) (993) (1055) (1117) (1179) (1241)

72 112 .5 270 .9 295 .5 320 .4 345 .0 369 .6 394 .2 418 .8 443 .4 468 .0 492 .6
(45) (375) (903) (985) (1068) (1150) (1232) (1314) (1396) (1478) (1560) (1642)

80 135 . 0 338 .4 369 .0 399 .9 430 .5 461 .4 492 .3 522 . 9 553 .8 584 .4 615 .3
(50) (450) (1128) (1230) (1333) (1435) (1538) (1641) (1743) (1846) (1948) (2051)

88 165 . 0 429 .3 468 .3 507 .3 546 .6 585 .6 624 .6 663 . 6 702 .6 741 .6 780 .6
(55) (550) (1431) (1561) (1691) (1822) (1952) (2082) (2212) (2342) (2472) (2602)
C:
96 195 .0 521 .1 568 .5 615. 9 663 .3 710 .7 758 .1 805.5 852 .9 900 .0 947 .7
(60) (650) (1737) (1895) (2053) (2211) (2369) (2527) (2685) (2843) (3000) (3159)

r
C
r

s
c

N
Cr
3
T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 342 - 2 2

ib l e pavemen t is a resu l t o f bu i l d i ng up
th i ck l ayers and t he reby d i st r i but i ng the
l oad ove r the subgrade , ra ther t han the
sur f ace ma t er i a l assum i ng the st ruc tura l
s t rengths as w i th r ig id pavemen t s .

The advan t ages of f l ex i b l e pavemen t s

i nc l ude :
1 . Adapt ab i l i t y to s t age cons t ruc t i on .
2 . Ava i l ab i l i ty of l ow-cos t t ypes wh i ch
can be eas i l y bu i l t .
3 . Ab i l i ty to be eas i l y opened and
pa t ched .
4 . A genera l l y l ow ini t ia l cos t
5 . Easy repa i r of f rost heave and se t -
t l emen t
6 . Res i s t ance to the f orma t i on of i ce
g l aze

The d i sadvan t ages i nc l ude :

1 . H i ghe r ma i n t enance costs
2 . Shor t er l i fe span unde r heavy use
3 . Damage by oi l s and cer ta i n chem i -
ca l s
4 . Weak edges tha t may requ i re curbs
or edge dev i ces

Pr i nc i p l es of F l ex i b l e Pavemen t Des i gn :
The des i gn of a f l ex i b l e pavemen t emp l oys
t he pr i nc i p l e tha t a l oad of any magn i t ude
may be d i ss i pa t ed by car ry i ng i t deep i nto
t he ground t hrough success i ve l ayers of
granu l ar ma t er i a l . Th i s is because the i nt en-
s i ty of a l oad d i m i n i shes in geome t r i ca l pro-
por t i on as i t is t ransm i t t ed downwa rd f rom
the sur f ace , by v i r tue of spread i ng ove r an
i ncreas i ng l y l arger area . Because of thi s,
ma t er i a l s w i th a progress i ve l y l owe r bear -
i ng va l ue may be emp l oyed as t he dep t h
i ncreases .

The re are var i ous me t hods emp l oyed to

de t e rm i ne the th i ckness requ i red for f l ex i -
b l e pavemen t s . Re f e r to Sec t i on 820 :
Aspha l t , for a descr i pt i on of the th i ckness
n des i gn procedure .
O
5 .2 Shou l de rs : Gene r a l Cons i de r a t i ons
la
A shou l der is the por t i on of a roadway con-
c t i guous w i t h the pavemen t for (1) accom-
r moda t i on o f s t opped veh i c l es in eme rgen-
F i gur e 342 - 29 .
(J c i es and (2) l atera l suppor t of base and sur -
r f ace courses .
The three bas i c t ypes o f j o i nts used in j o i nts a l so perm i t unres t ra i ned d i f ferent i a l We l l -des i gned and proper l y ma i n t a i ned
u

s
c r igid pavemen t s are (1) cont rac t i on j o i nts , hor i zont a l movemen t of ad j o i n i ng pave - shou l ders on roads , whe r e apprec i ab l e vo l -
wh i ch are used to prov i de cont ro l l ed con- men t s and / or s t ruc tures . umes of t raf f i c ex i st , may serve one or mor e
e t rac t i on crack i ng ; (2) cons t ruc t i on j o i nts , of the fo l l ow i ng purposes :
F l ex i b l e Pavemen t s:
wh i ch are prov i ded to separa t e areas of
1 . Space is prov i ded for s topp i ng f ree
concre t e p l aced a t d i f f erent t i mes ; and (3) F l ex i b l e pavemen t s cons i st o f a ser i es o f of the t raf f i c l ane .
N expans i on joints, wh i ch are prov i ded for l ayers , w i t h the h i ghes t -qua l i t y ma t er i a l s a t
the re l i ef o f forces resu l t i ng f rom therma l 2 . Space is prov i ded for the occas i ona l
or near the sur f ace . The s t rength of a f l ex-
expans i on of t he pavemen t . Expans i on motor i s t who des i res to s top to
3

T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 342 - 2 3

consu l t road maps , to rest , e t c .

3 . Space is prov i ded to escape po t en-
t i a l acc i dent s or to reduce the i r
sever i t y.
4 . Hor i zont a l s i ght d i s t ance may be
i mproved in cut sec t i ons and may
t hus reduce hazards .
5 . The capac i t y of the h i ghway may
be i mproved , encourag i ng un i form
speeds .
6 . Space is prov i ded for ma i n t enance
opera t i ons .
7 . S t ormwa t e r can be d i scharged far -
ther away f rom t he pavemen t , and
seepage ad j acent to the pavemen t
is m i n i m i zed .
8 . St ruc tura l suppor t is g i ven to the
pavemen t , wh i ch is espec i a l l y i m-
por t ant for f l ex i b l e pavemen t s .

Shou l de r W i d t hs :

Shou l ders shou l d be des i gned w i de enough

to a l l ow a s t opped or d i sab l ed veh i c l e to
pu l l ent i re l y of f the road (Tab l e 342-28) .
The i r sur f ace t rea t men t shou l d sus t a i n the
we i gh t of veh i c l es in al l seasons . Mos t f re-
quent l y , th i s can be accomp l i shed by the
use of we l l -dra i ned soi l m i xed w i th aggre -
ga t e tha t has been compac t ed and , whe r e
appropr i a t e , seeded w i th grass or o ther
t ypes o f l ow-grow i ng ground cover .

Shou l de r Cross S l opes :

Tab l e 342-29 g i ves r ecommended cross-

s l opes for roadway shou l ders .

F i gur e 342 - 30 . Hor i zon t a l a l i gnmen t a t i n t e rsec t i ons .

Tab l e 342 -22 . M I N I MUM W I DTHS FOR TWO - LANE ROADS , MM (FT)

Des i gn speed , ADT ' , ADT , ADT , DHV t DHV , n

km / h 50-250 250 - 400 400 - 750 200 - 400 ove r 400
(mph )
6000 6 600 7200 a
48 6 000 6 000
(30) (20) (20) (20) (22) (24)

6 600 6 600 7200

c
r
64 6 000 6 000
(22) (22) (24)
(40) (20) (20)
Û
80 6 000 6 000 6 600 7200 7200
(24)
r
(50) (20) (20) (22) (24)

96 6 000 6 600 6 600 7200 7200 75

(60) (20) (22) (22) (24) (24)

7200 7200
t
104 6 000 6600 7200
(65) (20) (22) (24) (24) (24)

112 6 000 6600 7200 7200 7200

(24) (24) (24)
(70) (20) (22)
N
' ADT average da i ly t raf f ic.
t DHV future des ign hour l y vo l ume .
3
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 342-24
Tab l e 342 - 23 . RECOMMENDED PAVEMENT W I DTHS ( BY TYPE OF USE ) Tab l e 342 - 24 . RECOMMENDED
CROSS - SLOPES FOR VAR I OUS TYPES
Use t ype W i d t hs , mm ( f t ) OF PAVEMENTS

Dr i veways ( res ident i a l s) 2 100-3 000 (7-10)

Cross s l ope ,
M i nor res i dent i a l st reets Sur f ace t ype mm / m
( i n/ f t )
No park i ng 6 000-7 200 (20-24)
H i gh 10 . 7-21 .3
Park i ng on one s i de 7 800-8 400 (26-28) (1 / 8-1 / 4)
" R i g i d (concre t e)
Ma j or res i dent i a l st reets
" Aspha l t i c concre t e
No park i ng 4 800-7 200 (16-24) " P l ant m i x

Park i ng on one s i de 8 400-9 600 (28-32) Int ermed i a t e 16 . 0-31 .7

(3 / 16-3 / 8)
St ree ts w i th t ruck t raf f i c 7 200-7 800 (24-26) " P l ant m i x
Recrea t i ona l s i tes Low 21 . 3-42 .3
(1/4-1/2)
Heavy vege t a t i on 5 400-6 600 (18-22) " Road m i x
Rough ter ra i n 5 400-6 600 (18-22) " Macadam
" Sur f ace t rea tment
Scen i c dr i ves 6 000-7 200 (20-24) " Unt rea t ed sur f ace

Indust r i a l areas 7 200 (24) m i n i mum

(no park i ng)

Tab l e 342 - 25 . M I N I MUM RAD I I FOR I NTERSECT I ON CURVES

Des i gn ( turn i ng) speed V, km / h 24 32 40 48 56 64

(mph) " (15) (20) (25) (30) (35) (40)
Si de f r i ct ion factor , F 0 .32 0 . 27 0 .23 0. 20 0 .18 0 . 16
Assumed m i n i mum supere l eva t i on , E 0 .00 0 . 02 0 .04 0. 06 0 .08 0 . 09
Tota l , E + F 0. 32 0 . 29 0 .27 0. 26 0 .26 0 . 25
Ca l cu l a t ed m i n i mum rad i us R, mm 14 100 27600 46 200 69 300 94 200 127 800
(ft) (47) (92) (154) (231) (314) (426)
Sugges t ed curva ture for des i gn :
Rad i us max i mum , mm 15 000 27 000 45 000 69 000 93 000 129 000
(ft) (50) (90) (150) (230) (310) (430)
Degree of curve max i mum - 64 38 25 18 13
Ave rage runn i ng speed , km / h 4200 5 400 6 600 7 800 9 000 10 200
(mph) (14) (18) (22) (26) (30) (34)

For des ign speeds of more than 40 mph , use va lues for open h i ghway condi t ions.
Source : Cour tesv o f AASHTO.

Tab l e 342 - 26 . I NTERSECT I ON SAFE

n STOPP I NG D I STANCES
O
Des i gn speed , Sa f e s t opp i ng
km / h (mph ) d i s t ance , m ( i t )

c 48 60 .0
C (30) (200)
r 64 82 .5
(40) (275)

c
s
80 105 .0
(50) (350)
96 142 .5
(60) (475)
112 180 .0

N (70) (600)

3
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 342 - 2 5

F i gure 342-31 . Intersec t i on grades . F i gure 342-32 . S i ght t r i ang l e a t inter F i gure 342-33 . S i ght d i st ance a t con-
sec t i ons . t ro l l ed i ntersec t i on .

Tab l e 342-27 . M I N I MUM S I GHT D I STANCES ( IN FEET) NECESSARY ALONG H I GHWAY FROM I NTERSECT I ON

Ma j o r h i ghway des i gn speed , km / h (mph )

Type o f veh i c l e 48 64 80 96 1 1
s t opped (30) (40) (50) (60) (70)

Passenger vehicle
" Two- l ane h i ghway* 90 120 150 180 210
(300) (400) (500) (600) (700)

" Four - l ane h i ghway 105 143 180 210 248

(350) (475) (600) (700) (825)

Single-uni t vehicle
" Two- l ane h i ghway 120 165 203 240 285
(400) (550) (675) (800) (950)

" Four - l ane h i ghway 143 188 233 278 323

(475) (625) (775) (925) (1075)

50- f t design vehicle

" Two- l ane h i ghway 158 210 263 315 368
(525) (700) (875) (1050) (1225)

" Four - l ane h i ghway 180 233 293 353 413

(600) (775) (975) (1175) (1375)

12- f t l anes wi th level condi t ions.

5 .3 Curbs : Genera l Cons i dera t i ons

Tab l e 342-28 . RECOMMENDED SHOULDER W I DTHS
The type and locat ion of curb i ng wi l l af fect c
r
Type o f h i ghway W i d t h o f shou l de r , mm ( f t ) dr iver behav i or and, in turn, the safety and
C
ut i l i ty of a roadway . Curbs are used : r
1 . To cont rol dra i nage .
Heav i l y t rave l ed 3 000 (10) m i n i mum , 3 600 (12)
2 . To act as a deter rent to vehi c l es
H i gh-speed
Low- t ype
des i rab l e

1 200 (4) m i n i mum , 1 800-2 400 (6-8)

l eav ing the pavement at hazardous
points . s
In di f f i cul t ter ra i n des i rab l e 3 . To present a more f ini shed appear -
ance
4 . To stabi l i ze the road edge in f lexible N
pavements .
3
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 342 - 26

Tab l e 342 - 29 . RECOMMENDED SHOULDER CROSS - SLOPES

Shou l de r c ross - s l ope

Type o f sur f ace mm / m m/m

( i n/ f t ) (ft/ft)

No pavemen t edge curbs

" B i tum i nous 31 . 7-42 .3 0 . 03-0 .04
(3/8-1/2) (0 . 03-0 .04)
" Grave l or crushed s tone 10 .6-63 .5 0 . 04-0. 06
(1 / 8-3 / 4) (0 . 04-0. 06)
" Tur f 84 .7 0 . 08
(1) (0 .08)
W i t h shou l der curbs a t
pavemen t edge

" B i tum i nous 21 .2 0 .02

(1/4) (0 .02)

" Grave l or crushed s tone 21 . 2-42 .3 0 . 02-0. 04

(1 / 4-1 / 2) (0 . 02-0. 04)
" Tur f 31 . 7-42 .3 0 . 03-0. 04
(3/8-1/2) (0 . 03-0. 04)

F i gur e 342 - 34 . Types o f curbs .

Types o f Curbs : Curb Ma t er i a l s: Ame r i can Assoc i a t i on o f St a t e H i ghway

and Transpor t a t i on Of f i c i a l s (AASHTO ) . A
Two genera l c l asses of curbs are bar r i er and Conc re t e : Conc re t e is probab l y the mos t Po l i cy on Geome t r i c Des i gn of H i ghways
moun t ab l e , and each c l ass i nc l udes nume r - common ma t er i a l used for bo t h bar r i er and and St ree ts , Wash i ng t on , DC , 1990.
ous t ypes (F i gure 342 -34) . Each may be moun t ab l e curbs . Conc r e t e curbs are
Baker , Robe r t F. ( ed. ) . Handbook of
des i gned as a separa t e un i t or i nt egra t ed durab l e and re l a t i ve l y easy to cons t ruc t .
H i ghway Eng i neer i ng , Van Nos t r and
w i th the pavemen t . Bar r i er and moun t ab l e
Aspha l t : Aspha l t is f requent l y used f ar Re i nho l d , New York , 1975 .
curbs may be des i gned w i th a gut t er to
curb i ng , espec i a l l y in park i ng areas whe r e Inst i tute of Traf f i c Eng i neers. Transpor t a t i on
f orm a comb i na t i on curb-and-gu t t er sec-
t hey can be curved for i s l ands . They are and Traf f i c Eng i neer i ng Handbook , Wo l f gang
t i on (F i gure 342 -34) .
econom i ca l , easy to cons t ruc t , and ava i l - S . Homburge r ( ed .), Prent i ce-Ha l l , Eng l ewood
Bar r i er Curbs : Bar r i er curbs are re l a t i ve l y ab l e in a var i e ty o f cross sec t i ons . Cl i f fs, NJ , 1982 .
h i gh and s t eep- f aced , des i gned to rest r i ct
Gran i t e : Gran i t e curbs are no t as f re- Lay , M . G . Handbook of Road Techno l ogy .
or a t l east to d i scourage veh i c l es f rom l eav-
quen t l y used as aspha l t or concre t e in mos t (2nd ed. ) Gordon and Breach , 1990 .
i ng the pavemen t . They are usua l l y 150
mm (6" ) or mor e in he i ght , w i th a s l op i ng par ts o f the wor l d , but in areas whe r e gran- Lynch , Kev i n , and Ga ry Hack . S i te
i te is quar r i ed , i t is common l y used and is P l ann i ng , 3d ed ., M I T Press , Cambr i dge ,
f ace not exceed i ng 25 mm per 75 mm (1 in
o f t en no mor e expens i ve t han concre t e . MA , 1984.
pe r 3 in) of he i ght .
Gran i t e curbs are f ar mor e durab l e t han
Wr i ght , Pau l H . H i ghway Eng i neer i ng , 6th
Curbs used for pedes t r i an i s l ands shou l d concre t e . ed ., W i l ey , New York , 1996 .
be made w i th he i ght s be t ween 125 and
175 mm (5 and 7 in) . REFERENCES Un t e rmann , R i cha rd K. Pr i nc i p l es and
O
Prac t i ces o f Grad i ng , Dra i nage and Road
la Moun t ab l e Curbs : Moun t ab l e curbs AI i gnTnen t : An Eco l og i c Approach ,
re fer to curbs tha t can be moun t ed by Ame r i can Assoc i a t i on o f St a t e H i ghway Prent i ce-Ha l l , Res ton , VA, 1978.
cr au t omob i l e t i res . and Transpor t a t i on Of f i c i a l s (AASHTO ) . A
Po l i cy on Des i gn St anda rds - I n t e rs t a t e Woods , Kenne t h B . (ed. ) H i ghway Des i gn
C Sys t em , Wash i ng t on , DC , 1989 .
Re f erence Gu i de . McGraw-H i l l , New York ,
r 1988 .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

St ruc t ures
 SECT I ON 171 I

Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s

Con t r i bu tor :
N i cho l as T. D i nes , FASLA
Un i vers i t y of Massachuse t t s
Amhe rs t , Massachuse t t s

Domen i co Annese , RLA , and Pe t e r F.

Ma r t ecch i n i , PE
New York , New Yor k

I n f orma t i on on me t r i c ca l cu l a t i ons was

prov i ded by Dav i d Gr ah l man , RE . ,
Gamsby and Manne row , Lt d . ,
Gue l ph , On t a r i o
Techn i ca l Wr i t er :
Ky l e D . Brown
Rev i ewe rs :
Brad f ord G . Sears , RLA
Faye t t ev i l l e , New Yor k

S t ephen Hamway
Sasak i Assoc i a t es , Inc .
Da l l as , Texas

.w

1 .0 Int roduc t i on 3 .6 Expans i on and Cons t ruc t i on Jo i nt s 5 . 0 Mechan i cs and Des i gn Ca l cu l a t i ons
1 .1 Use o f Re t a i n i ng St ruc tures 4 .0 Types of Re t a i n i ng St ruc tures 5 .1 La t era l Load i ng
1 . 2 Des i gn Pa rame t e rs 4 .1 Re i n f orced Embankmen t s 5 .2 Resu l t an t of Wa l l We i gh t and Ear th
1 .3 Des i gn Process 4 .2 Un i t and St ack Wa l l Sys t ems Pressure S
2 .0 Se l ec t i on Cr i ter i a for Re t a i n i ng St ruc tures Dry-La i d St one Wa l l 5 .3 Wa l l St ab i l i t y Tests
Cl i
2 .1 Re i n f orced Embankmen t s Gab i on Wa l l Ove r t urn i ng
2 . 2 Un i t and St ack Wa l l Sys t ems Precas t Un i t St ack Wa l l Se t t l emen t a t t he Toe
2 . 3 R i g i d Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s Ear th T i eback Re t a i n i ng Wa l l S l i d i ng Hor i zont a l l y
3 .0 E l emen t s of Re t a i n i ng St ruc tures B i n Wa l l 6. 0 Dra i nage n
6 .1 Sur f ace Run-o f f .
3 .1 Subgrade Cr i b Wa l l
n
Proper t i es o f Soi l Hor i zont a l and Ver t i ca l T i mbe r Wa l l 6 .2 Back f i l l and Foo t i ng Dra i ns
Gr een Re t a i n i ng Wa l l 6 .3 Weep Ho l es a
So i l Tes t i ng
3 . 2 Founda t i ons 4 .3 R i g i d Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s 7 .0 Ma i n t enance
3. 3 Dra i nage Dev i ces Grav i t y Wa l l Re f erences
3. 4 Ba t t er in Wa l l Faces Cant i l evered Wa l l
3. 5 Face Trea t men t 0

T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 410 - 2

1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON

A n ear th reta ining st ructure is a l and-

scape dev i ce used to accommoda t e
abrupt grade changes wh i ch exceed
the natura l ang l e of repose of the exist ing
soi l (usua l l y 33 to 37 degrees , or about 1 to
1 .5) . These dev i ces inc lude not on l y wa l l
st ructures, but a l so embankmen t re inforc-
ing st ructures such as r ip- rap stone , f iber
mat t ing, and highl y f ibrous rooted pl ants .
Al l such dev i ces, regardl ess of the i r mater i -
al , or shape , must be abl e to wi thstand
ear th pressures, and other re l ated factors
wh i ch typica l ly cause st ructura l fai lure, such
as vehi c l e loading, h i ghway v ibrat ion (i .e .,
l ive loading) , and ef fects of ext reme mo i s-
ture cond i t ions (e .g ., heav i ng due to swe l l -
ing and f rost / thaw cyc l es) .
F i gure 410-1 . Re t a i n i ng st ruc tures for s t eep s l ope prot ec t i on .
1 .1 Use of Re t a i n i ng St ruc tures

Typica l st ructures are des i gned to accommo-

date one or more of the fo l lowing purposes :
1 . Protect steep s lopes f rom eros ion,
e i ther as an exist ing cond i t ion or as a
mi t igat ing st rategy due to const ruc-
t ion a l terat ions (F igure 410-1) .
2 . Protect spec i men t ree stands f rom fill
or cut cond i t ions (F igure 410-2) .
3 . Fac i l i tate ver t ica l c i rculat ion at steps
or ramp st ructures (F igure 410-3) .
4 . Fac i l i tate vehi cul ar access in steepl y
s lop ing wooded si tes, such as parks,
camp i ng areas, or pr i vate res idences
(F igure 410-4) .
5 . Max i m i ze potent i a l for deve l opment F i gure 410-2 . Re t a i n i ng wa l l s for ex i st i ng t ree prot ec t i on .
and/or bui lding area to accommoda t e
an extens i ve des ign program for
school s, pl ay f ields, outdoor theaters,
ar t gal ler ies, etc . (F igure 410-5) .
6 . Extend the archi tecture of a bui lding
into the si te and to express i ts func-
t ioning levels (F igure 410-6) .
7 . Accommoda t e grade changes when
l imi ted space prohibi ts non-st ructura l
grad i ng solut ions (e .g ., at proper ty
«3 l ines, or ex i st ing bui ldings and spec i -
men t rees) .
8 . Ach i eve an integrated visua l appear -
. ance of the proposed deve l opment in
G re lat ion to the exist ing si te and sur -
ra round i ng deve l opment or context .
Compared to other forms of ear th
OC reta ining dev i ces, wa l l s can be f ive to six
t imes more expens i ve than eng i neered
ear th embankment s , r ip- rap embankment s ,
or b i o-eng i neered embankment s , and F i gure 410-3 . Re t a i n i ng wa l l s to fac i l i tate r amp and st ep access .

T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 410 - 3
Parame t ers for re t a i n i ng wa l l s i l l ust rated
in th i s Sec t i on are l i sted be l ow :

He i gh t s : Al l re t a i n i ng wa l l s and dev i ces

(un l ess otherw i se not ed) are for a max i -
mum he i ght (H) of 3 000 mm (10 f t ) .
Load i ng: Al l wa l l s wi l l perm i t on l y a 600
mm (2 f t ) surcharge w i t hou t dange r of
over turn i ng excep t for t i mbe r cr i b wa l l s
wh i ch are a t the i r l imi ts .
Bea r i ng : The max i mum soi l bear i ng
pressure is assumed to be 16 750 kg / m l
(1 .5 tons / f t2) .

Dep t h : The f ounda t i on dep t h in r ig id

cons t ruc t i on (D) shou l d ex t end to 600 mm
F i gur e 410 - 4 . Re t a i n i ng s t ruc t ures t o a l l ow veh i cu l a r access on s l op i ng s i t es . (2 f t) , or in f rost cond i t i ons shou l d ex t end
be l ow the f rost dep t h accord i ng to l oca l
prac t i ce ( typ i ca l l y t op of foot i ng is se t at
f rost dep t h so tha t base of foot i ng is pro-
t ec t ed by the foot i ng th i ckness) .
St reng th : The compress i ve s t rength of al l
concre t e is assumed to be 17 238 kPa
(2 , 500 pounds per square i nch [psi ] ) , and
the tens i l e s t rength of the stee l re i nforce-
men t is 10 896 kg (24 , 000 Ibs) .

Jo i nt s : Expans i on jo ints , when needed ,

shou l d be p l aced every 9 000 mm (30 f t ) or
l ess .
NOTE: When st ruc tures have l i ve l oads ,
surcharges h i gher t han 600 mm (2 f t ) , or
F i gure 410 -5 . Re t a i n i ng s t ruc t ures t o accommoda t e ex t ens i ve bu i l d i ng progr am . poor founda t i ons , a st ruc tura l eng i neer
exper i enced w i th the des i gn of re t a i n i ng
wa l l s shou l d be consu l t ed .

1 . 3 Des i gn Process

The phys i ca l d i mens i ons of a re t a i n i ng

s t ruc ture are de t e rm i ned by tota l grade
change he i ght , and so i l charac t er i s t i cs
wh i ch a f f ec t soi l we i ght , ang l e of repose ,
and permeab i l i t y . There fore , the des i gn of
any re t a i n i ng s t ruc ture beg i ns w i th a care-
fu l soi l ana l ys i s and a c l ear unde rs t and i ng
of appropr i a t e app l i ca t i on op t i ons w i t h
regard to st ruc tura l types , ma t er i a l s , and
loca l c l i ma t e var i ab l es .
F i gur e 410 - 6 . Re t a i n i ng s t ruc t ures t o ex t end a r ch i t ec t ur e i n t o t he s i t e .
The des i gn process for re t a i n i ng st ruc-
S
tures typ i ca l l y i nc l udes the fo l l ow i ng t asks :
shou l d be cons i dered to be a l ong- t erm Bards prov i ded for re t a i n i ng wa l l s are l imi t -
1 . St udy the necess i t y and feas i b i l i ty of a
i nves tmen t of t en i nvo l v i ng ma t t ers or sa f e- ed to a max i mum he i gh t of 3 000 mm (10 st ruc tura l approach by exp l or i ng non-
t y and l ega l l i abi l i ty. Tab l e 410-1 i l lust rates ft), i nc l ud i ng dep t h to f ounda t i on . st ruc tura l so l ut i ons f i rst , and by ca l cu- bA
t he con t i nuum of dev i ces su i t ab l e for Re t a i n i ng st ruc tures above 3 000 mm (10
embankmen t stab i l i za t i on and re t ent i on . f t ) in he i ght , have nume rous var i ab l es
l a t i ng i nst a l l a t i on and l ong- t e rm .n
ma i n t enance costs . n
a f f ec t i ng the i r des i gn (soi l s, pressures ,
1 . 2 Des i gn Pa r ame t e r s founda t i on , and cons t ruc t i on ma t er i a l s) 2 . De t e rm i ne the t ype o f s t ruc ture
a
Th i s sec t i on prov i des typ i ca l des i gns and and are assumed to be t oo comp l ex to be requ i red for a par t i cu l ar app l i ca t i on e
so l ved w i th the formu l as used in th i s sec- w i th regard t o :
s t andards for re t a i n i ng wa l l s tha t may be
t i on . A st ruc tura l eng i neer shou l d be con-
mod i f i ed to accommoda t e spec i f i c soi l a) . Magn i t ude of l oads and soi l bear -
su l ted , when f aced w i th des i gn i ng st ruc-
charac t er i st i cs and the requ i remen t s of i ng capac i t y
st ruc tura l mechan i cs . The des i gns and st an- tures of grea t er s i ze or comp l ex i t y.

T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 410- 4

Tab l e 410 - 1 - RETA I N I NG STRUCTURF CLASS I F I CAT I ON AND EVALUAT I ON MATR I X

Cos t :
Type Ob j ec t i ve Shor t / Long Ma i n t enance Cons t ruc t i on L i f e Expec t ancy

Re i n f orced Embankmen t (A) :

Tur f ( f i ber ma t , St ab i l i ze Low / H i gh Mow i ng cos t s 1 :2 max ., avo i d shee t Mode r a t e t o

sod , or seed) cut / f i l l h i gher w i t h 1 :2 runof f , use check Long
or 1 :1 .5, 1 :3 swa l e a t t op
pre f .

R i p- rap S t one St ab i l i ze Low / Low per i od i c 1 :1 .5 max . , Use check Mode r a t e t o

s t eep pa t ch i ng and swa l es a t t op and Long
eros i b l e soi l debr i s r emova l p l ace on aggr ega t e
" " banks base and f abr i c f or
s t reng t h

r.
. o
_
"r .". .. ' t -.. . i .

P l aced S t one or St ab i l i ze Mod . / Low per i od i c 1 :1 .5 max . , requ i res Mode r a t e to

Mason r y i shor t s l opes weed i ng and granu l a r subbase on Long
° w i t h h i ghe r edge repa i r f abr i c and heavy
f i n i sh aggr ega t e a t base

Cas t Conc r e t e . C l ad ve ry Mod . / Low Ve ry Low 1 :1 max., Requ i res Mode r a t e to

". .o° .. s t eep shor t aggr ega t e subbase Long
s l opes ( wa rm and f oo t i ng a t base
° c l i ma t es) for bear i ng , sea l ed
- ° expans i on j o i nts ,
weep ho l es if we t
,- ,oo,
Roo t St ab i l i ze Low / Low Requ i res 1 :1 .5 max . , Shor t Shor t to
Re i n f or cemen t -~ banks in per i od i c s l opes , f i brous Mode r a t e
na tura l t r i mm i ng to roo t ed shrub
se t t i ngs in s t i mu l a t e roo t s s t r i pp l i ngs bunched in
- - h i gh mo i s t ure s t acked l ayers of
- - zones l ogs or j ut e ro l l s

a
e

T i me -Save r St andards f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 410 - S

Tab l e 410 - 1 . RETA I N I NG STRUCTURE CLASS I F I CAT I ON AND EVALUAT I ON MATR I X ( con t i nued )

Cos t :
Type Ob j ec t i ve Shor t / Long Ma i n t enance Cons t ruc t i on L i f e Expec t ancy

Un i t and St ack wa l l Sys t ems (B) :

Dr y La i d S t one iF' - Low wa l l s in Mod . / Mod . Per i od i c Requ i res ba t t er and Mode r a t e to
ga rden rese t t i ng o f sha l l ow aggr ega t e Long
i' - - ~ se t t i ngs s t ones a t t op base
of wa l l

Gab i ons Ut i l i tar i an Mod . / Low Per i od i c Requ i res 6 ' ba t t ers Mode r a t e t o
qu i ck l y i nspec t i on and f or ta l l wa l l s , or Long
.. ": ": . cons t ruc t ed s t ap l i ng o f w i re s t agge r ed f ace ,
y °~rS~ f r wa l l s f abr i c , repa i r requ i res aggr ega t e
t op dress i ng l eve l i ng base course
and f abr i c sepa ra t or
a a t back edge o f
back f i l l in f i ne so i l s
a. C"."o "~"3y

Precas t St ack Un i t s sma l l t o h i gh Mod . / Low sp l i t f ace 3-6° ba t t er for sp l i t Mode r a t e to

wa l l s for masonr y may f ace masonry , Long
ga rden t o be suscep t i b l e ver t i ca l f ace f or
h i ghway t o sa l t spr ay heavy precas t " T "
and ex t r eme t ype , l a t era l f abr i c
f r eeze / t haw requ i red f or wa l l s ,

Cr i bb i ng and B i ns h i gh Mod . / Low Per i od i c Typ i ca l l y se t a t 3-6° Mode r a t e to

ut i l i tar i an i nspec t i on and ba t t er w i t h f abr i c a t Long
wa l l s t op dress i ng base and ou t e r
de t e rm i ned by back f i l l edge , b i ns
i ma t er i a l may requ i re back
ti _ used dra i ns , wood on l y
for t empor a r y wa l l s
I
r

c r i bb i ng _~ bin

Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s (C) :

Grav i t y Low t o H i gh / Low Per i od i c gr ad i ng May requ i re back Long

mode r a t e a t t op o f wa l l dra i nage and
sepa ra t or f abr i c a t tA
wa l l s w i t h i f requ i red
h i gh f i n i sh back f i l l edge , r i g i d
a
requ i res keyed
expans i on j o i nts

an
n

Can t i l ever Mode r a t e t o H i gh / Low Per i od i c gr ad i ng Requ i res l arge Long

h i gh wa l l s a t t op o f wa l l excava t i on and
w i t h many and c l ean i ng f ormwor k w i t h s t ee l
f i n i sh op t i ons o f f ace re i nforc i ng ,
s i gn i f i cant back
dra i nage , and
expans i on j o i nts

T i me -Save r Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 41 O - 6

Tab l e 410 -2 . SO I L TYPES AND THE I R PROPERT I ES (Un i f i ed So i l C l ass i f i ca t i on) .

Symbo l s
Va l ue as a
Founda t i on F ros t
D i v i s i on Le t t e r Co l or So i l Desc r i p t i on Ma t e r i a l ' Ac t i on Dr a i nage

Gr ave l and GW Red We l l -gr aded grave l , or grave l -sand m i x ture , l i t t l e or no f i nes Exce l l en t None Exce l l en t
grave l l y so i l s
GP Red Poor l y gr aded grave l , or grave l -sand m i x tures , l i t t l e or no f i nes Good None Exce l l en t

GM Ye l l ow S i l ty grave l s , grave l -sand-s i l t m i x t ur es Good S l i ght Poor

GC Ye l l ow C l ayey-grave l s , grave l - c l ay-sand m i x t ures Good S l i ght Poor

Sand and sandy SW Red We l l -gr aded sands , or grave l l y sands , l i t t l e or no f i nes Good None Exce l l en t
so i l s
SP Red Poor l y gr aded sands , or grave l l y sands , l i t t l e or no f i nes Fa i r None Exce l l ent

SM Ye l l ow S i l ty sands , sand-s i l t m i x t ures Fa i r S l i ght Fa i r

SC Ye l l ow C l ayey sands , sand- c l ay m i x t ures Fa i r Med i um Poor

Si l ls and c l ays Lt Ml Gr een i norgan i c si l ts, rock f l our , s i l ty or c l ayey f i ne sands , or c l ayey Fa i r Ve ry h i gh Poor
<50 t si l ts w i t h s l i ght p l ast i c i ty
CL Gr een i norgan i c c l ays o f l aw to med i um p l ast i c i ty , grave l l y ( l ays , Fa i r Med i um I mpe rv i ou-
si l ty c l ays , l ean c l ays

OL Gr een Organ i c s i l t -c l ays o f l ow p l as t i c i t y Poor H i gh I mpe rv i ou

Si l ts and c l ays LL MH B l ue Inorgan i c si l ts, m i caceous or d i a t omaceous f i ne sandy or s i l ty Poor Ve ry h i gh Poor

>50 soi l s, e l ast i c si l ts
CH B l ue Inorgan i c c l ays o f h i gh p l ast i c i ty , fat c l ays Ve ry poor Med i um I mpe rv i ous

OH B l ue Organ i c c l ays o f med i um t o h i gh p l ast i c i ty , organ i c si l ts Ve ry poor Med i um I mpe r v i oo

H i gh l y organ i c Pt Or ange Pea t and o t he r h i gh l y organ i c so i l s No t su i t ab l e S l i ght Poor

so i l s

' Consu l t so i l eng i nee rs and l oca l bu i l d i ng codes for a l l owab l e so i l -bear i ng capac i t i es .
t LL i nd i ca t es l i qu i d l i mi t .
Sour ce : Doug l as S . Way , Ter ra i n Ana l ys i s : A Gu i de to Si te Se l ec t i on Us i ng Pho t ograph i c i nt erpre t a t i on , Doug l as S . Way , Co l umbus , Oh i o , 1972 .

b) . The v i sua l consequences o f us i ng a) . The stat i c and dynam i c l oad i ng Se l ec t i on cr i ter i a for each t ype a re
var i ous ma t er i a l s for the i n t ended requ i remen t s descr i bed in Tab l e 410-1 .
use .
b) . St ruc tura l ana l ys i s at the spec i f i c 2 .1 Re i n f or ced Embankmen t s
c) . Access requ i red for cons t ruc t i on s i te
Type " A " s t ruc tures i nc l ude re i nforced
d) . Leve l of ma i n t enance requ i red c) . Cons t ruc t i on t echn i ques and spec i - embankmen t s o f vege t a t i on , geot ex t i l e
f i ca t i ons . ma t t i ng , tur f gr ids , s tone , or concre t e sur -
3 . Se l ec t spec i f i c ma t er i a l s and des i gn
st ra t eg i es based on : f ac i ng . These st ruc tures are typ i ca l l y l ess
2 . 0 SELECT I ON CR I TER I A expens i ve to insta l l , requ i re grea t er s i te
a) . Int egra t i on of the proposed st ruc- RETA I N I NG STRUCTURES area , and annua l or per i od i c ma i n t enance
ture i nto the s i te and / or w i th o ther to ma i n t a i n the i r st ruc tura l i ntegr i ty . Idea l l y ,
S s i te s t ruc tures . The se l ec t i on of appropr i a t e e l d i n i ng the r i se to run rat io o f an eng i nee red
s t ruc tures is based on a numbe r of f ac tors , embankmen t shou l d no t exceed the na tur -
b) . S i te dra i nage and run-of f cont ro l
i nc l ud i ng proposed app l i ca t i on , des i red al ang l e of repose of ex i st i ng s i te soi ls, t yp-
c) . Prot ec t i on of ex i st i ng vege t a t i on ma t er i a l s , l ong- and shor t - t e rm costs , i ca l l y assumed to be 33° (degrees) . For
àA and accommoda t i ng proposed ma i n t enance requ i remen t s , and serv i ce prac t i ca l purposes , 1 :1 .5 is a use fu l max i -
n
p l ant i ngs l i fe . St ruc tura l t ypes can be broad l y ca t e- mum s l ope for masonry , s tone , or o t he r
n_ gor i zed as re i nforced embankmen t s , un i t paved embankmen t s . Vege t a t ed or ma t t ed
d) . Incorpora t i on of sa f e t y f ea tures and st ack wa l l sys t ems , or r ig id re t a i n i ng embankmen t s typ i ca l l y requ i re a 1 :2 max i -
such as ra i l ings , l i ghts , e t c . a s
e wa l l s . A l t hough each s t ruc ture t ype mum s l ope to accommoda t e mach i ne or
Ci e requ i red .
requ i res d i f f erent me t hods o f cons t ruc t i on , hand ma i n t enance . In a l l cases , the
4 . Ca l cu l a t e the appropr i a t e st ruc tura l al l are sub j ec t to the l aws of soi l mechan i cs embankmen t f ace mus t be prot ec t ed f rom
des i gn for t he purpose and ma t er i a l s and the pr i nc i p l es of stat i cs in de t e rm i n i ng ad j acent s t orm wa t e r run-of f t hrough the
se l ec t ed based on : the i r f ina l d i mens i ons and propor t i ons . use of check swa l es a t t he t op of the

T i me - Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Ar ch i t ec t ur e

 410 - 7

embankmen t . The embankmen t t oe or ca l l y f ound in coasta l , r i ver i ne , and g l ac i a l

3 . 0 ELEMENTS OF RETA I N I NG
base typ i ca l l y requ i res re i n forcemen t to l andscapes . The soi l s t rength is de t e rm i ned
STRUCTURES
accommoda t e the resu l t ant sur f ace ma t er i - by the i nterna l ang l e of f r i ct i on be t ween
al we i gh t . t he par t i c l es (Typ i ca l l y 33° ) . The so i l
3 .1 Subg rode
s t rength i ncreases w i th we i gh t to the po i n t
2 . 2 Un i t and S t ack Wa l l Sys t ems idea l l y, the f ounda t i on shou l d rest on a pre- of par t i c l e crush i ng . I ts bear i ng capac i t y is
pa red subgrade w i th suf f i c i ent bear i ng there fore de t e rm i ned by i ts granu l ar char -
Type " B" s t ruc tures are essent i a l l y f l ex i b l e capac i t y to suppor t t he es t i ma t ed pressures acter i st i cs and crush i ng thresho l d . Granu l ar
i nt er l ock i ng re t a i n i ng wa l l s tha t have a ver - so i l s are advan t ageous for cons t ruc t i on
o f the proposed re t a i n i ng s t ruc ture . A pre-
t i ca l f ace . They i nc l ude cr i bb i ng , precas t
pared granu l ar subbase shou l d be prov i ded purposes due to the i r h i gh permeab i l i t y ,
s t ack and t i e-back un i ts , gab i ons , dry- l a i d i f the subgrade requ i res l eve l i ng to ach i eve compac t ab i l i t y , and subsequen t l ow inc i -
s tone , and t i mber wa l l s . These s t ruc tures un i form i t y. A prepared granu l ar subbase for dence of heav i ng due to mo i s ture i nfus i on ,
are typ i ca l l y mode r a t e in bo t h cos t and dra i nage is no t essent i a l in r ig id cons t ruc - or f ros t / thaw ac t i on . The presence of c l ays
ma i n t enance . The advan t age of th i s t ype of
t i on i f back dra i nage is prov i ded , bu t i t is or si l ts in granu l ar soi l s t end to nega t e these
f l ex i b l e cons t ruc t i on is tha t i t wi l l to l era t e a essent i a l for f l ex i b l e cons t ruc t i on to mi n i - l at ter charac t er i st i cs . Cer t a i n g l ac i a l out -
cer ta i n amoun t of d i f ferent i a l se t t l ement
m i ze f reeze / thaw ac t i on . wash depos i t s , such as " bank run grave l , "
w i thou t be i ng s i gn i f i cant l y a f f ec t ed . The
are va l ued because of the i r charac ter i st i ca l -
base , or foot i ng , need not ex t end be l ow Proper t i es o f So i l s: ly l ow si l t cont ent , and the i r "na tura l gra-
the f rost l ine in t empe ra t e c l i ma t es i f the
Tab l e 410-2 shows the Un i f i ed Sys t em of da t i ons " f rom sand to s tone .
prepared subgrade has suf f i c i ent poros i t y
and bear i ng capac i t y . Typ i ca l l y , a se t t i ng So i l Cl ass i f i ca t i on and the proper t i es of Co l l o i da l (Si l ts and C l ays) : C l ays are
bed o f sand or granu l ar ma t er i a l is used to each soi l t ype re l evant to the des i gn of st ruc tura l l y d i f f erent f rom granu l ar soi ls,
re t a i n i ng s t ruc tures . Mor e de t a i l ed i nfor - and depend on a cons t ant mo i s ture con t en t
i mprove dra i nage and to prov i de a l eve l
ma t i on can typ i ca l l y be ob t a i ned in the for s t rength and stab i l i ty. The c l ay par t i c l es
subbase . In ex t reme co l d or expans i ve c l ay
se t t i ngs , a ful l dep t h foo t i ng may be Un i t ed St a t es f rom f edera l , state , or loca l are m i croscop i c in s i ze [0 . 001-0 . 005 mm
requ i red . gove rnmen t soi l and geo l ogy maps . (4x1 0-5 -2x10 -° in) ] , and are i on i ca l l y bond-
Spec i f i c da t a for any s i te shou l d be ed by hydroscop i c wa t e r . The bear i ng
W i t h the excep t i on of dry- l a i d s tone or ob t a i ned t hrough f i e ld t est i ng (Re f er to capac i t y of c l ays i ncreases w i th the add i t i on
t i mbe r wa l l s , un i t or s t ack sys t ems can Sec t i on 810 : So i l s and Aggrega t es for mor e of mo i s ture , up to i ts p l ast i c l imi t and
a t t a i n he i ght s exceed i ng 3 000 mm (10 f t ) de t a i l ed i nforma t i on) . So i l s can be c l ass i f i ed l i qu i f i cat i on po i nt . Un l i ke granu l ar soi ls,
and have a mode r a t e to l ong serv i ce l i fe . i nto t wo broad ca t egor i es : res i st ance to l oad i ng does not i ncrease w i t h
T i mbe r cons t ruc t i on shou l d be used as a
Granu l a r (Sands and Grave l s) : These the we i gh t of t he l oad because i ts bear i ng
shor t - t erm ma t er i a l for l ow wa l l s on l y ,
capac i t y is based on chem i ca l bond i ng and
espec i a l l y in co l d , t empera t e , and hum i d soi l s range f rom f i ne si l ty sands [0 .05 mm
(0 . 002 in) ] to l arge na tura l l y graded out - not on mechan i ca l f r i ct i on . C l ays are di f f i -
reg i ons . In mos t cases , these s t ruc tures are
wash depos i t s [50-100 mm (2-4 in) ] , typ i - cu l t to wor k w i th because of swe l l i ng and
cons t ruc t ed to " l ean " i nto the s l ope 6° or
shr i nkage due to mo i s ture f l uc tua t i ons .
mor e to ensure stab i l i ty . S i nce the f ace
ma t er i a l is coarse , v i nes and groundcove rs
are o f t en app l i ed to prov i de a mor e appea l -
i ng f in i sh in areas ad j acent to pedes t r i an
c i rcu l a t i on . Re t a i n i ng st ruc ture des i gn beg i ns w i th a s i te ana l ys i s to de t erm i ne c l ear purposes of
grade change requ i rement s , the mos t appropr i a t e re t a i n i ng st ra t egy for the s i te and
2 . 3 R i g i d Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s shor t , as we l l as l ong t erm budge t const ra i nts .

Type " C" s t ruc tures i nc l ude concre t e and 1 . The three bas i c re ta i n i ng st ruc ture ca t egor i es are : re i nforced embankmen t s , un i t and
masonr y Grav i t y wa l l s and re i nforced con- st ack wa l l sys t ems , and r igid re t a i n i ng wa l l s . Embankmen t s are l east cost l y, but
cre t e Cant i l evered wa l l s . These st ruc tures requ i re the mos t space and ma i n t enance . R i g i d re t a i n i ng wa l l s are mos t cost l y, but
are by far the mos t cost l y re t a i n i ng st ra te- prov i de a l ong serv i ce l i fe (Re f er to Tab l e 410-1 for comp l e t e summa ry ) .
gy , but have t he l onges t l i fe expec t ancy ,
and requ i re m i n i ma l ma i n t enance to pro- 2 . W i t h the except i on of wood wa l l s and dry- l a i d stone , mos t wa l l sys t ems may
t ec t the i r st ruc tura l i ntegr i ty . R i g i d con- ach i eve a he i ght of 6 000 mm (18-20 f t ) w i th proper eng i neer i ng [a l though th i s sec-
s t ruc t i on is used whe r e any movemen t of t i on addresses wa l l s on l y up to 3 000 mm (10 f t ) in he i ght ] . S
t he s t ruc ture canno t be to l era t ed or when
aes the t i c cons i dera t i ons requ i re i t . Al l r igid 3 . Paved embankmen t s shou l d not exceed a 1 :1 .5 s l ope for l ong- t erm stabi l i ty .
wa l l s requ i re a foot i ng to accoun t for loca l Re i nforced tur f embankmen t s shou l d not exceed a 1 :2 s l ope i f mow i ng is requ i red .
A l t hough l ess expens i ve to const ruc t , these embankmen t s requ i re grea t er ma i nt e -
f rost depths , seasona l soi l swe l l i ng and
nance . n
o ther f ac tors a f f ec t i ng subgrade move -
men t . Grav i t y wa l l s are typ i ca l l y cons t ruc t - 4 . F l ex i b l e wa l l st ruc ture bases need not ex t end be l ow f rost l ine, but may requ i re a pre-
r n_
ed of mor t a red s tone or of so l i d concre t e , .a
' pared aggrega t e base course for dra i nage and l eve l i ng .
wh i l e cant i l evered wa l l s are cons t ruc t ed of
re i nforced masonry or concre t e a t t ached to 5 . R i g i d wa l l st ruc tures requ i re foot i ngs be l ow loca l f rost dep ths and are typ i ca l l y
a con t i nuous re i nforced concre t e spread p l aced d i rect l y on prepared subgrade .
foot i ng . 0

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 410- 8
Des i gn st ra t eg i es typ i ca l l y focus on stabi l i z-
i ng mo i s ture con t en t . Th i s usua l l y i nvo l ves
heavy -du t y gr aded aggrega t e sub-bases
and backf i l l s , wh i ch are dra i ned by per fo-
ra t ed p i pe and o t he r me t hods of
de -wa t e r i ng .

So i l Tes t i ng.

Three me t hods common l y used in f i e ld

t est i ng soi l s are :

1 . Prob i ng w i th a stee l bar dr i ven by a

hamme r to de t e rm i ne the charac t er of
the soi l and the dep t h to bedrock or
o ther unde rground s t ruc ture .
2 . D i gg i ng test p i ts e i ther by hand or
mechan i ca l l y to revea l the na ture of
the soi l and he i ght of the wa t e r t ab l e .

3 . Bor i ng by hand or w i th a powe r ed r ig

to obt a i n samp l es of t he soi l . Bor i ngs
made by powe r ed r igs wi l l prov i de
F i gur e 410 - 7 . Ave r age dep t h o f f ros t pene t r a t i on i n t he Un i t ed St a t es ( i nches) . so l i d cores , essent i a l for de t erm i n i ng
the requ i remen t s of deep f ounda -
t i ons . Norma l l y , these are dr i ven to a
po i nt whe r e they wi l l go no f ar ther
( i . e ., to a po i nt of refusa l ) , mean i ng
tha t t hey have h i t bedrock or a hard-
packed l ayer of ear th .

Soi l tests for re t a i n i ng s t ruc tures shou l d

be made to a dep t h of a t l east 1 200 mm (4
f t ) be l ow t he proposed f i n i sh grade at the
bo t t om of the s t ruc ture . The core bor i ng
me t hod of t est i ng is used when the dep t hs
are ove r 4 500 mm (15 f t ) . Necessary l abo-
ra tory ana l ys i s shou l d be made of t he sam-
p l es to de t e rm i ne the t ypes and charac t er -
ist i cs o f each samp l e .

3 . 2 Founda t i ons

The f ounda t i on for any re t a i n i ng s t ruc ture

is of cr i t i ca l i mpor t ance , p l ay i ng a ma j or
ro l e in the stab i l i ty of the s t ruc ture . F i gure
410-7 shows t he ave rage dep t h of f rost
pene t ra t i on in the Un i t ed St a t es . Foun-
da t i ons for r ig id re t a i n i ng s t ruc tures shou l d
be se t so tha t t he base rests be l ow the f rost
l ine, w i th t op of foo t i ng typ i ca l l y be i ng se t
a t the f rost l ine . F l ex i b l e re t a i n i ng s t ruc ture
f ounda t i ons need no t be se t be l ow the f rost
l ine i f they are bu i l t on a we l l -dra i ned sub-
base w i th su i t ab l e bear i ng capac i t i es . Al l
f ounda t i ons shou l d be above the wa t e r
dA
t ab l e . A st ruc tura l eng i neer shou l d be con-
n
su l t ed to de t e rm i ne wha t t ype of f ounda -
t i on is mos t appropr i a t e . Consu l t loca l
. cC3 bu i l d i ng codes for m i n i mum requ i remen t s
for f ounda t i ons and foot i ngs whe r e app l i c-
ab l e .

1 F i gur e 410 - 8 . Dr a i nage de t a i l a t t oe o f s l ope .

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 4110 - 9

3 . 3 Dr a i nage Dev i ces

The l ean i ng , bu l g i ng , or m i sa l i gnmen t of

re t a i n i ng st ruc tures may be the resu l t of
i mprope r wa l l th i ckness , bu t is o f t en caused
by the bu i l dup of wa t e r pressure beh i nd the
s t ruc ture and / or by f reeze / t haw ac t i on in
co l d c l i ma t es . Th i s hydros t a t i c wa t e r pres-
sure can cause prob l ems when sur f ace
runof f ge t s beh i nd t he re t a i n i ng s t ruc ture
v i a the top or toe o f the wa l l , or when
groundwa t e r seeps t hrough t he soi l beh i nd
or unde r the s t ruc ture .

Sur f ace runof f shou l d be d i rec t ed away

f rom both the t op and base of the wa l l . I t
shou l d a l so be b l ocked f rom pene t ra t i ng
down t hrough the soi l e i ther by i nsta l l i ng a
c l ay sea l unde r the sod or , whe r e heavy
concent ra t i ons o f runof f ex i st , by con-
s t ruc t i ng an i mperv i ous gut t er or dra i nage
F i gur e 410 -9 . Typ i ca l r e i n f or ced embankmen t w i t h sp l i t - f aced s t one . channe l beh i nd the t op o f the wa l l (F i gure
410-8) . Wa t e r f i l ter i ng down t hrough the
soi l can be i nt ercept ed and t aken away
f rom the s t ruc ture by the use of granu l ar
back f i l l s connec t ed to weep ho l es t hrough
the f ace of the s t ruc ture or , i f poss i b l e , by
per fora t ed dra i n p i pe connec t ed t o out l e ts
d i rec t ed away f rom the s t ruc ture . C l ay t i le,
porous concre t e , or per fora t ed pl ast i c , are
typ i ca l l y used for th i s purpose . A l i gnmen t
of such dev i ces shou l d avo i d l ow po i nt s
whe r e wa t e r cou l d be t rapped beh i nd the
s t ruc ture .

3 . 4 Ba t t e r i n Wa l l Faces

Many t ypes of wa l l s have f aces tha t s l ope

s l i ght l y of f -ver t i ca l by var i ous amoun t s .
Such des i gned s l opes are ca l l ed ba t ters .
Bo t h the back and / or t he exposed f ace of a
re t a i n i ng wa l l can be ba t t ered . The f ace of
the wa l l is some t i mes ba t t ered when wa l l s
are very h i gh t o he l p ove r come the opt i ca l
i l lus ion of t he wa l l l ean i ng f orwa rd . A ba t -
F i gur e 410 - 10 . Typ i ca l dry- l a i d s t one grav i t y wa l l t er may obscure de f i c i enc i es in the f i n i sh i ng
of the wa l l ' s f ace , m i nor bu l ges and o ther
movemen t s for f l ex i b l e wa l l s . A l so , a ba t t er
can i ncrease the wa l l ' s stab i l i ty and res i s-
t ance to over turn i ng .
1 . Soi l bear i ng capac i ty de t erm i nes w i d th of foot i ng and me t hod of wa l l const ruc t i on . A typ i ca l ba t t er for wa l l s of f l ex i b l e con-
st ruc t i on is 6 :1, bu t o ther rat i os are of t en
2 . Cas t concre t e r igid wa l l foot i ngs are typ i ca l l y p l aced d i rect l y onto prepared subgrade
used . Cr i bb i ng , gab i ons , and masonry un i t
to ach i eve grea t est stabi l i ty and bear i ng un i formi ty , wh i l e f l ex ib l e s tone wa l l s typ i ca l -
f l ex i b l e wa l l s o f t en requ i re a ba t t er of 6
ly requ i re an aggrega t e base for dra i nage and l eve l i ng .
degrees . For r ig id wa l l s , par t i cu l ar l y t hose
bA
3 . Top of wa l l shou l d s l ope (Typ i ca l l y 2 . 0%) to dra i n to the re ta i ned s ide to prevent w i th re l at i ve l y smoo t h f aces , a ba t t er of n
r
sta i n i ng of wa l l f ace . 12 :1 is r ecommended . A ba t t er is se l dom n
used when a wa l l appea rs to be an ex t en-
4 . Remov i ng inf i l t rated wa t er f rom beh i nd the wa l l st ruc ture is a pr i me ob j ect i ve , espe- s i on of a bu i l d i ng .
c i a l l y in c l ay soi l s and f reeze / thaw cond i t i ons . Weep ho l es and per fora t ed foot i ng Cie
dra i ns are typ i ca l me t hods emp l oyed . 3 . 5 Face Tr ea t men t
Some ma t er i a l s used in re t a i n i ng st ruc tures ,
5 . Sma l l wa l l s and those wh i ch are ext ens i ons of arch i t ec ture are typ i ca l l y bu i l t w i thout such as cas t concre t e or masonr y cons t ruc - 1
a ba t t er . Larger wa l l s common l y have a 12 :1 ba t t er for v i sua l reasons .
i t i on , perm i t a var i e ty o f sur f ace t rea tmen t s .

T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 410 - 1 0

Cr i b , b i n , and gab i on t ypes of re t a i n i ng

st ruc tures are mor e l i mi ted in the i r var i e ty
of sur f ace t rea tmen t s . (Re f er t o D i v i s i on
800 : Ma t er i a l s for i n forma t i on on var i ous
t ypes of f i n i shes .)

3 . 6 Expans i on and Cons t ruc t i on

Jo i n t s

The p l acemen t and spac i ng of expans i on

and cons t ruc t i on j o i nts shou l d be cons i d-
ered as par t o f the overa l l des i gn of the sur -
f ace t rea t men t of re t a i n i ng wa l l s . For r ig id
wa l l cons t ruc t i on , these j o i nts shou l d nor -
ma l l y be p l aced no f ar ther t han 9 000 mm
(30 f t ) apar t .

4 . 0 TYPES OF RETA I N I NG
STRUCTURES

4 .1 Re i n f or ced Embankmen t

Re i n f orced embankmen t s regard l ess o f F i gur e 410 -11 . Gab i on re t a i n i ng wa l l . Face may be ba t t ered or s t epped. Re f er tc
the i r degree of s l ope or ma t er i a l mus t be manu f ac turer ' s l i tera ture for spec i a l de t a i l s.
prot ec t ed f rom shee t f l ow runof f , typ i ca l l y
by check swa l es or bench t er rac i ng , and
f rom cap i l l ary inf i l t rat ion a t the s l ope base
by means of aggrega t e or p i pe dra i nage .
Vege t a t ed s l opes requ i re na tura l mo i s ture
or i r r i ga t i on to ma i nt a i n st ruc tura l i ntegr i ty .
St one or concre t e f aced embankmen t s t yp-
i ca l l y requ i re an aggrega t e subbase and
ex t ra re i nforc i ng a t s l ope base for stab i l i ty
and sus t a i ned pe r f ormance . F i gure 410-9
i l lust rates a typ i ca l re i nforced embankmen t .

4 . 2 Un i t and S t ack Wa l l Sys t ems

Dry -La i d S t one Wa l l :

Dry l a id s tone wa l l s (w i thout mor t ar ) , are

use fu l in many s i tua t i ons whe r e the
re t a i ned he i ght s are l ow [ l ess t han 3 000
mm (10 f t ) ] , t he s tone is ava i l ab l e on or
near the si te, and the economy of such
cons t ruc t i on is des i red . F i gure 410-10 i l lus-
t ra t es a typ i ca l s tone grav i ty wa l l . A s tone
d i ke cons t ruc t ed s i mp l y by dump i ng is an
i nexpens i ve a l t erna t i ve to a l a i d-up dry F i gur e 410 -12 . Pr ecas t conc r e t e mason r y un i t re t a i n i ng wa l l . Re f e r to manu -
s tone wa l l for f i l l s i tua t i ons . The t op w i d t h f ac turer ' s l i tera ture for spec i a l de t a i l s.
of these wa l l s is rare l y sma l l er t han 450 mm
(18 in) and usua l l y var i es be t ween 450-600 (3 f t ) ce l l s . Af t er be i ng f i l l ed w i th s tone , the st ruc ture ' s appea rance in t he l andscape
S l id is c l osed and l aced to the t op edges o f wh i l e a l so add i ng durab i l i ty . Recen t exper i -
mm (18-24 in) .
the gab i on . Each gab i on is t hen l aced to the men t s have success fu l l y hydro- seeded
Gab i on Wa l l : ad j acent gab i ons . A gab i on wa l l w i th a ba t - gab i ons l i ned w i th separa tor fabr i c and
t ered f ace is shown in F i gure 410-11 . A f i l l ed w i t h an amended soi l m i x , resu l t i ng in
Gab i ons are rec t angu l ar baske t s made of s t epped des i gn may a l so be used . a s t aggered green wa l l . Th i s app l i ca t i on
.n ga l van i zed stee l w i re or po l yv i ny l -coa t ed requ i res a we l l dra i ned subso i l and suf f i -
n (PVC) w i re hexagona l mesh , f i l l ed w i th F l ex i b l e gab i on wa l l s can adap t to
c i ent ra infa l l and is su i t ab l e for t empe ra t e
s tone and t i ed toge ther t o f orm a wa l l . The ground se t t l emen t . The i r permeab i l i t y
c l i ma t es .
baske t s are manu f ac t ured in s t andard s i zes a l l ows wa t e r to dra i n , mak i ng gab i ons
espec i a l l y su i t ab l e a l ong s t ream and r i ver
t ic usua l l y 900 mm (3 f t ) w i de in l engths o f
1 800 , 2 700 , and 3 700 mm (6, 9, and 12 banks whe r e var i a t i ons in wa t e r dep t hs
Precas t Un i t St ack Wa l l :

f t ) and he i ght s of 300 , 450 , and 900 mm occur be t ween f l ood and dry wea t he r con- Modu l a r sys t ems for grav i t y wa l l s us i ng
d i t i ons . Vo l un t ee r vege t a t i on es t ab l i shes pre-cas t concre t e un i ts w i th var i ous f ace
(1, 1' / z , and 3 f t ) . Each gab i on has a l id and
is subd i v i ded by d i aphr agms i nto 900 mm i tse l f qu i ck l y in gab i ons , so f t en i ng t he t rea tmen t s may be bu i l t to a he i gh t of

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 410 - 1 1
po l yme r st r ips bo l t ed to the f ac i ng pane l s
(F i gure 410-13) . Th i s t ype o f s t ruc ture uses
the cons t ruc t i on pr i nc i p l e of shee t i ng w i th
t i ebacks to deadmen , excep t tha t mu l t i p l e
st r ips ( i . e ., t i ebacks) re l y on f r i ct i on for
anchorage i ns t ead of deadmen . The st r ips,
usua l l y ga l van i zed stee l , absorb the tens i l e
st resses w i th i n the backf i l l t hrough f r i ct ion
w i th the soi l and thereby ho l d the soi l
toge ther in an i ntegra l grav i t y mass . The
f ac i ng pane l s are no t st ruc tura l membe r s ;
they can be cas t in any k i nd of i nt er l ock i ng
geome t r i c des i gn or f in i sh . Typ i ca l t i eback
dep t h to he i gh t rat io is 0 . 75-0 . 80H .

Ear th t i eback cons t ruc t i on beg i ns w i t h

the cas t i ng o f an unre i n forced concre t e l ev-
e l i ng pad to suppor t and a l i gn t he f i rst l ayer
of f ac i ng pane l s (F i gure 410-13) . The l eve l -
i ng pad is cas t on the prepared s i te a t a
dep t h be l ow f i n i shed grade , depend i ng on
F i gur e 410 -13 . Ea r t h t i eback re t a i n i ng wa l l . Re f er to manu f ac turer ' s l i tera ture for the soi l cond i t i ons and wa l l he i ght . The f i rst
spec i a l de ta i l s . row of f ac i ng pane l s is se t and pos i t i oned
on t he l eve l i ng pad , fo l l owed by the f i rst
back f i l l l i f t of cohes i on l ess soi l ( i . e ., si l t ,
sand , broken s tone , e t c .), wh i ch is spread
and compac t ed . The f i rst l ayer of re i nforc-
i ng st r i ps is p l aced on t he back f i l l and bo l t -
ed to t he f ac i ng pane l s . Backf i l l is spread
ove r t he des i gn and compac t ed . The
process is repea t ed unt i l t he f i n i shed wa l l
he i ght is reached .
Ear th t i eback cons t ruc t i on is par t i cu l ar l y
su i t ab l e for s i tua t i ons whe r e f i l l is requ i red
or can be p l aced . I ts f l ex i b l e compos i t i on
can w i ths t and d i f ferent i a l se t t l ement on
poor f ounda t i on so i l s . To ensure the
s t rength and stab i l i ty of t he wa l l , the back -
f i l l mus t be pro t ec t ed f rom eros i on .
Po l yes t er f oam i nser t ed i nto pane l j o i nts or
f i l ter c l oth p l aced beh i nd the j o i nts a l l ows
dra i nage to occur but keeps the soi l l ines
f rom wash i ng ou t .

B i n Wa l l :

Bi n wa l l s (a l so known as ce l l u l ar wa l l s) are
cons t ruc t ed o f precas t re i nforced concre t e
i nt er l ock i ng modu l a r un i ts wh i ch are
s t acked and t hen f i l l ed w i th granu l ar f i l l
(F i gure 410-14) . A f l ex i b l e f orm of grav i ty 0
wa l l , the b i n wa l l depends on i ts mass for
stab i l i ty. The modu l es can be manu f ac t ured
F i gur e 410 - 14 . B i n wa l l . Top maybe capped . Re f er to manu f ac turer ' s l i tera ture for w i th a var i e ty of concre t e f i n i shes (e .g .,
cnpr i a l r ipta i l c smoo t h , exposed aggrega t e , bush-ham- to
me red , or st r i a ted) .

6 000 mm (20 f t ) max i mum w i th the add i - Ear th T i eback Re t a i n i ng Wa l l : F i gure 410-14 shows a typ i ca l sec t i on
.n_
t i on o f success i ve f abr i c t i e-back l ayers as ra
An ear th t i eback re t a i n i ng wa l l is s i mi l ar in us i ng 600x1200x1200mm ( 2x4x4
shown in F i gure 410-12 . A numbe r of pro- f t ) un i ts w i th ear th f i l l p l aced to the f ront of e
concep t to a precas t s t ack un i t wa l l , bu t i t
pr i e t ary produc t s are ava i l ab l e . Such modu - the b i n wa l l . A con t i nuous concre t e st r ip
typ i ca l l y used when l arger wa l l s are need-
l ar sys t ems are eas i l y adap t ab l e to curves foot i ng a l ong the f ront serves to a l i gn the
and serpent i ne a l i gnmen t s .
ed . I t cons i sts of i nt er l ock i ng concre t e f ac-
modu l a r un i ts , and a l eve l i ng beam a t the 0
i ng pane l s and prepared cohes i on l ess soi l
backf i l l re i nforced w i t h th i n me t a l l i c or back is used to se t the ba t t er . Wh i l e a ba t -
 410 - 1 2

F i gur e 410 - 15 . Conc r e t e cr i b wa l l . Re f er to manuf ac turer ' s F i gur e 410 - 16 . Typ i ca l t i mbe r cr i b wa l l .
l i terature for spec i a l deta i l s.

àA
n
. n_

F i gur e 410 - 17 . Typ i ca l hor i zon t a l t i mbe r wa l l . F i gur e 410 - 18 . Typ i ca l ver t i ca l t i mbe r wa l l .

T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 410 - 1 3
Hor i zon t a l and Ver t i ca l T i mbe r Wa l l .
Tab l e 410 - 3 . TOP W I DTH OF R I G I D GRAV I TY WALLS
Typ i ca l sec t i ons for hor i zont a l and ver t i ca l
t i mber wa l l s su i t ab l e for re t a i ned he i ght s up
Wa l l He i gh t mm ( f t ) M i n . Top W i d t h mm ( i n)
to 900 mm (3 f t) are shown in F i gures 410-
unde r 1 800 (6 f t ) 300 (12 in)
17 and 410-18 . S i nce the t i mber wa l l ' s
1 800-3 000 (6-10 f t ) 450 (18 in)
res i st ance to over turn i ng depends upon
ove r 3 000 (10 f t ) 600 (24 in)
one -ha l f of i ts he i ght be i ng be l ow f i n i shed
grade , i t is of t en no t econom i ca l or pract i -
ca l to use th i s t i mber des i gn for re t a i ned
Tab l e 410 -5 . TYP I CAL RAT I O OF BASE W I DTH TO HE I GHT I N he i ght s grea t er t han 900 mm Q f t ) . The
CANT I LEVERED WALLS ( AVERAGE SO I LS) t i mber un i ts in the hor i zont a l wa l l can be of
var i ab l e l ength bu t shou l d be a t l east 1 500
Hor i zont a l Load i ng 0 45 H mm (5 f t) l ong . Low t i mber wa l l s are espe -
S l ope Surcharge Load i ng 0 , 65 H c i a l l y use fu l for ra i sed p l ant i ng beds and
L i ve Load Surcharge 0 .65 H boxes .

A t i mber wa l l of pos t s and p l ank i ng is

i l l ust rated in F i gure 410-19 . Bes i des d i f fer -
Tab l e 410 - 4. RECOMMENDED BASE W I DTH TO HE I GHT RAT I OS FOR i ng in appea rance f rom the heavy t i mbe r
R I G I D GRAV I TY WALLS wa l l s shown in F i gures 410-17 and 410-18 ,
the p l ank i ng in th i s des i gn prov i des some
So i l Type Ra t i o App l i ca t i on economy in ma t er i a l s . T i mbe r wa l l s are not
We l l dra i ned grave l 0 . 35-0 . 40 H L i ght Du t y
genera l l y r ecommended and shou l d be
We t sand 0 . 58-0 . 60 H Med i um Du t y
Wa t e r bear i ng soi l 0 .65 H con f i ned to sma l l sca l e res i dent i a l se t t i ngs .
Heavy Du t y
F lu id mud 0 .75 H Heavy Du t y G r een Re t a i n i ng Wa l l :

t er o f 6 :1 is i nd i ca t ed in the f i gures , the b in shows a sec t i on us i ng a concre t e un i t 1 200 Techn i ques have been deve l oped in
wa l l cou l d be bu i l t w i th e i ther mor e ba t t er mm (4 f t ) l ong ( the sma l l es t un i t typ i ca l l y recent years tha t comb i ne vege t a t i on and
or w i th a ver t i ca l f ace . ava i l ab l e) . Re i n forced pro j ec t i ng l ugs on s t ruc tura l e l emen t s in re t a i n i ng s l oped
t he heade rs are typ i ca l l y used to l ock the embankmen t s and accommoda t i ng chan-
B i n wa l l s are espec i a l l y su i t ab l e for ges in e l eva t i on . A common sys t em tha t
heade rs and st re t chers toge ther .
pro j ec t s of heavy cons t ruc t i on whe r e spe- uses precas t concre t e un i ts inter f i l l ed w i t h
c i a l equ i pmen t , such as a crane , can be Manu f ac t ur ed s t andard concre t e un i ts soi l is i l l ust rated in F i gure 410-20 . Des i gned
used to l i f t the un i ts i nto p l ace . They are are des i gned for bo t h open- f ace cr i bb i ng as t roughs to ho l d soi l and mo i s ture suf f i -
a l so su i t ab l e whe r e l arge sca l e or mass i ve - and c l osed- f ace cr i bb i ng . F i gure 410-15
c i ent l y for p l ant growth , the concre t e un i ts
ness in t he des i gn express i on is des i red , shows open- f ace cr i bb i ng . Back f i l l i ng are se t in a s t aggered a r rangemen t , each
such as at t he edge of a ver t i ca l cut or toe shou l d fo l l ow c l ose l y t he erec t i on o f un i ts , course rest i ng on the un i ts benea t h and
of a s l ope tha t r i ses for a cons i derab l e d i s- and the cr i bb i ng shou l d not be l a id up f i l l ed w i th soi l . The un i ts can be l a id a t
t ance . A b i n wa l l is use fu l a t the edge of a h i gher than 900 mm (3 f t ) above the back - ang l es of i nc l i na t i on be t ween 70 and 25
f i l l , whe r e there is not suf f i c i ent space for f i l l ed por t i on . degrees . Int er l ock i ng masonry un i ts are
the s l ope to mee t an ex i s t i ng grade . ava i l ab l e in many conf i gura t i ons .
Me t a l un i ts made of ga l van i zed stee l are
S i nce wa t e r can f i l ter t hrough the s tone a l so ava i l ab l e for cr ib wa l l s . We i gh i ng l ess Th i s t ype of f l ex i b l e cons t ruc t i on reca l l s
f i l l and j o i nts of the s t acked un i ts , weep t han precas t re i nforced concre t e un i ts , they
the l ay i ng up of s tones in the t rad i t i ona l
ho l es are no t necessary in a b i n wa l l . are eas i er to hand l e dur i ng cons t ruc t i on . rock ga rden . I t is eas i l y f i t ted to i r regu l ar
Howeve r , to avo i d st a i n i ng or a bu i l dup of s l opes and accommoda t es a s i gn i f i cant
In l ess s t ab l e soi ls, a concre t e foot i ng
groundwa t e r , an underdra i n shou l d be amoun t of se t t l emen t . The i nterst i ces in t he
st r ip is used to l eve l the ini t ia l cr i bb i ng
i nsta l l ed in the granu l ar f i l l at the back of f ace can be p l ant ed or be a l l owed to vege -
course and to spread the wa l l l oad ove r a
the b i n wa l l . In l ess s t ab l e soi l s, a concre t e ta te na tura l l y. As w i th any f l ex i b l e wa l l con-
foot i ng st r ip is used to l eve l t he ini t ia l broade r subgr ade area , e f f ec t i ve l y i ncreas-
i ng the base w i d th . st ruc t i on , ana l ys i s for s l id ing, bu l g i ng , and
course and to spread the wa l l l oad ove r a rupture shou l d be made . Th i s sys t em is
broader subgrade area , e f f ec t i ve l y i ncreas- T i mbe r Cr i b Wa l l : Cr i b wa l l s may be i dea l in c l i ma t es w i th suf f i c i ent ra infa l l t o
i ng the base w i d t h . bu i l t of t i mber when the appea rance of na tura l l y suppor t the vege t a t i on .
wood is des i red in the l andscape des i gn
Cr i b Wa l l : bA
(F i gure 410-16) . Al l t i mber un i ts shou l d be 4 . 3 R i g i d Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s
n
Conc re t e Cr i b Wa l l : A concre t e cr i b wa l l is pressure- t rea t ed w i th a su i t ab l e preserva -
cons t ruc t ed o f precas t re i nforced concre t e t i ve . T i mbe r cr ib wa l l s are no t r ecommend - Gr av i t y Wa l l : . C_
un i ts l a id up in i nt er l ock i ng st re t chers and ed for we t , damp , or co l d c l i ma t es and are Grav i t y wa l l s depend upon the i r mass ( i . e .,
headers to f orm ver t i ca l b i ns , f i l l ed w i th bes t used in rust i c hot -ar i d se t t i ngs to pre-
we i gh t and vo l ume ) for stab i l i ty . The rat io
c rushed s tone or o ther granu l ar ma t er i a l . ven t the prema t ure l each i ng of the preser - o f t he base w i d t h to he i gh t is approx i ma t e -
They are a par t i cu l ar l y ut i l i tar i an so l ut i on va t i ve . ly cons t ant , vary i ng f rom abou t 0 . 40 to
for re t a i n i ng f i l ls in s i tua t i ons whe r e exca - 0 . 45 for a hor i zont a l l y l oaded wa l l , regard-
va t i on is not necessary . F i gure 410-15 l ess of the i r s i ze in mos t we l l dra i ned cond i - r

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 410 - 1 4

F i gure 410-19 . Typ i ca l t i mbe r wa l l w i t h p l ank i ng .

.n
n

F i gure 410-20 . Gr een re t a i n i ng wa l l (vege t a t ed) . Re f er to manuf ac turer ' s l i terature for spec i a l deta i l s.
1
qi t
T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 410 - 1 5

F i gur e 410 -21 . Typ i ca l conc r e t e or s t one mason r y grav i t y F i gur e 410 - 22 . Re i n f or ced conc r e t e can t i l eve r ed wa l l . D
wa l l . Use expans i on j o i n t s spaced 30 m (90 f t ) apa r t max i mum. = H / 3 , or 600 mm (2 f t ) , or dep t h o f f rost , wh i cheve r i s grea t es t .
Do no t use on so i l s hav i ng an a l l owab l e bea r i ng pr essur e l ess t han Use No. 4 r e i n f or cemen t ba rs f or H l ess t han 1 800 m (6 f t ) . Use
0. 575 mPa (1 . 5 tons l f t z ) . expans i on j o i nt s spaced 30 m (90 f t ) apa r t max i mum. Do no t use
on so i l s hav i ng an a l l owab l e bea r i ng pr essur e l ess t han 0. 575 mPa

F i gur e 410 - 23 . Re i n f or ced mason r y and conc r e t e can- F i gur e 410 - 24 . Re i n f or ced conc r e t e b l ock can t i l eve r ed wa l l .
t i l eve red wa l l . D = H / 3 , or 600 mm (2 f t ) , or dep t h o f f rost , D = H / 3 , or 600 mm (2 f t ) , or dep t h o f f rost , wh i cheve r i s grea t es t .
wh i cheve r i s grea t es t . Use No . 4 r e i n f or cemen t ba rs f or H l ess Use No. 4 r e i n f or cemen t ba rs f or H l ess t han 1 800 m (6 f t ) . Use
t han 1 800 m (6 f t ). Use expans i on j o i n t s spaced 30 m (90 f t ) expans i on j o i n t s spaced 30 m (90 f t ) apa r t max i mum. Do no t use on
apa r t max i mum. Do no t use on so i l s hav i ng an a l l owab l e bea r - so i l s hav i ng an a l l owab l e bea r i ng pr essur e l ess t han 0 . 575 mPa (1 . 5
i ng pr essur e l ess t han 0. 575 mPa (1 . 5 tons l f t z ) . tons l f t z ) .

T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 410 - 1 6
t i ons . The ac t ua l base w i d t h t o he i gh t ra t i o The ver t i ca l r e i n f or cemen t ba rs mus t be Re i n f or ced Conc r e t e B l ock Can t i l eve r ed
shou l d be de t e rm i ned by so i l t ype and p l aced w i t h i n abou t 15 mm ( ' / 2 i n) o f t he Wa l l : A conc r e t e b l ock re t a i n i ng wa l l us i ng
mo i s t ur e con t en t as shown in Tab l e 410-2 , br i ck on t he t ens i on s i de (i .e . , t he re t a i ned a can t i l eve r and grou t des i gn can be l a i d up
and any an t i c i pa t ed ad j acen t l i ve l oads . ea r t h s i de ) so t ha t t he ba rs wi l l be bonded w i t hou t any f o rmwo r k ( F i gur e 410 -24) .
Gr av i t y wa l l s a r e cons t ruc t ed o f cas t - i n- t o t he grou t . The ver t i ca l ba rs mus t ex t end The ver t i ca l r e i n f or cemen t ba rs mus t be
p l ace conc r e t e , s t one masonr y , or conc r e t e t he fu l l he i gh t o f t he wa l l . The br i ck shou l d p l aced w i t h i n abou t 10 mm ( ' / 2 i n) o f t he
f aced w i t h s t one or br i ck . F i gure 410-21 be l a i d w i t h fu l l shoved head and bed mor - i ns i de f ace o f t he b l ocks on t he t ens i on s i de
i l l us t ra t es a t yp i ca l conc r e t e wa l l des i gn . t a r j o i n t s w i t h no heade r s pro j ec t i ng i n t o (i .e . , t he re t a i ned ea r t h s i de ) so t ha t t he
Gr av i t y wa l l s l ess t han 1 500 mm (5 f t ) h i gh t he grou t (See Sec t i on 2413 o f t he Un i f i ed ba rs w i l l be bonded t o t he grou t . The ce l l s
a re usua l l y bu i l t ver t i ca l l y a t t he f ron t and Bu i l d i ng Code , Grou t ed Masonr y ) . Br i ck a r e f i l l ed w i t h grou t , wh i ch shou l d be t hor -
back or w i t h a s l i ght ba t t e r . In such cases , shou l d be l a i d up i n success i ve t i ers o f ough l y pudd l ed dur i ng pour i ng . A hor i zon-
t he base w i d t h shou l d be a t l eas t 0 . 4H . abou t 200 mm (8 i n) and t he space t hen ta l cons t ruc t i on j o i nt shou l d be f o rmed by
f i l l ed each t i me w i t h grou t ( ASTM C270 , s t opp i ng t he b l ocks a t t he same e l eva t i on
Tab l es 410 - 3 and 410 - 4 show t op
Mor t a r f or Un i t Masonr y , t ype M) , fo l - w i t h t he grou t , 25 mm (1 i n) be l ow t he t op ,
w i d t hs o f r i g i d grav i t y wa l l s f or va r i ous
l owed by pudd l i ng w i t h a grou t s t i ck . Al l i f t he wo r k is s t opped f or mor e t han an
he i gh t s , and base t o he i gh t ra t i os r espec -
j o i nt s beh i nd t he wa l l shou l d be fu l l y grou t - hour .
t i ve l y.
ed . The wor k shou l d be comp l e t ed in one
Va r i ous arch i t ec tura l t r ea t men t s in t he
Can t i l eve r ed Wa l l : sess i on , bu t i f i t is necessa ry t o de l ay f or
f ace o f t he re t a i n i ng wa l l can be ach i eved
mo r e t han an hour , t he t i ers shou l d be
A can t i l eve red wa l l cons i s t s o f a base and a w i t h sp l i t - f ace and sp l i t - rub conc r e t e
brough t t o t he same e l eva t i on w i t h t he
s t em , wh i ch a re secure l y t i ed t oge t he r by b l ocks . The b l ocks can be l a i d norma l , run-
grou t 25 mm (1 i n) be l ow t he t op .
re i n f orc i ng rods ex t end i ng f rom t he base n i ng bond , or l a i d up w i t h ver t i ca l j o i nt s t he
up t hrough t he s t em . Tab l e 410 - 5 shows F i gure 410 - 23 shows a f ac i ng t ha t is one he i gh t o f t he wa l l .
t yp i ca l base w i d t h t o he i gh t ra t i os f or can- br i ck w i de l a i d up in runn i ng bond , howev -
t i l eve red wa l l s . Re i n f or c i ng rods runn i ng er , t he f ace can be t wo br i cks w i de , l a i d i n
l a t era l l y t hrough t he s t em prov i de l ong i t u- o t he r pa t t e rns . So l i d conc r e t e un i t s or s t one
d i na l r e i n f or cemen t in t he wa l l . The we i gh t un i t s may a l so be used .
o f t he back f i l l on t he base coun t e r ac t s t he
f orwa rd pressure o f t he re t a i ned he i gh t and
he l ps t o keep t he wa l l f rom ove r t urn i ng .
Re i n f or c i ng s t ee l i s t yp i ca l l y p l aced w i t h i n
t he so i l , or , " t ens i oned " s i de o f t he s t em no
l ess t han 50 mm (2 i n) f rom t he sur f ace t o
pr even t conc r e t e c r ack i ng due t o d i f f eren-
t i a l expans i on coe f f i c i en t f ac t ors . Mos t
re i n f orc i ng schedu l es r equ i r e bo t h ver t i ca l
and hor i zon t a l s t ee l . Wa l l c ross sec t i ons can
va ry w i de l y , bu t common prac t i ce i s t o
l oca t e t he s t em on t he base a t a po i n t 1 / 3 o f
t he base w i d t h measu r ed f rom t he t oe .

Re i n f or ced conc r e t e : Re i n f or ced con -

c re t e can t i l eve red cons t ruc t i on is par t i cu l ar -
l y use f u l f or l ong l eng t hs o f wa l l whe r e
s t anda rd me t a l f o rms can be r eused w i t h
gr ea t economy i n cons t ruc t i on . L i ne rs can
be used t o ach i eve a va r i e t y o f f i n i shes and
j o i nt pa t t e rns in t he f ace o f t he wa l l . A F i gur e 410 - 25 . Mechan i cs o f an embankmen t .
venee r o f br i ck or s t one can be app l i ed to
t he wa l l shown in F i gur e 410 - 22 by us i ng
s t anda rd me t a l f as t eners , and t yp i ca l l y res t s
on an i nt egra l conc r e t e si l l . Top o f wa l l
w i d t h is t yp i ca l l y 300 mm (12 i n) m i n . , bu t
may be 200 mm (8 i n) on sma l l e r ga rden
sca l e wa l l s .
C_
Re i n f or ced Mason r y and Conc r e t e
. C_ Can t i l eve r ed Wa l l : A t wo - wy t he br i ck
.a re t a i n i ng wa l l i s espec i a l l y su i t ab l e f or l ow-
wa l l cons t ruc t i on ( F i gure 410 - 23) . I t has
t he f i n i shed appea r ance o f br i ck bu t t he
s t ruc tura l s t ab i l i t y o f a can t i l eve red wa l l . I t
can be l a i d up w i t hou t any f ormwor k , us i ng
on l y br i ck and grou t . F i gur e 410 - 26 . D i ag r ams o f r e t a i ned so i l mass and so i l p r essu r e f or ces .

T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 410 - 1 7
ed by one of the fo l lowing formu l as , Tab l e 410-6 i l lust rates the ca l cul at ion
5 .0 MECHAN I CS AND DES I GN of lateral l oad i ng for a non-surcharged
depend i ng on whe ther the wa l l is sur -
CALCULAT I ONS charged w i th soi l embanked above the grav i ty wa l l . Tab l e 410-7 prov i des an
top of the wa l l : examp l e ca l cul at ion for a surcharged can-
A st ructure des i gned to reta in the we i ght t i l evered wa l l .
of soi l mus t ma i nta i n a state of stat ic Non-surcharged wa l l :
equ i l ibr ium at al l t imes . The st ructure 5 .2 Resu l t ant of Wa l l We i gh t and
whz
must be propor t i oned so that i ts st rongest P = 0 .286 x Ear th Pressure
component s are located where the soi l 2
we i ght and other hydrostat i c pressures The resu l tant is a s ingl e force that has the
Surcharged wa l l : same ef fect as the var i ous forces in the
are greatest .
wh+h ' syst em act ing s i mu l taneous l y. The cen-
In embankmen t des ign, the cr i t ical fac- P = 0 .833 x t roid, or center of gravi ty, is the po int
2
tors are the soi l 's natura l ang l e of repose , through wh i ch al l forces act . To f ind the
i ts st ructura l proper t i es, i ts we i ght by vol - Where : comb i ned resul tant force of the wa l l and
ume , and the des ign s lope rat io . The reta ined ear th, the wa l l 's cross sect ion is
embankmen t requ i res re i nforcement P = the magn i tude of the resu l tant d i v i ded into uni ts of rectang l es and t r i an-
when it exceeds i ts natura l grav i tat iona l ear th pressure in k i l onewtons (kN) gles . The momen t s are ca l cu l ated by mu l -
s lope or when it is sub j ect to other hydro- or pounds ( Ibs) . Not e that the t ipl y ing the we i ght of each uni t by the
stat ic or v ibratory pressures assoc i ated word " resu l tant " is used to l ength of i ts momen t arm (hor i zonta l dis-
wi th inf i l t rat ion or veh i cu l ar l oad i ng . descr i be the ear th pressure tance of i ts cent ro id f rom the toe) as
Slope stabi l i ty mechan i cs are shown in because the l ine of act ion is a shown in Tab l es 410-6 and 410-7 . The
F igure 410-25 . The f igure i l lust rates a funct i on of grav i ty work i ng on the d i stance f rom the toe of the wa l l to the
typi ca l shear p l ane , s l ope cent ro id, ear th mass be i ng reta ined by the cent ro id of the compos i t e cross sect ion is
momen t arm, and typica l soi l s l ump fai l - wa l l , and the " resul tant " pa th of de t ermi ned by d i v id ing the sum of i ts
ure prof i le (dot ted l ine) . Th i s s l ump fa i lure l east res i stance . In non-surcharged momen t s by the tota l wa l l we i ght .
prof i le is most typi ca l in c l ay soi ls, but a l so wa l l s the l ine of act ion is hor i zon-
ref lects the manner in wh i ch reta in ing tal , intersect ing the back of the 5 .3 Wa l l Stab i l i ty Tes t s
wa l l s fai l by bu l g i ng at the i r l ower thi rd . wa l l at h/3 . In surcharged wa l l s
the l ine of act ion is para l l e l to the Stabi l i ty tests are based upon a " test
F igure 410-26 i l lust rates how the ang l e of repose of the surcharged st r ip" of a proposed wa l l . I t is assumed
forces may be d i agrammed at the back of s lope and intersects the back of that if a sect ion of a wa l l proves to be
typica l reta ining st ructures . Soi l pressure the wa l l at (h + h' ) /3 . stabl e, then the ent i re wa l l wi l l be stabl e .
resul ts f rom the soi l above the ang l e of Test st r ips shown in Tab l es 410-6 and
repose p l ane . The l ine of act ion may be w = the we i ght of the reta ined soi l in 410-7 are one me t er thi ck in the met r i c
conce i ved as a hor i zonta l thrust push i ng kN ( Ib/ f t ' ) . Typ i ca l l y a des i gn examp l e , and one foot thi ck in the U .S .
aga inst the wa l l at the H/3 point as we i ght of 16 to 17 kN (100 to examp l e . Al l areas measured on cross
shown . 110 pounds per cub i c foot ) is sect ion draw i ngs therefore have cub i c
used for pre l iminary ca l cul at ions . vo l ume that can be conver ted to we i ghts
A wa l l may fai l if the resul tant l ine of of di f ferent mater i a l s .
act ion passes through the f ront thi rd of h = the he i ght of the wa l l in m ( f t) .
the base . Mos t ca l cu l at ions seek to He i ght a l ways equa l s the d i stance Over turn i ng.
ach i eve mater i a l ef f i c i ency by pass i ng the f rom the very bot tom of the wa l l
resul tant through the f ront par t of the base to the top of the wa l l . The mass of the wa l l exer ts a downwa rd
mi dd l e thi rd ( toward the toe) , except in ver t i ca l force due to gravi ty, known as
h' = he i ght of the surcharge in m (f t) the resist ing moment , wh i ch mus t be
c l ay soi ls where the center of the base is as measured f rom the top of wa l l
sought due to poor bear i ng and l ow greater than the resul tant soi l pressure
on a ver t ica l l ine ext ended f rom tend i ng to over turn the wa l l ( the over -
shear i ng res i stance . The wa l l may a l so fai l the hee l of the wa l l
by over turn ing, set t l ing at the toe, or by turn i ng moment ) by a factor of t wo (2) .
sl iding . The coef f i c i ent that mod i f i es the mag- The res i st ing momen t is found by mul t i -
n i tude of tota l soi l pressure act ing on P is p l y ing the comb i ned we i ght of the wa l l
5 .1 La tera l Load i ng 0 . 286 in non-surcharged wa l l s, and by i ts momen t arm, a l ine perpend i cu l ar
0 .833 in surcharged wa l l s . The add i t iona l to the ver t i ca l we i ght force, extend i ng
Latera l loads on reta in ing st ructures are a load on surcharged wa l l s exer ts a more f rom the toe of the wa l l to the cent ro id a
funct ion of the we i ght of the soi l that is of the wa l l . The over turn i ng momen t is
eccent r i c downwa rd we i ght in a resul tant
be i ng reta ined . On l y soi l that exceeds the p l ane equa l to the s lope of the embank - simi l ar ly found by mu l t ip l y ing the resul -
ang l e of repose exer ts pressure on the aA
ment , typi ca l l y s l oped at 30-33° . Because tant soi l pressure (P) by the va l ue of h/3, n
st ructure . The we i ght of soi l is h igh l y var i - the pressure has a st ronger ver t ica l force or 1/3 of the he i ght of the wa l l . Not e . C_
abl e and is de t ermi ned by the aggrega te act ing at P, the magn i tude is de t erm i ned that this momen t arm va l ue is a ver t ica l
dens i ty if granul ar , and par t i c l e compos i - l ine runn i ng perpend i cu l ar to the hor i - ra
by a h igher coef f i c i ent of 0 .833 . In other
t ion and mo i sture content i f c l ay . Typi ca l l y words , P for the non-surcharged wa l l is zonta l l ine of P. e
a des i gn force of 16 to 17 kN (100 to 110
pounds per cub i c foot ) is used for pre l im- ca l cu l ated us ing 28 . 6% of the tota l soi l
pressure , compared wi th 83 . 3% of the
inary ca l cul at ions, a l though agenc i es may tota l soi l pressure for a surcharged wa l l .
establ i sh st r icter gu ide l ines . The ear th
pressure exer ted on a st ructure is ca l cul at -

Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Archi tecture

 410- 1 8
Tab l e 410 - 6 . DES I GN CALCULAT I ONS FOR NON - SURCHARGED GRAV I TY WALL

De t e rm i n i ng La t era l Force (P)

1 . Ca l cu l ate pressure of reta ined soi l , act ing at h/3 (P) :
P = 0.286 x (100)10' P = 0.286 x (
16_) 31
2 2
wh ' P=1 , 430 Ibs P = 20.6 kN
P = 0 , 286 x -
2 - _.
De t e rm i n i ng Wa l l We i gh t (W)
2 . Ca l cul ate we i ght of sect ion uni t A : 200x150=3 , 000 Ibs 0 .6x3x23 . 5=42 .3 kN
(bt x H x We i ght of concrete)
3 . Ca l cul ate we i ght of sect ion un i t B : 0 .5(2 . 5x l 0)x150=1 , 875 Ibs 0 .5(0 . 75x3W3 .5=26 .4 kN
[0 .5(bz x H) x We i ght of concrete]
4. Ca l cu l ate we i ght of sect ion un i t C : 0 .5(2 . 5x10)x100=1 , 250 Ibs 0 .5(0 . 75x3)06=18 kN
[0 .5(b x H) x We i ght of soi l ]
5 . Add we i ghts of uni ts A, B & C . Thi s equa l s the 3000+1875+1250=6 , 125 Ibs 42 . 3+26 . 4+18=86 .7 kN
tota l we i ght of the wal l 's cross sect ion (W) .
De t e rm i n i ng t he Cent ro i d
6 . Ca l cu l ate the momen t arm of un i t A f rom the toe (0 .5)2=1 f t (0 .5)0 .6 = 0 .3 m
of the wa l l . The d i stance of the ver t ical l ine of act ion f rom
the toe in this rectangu l ar sect ion is found by :
(0 .5)bî
7 . Ca l cu l ate the momen t arm of uni t B f rom the toe (0 .33)2 .5+2 = 2 .83 f t (0 .33)0.75+ .6 = 0 .85 m
of the wa l l . The d i stance of the ver t ica l l ine of act ion f rom
the toe in this t r i angul ar sect ion is found by :
(0 .33) b+b l
8 . Ca l cu l ate the momen t arm of uni t C f rom the toe of the wa l l . (0 .67)2 . 5+2=3 .68 f t (0.67)0 .75+ .6 = 1 .1 m
The d i stance of the ver t ica l l ine of act ion f rom the toe in
this t r i angul ar sect ion is found by :
(0 .67) b+b ,
n 9 . Ca l cu l ate the momen t of uni t A : 3000x1=3 , 000 f t Ibs 42 .3x . 3=12 .7 kN m
(We i ght x Momen t Arm)
ai 10 . Ca l cu l ate the momen t of uni t B : 1875x2 . 83=5 , 306 f t Ibs 26 .4x0 .85=22 .44 kN m
(We i ght x Momen t Arm)
Ol t 11 . Ca l cu l ate the momen t of uni t C : 1250x3 . 68=4 , 600 f t Ibs 18x1 . 1=19 .8 kNm
(We i ght x Momen t Arm)

" Assumes a 1 f t thick test str ip for calculat ion

t Assumes a 1 m thick test str ip for calculat ion

T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 410 - 1 9

Tab l e 410 - 6. DES I GN CALCULAT I ONS FOR NON - SURCHARGED GRAV I TY WALL ( con t i nued )

P R O C E D U R E (cont i nued) U.S . Ca l cu l a t i ons ' Me t r i c Ca l cu l a t i ons+

12 . Add momen t s of un i ts A, B& C to y i e l d t he tota l momen t 3000+5306+4600=12 , 906 f t Ibs 12 . 7+22 . 44+19 . 8=54 .94 kN m
of the wa l l ' s cross sec t i on .
13 . Ca l cu l a t e the momen t a rm of the wa l l ' s ent i re cross sec t i on :
Sum of Momen t s 12 906 - 2 5494 - 0
.11 f t . 63 m
Sum of We i gh t s 6125 86 .7

De t e rm i ne t he Resu l t an t For ce (R)

14 . Ca l cu l a t e resu l tant force of ear th pressure and
wa l l we i gh t (R) :
R = (W2 + P) °5 (6 , 125 ' + 1 , 4302 ) ° 5 = 6 , 290 Ibs (86 .71 + 20 .6' )° 5 = 89 .1 kN

15 . Graph i ca l l y cons t ruc t a para l l e l ogram of forces and draw in The wa l l is genera l l y stab l e . The wa l l is genera l l y stab l e .
the resu l tant (R) . Ex t end d i agona l unt i l it i ntersects base of wa l l .
If it passes w i th i n the m i dd l e 1 / 3 of the base , it is cons i dered e=0 . 75 f t e=0 . 23 m
genera l l y stab l e . The d i st ance f rom the center l i ne of the wa l l
base to the pa i nt whe r e t he resu l t ant force cuts the base is the
eccent r i c i ty (e)

Tes t i ng f or Ove r t urn i ng

16 . D i v i de t he res i st i ng momen t by the Res i st i ng momen t : Res i st i ng momen t :

over turn i ng momen t to check for t endency 6125x2 . 11=12 , 924 f t Ibs 86 . 7x . 63=54 . 6 kN m
to over turn . A sa fe ty fac tor of 2 or Over turn i ng momen t : Over turn i ng momen t :
more is accept ab l e : 1430x3 . 33=4762 f t Ibs 20 . 6x1=20 .6 kN m

W x Mome n t Arm 12924 54 .6

2 .7 Accept ab l e = 2 .7 Accept ab l e
P x Momen t Arm 4762 = 220
. 66

Te s t i ng f or Crush i ng (Se t t l emen t a t t he Toe ) 1

17 . Test for crush i ng :

6125 6(0 .75)1 86 .7 ~ 6( .23)1
4.5 14 .5 1 . 35 1 . 35
f= (1 + I
f =1361 (2) f =64 .2(Z)

f = 2 , 722 ps f f = 128 .4 kN or 13 093 kg / m3

Compa r e resu l ts w i th Tab l e 410-8 . Accept ab l e for sandy-c l ay founda t i on Accept ab l e for sandy-c l ay founda t i on
ra

Tes t i ng f or S l i d i ng
CIC
18 . Ca l cu l a t e the t endency to s l ide . A sa fe ty fac tor
of 1 .5 or more is accept ab l e :
W x Coe f f i c i ent of Fr i ct i on 6125(0 .4) _ 86 .7(0 .4) -
1 .7 1 .7
P 1430 20 .6
Compa r e resu l ts w i th Tab l e 410-9 . Accept ab l e for sandy founda t i on Accept ab l e for sandy founda t i on

T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 410 - 20

Tab l e 410 - 7 . DES I GN CALCULAT I ONS FOR SURCHARGED CANT I LEVERED WALL

De t enn i n i ng La t e r a l For ce (P)

1 . Ca l cu l a t e pressure (P) of re t a i ned soi l , ac t i ng at

(h+h ' ) /3 :
2(h+h ' )2 100(8+2) 2 16(2 . 4+0 .6) 3
P - 0 . 833 x - - P = 0. 833 x P = 0. 833 x
2 2 2
P = 4 , 165 lbs . P = 60 kN

De t e rm i n i ng Wa l l We i gh t (W)

2. Ca l cu l a t e we i gh t of sec t i on un i t A: 2 x 2 .5 x 100 = 500 Ibs 0 .6 x 0 .75 x 16 = 7 .2 kN

(bt x H x We i gh t of soi l )

3. Ca l cu l a t e we i gh t of sec t i on un i t B : 6 x 1 x 150 = 900 Ibs 1 .8 x 0 .3 x 23 .5 = 12 .7 kN

(bt x H x We i gh t of soi l )

4. Ca l cu l a t e we i gh t of sec t i on un i t C: 1 x 7 x 150 = 1 , 050 Ibs 0 .3 x 2 .1 x 23 .5 = 14 .8 kN

(b2 x H x We i gh t of concre t e)

5. Ca l cu l a t e we i gh t of sec t i on un i t D: 3 x 7 x 100 = 2 , 100 Ibs 0 .9 x 2 .1 x 16 = 3 .2 kN

(b3 x H x We i gh t of soi l )

6. Ca l cu l a t e we i gh t of sec t i on un i t E : 0 .5(3 x 2) x 100 = 300 Ibs 0 .5 (0 .9 x 0.6) x 16 = 4.3 kN

[0 .5 (b3 x H) x We i gh t of soi l ]

7. Add we i gh t s of un i ts. Th i s equa l s the tota l we i gh t 500 + 900 + 1050 + 2100 + 300 7 .2 + 12 .7 + 14 .8 + 30 .2 + 4 .3
of the wa l l ' s cross sec t i on (W) . = 4 , 850 lbs . = 69 .2 kN
_ _
De t e rm i n i ng t h e Cen t ro i d
8. Ca l cu l a t e the momen t a rm of un i t A f rom the (0 .5)2 = 1 f t (0 .5)0 .6 = 0 .3 m
toe of the wa l l . The d i stance of the ver t i ca l l ine of
ac t i on f rom the toe in thi s rec t angu l ar sec t i on
is f ound by :
(0 .5) b1
9. Ca l cu l a t e the momen t a rm of un i t B f rom (0 .5)1 + 2 = 2 .5 f t (0 .5)0 . 3+0 .6 = 0 . 75 m
the toe of the wa l l . The d i s t ance of the ver t i ca l
l ine of ac t i on f rom the toe in thi s rec t angu l ar
sec t i on is f ound by :
(0 .5) b2 + b1
10 . Ca l cu l a t e the momen t a rm of un i t C f rom the (0 .5)6 = 3 f t (0 .5)1 .8 = 0 .9 m
toe of the wa l l . The d i st ance of t he ver t i ca l
l ine of ac t i on f rom the toe in thi s rec t angu l ar
sec t i on is f ound by :
(0 .5) base of wa l l
11 . Ca l cu l a t e the momen t a rm of un i t D f rom t he toe of the (0 .5) 3 + 1 + 2 = 4 .5 f t (0 .5)0 .9 + 0 .3 + 0 .6 = 1 .5 m
n wa l l . The d i st ance of the ver t i ca l l ine of ac t i on f rom the toe
.
in thi s rec t angu l ar sec t i on is f ound by:
n
(0 .5) b3 + b2 + h i
12 . Ca l cu l a t e t he momen t a rm of un i t E f rom the toe of the (0 .67)3 + 1 + 2 = 5 f t (0 . 67)0 .9 + 0 .3 + 0 .6 = 1 .5 m
wa l l . The d i st ance of the ver t i ca l l ine of ac t i on f rom the t oe
in thi s t r i angu l ar sec t i on is f ound by :
(0 .67) b3 + b2 +bt
13 . Ca l cu l a t e t he momen t of un i t A: 500 x 1 = 500 f t Ibs 7 .2 x 0 .3 = 2 .2 kN -m
Tom (We i gh t x Momen t Arm)

' Assur es a 1 f t th i ck test st r ip for ca l cu l a t i on . ' Assumes a 1 m th i ck test st r ip for ca l cu l a t i on .

T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 410 - 21

Tab l e 410 - 7 . DES I GN CALCULAT I ONS FOR

SURCHARGED CANT I LEVERED WALL
( con t i nued)

PROCEDURE U.S. Ca l cu l at ions" Me t r i c Ca l cu l at ions+

14. Ca l cu l ate the momen t of uni t B : 1050 x 2 .5 = 2 , 625 f t Ibs 14.8 x 0 .75 = 11 .1 kN-m
(We i ght x Momen t Arm)
15 . Ca l cu l ate the momen t of uni t C : 900 x 3 = 2 , 700 f t Ibs 12 .7 x 0 .9 = 11 .4 <N -m
(We i ght x Momen t Arm)
16. Ca l cu l ate the momen t of uni t D : 2100 x 4 .5 = 9 , 450 f t Ibs 30.2 x 1 .35 = 40 .8 kN-m
(We i ght x Momen t Arm)
17 . Ca l cu l ate the momen t of uni t E : 300 x 5 = 1,500 f t Ibs 4 .3 x 1 .5 = 11 .1 kN m
(We i ght x Momen t Arm)
18 . Add momen t s of uni ts to yie ld the tota l 500 + 2700 + 2625 + 9450 + 1500 = 2 .2 + 11 .4 + 11 .1 + 40 .8 + 6 .5 = 72 kN m
momen t of the wal l 's cross sect ion . 16,775 f t Ibs
19 . Ca l cu l atethe momen t arm of the wal l 's
ent i re cross sect ion .
Sum of Momen t s 16775 _
3,46 f t 72 = 1 .04 m
Sum of We i ghts 4850 69 .2
De t e rm i n i ng t he Resu l t an t (R)
20 . Ca l cu l ate resul tant force of ear th pressure and
wa l l we i ght (R) :
R = (W2 + p2 ) 0 .5 (48501 + 4165 2 )°5 = 6,393 1 bs (69 .2 2 + 602)0 5 = 91 .6 kN
21 . Graph i ca l l y const ruct a para l l e logram of forces and draw The wa l l is genera l l y stabl e . The wa l l is genera l l y stab l e.
in the resul tant (R) . Extend d i agona l unt i l it intersects base
of wa l l . If it passes wi th in the mi dd l e 1/3 of the base , i t is e = 0 .3 f t e=0.1 m
cons i dered genera l l y stabl e . The d i stance f rom the center l ine of
the wa l l base to the po int where the resul tant force cuts the
base is the eccent r i c i ty (e) .
22 . Graph i ca l l y de t ermi ne the ver t ical (R, ) and the hor i zonta l Rv = 7 , 020 Ibs R~ = 102 .8 kN
(Rh) component s of const ructed para l l e logram of forces Rh = 3 , 450 Ibs Rh = 49 .7 kN
through sca l ing .
Tes t i ng for Ove r t urn i ng
23 . D i v ide the resist ing momen t by the over turn i ng Res i st ing momen t : Res i st ing momen t :
momen t to check for t endency to over turn . 7020 x 3 .46 = 24,289 f t Ibs 102 .8 x 1 .04 = 106 .9 <Nm
A safety factor of 2 or more Over turn i ng momen t : Over turn i ng momen t :
is acceptab l e: 3450 x 3 .33 = 11,489 f t Ibs 49 .7 x 1 = 49 .7 kNm
R~ x Mo m e n t Arm 24289 106 .9 2 .1 Acceptab l e
= 2 .1 Acceptab l e =
Rh x Momen t Arm 11489 49 .7
Tes t i ng for Crush i ng (Se t t l emen t a t t he Toe) S

24 . Test for crush i ng :

R~ 6e 102 .8
f_ A ( 1 + D f = 70 6 .3 ) = 1170 (1 .3)
66 1 + 6 f = [1 + 61 8 ) = 57 .1 (1 .3)
= 1,521 psf = 74 .2 kN or 7 566 kg/ M2
Compare resul ts wi th Tab l e 410-8 . Acceptab l e for sandy-c l ay founda t i on Acceptab l e for sandy-c l ay founda t i on
Tes t i ng for S l i d i ng "a

25 . Ca l cu l ate the t endency to sl ide . A safety factor of

1 .5 or more is acceptab l e : fY
R~ x Coef f i c i ent of Fr ict i on 7020 (0 4) - 102 .8 (0 4) - 0 .8
0 .8
Rh 3450 49,7
Compare resul ts wi th Tab l e 410-9 . Requ i res a shear key Requ i res a shear key .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 410- 22
Tab l e 410 - 8. APPROX I MATE BEAR I NG CAPAC I T I ES OF Tab l e 410 - 9.AVERAGE
VAR I OUS SO I LS AND ROCK ' COEFF I C I ENTS OF FR I CT I ON FOR
CONCRETE ON VAR I OUS
Ma t e r i a l t / m2 kg / m2 Ton / f t 2 Ib / f t2 FOUNDAT I ON BEDS

Al luv i a l soi l 4 .5 4 , 500 1/2 1 , 000

Coe f f i c i en t o f
Sof t c l ay 9 .5 9 , 500 1 2 , 000 Founda t i on bed f r i c t i on

F i rm c l ay 19 .5 4 , 000 2 4 , 000 Rock (modera t e ) 0 .7

We t sand 19 .5 19 , 000 2 4 , 000 Rock (hard angu l ar ) 1 .0

Sand and c l ay m i xed 19 .5 19 , 000 2 4 , 000 Grave l 0 .6

F i ne dry sand 29 .0 29 , 000 3 6 , 000 Dry c l ay 0 .5

Hard c l ay 39 .0 38 , 500 4 8 , 000 Sand 0 .4

Coarse dry sand 39 .0 38 , 500 4 8 , 000 We t c l ay 0 .3

Grave l 58 .5 58 , 000 6 12 , 000 Source. : Adap t ed f rom A l be f . Munson , Cons t ruc t i on

Des i gn for Landscape Arch i tects , McGraw-H i l l New York ,
Grave l and sand 78 .0 77 , 500 8 16 , 000 1975
(we l l -cement ed)

Hard pan or hard 97 .5 97 , 000 10 20 , 000

sha l e s l ide is t he hor i zont a l force (P) , wh i l e t he
Med i um rock 195 .0 194 , 500 20 40 , 000 force tha t t ends to res i st the s l i d i ng is t he
780 .0 779 , 000 80 160 , 000
ver t i ca l force of t he wa l l we i gh t (W) .
Hard rock
Res i s t ance to s l i d i ng mus t be 1 .5 t i mes
Tons = U .S . shor t tons (2000 Ib), t = met r i c tons. grea t er t han the force caus i ng the wa l l to
Source: Adap t ed f rom Al be r . Munson , Const rud i on Des i gn for Landscape Archi tects, McGraw-H i l l , New York, 7975. s l ide . To ca l cu l a t e th i s " f ac tor of sa f e t y "
(1 .5) , the wa l l we i gh t (W) mus t be mu l t i -
p l i ed by t he soi l coe f f i c i ent of f r i ct i on (Re f er
A l t er i ng the geome t ry of the masses wi l l pass t hrough the m i dd l e th i rd of the base
w i d t h (Tab l es 410 - 6 and 410 - 7 ) . The d i s- to Tab l e 410 - 9 for f r i ct i on coe f f i c i ents of
a l so a l ter the magn i t ude o f the forces and
var i ous soi l s) and the produc t mus t be
the i r i nt erac t i ons . Th i s is prec i se l y how the t ance be t ween the exac t cent er of the
d i v i ded by t he va l ue of P [hor i zont a l force
des i gn of re t a i n i ng s t ruc tures are f i ne t uned base , and the po i nt a t wh i ch t he resu l t ant
in kg (pounds) ] . In the even t tha t the s l id-
to mee t par t i cu l ar s i te requ i remen t s and graph i ca l l y p i erces t he base is ca l l ed the
i ng res i s t ance is l ess than 1 .5, a concre t e
s i te cond i t i ons . The f ormu l a for res i s t ance f ac tor of eccent r i c i ty (e) . The pressure at
key may be p l aced on the bo t t om of a con-
to over turn i ng is as fo l l ows : t he toe is ca l cu l a t ed us i ng a foot i ng f ormu-
cre t e foot i ng , or the base of a s tone wa l l
la to de t e rm i ne the ac tua l k i l ograms per
W x Momen t Arm may be ang l ed back to crea t e mechan i ca l
2 square me t e r (pounds per square foot ) tha t
res i s t ance .
P x Momen t Arm wi l l be exer t ed a t the toe :
soi l coe f f i c i en t
Whe r e : ~, S l i d i ng res i st ance = W x
f =A + P
W =The comb i ned ver t i ca l we i gh t of dl
the wa l l and soi l mass wh i ch bears Whe r e :
f = pressure a t the toe in kN ( Ib/ f t 1 )
on the wa l l .
W= Tot a l we i gh t of wa l l and soi l mass
P = t he we i gh t of the wa l l ac t i ng ver t i -
P = The tota l soi l pressure ac t i ng on a bear i ng on the base
ca l l y a t the cent ro i d
hor i zont a l l i ne o f ac t i on pass i ng
A = t he a rea o f the base in squa re P= Soi l pressure measur ed in kN ( Ibs)
t hrough the wa l l .
ac t i ng on the wa l l
me t ers (square fee t ) .
Se t t l emen t a t t he t oe:
e = the f ac tor o f eccent r i c i ty 6 . 0 DRA I NAGE
I f the cent ro i d of t he wa l l is t oo f ar f orwa rd
U1 t owa rd the f ace (due to i mprope r propor - d = t he w i d t h of the foot i ng . In the case 6 .1 Sur f ace Run -o f f
t i on i ng of t he wa l l des i gn) , t hen the force o f a wa l l test st r ip, " d " = A .
resu l t i ng f rom the i nt erac t i on of the hor i - Al l sur f ace wa t e r shou l d be d i rec t ed away
The ca l cu l a t ed toe pressure mus t no t f rom embankmen t s and tops of re t a i n i ng
zont a l soi l pressure and the downwa rd
exceed the bear i ng capac i t y of the ex i s t i ng s t ruc tures to avo i d i nf i l t rat i on i nto the
force of the we i gh t of the wa l l may con- soi l subgrade . Tab l e 410 - 8 l ists the bear i ng
n cent ra t e t oo much pressure on the soi l just back f i l l or subgr ade . Such i nf i l t rat i on
capac i t i es of var i ous soi l t ypes . unnecessar i l y l oads granu l ar backf i l l s , weep
. C_ benea t h the toe o f the wa l l . Th i s eccent r i c
l oad i ng , may exceed the soi l 's bear i ng ho l es , and foot i ng dra i ns , and in expans i ve
ra S l i d i ng hor i zon t a l l y:
capac i t y and resu l t in se t t l emen t a t the t oe ; c l ays or f reeze / t haw cond i t i ons may crea t e
e I f t he f r i ct i on be t ween t he base of the wa l l t oo much hydro-s t a t i c pressure for the wa l l
a fa i l ure of the soi l s t ruc ture . To avo i d th i s
CC and the soi l benea t h i t is i nadequa t e , the to bear .
poss i b i l i ty , the wa l l ' s propor t i ons are
des i gned so tha t the resu l t ant ac t i on l ine wa l l may creep forward , as of t en happens
in smoo t h c l ays , or si l ty sands and grave l .
(drawn w i th i n a para l l e l ogram of forces)
1 when ex t ended t hrough t he cent ro i d , wi l l
The force tha t t ends to cause the wa l l to

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 410 - 2 3

6 . 2 Back f i l l and Foo t i ng Dr a i ns 7 . 0 MA I NTENANCE I SSUES REFERENCES

A prepa red granu l ar dra i nage med i um is
In add i t i on to the genera l ma i n t enance f ac- " Bu i l d i ng Code Requ i r emen t s for
typ i ca l l y used to back f i l l a re t a i n i ng wa l l . I t
tors l i sted in Tab l e 410-1 , rout i ne ma i n t e - Re i n f orced Conc re t e (ACI 318-77) , "
is common prac t i ce to p l ace a soi l separa tor
nance of dra i n p i pes , i mpe rmeab l e bar r i ers , Ame r i can Conc re t e Inst i tute , M i ch i gan ,
f abr i c be t ween the granu l ar backf i l l and the
and swa l es is requ i red to preven t run-of f 1977.
subso i l to preven t inf i l t rat ion of f i nes . In
so i l s sub j ec t to l atera l inf i l t rat ion and sea- and inf i l t rat ion wa t e r f rom crea t i ng season- Munson , A l be E . Cons t ruc t i on Des i gn for
sona l wa t e r t ab l e shi f ts, a per fora t ed foot - al back pressures . Invas i ve t ree roots may Landscape Arch i t ec ts , McGr aw-H i l l , New
i ng dra i n se t in c l ean s tone and wr apped in a l so of t en cause st ruc tura l fa i l ure in wa l l s York , 1974 .
a f abr i c separa tor is r ecommended . and re i nforced embankmen t s , and may
Parker , Har ry , S i mp l i f i ed Mechan i cs and
requ i re per i od i c c rown and root prun i ng of St rength of Ma t er i a l s , John W i l ey & Sons ,
6 .3 Weep Ho l es cer ta i n spec i es . I nc. , New York , 1961 .

Weep ho l es are needed in any r igid wa l l Cor ros i on of ma t er i a l s f rom sa l t spray , Ramsey / S l eepe r , Arch i t ec tura l Graph i cs
cons t ruc t i on to re l i eve pressure due to inf i l - ac i d ra in, severe ox i da t i on , or excess i ve St andards , 9 t h Ed , John W i l ey & Sons , I nc. ,
t ra t i on and are typ i ca l l y p l aced 100-150 f reeze / t haw ac t i on may comprom i se the 1994.
mm (4-6 in) above f in i sh grade and are st ruc tura l i nt egr i ty of many i mproper l y Schne i de r , Robe r t R. , and Wa l t e r L . D i ckey.
spaced 900 - 3000 mm (3-10 f t ) apar t spec i f i ed re t a i n i ng sys t ems . Re t a i n i ng Re i n forced Masonr y Des i gn , Pren t i ce -Ha l l ,
depend i ng soi l poros i t y (c l ay soi l s requ i re s t ruc tures shou l d be cons i dered to be l ong Res t on , VA , 1980.
c l ose spac i ng , and granu l ar soi l s requ i re l ess t e rm i nves tmen t s requ i r i ng spec i f i ca t i on of
See l ye , E l wyn E. Des i gn-Da t a Book for Ci v i l
f requent spac i ng) . s t ab l e i ner t ma t er i a l s su i t ab l e to loca l con-
Eng i neers , W i l ey , New York , 1957 .
d i t i ons . The cos t o f rep l ac i ng shor t l i ved
ma t er i a l s mus t be added to the cos t of d i s-
turb i ng a f i n i shed l andscape se t t i ng .

Vf

n
. n_
" tqj

0
T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 SECT I ON ~ I

Sma l l Da rns

1141 . 41011

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
Cha r l es W. Har r i s
Techn i ca l Wr i t ers :
Ky l e D . Brown
Kr i san Os t e rby -Benson
Rev i ewe rs :
A l t on P. Dav i s , Jr.
GE I Consu l t an t s , I nc.
W i nches t e r , Massachuse t t s

Va rou j i an Hagop i an
Sasak i Assoc i a t es , Inc .
Wa t e r t own , Massachuse t t s

S t eve J . Pou l os
GE I Consu l t an t s , I nc.
W i nches t e r , Massachuse t t s
I l l ust ra t i ons:
G i nny Leona rd
Y i ng Wang
Samue l Cop l on

r Me , , Mm
1 . 0 Int roduc t i on Founda t i ons Masonr y or T i mbe r Dams
2 . 0 Purposes o f Dams Nonove r f l ow Des i gn Ear thf i l l Embankmen t Dams
Ove r f l ow Des i gn 6 .3 F i l ter Dra i ns
3 . 0 Se l ec t i on o f Dam Si te
W i ng Wa l l s Perv i ous Downs t r eam She l l s
3 .1 Inves t i ga t i on o f Pot ent i a l S i tes Aprons Hor i zont a l Dra i nage B l anke t s
3 .2 Survey o f Proposed S i t e 4. 4 T i mbe r or Precas t Conc re t e Cr i bb i ng Toe Dra i ns
4 . 0 Types o f Dams and Se l ec t i on Cr i ter i a Dra i nage Trenches
Dams
Ear thf i l l Embankmen t Dams Beave r -Type Dams F i l ter Dra i n Requ i remen t s
Types of Ear thf i l l Embankmen t Dams Cr i b Dams 6 .4 Cutof f s
Founda t i ons for Ear thf i l l Embankmen t 5 .0 St ab i l i ty Ana l ys i s of Grav i t y Dams Cu to f f Trenches
t dn
Dams Cu to f f Wa l l s
5 .1 Forces Ac t i ng on Grav i t y Dams
Top W i d t h D i mens i ons 5 . 2 Ca l cu l a t i on o f St ab i l i ty 6 .5 Sur f ace Dra i nage
a
Se t t l emen t A l l owance Gene ra l Stab i l i ty
6 . 6 Sp i l l ways and F i sh Ladde rs
F reeboa rd Ove r t urn i ng Masonr y Sp i l l ways
S i de S l opes Ear th Sp i l l ways
Crush i ng
4 .2 D i aphr agm Rock f i l l Dams Hor i zont a l S l i d i ng F i sh Ladde rs
Ma t er i a l s 6 . 7 Ou t l e t s
P l acemen t
6 .0 Des i gn of Ma j or Componen t s
6.1 Founda t i ons
6 . 8 Dam Fac i ng N
Founda t i ons Ups t r eam S l ope Prot ec t i on
Prof i l e Types of Founda t i ons Downs t r eam S l ope Prot ec t i on
Bear i ng St rength o f Founda t i ons
Granu l ar Base for Memb r ane Re f erences
Typ i ca l Memb r anes S l i d i ng N
6. 2 Dra i nage Prob l ems
4 .3 Masonr y Dams

T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 420 - 2

1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON Tab l e 420 - 1 . I MPORTANT FACTORS FOR THE ANALYS I S OF POTENT I AL

DAM S I TES

T
h i s sec t i on cove r s t he se l ec t i on and
des i gn o f sma l l grav i t y - t ype dams
whose max i mum ne t heads (headwa - Fac t ors t o he i nves t i ga t ed Poss i b l e sour ces o f i n f orma t i on (U . S . A. )*

t er t o t a i l wa t er ) do no t exceed 6 m (20 f t ) .
RECONNA I SSANCE
I t does no t addr ess t he ca l cu l a t i on o f runo f f
and o t he r f ac tors re l a t ed t o i ts re t en t i on Si te conf i gura t i on U .S . Geo l og i ca l Survey (USGS) a i r pho tos
and managemen t . Re f e r t o Sec t i on 330: Ev i dence of good founda t i on USGS sur f i c i a l geo l ogy and bedrock maps
S t ormwa t e r Managemen t f or add i t i ona l
Ava i l ab l e const ruc t i on ma t er i a l s USGS topograph i c surveys
i n f orma t i on . U .S . Depa r t men t of Agr i cu l ture (USDA) soi l surveys

I n f orma t i on and expe r t i se ga t he r ed f rom Adequa t e wa t e r supp l y (dra i nage area) USGS sur f i c i a l geo l ogy and bedrock maps
l oca l au thor i t i es is essen t i a l dur i ng t he p l an-
n i ng and cons t ruc t i on o f any t ype o f dam , DETA I LED S I TE I NVEST I GAT I ONS
because sa f e t y is such an i mpor t an t f ac t or . Ava i l ab l e topograph i c maps USGS topograph i c surveys
Even sma l l dams shou l d be care fu l l y l oca t - Sta te and count y h i ghway maps
ed so t ha t f a i l ure wi l l no t resu l t i n se r i ous Sur f i c i a l geo l ogy USGS sur f i c i a l geo l ogy and bedrock maps
acc i den t s or damage t o prope r t y .
Subsur f ace geo l ogy USGS topograph i c surveys
USDA soi l surveys
F2 . 0 PURPOSES OF DAMS USGS sur f i c i a l geo l ogy and bedrock maps

Loca t i on of the source of USGS topograph i c surveys

Dams a re used t o re t a i n and re t ard t he f l ow const ruc t i on ma t er i a l s USDA soi l surveys
o f wa t e r f or many reasons , i nc l ud i ng i r r i ga- USGS sur f i c i a l geo l ogy and bedrock maps
t i on , f i re pro t ec t i on , mechan i ca l or hydro- Land requ i red for t he dam and reservo i r USDA Na tura l Resource Conserva t i on Serv i ce (NRCS)
e l ec t r i c powe r , f l ood pro t ec t i on , t he es t ab- dra i nage area maps
l i shmen t o f w i l d l i f e hab i t a t , recrea t i ona l USGS topograph i c surveys
oppor t un i t i es , l i ves tock needs , f i sh produc - F l ood-produc i ng character i st i cs USDA / NRCS area maps
t i on , dr a i nage s t ruc tures , aqu i f e r recha rge , of the s t ream USGS topograph i c surveys
and t he c rea t i on o f v i sua l l andscape amen i - U .S . Wea t he r Bureau ra infa l l maps (24-hr s torm based
on 10- , 25- , or 50-yr f requency)
t i es . Dams a re f r equen t l y cons t ruc t ed t o USDA / NRCS hydro l og i c group i ngs of soi l s
se rve mu l t i p l e purposes . USDA / NRCS runof f curve tab l es (ca l cu l a ted for l and use
and soi l t ype)
Seve ra l sec t i ons i n th i s handbook prov i de USDA / NRCS runof f depth , in ( for a g i ven ra infa l l and
runof f curve numbe r )
spec i f i c i n f orma t i on on t he purposes and
USDA / NRCS Type I, II s t orm char ts
cons t ruc t i on o f sma l l dams and reservo i rs .
Re f e r to Sec t i on 330: S t o rmwa t e r Prev i ous f l ood rout i ng stud i es Federa l Eme rgency Managemen t Area ( FEMA) f l ood
i nsurance maps and repor ts
Managemen t , Sec t i on 710: Wa t e r Supp l y ,
Sec t i on 740: Rec rea t i ona l Wa t e rbod i es , and Lega l aspec t s and r ipar i an r ights Sta te l aws
Depa r t men t of Pub l i c Wor ks (DPW)
Sec t i on 750: I r r i ga t i on , f or f ur t he r i n f orma -
Depa r t men t s of conserva t i on
t i on . Sta te boards of hea l th
Federa l Eme rgency Managemen t Adm i n i s t ra t i on
( FEMA)**
,31 .0 SELECT I ON OF DAM SI TE
Si l t car r i ed by s t ream USGS wa t e r supp l y papers
3 .1 Inves t i ga t i on o f Po t en t i a l S i t es USGS r i ver surveys
USDA / NRCS repor ts
I t is cus t oma r y t o conduc t pre l i m i na ry s t ud-
i es o f seve ra l po t en t i a l l oca t i ons when s i t - Wa t e r qua l i ty USGS wa t e r supp l y papers
i ng a dam. In mos t s i t e eva l ua t i ons , a geo t - Hea l th Educa t i on and We l f are (HEW) repor ts
echn i ca l eng i nee r and a s t ruc tura l eng i nee r Sta te boa rd of hea l th repor ts

shou l d be consu l t ed . Tab l e 420-1 l i sts t he Land use and owne rsh i p U .S . Bureau of Land Managemen t (BLM) pub l i c l and
f ac t ors t yp i ca l l y cons i de r ed dur i ng t he surveys
USDA Forest Serv i ce na t i ona l forest maps
i nves t i ga t i on o f po t en t i a l dam s i tes , and Coun t y survey or eng i neer maps
S poss i b l e sour ces o f th i s i n f orma t i on . Ci ty or coun t y recorder p l a ts
U .S . Bureau of Rec l ama t i on f edera l rec l ama t i on
3 .2 Survey of Proposed S i t e pro j ec t maps

Genera l Loca l , State , Dep t . of Sa f e ty of f i ces

Once t he l oca t i on f or a dam has been
de t e rm i ned , an eng i nee r i ng sur vey is *Poss ibl e sources wi l l vary f rom count ry to count ry. On l y U .S . sources are shown here .
**Federa l Emergency Management Admin i st rat ion (FEMA) , Nat iona l Inventory of Dams ( republ i shed per iodica l ly) .
requ i red t o l ay ou t t he dam , t he sp i l l way ,
and o t he r f ea t ures . The sur vey shou l d
i nc l ude cen t e r l i ne pro f i l es o f t he dam and
sp i l l way , and t opogr aph i c mapp i ng t o
de t e rm i ne t he ex t en t and capac i t y o f t he
N proposed reservo i r.

T i me -Save r St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 420- 3
Tab l e 420 - 2 . SELECT I ON CR I TER I A FOR SMALL DAMS

Ear thf i l l Rock f i l l Masonr y (Stone Concre t e or

or Concre t e ) T i mbe r Cr i b

SI TE CONS I DERAT I ONS

Sui tabl e topography Low rol l ing pl a ins Low rol l ing pl a ins Nar row st ream ; high, Nar row st ream ; high,
rocky wa l l s rocky wa l l s
St ream di vers ion Requ i red dur i ng const ruct ion Usua l l y requi red M i n i ma l requ i rements M i n i ma l requ i rements
Founda t i on Least st r ingent ; sol id rock ; M i n i ma l se t t l ement Reasonab l y sound Sui tabl e for unstab l e
requ i rements grave l , sand requ i red ; same as ear th f i l l rock soi ls
Ear thquake res i stance Very good Exce l l ent Good Good
Sui tabl e mater i a l s Fi l l mater i a l s may have to be Loca l stone Loca l stone may be Loca l t i mber may be
on si te bor rowed ; var i ety of sui tabl e ; rock of sui tabl e ; careful ly sui tabl e ; a l so pre-
mater i a l s sui tabl e for al l s i zes used graded aggrega te cast concrete
zoned embankmen t requ i red cr ibb ing
Visibi l i ty Slopes are p l antab l e (except H igh l y visible Free, natura l forms Beaver type is least
wi th t rees) (no pl ant ing) poss ibl e visible

COST CONS I DERAT I ONS*

Ma i nt enance Damaged by an i ma l s and Ups t ream s lope Concre t e spal ls and Cons i derab l e
woody p l ants; upst ream inspect ion and other types of ma i nt enance ;
s lope inspect ion and repa i r requ i red masonry damage per iod i c
repa i r requ i red per iodi ca l l y may occur ; rep l acement is
per iodi ca l l y per iodi c inspect ion requ i red
and repa i r requ i red

DES I GN CONS I DE RAT I ONS

Crest w i dth Tab l e 420-3 Tab l e 420-3 4- f t (1 .2-m) m i n i mum 3- f t (1 -m) m i n i mum
Crest he i ght Tab l e 420-5 Tab l e 420-5 4 f t (1 .2 m) above pond Norma l max i mum
( f reeboard) at des i gn d i scharge pond leve l
Max i mum grad i ent
of s ide s lopes :
Ups t ream 1 :2 .5 1 :1 .3 hard rock ; Ver t i ca l 1 :2
fill w/ concre t e s l ab
Downs t ream 1 :2 1 :1 .7 for hard rock f i l l 1 :0.7 (mi n .) 1 :1
Tab l e 420-6 w / aspha l t ; increase for
l ower qua l i ty rock
Seepage cont rol Cl ay core requ i red Face s l ab requ i red None requi red T i mber p l ank i ng
requ i red
Wave protect ion Tab l e 420-14 Face s l ab requ i red None requi red T i mber p l ank i ng
requ i red
Sp i l lway Sp i l lway genera l l y located Sp i l lway genera l l y Over f l ow crest may Al l are over f l ow dams
away f rom dam as a located away be i ncorporated sui tabl e for l arge
separate st ructure f rom dam as a inexpens i ve l y in dra i nage areas
separate st ructure des i gn
St rength and stabi l i ty Easi ly eroded or dest royed if Damaged or dest royed Re l at i ve l y stabl e if Never fai ls by
over topped i f over topped over topped over turn i ng
Durabi l i ty Cons i dered pract ica l ly Cons i dered pract ica l ly Cons i dered pract ica l ly Shor t - l i ved unl ess
permanent permanent permanent cont i nuous l y ma i nta i ned
(permanent i f concrete
cr ibbing is used)
'Opt ima l type of dam depends on ml i t ive ,ost of secur ing local bor row and/or const ruct ion mater ials . S

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 420 - 4

Af t er es t ab l i sh i ng the norma l fu l l -wa t er 4 . 0 TYPES OF DAMS AND wa t e r bar r i er . The s i de s l opes mus t be re l a-
t i ve l y f l at for stabi l i ty . Some seepage t hrough
and poss i b l e h i gh-wa t er e l eva t i ons of a pro-
posed reservo i r , the ex t en t of the reservo i r
SELECT I ON CRITERIA the dam typ i ca l l y occurs on the downs t r eam
( i . e ., sur f ace area) a t ful l capac i t y can be s l ope i f the reservo i r l eve l is ma i n t a i ned at or
de t e rm i ned by us i ng one of three me t hods : Tab l e 420-2 l ists genera l se l ec t i on cr i ter i a for near ful l a t al l t i mes . Th i s weakens the down -
sma l l ear th , rock , masonry and cr ib dams . s t ream s l ope and may cause eros i on of the
1 . Ground topograph i c survey t echn i ques dam . Consequent l y , homogeneous ear thf i l l
4 . 1 Ear thf i l l Embankmen t Dams
2 . Aer i a l survey t echn i ques dams are se l dom r ecommended .

3 . Measur i ng the w i d t h of the va l l ey Types o f Ear thf i l l Embankmen t Dams : Mod i f i ed Homogeneous Ear thf i l l
at t he norma l fu l l -wa t er e l eva t i on a t Ear thf i l l embankmen t dams do no t re l y Embankmen t Dams : Mod i f i ed homoge -
regu l ar i nt erva l s upon i mperv i ous i nterna l cores (or wa l l s) o f neous ear thf i l l dams have l arge l y rep l aced
concre t e , t i mber , stee l , or masonry as par t the use of homogeneous ear thf i l l dams
The capac i t y of a proposed reservo i r is o f the i r cons t ruc t i on (F i gure 420-1) . They (F i gure 420-1) . Sma l l amoun t s of st ra t eg i -
de t e rm i ned by any one of four me t hods : ca l l y p l aced perv i ous ma t er i a l s can d i ver t
depend upon care fu l l y ro l l ed and compac t -
1 . Con t our me t hod ed ear th f i l l to ensure re t ent i on of wa t e r . seepage to the downs t r eam base o f a dam
ra ther t han the s l ope i tse l f . Con t ro l is
2 . Cross-sec t i ona l me t hod Homogeneous Ear thf i l l Embankmen t accomp l i shed by us i ng a l arge f i l t ered- rock
Dams : Homogeneous ear thf i l l dams con- toe or by i nsta l l i ng a f i l ter dra i n . F i l ter
3 . Ave rage dep t h me t hod s i sts o f a s i ng l e k i nd o f ma t er i a l (exc l us i ve dra i ns w i th supp l emen t a l p i pes are bes t
4 . Mu l t i p l y i ng t he sur f ace area by 0 .3 of t he s l ope prot ec t i on) tha t is suf f i c i ent l y used in comb i na t i on w i th a rockf i l l toe
t i mes t he max i mum wa t e r dep t h i mperv i ous to func t i on as an adequa t e because of c l ogg i ng prob l ems .

Zoned Ear thf i l l Embankmen t Dams : In

zoned ear thf i l l embankmen t dams , an
i mperv i ous core is added and f l anked on
e i ther s i de by perv i ous ma t er i a l s wh i ch
enc l ose , suppor t , and prot ec t the core
(F i gure 420-1) . Zoned embankmen t dams
are the mos t re l i ab l e and mos t f requent l y
used t ype o f ear thf i l l embankmen t dam .
The ups t ream zone prov i des stabi l i ty aga i ns t
rap i d dr awdown and cont ro l s seepage .

Founda t i ons for Ear thf i l l Embankmen t Dams:

The idea l founda t i on for ear thf i l l embank -

men t dams cons i sts of , or is under l a i n a t a
sha l l ow dep t h by , a th i ck l ayer of re l at i ve l y
i mperv i ous ma t er i a l . I f ear thf i l l dams are
cons t ruc t ed on perv i ous ma t er i a l s , t he
f ounda t i on mus t be sea l ed w i th an i mperv i -
ous cutof f core or b l anke t (F i gure 420-2) . I f
they are cons t ruc t ed on f i ne- t extured or
unconso l i da t ed ma t er i a l s , they requ i re care-
fu l des i gn to ma i nt a i n stab i l i ty. In such
i nst ances , an exper i enced eng i neer shou l d
be consu l t ed . The s i de s l opes of dams on
f i ne- t extured f ounda t i ons mus t be f l a t t ened
to reduce the un i t l oad on t he f ounda t i on .

F i gure 420-2 shows how to t rea t perv i -

ous f ounda t i ons of vary i ng dep t hs . F i gure
420-3 shows t rea t men t of st rat i f i ed perv i -
Vf ous founda t i ons , and F i gure 420-4 shows
how to t rea t f ounda t i ons tha t have an

0
a
over l y i ng i mperv i ous l ayer. F i gure 420-5
shows cons t ruc t i on ove r a sa tura t ed f i ne-
t ex tured f ounda t i on .
a
Top W i d t h D i mens i ons :

M i n i mum top w i d t h d i mens i ons for ear thf i l l

embankmen t dams are l i sted in Tab l e 420-
3 . I f the t op wi l l be used as a roadway , the
r4 F i gur e 420-1 . Types o f ear thf i l l embankmen t dams. w i d t h d i mens i on shou l d be at l east 4 800
lqr
l i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
mm (16 f t ) and i nc l ude shou l ders to pre-
ven t rave l i ng of the roadway edge , and
prov i de dr i ver sa f e t y.

Se t t l emen t A l l owance :

Ear thf i l l embankmen t dams shou l d be bu i l t

to a l l ow for se t t l emen t . Tab l e 420-4 l ists
expec t ed se t t l ement of ear thf i l l dams based
on the compos i t i on of the f ounda t i on . A
m i n i mum cambe r of 300 mm (12 in) shou l d
be spec i f i ed for we l l - compac t ed l ow dams .

F reeboa rd :

Al l ear thf i l l embankmen t dams mus t be

cons t ruc t ed h i gh enough above the max i -
mum wa t e r l ine to preven t wave ac t i on
f rom sp i l l ing wa t e r ove r the top o f the dam
(Tab l e 420-5) . Freeboard requ i remen t s are
d i c t a t ed by t he s i ze of the reservo i r , and the
resu l t i ng f e t ch .

S i de S l opes:
The degree o f s i de s l ope on an ear thf i l l dam
depends on the stab i l i ty and s t rength of the
f i l l and founda t i on ma t er i a l . The mor e stab l e
the f i l l , the s t eeper the s l opes a l l owed (Tab l e
420-6) . S i de s l opes can be con t oured to
b l end in w i th sur round i ng l and f orms as l ong
as good sur f ace dra i nage is ma i n t a i ned .

4 .2 D i aph r agm Rock f i l l Dams

D i aphr agm rockf i l l dams cons i st of a rockf i l l

core and a wa t erproo f d i aphragm on the
reservo i r s i de of a dam (F i gure 420-6) .
Rockf i l l dams have the fo l l ow i ng advan t ages :

1 . They prov i de sa f e t y aga i ns t s l i d i ng .

2 . The rock may be grou t ed .

3 . Fewe r prob l ems w i th up l i f t pressure .

4 . The d i aphr agm can be p l aced a f t er

t he embankmen t is cons t ruc t ed .

5 . The d i aphr agm is access i b l e for per i -

od i c i nspec t i on and repa i r .

Ma t er i a l s :

The t ype o f rock used for t he rockf i l l zone

mus t no t break or crush dur i ng hau l i ng
and p l ac i ng , and i t mus t res i st d i s i nt egra-
t i on unde r f reeze / t haw and we t t i ng / dry-
i ng processes . F i gur e 420 -2 . Tr ea t men t o f pe r v i ous f ounda t i ons .

Mos t unwea t he r ed i gneous and me t a -

morph i c rock wor ks we l l . We l l -graded rock ,
f rom 0 . 015 to 0 . 75 m ' (1 / 2 f t ' to 1 yd ' ) in
s i ze , shou l d be used . Enough f i nes shou l d
be present to f i l l the vo i ds .

P l acemen t :

Precaut i ons mus t be t aken to preven t the

rockf i l l f rom se t t l i ng and caus i ng damage N

T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 420- 6
Tab l e 420 -3 . M I N I MUM TOP (CREST)
W I DTH D I MENS I ONS FOR EARTHF I LL
EMBANKMENT DAMS

He i gh t o f dam , M i n i mum t op
m (ft) wi dth, m (ft)
Unde r 3 . 0 (10. 0) 1 . 8 (6 . 0)

3 .4-4 .2 (11 . 0-14 .0) 2 .4 (8 .0)

4 .6-5 .8 (15 . 0-19 .0) 3 .0 (10 .0)

6 . 0-7.4 (20 . 0-24 .0) 3 .6 (12 .0)

7 . 6-10 .4 (25 . 0-34 .0) 4 .2 (14 .0)
Source : Soi l Conservat ion Service, "Ponds-Pl ann ing, Des ign,
Const ruct ion, " Agr i cul tura l Handbook Numbe r 590, USDA ,
June 1982 .

to the i mperv i ous membr ane . Th i s can hap-

F i gur e 420 -3 . A l t e rna t i ve t r ea t men t o f pe r v i ous f ounda t i ons .
pen at t wo s t ages :
1 . Dur i ng the cons t ruc t i on s t age i f the
rock ma t er i a l is not compac t ed suf f i -
c i ent l y . Rock f i l l shou l d be p l aced in
Tab l e 420 - 4 . SETTLEMENT
l ayers 600-900 mm (2-3 f t ) th i ck .
ALLOWANCES FOR EARTHF I LL
Each l ayer shou l d be s l u i ced , us i ng a
EMBANKMENT DAMS
vo l ume of wa t e r equa l to 1 / 4 to 1
t i mes the vo l ume of rock . S l u i c i ng
Founda t i on Se t t l emen t
A l l owance shou l d t ake p l ace dur i ng compac t i on
So i l
w i th heavy v i bra tory rol l ers [e .g . , 9-
Coarse Sand or Grave l 1 me t r i c t on (10- ton) 1400- rpm rol l ers] .
Si l ty or F i ne Sand 2%
2 . Dur i ng the f i rst f i l l ing s t age , ow i ng to
C l ay 5% the we i gh t o f the wa t e r . F i gure 420-7
i l lust rates the ma t hema t i cs of set t l e-
men t in a d i aphr agm rockf i l l dam .

Tab l e 420 -5 . M I N I MUM FREEBOARD ( CREST HE I GHT) REQU I REMENTS Founda t i ons:
FOR SMALL EARTH - F I LL EMBANKMENT DAMS
D i aphr agm rockf i l l dams requ i re f ounda -
t i ons tha t exh i b i t l i t t le de f orma t i on . Dams
Fe t ch , M i n i mum f r eeboa rd , Recommended f r eeboa rd ,
km (m i ) m (ft) rn (~) shou l d be cons t ruc t ed on :

Less than 1 .6 (1 .0) 3(0.9) 1 .2 (4 .0) 1 . Ex i st i ng bedrock founda t i ons cons i st -

1 .6 (1 .0) 1 .2 (4 .0) 1 .5 (5 .0) i ng of hard , durab l e bedrock res i st ant
to perco l a t i ng wa t er , f ree f rom f au l ts
4 .0 (2 .5) 1 .5 (5 .0) 1 .8 (6.0)
and shear zones , and c l ear of si l t , c l ay ,
8 .0 (5 .0) 1 .8 (6 .0) 2 .4 (8 .0) sand , and organ i c ma t er i a l .
16 .0 (10.0) 2 .1 (7 .0) 3 .0 (10.0) 2 . Sand and grave l founda t i ons , w i th a
Source : U .S . Depar tment of the Inter ior , Bureau of Rec l amat ion, Des ign of Sma l l Dams , 2d ed ., U .S . Pr int ing O f f - , cutof f and d i aphr agm cons t ruc t ed to
Wash i ngton , D.C ., 1977 . bedrock .

Prof i l e :
s The downs t r eam s l ope of a d i aphr agm
Tab l e 420 - 6 . RECOMMENDED S I DE - SLOPE GRAD I ENTS FOR COMPACTED rockf i l l dam shou l d be f l at ter than the na t -
EARTHF I LL EMBANKMENT DAMS
ura l ang l e of repose of the dumped rockf i l l .
0 The ups t ream f ace shou l d be s l ight l y con-
Fi l l ma ter i a l Ups t ream Downs t r eam vex in order to c l ose the cont rac t i on j o i nts
C l ayey sand , c l ayey grave l , sandy c l ay, si l ty sand , si l ty grave l 1 :3 1 :2 in t he membr ane as the dam set t l es .
Si l ty c l ay, c l ayey si l t 1 :3 1 :3 The crest w i d t h and f reeboard requ i re-
Source: Soi l Conservat i on Service, "Ponds-Pl ann ing, Des ign, Const ruct ion, " Agr i cul ture Handbook men t s are the same as for ear thf i l l embank -
Number 590, USDA , June 1982 . men t dams (Tab l e 420-3 , Tab l e 420-5) .
N
T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 420 - 7
Granu l a r Base for Memb r ane:

A zone of perv i ous we l l -graded sand and

grave l , quar ry f i nes , or rubb l e masonry is
typ i ca l l y used as a base for t he f ac i ng of a
d i aphr agm rockf i l l dam . Ma t er i a l ranges in
s i ze f rom 5 to 75 mm (1 / 4 to 3 in) w i th
f i nes .Th i s zone shou l d have a m i n i mum
hor i zont a l w i d t h o f 3 m (10 f t ) and shou l d
be cons t ruc t ed in 300 mm (12 in) l ayers ,
we t t ed and then compac t ed by 9- to 18-
me t r i c ton (10- to 20- ton) v i bra t i ng ro l l ers .

Af t er p l acemen t , t he zone can be

dressed smoo t h to accep t any t ype o f f ac-
i ng . Cu t back aspha l t [1 l i ter per m ' (1 ga l -
l on pe r 40 f t ' ) ] can be used to sea l and sta-
bi l i ze the sur f ace aga i ns t eros i on pr i or to
cons t ruc t i ng the f ac i ng .

Typ i ca l Membr anes :

Typ i ca l membr anes ( i . e . , f ac i ngs) for
d i aphr agm rockf i l l dams i nc l ude :
1 . Conc re t e (F i gure 420-8)

2 . Aspha l t (F i gure 420-9)

3 . T i mbe r (F i gure 420-10)

4 . St ee l (F i gure 420-11)

4 . 3 Mason r y Dams

Masonr y dams can pass l arge f l ood f l ows

ove r the i r crest w i t hou t sus t a i n i ng damage .
The i r cons t ruc t i on cos t s may be h i gher t han
those of ear thf i l l or rockf i l l dams of compa -
rab l e he i ght and crest l ength , bu t the i r
l ong- t erm durab i l i ty is much grea t er . F i gure
420-12 i l l ust rates s t one and conc re t e
masonry dams w i th ove r f l ow sp i l l ways .

Founda t i ons :
A so l i d rock f ounda t i on is i dea l for masonry
dams , but a l ow dam can be bu i l t on a
f ounda t i on of f i rm ear th as l ong as the
excava t i on is ex t ended down to an i mper -
v i ous s t ra t um w i t h adequa t e bear i ng
capac i t y . I f a f i rm s t ra tum is not present ,
p i l es mus t be used to anchor t he dam to a
f i rm f ounda t i on . The up l i f t pressure and
buoyancy f rom t a i l wa t er mus t be cons i d-
ered . Porous st ra t a or ear th ma t er i a l s tha t
become p l ast i c when we t are no t su i t ab l e . s
Nonove r f l ow Des i gn :

To de t e rm i ne the f i n i shed e l eva t i on at the

t op o f a masonr y dam , a m i n i mum f ree-
board of 1 .2 m (4 f t ) above t he max i mum
F i gur e 420 -5 . Des i gn o f Ear thf i l l Dam on Sa t ur a t ed F i ne -Gr a i ned Founda t i on . h i gh-wa t e r sur f ace in the reservo i r is
The ou t s i de s l ope o f bo t h the ups t ream and the downs t r eam st ab i l i z i ng f i l ls shou l d be assumed . A prof i l e based on the s t andards N
the same , bu t no t grea t er t han 3 :1 . out l i ned in Tab l e 420-2 is used . The f ina l
des i gn w i d t h o f the base and the down - 0
s t ream s l ope are de t e rm i ned by stab i l i ty N
ana l ys i s . Re f er to 5 .0 Stab i l i ty Ana l ys i s of

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 420-8
Grav i t y Dams in th i s sec t i on for i n forma t i on
on ca l cu l a t i ons .
Se l ec t i on of the appropr i a t e dam t ype is based on s i te cond i t i ons , cos t cons i dera t i ons , and Ove r f l ow Des i gn :
des i red per formance s t andards . Tab l e 420-2 out l i nes se l ec t i on cr i ter i a for sma l l dams .
The l ip of a masonr y dam shou l d be s l oped
1 . Zoned embankmen t dams (F i gure 420-1) are the mos t common and mos t re l i abl e in f ront and des i gned w i th a l arge sec t i on
t ype of ear thf i l l dam . F i gures 420-2 through 420-5 show des i gns for var i ous t ypes of to res i st i ce pressure . F i gure 420-13 shows
founda t i ons . a s l i ght curve a t the crest and base to
approx i ma t e the na tura l curve of fa l l ing
2 . D i aphragm rockf i l l dams use a rockf i l l core and a concre t e , aspha l t , t i mber , or stee l wa t e r . The stab i l i ty of an over f l ow dam is
d i aphragm on the ups t ream s ide of the dam (F i gures 420-8 through 420-11) . They de t e rm i ned by the same me t hod used for
shou l d be cons t ruc t ed on bedrock or sand and grave l founda t i ons . nonove r f l ow dams . In s i tua t i ons whe r e a
l ong i tud i na l cont rac t i on j o i nt at the down -
3 . Masonry dams are more expens i ve , but of fer grea t er durab i l i ty and the abi l i ty to pass s t ream t oe is prov i ded , on l y tha t por t i on of
l arge f l ows over the i r crest (F i gures 420-12 and 420-13) . They shou l d be const ruc t - t he dam ups t ream of the j o i nt is used in t he
ed on sound rock if poss i b l e . stab i l i ty ana l ys i s . I f an apron a t t he
ups t ream f ace is used to reduce up l i f t and
4 . Beaver - t ype and t i mber cr ib over f l ow dams are typ i ca l l y used for sma l l er dams tha t
i mprove stabi l i ty, i t shou l d be i nc l uded in
have shor t l i fe spans , or whe re rout i ne ma i n t enance is not a prob l em . Wood mus t be
the ca l cu l a t i ons.
kept we t to prevent dry rot . Cr i b dams may a l so be cons t ruc t ed out of precast con-
cre te un i ts for grea t er durab i l i ty . W i ng Wa l l s:

W i ng wa l l s func t i on to jo in a masonry dam

to the s i de banks of a s t ream, to preven t
eros i on of ad j acen t embankmen t f i l ls, and
to preven t seepage of wa t e r a round the
ends of the dam . The l ength o f t he pa th of
perco l a t i on a l ong any l i ne benea t h or

F i gur e 420 - 6 . Typ i ca l d i aph r agm rock f i l l embankmen t dam . F i gur e 420 - 7 . Se t t l emen t o f rock f i l l
ma t e r i a l i n d i aphr agm rock f i l l dams .

F i gur e 420 - 8 . Conc r e t e f ac i ng and

cu t o f f s l ab f or d i aphr agm rock f i l l
0 embankmen t dam .

F i gur e 420 - 9 . Aspha l t f ac i ng and f ounda t i on cu t o f f f or d i aph r agm rock f i l l

N embankmen t dam .
 420 - 9
around the w i ng wa l l s must not be less
than the path of seepage benea th the dam .
W i ng wa l l s shou ld have a m i n i mum thi ck-
ness of 600 mm (24 in) and shou ld have
proper l y const ructed foot ings . They shou ld
be high enough to conf ine the max i mum
f low wi th in the banks of the st ream .
Aprons:
The conf igurat ion of aprons depends on
the topography of the st reambed . Eros ion
must be prevented f rom occur r ing around
the ends . A m i n i mum thi ckness of 450 mm
(18 in) is recommended for aprons , and
they shou l d be backf i l l ed w i th porous
mater i a l for dra i nage .
4 .4 T i mbe r or Precast Concre t e
Cr i bb i ng Dams
Two of the most common t i mber or precast
concrete dams are beaver - type dams and
cr ib dams . Mos t fai lures are due to l eakage
undernea th the dam, undermi n i ng by the
over fal l , or rot t ing of the wood members .
Beaver -Type Dams:
F i gure 420-10 . T i mber fac i ng for d i aphragm rockf i l l embankmen t dam .
Beaver - type dams are typica l ly very l ow. A
prof i le can be const ructed f rom the cr i ter ia

F i gure 420-11 . St ee l f ac i ng and cutof f wa l l for d i aphragm rockf i l l embank F i gure 420-12 . Two t ypes of
men t dam . masonry dams .

Vf

0
F i gure 420-13 . Typ i ca l over f l ow sec t i on of a concre t e dam . F i gure 420-14 . Beaver - t ype dam .
N
Time-Saver St andards for Landscape Archi tecture
 420 - 1 0

F i gur e 420 - 15 . Tvv i ca l cr i b dams .

out l i ned in Tab l e 420-2 . I f l ogs are used , requ i remen t s , precas t concre t e cr i bb i ng The pressure ( f ) at the toe of a cross sec-
they shou l d al l be dr i f t -p i nned . Bo t t om t i m- and p l ank i ng have proved to be mor e eco- t i on can be ca l cu l a t ed f rom t he fo l l ow i ng
bers in the dam are some t i mes anchored to nom i ca l t han t i mber cr i bb i ng . f ormu l a:
bedrock . Long i tud i na l l ogs shou l d be l a id
f - R . ( + 6e
w i th the i r but ts downs t r eam . Vo i ds shou l d 5 . 0 STAB I L I TY ANALYS I S OF 1
be f i l l ed w i th grave l for dra i nage . P l ank AI d
GRAV I TY DAMS
f l oor i ng shou l d be car r i ed f rom we l l unde r whe r e
the ups t ream ear th f i l l up to the crest 5 .1 Forces Ac t i ng on Grav i t y Dams
(F i gure 420-14) . Al l t i mber dams mus t be f = pressure at the toe , kN or kg / m '
The forces tha t ac t on grav i t y dams mus t
kept we t to preven t dry rot . (psf )
be accoun t ed for in the des i gn of the dam ' s
Cr i b Dams: cross sec t i on . Tab l e 420-7 descr i bes the R , = downwa rd force (we i gh t or ver -
forces ac t i ng on grav i t y dams . t i ca l componen t of the resu l -
Cr i b dams cons t ruc t ed of t i mber or precast tant ) , kN ( Ib)
concre t e un i ts have advan t ages in i ns t ances 5 .2 Ca l cu l a t i on of St ab i l i t y
whe r e a dra i nage area is l arge , whe r e an A = area of base in compress i on , m '
over f l ow dam is necessary , or whe r e i t is di f - The processes tha t cause a grav i ty dam to ( f t2 ) (mean i ng a 1 m (1 f t ) st r ip of
f i cul t to dra i n of f the founda t i on for con- fai l are the same as those tha t ac t on ear th the dam)
re t a i n i ng wa l l s : Over turn i ng , Crush i ng or
st ruc t i on . Cr i b dams are a l so a good a l terna- e = eccent r i c i ty (d i s t ance f rom cen-
se t t l emen t a t the toe , and hor i zont a l s l i d i ng .
t i ve in l oca t i ons whe r e rock f i l l is di f f i cul t to ter l i ne of base in compress i on to
obt a i n or cos t proh i b i t i ve (F i gure 420-15) . po i nt whe r e l ine of force o f resu l -
Gene ra l St ab i l i t y:
Founda t i ons for cr ib dams shou l d be t ant cut s base) , m ( f t )
Pr i or to check i ng a cross sec t i on for e i ther
excava t ed to a m i n i mum dep t h of 300 mm d = ful l w i d th of base in compress i on ,
over turn i ng , crush i ng , or hor i zont a l s l id ing,
(12 in) or , i f uns t ab l e soi l s ex i st , to a deep-
i t shou l d be checked for genera l stab i l i ty by m (ft)
er , su i t ab l e f ounda t i on .
us i ng the procedure out l i ned in Tab l e 420-
Tab l e 420-8 i l lust rates the ca l cu l a t i on of
Abu t men t s for cr ib dams shou l d be keyed 8, test i ng a 1 m (1 f t ) w i de st r ip of the dam .
th i s test .
i nto the s i de banks of t he s t reambed to pre-
Ove r t urn i ng.
vent wash i ng a round t he ends . Rows of Hor i zon t a l S l i d i ng:
shee t p i l i ng shou l d be dr i ven to a dep t h at I f a dam we r e to over turn , i t wou l d revo l ve
The force t end i ng to cause hor i zont a l s l id-
l east the he i ght of the dam be l ow the pro- abou t i ts toe . The force res i st i ng over turn-
f i le . The rows shou l d be s t aggered to f orm a i ng of a grav i t y dam is t he hor i zont a l com-
i ng mus t be grea t er than the force t end i ng
ponen t of the resu l t ant (Rh) . The force
be t t er sea l aga i ns t seepage . The p i l i ng a t the to over turn the dam . To check a cross sec-
downs t r eam end of the apron can be of a t end i ng to res i st s l i d i ng is the ver t i ca l com-
t i on for i ts t endency to over turn , d i v i de the
cons t ant th i ckness but shou l d reach a m i n i - ponen t of the resu l t ant (R~) ( the we i gh t of
res i st i ng momen t by t he ove r t urn i ng
mum dep t h of 750 mm (30 in) to prevent the dam) mu l t i p l i ed by t he coe f f i c i ent of
momen t . A sa f e t y f ac tor (quot i ent ) of 2 or
unde rm i n i ng . A 25 mm (1 in) space shou l d f r i ct i on be t ween the dam ma t er i a l and the
mor e is cons i dered accep t ab l e . Tab l e 420-8
be prov i ded be t ween the p l anks to dra i n of f t ype of soi l on wh i ch the s t ruc ture wi l l rest .
i l lust rates the ca l cu l a t i on of th i s test .
accumu l a t ed wa t e r in t he cr i b on the down - (Re f er to Tab l e 420-10 for ave rage coe f f i -
Crush i ng: c i ents o f f r i ct ion for concre t e on var i ous
s t ream s i de when the t a i l wa t er fa l ls . Cr i bs ,
f ounda t i on beds .) A sa f e t y f ac tor o f 1 .5 or
abu t men t s , and the apron shou l d be f i l l ed
To e l i m i na t e the poss i b i l i ty of crush i ng , t he mor e is cons i dered accep t ab l e . Tab l e 420-8
w i th grave l or sma l l rocks . toe pressure o f the s t ruc ture ( f ) [measured i l lust rates the ca l cu l a t i on of th i s test .
0 Wood deck p l ank i ng (ups t ream and in kg / m ' (psf ) ] mus t be l ess t han t he bear -
downs t r eam) mus t be t i ed to t he t i mber or i ng capac i t y of the soi l [kg / M2 (psf ) ] . Tab l e O t he r f ac tors tha t he l p to res i st hor i zon-
420-9 l ists approx i ma t e bear i ng capac i t i es ta l s l i d i ng are : (1) deep cons t ruc t i on i nto
precas t concre t e cr i bb i ng to preven t f l oat -
i ng and bonded i ce f rom p l uck i ng a t the of var i ous t ypes of soi l and rock . Th i s t ab l e the ground to preven t unde rm i n i ng of the
deck . Al l t i mber dams mus t be kep t we t to can be used for p l ann i ng on s i mp l e pro- dam , and (2) roughen i ng t he rock bo t t om
preven t dry rot . Per i od i c ma i n t enance and j ects , howeve r des i gn of comp l ex pro j ec ts of the excava t i on for the dam to i ncrease
requ i res test bor i ngs and l oad tests made t he coe f f i c i ent of f r i ct i on (Tab l e 420-10) .
0 the rep l acemen t of rot t i ng t i mbers is neces-
sary in order to ensure the l ong- t e rm dura - on-s i t e .
N
bi l i ty of t he dam . In t erms of ma i n t enance

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 420 - 1 1

Tab l e 420 -7 . FORCES ACT I NG ON GRAV I TY DAMS "

`A = area of base , m 2 ( f t 2 )
a = acce l erat ion due to ear thquake , m/ s
( fps)
d = ful l w i dth of base f rom hee l to toe,
m (f t)
e = eccent r i c i ty (di stance f rom center l ine
of base to po int where l ine of force of
resul tant cuts base) , m ( f t )
h = max i mum depth of water , m ( f t )
h, = max i mum depth of si l t, m ( f t )
R~ = we i ght or ver t ical component of
the resul tant , kN ( lb)
Rh = hor i zonta l component of the
resul tant , kN ( Ib)
W = uni t we i ght of water , 9.8 kN (62 .4
pcf )
H = he i ght of dam, m ( f t )
M = un i t we i ght of dam mater i a l , kN ( lb)

Force Descr i pt i on Formu l a Re f erences

F1 Wa t er pressure : ca l cul ated for reservoi r 4 .9 h2 (31 .2 h2) Can be ca l cul ated by l andscape archi tect for
pressure (headwa ter ) ; F1, acts at 1 / 3 h p l ann i ng purposes
F2 We i ght of dam : F2 acts at mass cent ro id - A (H-M) Can be ca l cu l ated by l andscape archi tect
for p l ann i ng purposes
of des i gn sect ion :
tota l momen t we i ght
tota l mass we i ght
= A/ 2 (H M)
F3 We i ght of wa t er on face of dam : added to [77 = A/ 2 (H W) Can be ca l cul ated by l andscape archi tect for
we i ght of dam p l ann i ng purposes
F4 Up l i f t pressure : subt racted f rom we i ght of d(h1W+h2W ) Ca l cu l ated by eng i neer based on founda t i on
dam 2 cond i t ions
F5 Si l t pressure Hor i zonta l pressure = 20 psf Ca l cu l ated by eng i neer where si l tat ion is
i mpor tant
F6 Ice pressure : Hor i zonta l force -- 10 (h3) Ca l cu l ated by eng i neer
F6 acts 1 f t be l ow the top of the reservoi r . = 1-2000 psf
F7 Ver t ica l ear thquake force 0 .555 awh2 Ca l cu l ated by eng i neer us i ng : "ER 11 10-2-
FS Hor i zonta l ear thquake force (dam) 1806 , Eng i neer i ng and Des ign, Ear thquake
F9 Hor i zonta l ear thquake force (water ) Proj ects, May 16, 1983" (or equ i va l ent
F9 acts 0 .425 h above the base source of data)
F10 Wa t er pressure : ca l cul ated for ta i lwater 4 .9 h2 (31 .2 h2) Can be ca l cul ated by l andscape archi tect f s
pressure p l ann i ng purposes
For over f l ow use spi l lways,
F10 acts at 1/3 h a
R Resu l tant Deta i l ed ana l ys i s of al l A s i mp l e ana lysis, can be done by
forces act ing on the l andscape archi tect for p l ann i ng purposes
base of the dam (Tabl e 420-7)
f Pressure at the toe, psf Rv = 1 + 6e Ca l cu l ated by eng i neer to de t ermi ne
A d max i mum bear i ng st ress of founda t i on at
toe of dam
0
N
Source : Adapted f rom Freder ick S . Merr l t t , (ed . )Standard Handbook for Civi l Engineers, McGraw-Hi l l , New York . 1983 .

T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 420- 1 2
Tah i n 42n - R - STAB I L I TY ANALYS I S FOR A GRAV I TY DAM ( EXAMPLE CALCULAT I ONS )

Conc r e t e gr av i t y dam p l aced on a ha rd

angu l a r rock f ounda t i on

Procedure U.S . Ca l cu l a t i ons ' Me t r i c Ca l cu l a t i ons '

De t erm i n i ng Latera l Force (Rh) _-

1. Ca l cu l a t e pressure of re t a i ned wa ter , ac t i ng at h / 3 (P) : Rh=0 . 5(62 .4) (10)2 Rh=0 . 5(9 .8) (3) 2
[Rh=0 .5(un i t we i gh t of wa t er ) (he i ght of dam)2] Rh=3 , 320 Ibs ac t i ng a t 3 . 33 f t f rom base Rh=44 .1 kN ac t i ng a t 1 m f rom base

De t erm i n i ng Dam We i gh t (R0 -

2. Ca l cu l a t e we i gh t of sec t i on un i t A: 200x150=3 , 000 Ibs 0. 6x3x23 . 5=42 .3 kN

(bi x h x We i gh t of ma t er i a l )
3. Ca l cu l a t e we i gh t of sec t i on un i t B : 0 . 5(4x10)x150=3 , 000 Ibs 0.5(1 . 20)x23 . 5=42 .3 kN
(0 .5(62 x h) x We i gh t of Ma t er i a l ]
4. Add we i gh t s of un i ts A & B. Th i s equa l s 3 , 000+3 , 000=6 , 000 Ibs 42 . 3+42 . 3=84 .6 kN
the tota l we i gh t of t he dam ' s cross sec t i on (Rv) .
De t e rm i n i ng t he Cent ro i d

5. Ca l cu l a t e the momen t a rm of un i t A f rom the (0 . 5)2+4=5 .0 f t (0 .5) (0 .6) + 1 .2 = 1 .5 m

toe of the dam. The d i st ance of the ver t i ca l l ine
of ac t i on f rom the toe in th i s rec t angu l ar sec t i on
is f ound by:
(0 .5)b, + b2
Ca l cu l a t e the momen t a rm of un i t B f rom the (0 . 67)4 = 2 .68 f t ( .67) (1 .2) = 0 .8 m
6.
t oe of the dam. The d i st ance of the ver t i ca l l ine
of ac t i on f rom the t oe in thi s t r i angu l ar sec t i on
is f ound by : :
(0 .67) b2
7. Ca l cu l a t e t he momen t of un i t A: 3 , 000x5 . 0=15 , 000 f t Ibs 42 .3x1 . 5=63 . 45 kN m
(We i gh t x Momen t Arm)
8. Ca l cu l a t e t he momen t of un i t B: 3 , 000x2 . 68=8 , 010 f t Ibs 42 . 3x0 . 8=33 . 84 kN m
(We i gh t x Momen t Arm)
9. Add momen t s of un i ts A & B to y i e ld the tota l 15 , 000+8 , 010=23 , 010 f t Ibs 63 . 45+33 . 84=97 . 29 kN m
momen t of the dam ' s cross sec t i on .

10. Ca l cu l a t e the momen t a rm of the dam ' s

ent i re cross sec t i on :
Sum of Momen t s 23 , 0 10 _ 3 979729
.84 = 1 , 15 m
tA Sum of We i gh t s 6 , 000 44 .1

N
T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
 420 - 1 3
Tab l e 420 - 8 . STAB I L I TY ANALYS I S FOR A GRAV I TY DAM ( EXAMPLE CALCULAT I ONS ) ( con t i nued )

Procedure (cont i nued) U. S. Ca l cu l a t i ons* Me t r i c Ca l cu l a t i ons "

De t e rm i n i ng t he Resu l t ant Force (R)
11 . Ca l cu l a t e resu l tant force of wa t e r pressure (6 , 0002 + 3 , 1202)09 = 6 , 762 .7 Ibs (84 .62 + 44 .12)0 .5 = 95 .4 kN
and dam we i gh t (R) :
R = (R,2 + Rh2)o 5
12 . Graph i ca l l y cons t ruc t a para l l e l ogram of forces and The dam is genera l l y stab l e . The dam is genera l l y stab l e .
draw in t he resu l tant (R) . Ex t end d i agona l unt i l it e=0. 90 f t e=0 .27 m
i ntersects base of dam . If it passes w i th i n the m i dd l e
1/3 of the base , it is cons i dered genera l l y stab l e .
The d i sant e f rom the center l i ne of the dam base to
t he po i nt whe r e the resu l tant force cuts the base is
t he ecce nt r i c i ty (e)
Tes t i ng for Over turn i ng
13 . D i v i de the res i st ing momen t by the Res i st i ng momen t : Res i st i ng momen t :
over turn i ng momen t to check for t endency 6 , 000x3 . 84=23 , 010 f t Ibs 84 .6x1 . 15=97 . 29 kN m
to over turn. A sa fe ty fac tor of 2 Over turn i ng momen t : Over turn i ng momen t :
or more is accept ab l e : 3 , 120x3 . 33=10 , 390 f t Ibs 44 . 1x1=44.1 kN m
R , x Momen t Arm 23 , 0 10 97 . 29
= 22 Accept ab l e - = 22 Accept ab l e
Rh x Momen t Arm 10 , 390 44 .1
Tes t i ng for Crush i ng (Se t t l ement at the Toe)
14 . Test for crush i ng :
6000 ~ 6(0 .90)1 84 .6 16 ( 0 .27)1
f= 1+ f= 1+ -
f =R I1+D) 6 6 1 .8 1 .8
`
f = 1 , 000(0 .9) f = 47(1 .9)
f = 1 , 900 psf f = 89 .3 kN or 9 106 kg / m2)
Compa r e resu l ts w i th Tab l e 420-9 . Accept ab l e for hard rock. Accept ab l e for sandy-c l ay f ounda t
Tes t i ng for S l i d i ng
15 . Ca l cu l a t e the t endency to s l ide . A sa fe ty
fac tor of 1 .5 or mor e is accept ab l e :
R~ x Coe f f i c i e nt of Fr ic t i on 6 , 000(1 ) - 1 84 . 6( 1)
. 92 = 1 . 92
Rh 3 , 120 44 .1

Compa r e resu l ts w i th Tab l e 420-10 . Accept ab l e for hard rock . Accept ab l e for hard rock .
' Assumes a r f t th i ck t es t st r i p for cacu l a t -
' As , ur r , es e 1 m th i ck t es t st r i p f or ca l cu l a t i o ,

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 420 - 14

Tab l e 420 - 9. APPROX I MATE BEAR I NG CAPAC I T I ES OF

VAR I OUS SO I LS AND ROCK "

Ma t e r i a l Urn ' kg / m ' Ton / f t ' Ib/ f t '

Al luv i a l soi l 4 .5 4 , 500 1/2 1 , 000

Sof t c l ay 9.5 9 , 500 1 2 , 000

F i rm c l ay 19 .5 4 , 000 2 4 , 000

We t sand 19 .5 19 , 000 2 4 , 000

Sand and c l ay m i xed 19 .5 19 , 000 2 4 , 000

F i ne dry sand 29 .0 29 , 000 3 6 , 000

Ha rd c l ay 39 .0 38 , 500 4 8 , 000

Coarse dry sand 39 .0 38 , 500 4 8 , 000

Grave l 58 .5 58 , 000 6 12 , 000

Tab l e 420 - 11 . LANE FORMULA
Grave l and sand 78 .0 77 , 500 8 16 , 000
TO DETERM I NE RECOMMENDED
(we l l -cement ed)
CREEP RAT I OS (R)
Hard pan or hard 97 .5 97 , 000 10 20 , 000
sha l e
Ma t e r i a l R
Med i um rock 195 .0 194 , 500 20 40 , 000
Very f i ne sand and si l t 8 .5
Hard rock 780 .0 779 , 000 80 160 , 000
F i ne sand 7 .0
' Tons = U .S . shor t tons (2000 Ib), t = met r i c tons .
Med i um sand 6 .0
Source: Adapt ed f rom Al be E. Munson , Const ruct ion Des i gn for Landscape Arch i tects , McGraw-H i l l , New York , 1975 . 5 .0
Coarse sand

F i ne grave l 4 .0

Med i um grave l 3 .5
Types o f Founda t i ons:
6 . 0 DES I GN OF MAJOR Coarse grave l i nc l ud i ng some cobb l es 3 .0
COMPONENTS The ex i s t i ng cond i t i ons o f ea r t h and rock a t
Bou l ders w i th some cobb l es and grave l 2 .5
t he s i te i n f l uence t he se l ec t i on o f a dam
6 .1 Founda t i ons t ype . These cond i t i ons i nc l ude t he th i ckness , So f t c l ay 3 .0

i nc l i na t i on , permeab i l i t y , and ex i s t i ng f au l t s Med i um c l ay 2 .0

Founda t i ons mus t be des i gned t o prov i de
and f i ssures o f t he l oad-bea r i ng s t ra t a .
adequa t e bea r i ng s t reng t h , and pr even t Hard c l ay 1 .8
s l i d i ng , seepage , p i p i ng , scour i ng , and F i ve common t ypes o f f ounda t i ons on
Very hard c l ay or ha rdpan 1 .6
excess i ve se t t l emen t i n ear thf i l l and rock f i l l wh i ch sma l l grav i t y dams can be bu i l t
dams . Re f e r t o 4 . 0 Types o f Dams and Not e : If R for a cr i t ical sect ion is less than the tabu l ar va lue,
i nc l ude :
addi t iona l f l ow res i stance shou ld be inser ted in des ign sec-
Se l ec t i on Cr i t er i a i n th i s sec t i on f or des i gn
t ion . Limi tat ions: The above R va lues, de termi ned by the
r esponses t o va r i ous t ypes o f f ounda t i ons . So l i d rock f ounda t i ons : These a re su i t -
Lane formul a , do not take into account (1) the i mpor tance
ab l e f or a l l t ype o f dams desc r i bed i n th i s of dam shape and (2) the fact that the l ine of creep may
sec t i on . D i s i n t egr a t ed rock is r emoved , and not fol low the most di rect path of seepage (h1 + L + h2) .
f rac t ures a re grou t ed t o ensur e l ong - t e rm Source: Adapt ed f rom E l wyn E . See l ye , Des i gn : Data Book
st ab i l i ty o f t he f ounda t i on . for Civi l Engineers, vol. 1, Wl l ey, New York , 1960, ( f rom
t ransact ions of ASCE by E. W. Lane , 1935.)
Gr ave l f ounda t i ons : I f we l l - compac t ed ,
Tab l e 420 - 10 .
grave l is su i t ab l e f or ear thf i l l , rock f i l l , and
AVERAGE COEFF I C I ENTS OF
conc r e t e gr av i t y dams . Ef f ec t i ve wa t e r cu t -
FR I CT I ON FOR CONCRETE ON Nonun i f o rm f ounda t i ons : Des i gn t rea t -
o f f s or sea l s a r e requ i red in orde r t o pr even t
VAR I OUS FOUNDAT I ON BEDS men t by expe r i enced eng i nee r s is r ecom-
or m i n i m i ze wa t e r pe rco l a t i on .
mended .
Coe f f i c i en t o f Si l t or f i ne - sand f ounda t i ons : These a r e
Founda t i on bed f r i c t i on Bea r i ng S t r eng t h o f Founda t i ons:
V1 su i t ab l e on l y f or ear thf i l l embankmen t s .
Rock (modera t e ) 0 .7 Appropr i a t e s t eps mus t be t aken t o pr even t Al l wea t he r ed ma t e r i a l mus t be r emoved
se t t l emen t , t o pr even t p i p i ng and pe rco l a t i on
Rock (hard angu l ar ) 1 .0 f rom t he sur f ace o f rock f ounda t i ons . The
0 l osses , and t o pro t ec t t he t oe on t he down - rock ' s shea r s t reng t h shou l d be t es t ed ,
Grave l 0 .6
s t r eam s i de o f t he f ounda t i on f rom e ros i on . un l ess i t is o f unques t i onab l e durab i l i t y .
Dry c l ay 0 .5
C l ay f ounda t i ons : These a re su i t ab l e f or Conso l i da t i on and shea r s t reng t h t es t s
Sand 0 .4 ear thf i l l embankmen t dams , bu t spec i a l
N shou l d be made on ea r t h f ounda t i ons t o
We t c l ay 0 .3 des i gn t r ea t men t is requ i red . F i e l d t es t i ng is
de t e rm i ne t he expec t ed degr ee o f se t t l e-
requ i red in orde r t o de t e rm i ne t he l oad- men t and t he requ i red d i s t r i bu t i on o f l oad-
Source: Adapt ed f rom Al be E. Munson , Const ruct ion Des ign
for Landscape Archi tects, McGraw-H i l l New York , 1975 . bea r i ng capac i t y and conso l i da t i on cha r ac -
i ng t o pr even t c r ack i ng .
t er i st i cs o f t he f ounda t i on .

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 420- 1 5
S l i d i ng.

The sur f aces of rock f ounda t i ons mus t be

c l eaned to preven t s l i d i ng . On hor i zont a l l y
bedded sha l e f ounda t i ons w i th th i n beds ,
the f ounda t i on shou l d be des i gned by an
exper i enced eng i nee r . Whe r e dange r of
s l i d i ng is present , the dam mus t be
anchored by us i ng a we i gh t ed ups t ream
b l anke t or an aspha l t or concre t e cutof f
(see F i gures 420-8 and 420-11) .

6 . 2 Dr a i nage Prob l ems

Severa l t echn i ques are common l y used to
m i n i m i ze seepage and p i p i ng , wh i ch are
pervas i ve prob l ems in the des i gn of dams .

Masonr y or T i mbe r Dams :

The amoun t o f l eakage tha t occurs t hrough

founda t i ons depends on the t ype o f f ounda -
t i on on wh i ch the dam is bu i l t . On rock
founda t i ons , masonry dams typ i ca l l y have
dr i l l ed dra i nage ho l es downs t r eam to re l i eve
up l i f t pressures on the base of the dam .
On ear th founda t i ons , masonr y and t i m-
be r dams requ i re : F i gur e 420 - 16 . Downs t r eam Embankmen t Sec t i ons f or Pe r v i ous
Founda t i ons. Hor i zon t a l dra i nage b l anke t s mee t i ng f i l ter requ i remen t s may be requ i red
1 . A cutof f of concre t e or shee t p i l ing dr i - benea t h perv i ous she l l s in sec t i ons (A) and (B) to preven t f ounda t i on p i p i ng. The en l arged
ven to rock or to an i mperv i ous s t ra tum toe -dra i n de t a i l i l l ust rates a reversed f i l ter and dra i n be l ow the ground l eve l to car ry of f
wa t e r and thereby stab i l i ze the embankmen t by l owe r i ng the wa t e r t ab l e , whe r e founda -
2 . An ups t ream b l anke t of ear th or
t i ons are perv i ous.
concre t e

F i gur e 420 - 18 . Ex t r apo l a t i on o f

f l ood f r equency cur ves.

F i gur e 420 - 17 . Abu t men t con t ac t pro t ec t i on .

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T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 420- 1 6
ana l ys i s is a l so conduc t ed . Howeve r , the Hor i zont a l Dra i nage B l anke t s :
we i gh t ed c reep ra t i o shou l d never be l ess
t han 1 .5 . B l anke t s mus t have suf f i c i ent capac i t y to
conduc t the tota l amoun t of seepage f rom
Ear thf i l l Embankmen t Dams: t he embankmen t and f ounda t i on to the toe
dra i ns . A m i n i mum b l anke t th i ckness o f
For l eakage cont ro l , ear thf i l l embankmen t 300 mm (12 in) is necessary to ensure con-
dams requ i re : t i nu i ty. The th i cker t he l ayer , the grea t er the
F i gur e 420 - 19 . Typ i ca l ove r f l ow perm i ss i b l e dev i a t i on f rom t he f i l ter
sp i l l way. 1 . A cutof f t rench f i l l ed w i th concre t e ,
ear th (w i th benton i t e) , i mpe rv i ous requ i remen t s g i ven . Dra i nage t renches and
ear th , s lur ry, or a l ine of shee t p i l i ng pressure- re l i e f wa l l s can be used to reduce
(see F i gures 420-8 t hrough 420-12) upl i f t and cont ro l seepage .

2 . An ups t ream f i l ter b l anke t Toe Dra i ns :

Toe dra i ns are common l y i nsta l l ed w i th
6 . 3 F i l t e r D r a i ns
hor i zont a l dra i nage b l anke t s . They are pro-
The des i gn of sma l l dams on homogeneous gress i ve l y i ncreased in s i ze ; the sma l l es t
perv i ous founda t i ons shou l d i nc l ude the dra i ns are l a id a l ong the abu t men t sec t i ons ,
use of perv i ous she l l s , hor i zont a l dra i nage and t he l argest dra i ns are p l aced across the
b l anke t s , toe dra i ns , pressure- re l i e f we l l s va l l ey f l oor. They co l l ect seepage and l ead
(see F i gure 420-4) , or comb i na t i ons of i t to an out fa l l p i pe wh i ch d i scharges i nto a
these i f pos i t i ve cutof f t renches are not sp i l l way , out l e t wor ks st i l l ing bas i n , or r i ver
prov i ded (F i gure 420-16) . F i l ter dra i ns of channe l be l ow the dam whe r e i t can be
F i gur e 420 - 20 . Typ i ca l chu t e grave l or rock prevent p i p i ng ( loss of core mon i t ored . Vi t r i f i ed c l ay p i pe , concre t e t i le,
sp i l l way. f i nes) by co l l ec t i ng the seepage and a l l ow i ng or h i gh dens i t y po l ye thy l ene p i pe is typ i ca l -
i t to f l ow away. F i l ter dra i ns are a l so used on ly used . M i n i mum dep t h of t rench is 900 to
3 . A heavy downs t r eam apron t o homogeneous perv i ous founda t i ons over l a i d 1 200 mm (3 to 4 f t ) . The m i n i mum p i pe
i ncrease t he seepage l ength of t he by th i n i mperv i ous l ayers (see F i gure 420-4) . d i ame t e r is 150 mm (6 in) . P i pes shou l d be
base o f the dam sur rounded by aggrega t e tha t mee t s f i l ter
Perv i ous Downs t r eam She l l s: requ i remen t s . Two- l aye r f i l ters are of t en
The Lane f ormu l a is used t o es t i ma t e the requ i red .
The we i gh t of the she l l mus t be adequa t e to
requ i red l ength of t he pa th of perco l a t i on stab i l i ze t he f ounda t i on . Pressures mus t be
unde r masonry dams to preven t p i p i ng Dra i nage Trenches :
re l i eved on t he i mperv i ous l ayer. She l l s mus t
(Tab l e 420-11) . The f ormu l a g i ves the rat io be des i gned to prevent p i p i ng or mus t be Dra i nage t renches are used when perv i ous
of t he we i gh t ed creep d i s t ance to the ne t
rep l aced w i th a hor i zont a l dra i nage b l anke t f ounda t i ons are over l a i d by a th i n i mperv i -
head on the dam . These rat i os can be
des i gned to mee t f i l ter requ i remen t s . ous l ayer (see F i gure 420-4) . They re l i eve
reduced to 80 percent o f t he va l ues g i ven ,
upl i f t pressures in the perv i ous s t ra tum .
i f f i l tered dra i ns are proper l y used ; or 70
Typ i ca l l y , they are i nsta l l ed w i th toe dra i ns .
percent o f the va l ues g i ven , i f a f l ow-ne t

CU

F i gur e 420 -21 . Typ i ca l drop- i n l e t sp i l l way f or a sma l l dam .

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 420 - 1 7
They are not e f f ec t i ve i f the perv i ous foun- 6 .6 Sp i l l ways and F i sh Ladde rs d i scharge resu l t i ng f rom max i mum reser -
da t i on is st rat i f i ed . Mor e e f f ec t i ve dra i nage vo i r l eve l , i nc l ud i ng ful l w i nd bu i l dup .
can be accomp l i shed by pressure- re l i e f Sp i l l ways prot ec t some t ypes of dams f rom
we l l s in these i ns t ances (see F i gure 420-3) . over topp i ng dur i ng f l ood i ng , and keep the Masonr y Sp i l l ways:
reservo i r ' s wa t e r sur f ace be l ow some prede -
Severa l t ypes of masonry sp i l l ways are com-
F i l ter Dra i n Requ i r emen t s : t erm i ned l eve l . The s i ze , type , or l oca t i on of
a sp i l l way wi l l i nf l uence the cho i ce of dam mon l y used in dam cons t ruc t i on , the mos t
The f i l ter capac i t y o f the dra i n mus t be ade - i mpor t an t of wh i ch are over f l ow sp i l l ways ,
t ype . Runo f f and s t reamf l ow character i st i cs
qua t e to hand l e t he tota l seepage f l ow de t erm i ne sp i l l way requ i rement s . On s t reams chu t e sp i l l ways , s i de -channe l sp i l l ways ,
f rom the f ounda t i on and embankmen t . i t drop- i n l e t sp i l l ways , and s i phon sp i l l ways .
w i th l arge f l ood potent i a l , the sp i l l way st ruc-
mus t be pe rmeab l e to ensure the d i scharge ture wi l l dom i na t e the dam conf i gura t i on .
of seepage wa t e r at m i n i mum up l i f t pres- Ove r f l ow sp i l l ways re fer to the f l ow of
The need for a l arge sp i l l way may sugges t wa t e r ove r the crest of t he dam (F i gure
sures . The grada t i on mus t be suf f i c i ent to the adopt i on of an over f l ow dam whe r e the
preven t f ounda t i on and embankmen t soi l 420-19) . Re f er to 4 .3 Masonr y Dams in th i s
sp i l l way and dam can be comb i ned i nto one sec t i on for i n forma t i on on over f l ow sec-
par t i c l es f rom ent er i ng the f i l ter and c l og-
st ruc ture , of t en a t l ess expense . t i ons of masonr y dams .
g i ng i t . The max i mum par t i c l e s i ze in the f i l -
ter ma t er i a l shou l d be 75 mm (3 in) . The probab i l i t y of a sp i l l way des i gn f l ood Chu t e sp i l l ways are used w i th bo t h
shou l d be de t e rm i ned . Typ i ca l l y , a range of ear thf i l l and rockf i l l dams whe r e the t opog-
6 .4 Cu t o f f s 0 .1 to 0 .01 chance per year is cons i dered raphy a l l ows the cons t ruc t i on of a chu t e to
sa f e . The magn i t ude of the des i gn f l ood ( in car ry the wa t e r away f rom the toe , t he reby
Cuto f f s prevent excess i ve seepage t hrough
t e rms of peak f l ow and vo l ume ) tha t cor re- e l i m i na t i ng the dange r of unde rm i n i ng . The
a dam by j o i n i ng the i mperv i ous s t ra tum in
sponds to the se l ec t ed probab i l i t y of occur - s i de wa l l s o f the chu t e are des i gned as
the f ounda t i on w i th the base of the i mper -
rence shou l d be de t e rm i ned . No t e tha t grav i ty , cant i l ever , or l i n i ng wa l l s (F i gure
v i ous e l emen t in the dam . A wa t er t i ght sea l
mus t ex i st a l ong the ups t ream con t ac t of there is a ce i l i ng to the f l ood pot ent i a l : 420-20) .
probab l e max i mum f l ood (PMF ) . In mos t
the i mperv i ous membr ane w i th t he foun- S i de -channe l sp i l l ways are used in nar -
cases , t he magn i t ude of t he PMF can be
da t i on and abu t men t s (see F i gures 420-8 row canyons whe r e i t is i mposs i b l e to
de t e rm i ned for any st a t i on on any r i ver.
t hrough 420-11) . obt a i n suf f i c i ent crest l ength for over f l ow
Peak f l ow can be de t e rm i ned by ex t rapo-
Cu to f f Trenches : l a t i ng a f l ood f requency curve t owa rd the or chu t e sp i l l ways . The channe l norma l l y
ce i l i ng of the PMF (F i gure 420-18) . runs para l l e l to the r i ver.
Cutof f t renches requ i re a m i n i mum bo t t om
The conven t i ona l hydrau l i c des i gn of t he Drop- i n l e t sp i l l ways re f er t o ver t i ca l
w i d th of 2 400 mm (8 f t ) and a max i mum
sp i l l way and st i l l ing bas i n shou l d be based sha f t i n l ets w i th a hor i zont a l condu i t
s i de s l ope of 1 :1 (see F i gures 420-2 and 420-
on the max i mum reservo i r l eve l w i t hou t ex t end i ng t hrough the dam to the base o f
3) . They are cut a l ong the center l i ne of the
w i nd . Th i s des i gn shou l d be checked for a t he downs t r eam f ace . F i gure 420-21 i l lus-
dam and ex t end i nto the i mperv i ous l ayer.
The t renches are f i l l ed and compac t ed w i th
th i n l ayers of c l ay or sandy c l ay ma t er i a l .

Cu to f f Wa l l s:
The ca l cu l a t i on of dam stab i l i ty is s i mi l ar to ear th re t a i n i ng wa l l s . Tab l e 420-8
Cu to f f Wa l l s are typ i ca l l y cons t ruc t ed of out l i nes a samp l e ca l cu l a t i on for stab i l i ty ana l ys i s in U .S . and me t r i c un i ts . Add i t i ona l
concre t e (see F i gures 420-9 and 420-11) . des i gn cons i dera t i ons i nc l ude :
They shou l d ex t end f rom the ups t ream toe
a t l east 900 mm (3 f t ) i nto bedrock . They 1 . So l i d rock or compac t ed grave l prov i de the bes t founda t i on for al l dams . Si l t or c l ay
may requ i re a deepe r wa l l and / or grout i ng , founda t i ons are su i tab l e on l y for ear thf i l l embankmen t s . Geot echn i ca l eng i neers shou l d
and mus t prov i de suppor t for the we i gh t be consu l t ed for const ruc t i on on non-un i f orm founda t i ons .
and thrus t of t he i mperv i ous membr ane .
2. Seepage and the loss of core f ines (p i p i ng) are pervas i ve prob l ems in the des i gn of
6 .5 Sur f ace Dr a i nage dams . Cutof fs , dra i nage b l anke ts , perv i ous she l l s, and f i l ter dra i ns may be used to avo i d
these prob l ems . Se l ec t i on of the appropr i a t e me t hod depends on the t ype of dam , and
Sur f ace eros i on f rom runof f t ends to deve l - the founda t i on .
op a l ong t he cont ac t l ine be t ween the dam
abu t men t s and the s i de s l opes of t he 3 . Sp i l l ways are des i gned to prevent nonover f l ow dams f rom over topp i ng dur i ng f l ood-
s t reambed (F i gure 420-17) . Runo f f can be ing . Sp i l l ways may be cons t ruc t ed out of ear th or masonry. Se l ec t i on of an appropr i a t e
cont ro l l ed by cons t ruc t i ng a gut t er o f cob- des i gn depends on the f l ood potent i a l and phys i ca l character i st i cs of the dam si te . S
b l es , grou t ed r i prap , concre t e , aspha l t , dry-

0
rock pavemen t , or ha l f - round p i pe . 4. F i sh l adders may be requ i red to a l l ow passage of f i sh over the dam . A var i e ty of
des i gns are used , but typ i ca l l y prov i de s t epped poo l s w i th an average s l ope of 4 :1
Ear th swa l es or open dra i ns can be prov i d- (F i gure 420-24) .
ed to cont ro l sur f ace dra i nage . D i scharge
shou l d be d i ver t ed f rom the toe dra i n away 5. Dra i n p i pes or drop inl ets may be insta l l ed to ma i nt a i n prescr i bed f l ow through the
f rom the downs t r eam toe of the embank - dam . P i pes mus t be proper l y bedded to prevent fa i lure, and shou l d be des i gned by a N
men t by the use of out fa l l dra i ns or channe l s. geot echn i ca l eng i neer .
0
6. Ups t ream s l opes shou l d be prot ec t ed w i th f ac i ng ma ter i a l s l i sted in Tab l e 420-14 .
Downs t r eam s l opes of ear thf i l l dams shou l d be f aced w i th rock or sod . N
T i me-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 420- 1 8
Perm i ss i b l e sp i l l way ve l oc i t i es can be
TABLE 420 - 12 . Pe rm i ss i b l e Ve l oc i t i es f or Vege t a t ed Sp i l l ways
de t e rm i ned f rom three f ac tors : the vege t a -
t i on t ype (degree of re t ardance) , the na tur -
Pe rm i ss i b l e Pe rm i ss i b l e
al s l ope of the out l e t channe l , and the soi l
ve l oc i t y , " e ros i on - ve l oc i t y .* eas i l y
r es i s t an t so i l , " " e r oded so i l s , " " erodab i l i t y f ac tor (Tab l e 420 -12) .
mm / sec mm / sec
Ear th sp i l l ways requ i re regu l ar ma i n t e -
S l ope o f ou t l e t channe l nance , i nc l ud i ng the repa i r o f eros i on chan-
o - S% s -1o% as% S - 1o% ne l s , the remova l of brush and t rees , and
the c l earance of t rash f rom t he inl et chan-
Vege t a t i on
ne l o f t he sp i l l way .
Be rmuda grass , bah i agrass 2 400 2 100 1 800 1 500
F i sh Ladde r s :
Bu f f a l ograss , Ken t ucky b l uegrass , smoo t h 2 100 1 800 1 500 1 200
brome , ta l l f escue , reed cana rygr ass
In the Un i t ed St a t es mos t l oca l and st a t e
Sod - f orm i ng grass and l egume m i x t ur es 1 500 1 200 1 200 900 l aws requ i re tha t dams be cons t ruc t ed w i th
Lespedeza ser i cea , weep i ng l ovegrass , ye l l ow 1 050 1 050 750 750 a prov i s i on o f some means for the sa f e pas-
sage o f f i sh . F i sh l adders , a l t hough bu i l t in
" Increase va l ues 10% when the ant i c i pa ted average use of the sp i l l way is not more f requent than once in 5 years , or 25% a var i e ty of conf i gura t i ons , essent i a l l y con-
when the ant i c i pa ted average use is not more f requent than once in 10 years. s i st of an i nc l i ned t rough w i th an ave rage
" Those w i th a h i gher c l ay cont ent and h i gher pl ast i c i ty; typ i ca l soi l t extures are si l ty c l ay, sandy c l ay, and c l ay.
s l ope o f 1 :4, ba f f l ed to f orm s t epped poo l s
in wh i ch the wa t e r f l ows a t a ve l oc i t y
" ' Those w i th a h i gh cont ent of f ine sand or si l t and l ower pl ast i c i ty, or nonp l ast i c; typ i ca l soi l textures are f ine sand , si l t , sandy
aga i ns t wh i ch the f i sh can eas i l y sw i m
l oam, and si l ty l oam .
(F i gure 420 -24) . In the Un i t ed Sta tes , spec-
Source.: "Ponds-P l ann i ng , Des i gn , Const ruc t i on , " Agr i cu l ture Handbook No . 590 , USDA Soi l Conserva t i on Serv i ce , June 1982 . i f i cat i ons for f i sh l adders are typ i ca l l y fur -
n i shed by st a t e author i t i es . The l oca t i on
and des i gn o f the en t rance to a f i sh l adder
t ra t es a typ i ca l examp l e o f a drop- i n l e t spi l l - because o f the cos t of the head wor ks is cr i t i ca l . The en t rance to the l owe r end
way for a sma l l dam . (F i gure 420 -22) . mus t be l oca t ed in an eddy and in the pa th
of m i gra t i on . The m i n i mum wa t e r dep t h
S i phon sp i l l ways ho l d the wa t e r l eve l of Ea r t h Sp i l l ways: shou l d be approx i ma t e l y 1 m (3-4 f t ) .
reservo i rs w i th i n c l ose l imi ts . They are no t
su i t ab l e for hand l i ng l arge var i a t i ons in Ear th sp i l l ways cons i st of three e l emen t s :
6 . 7 Ou t l e t s
f l ow. They are a l so re l a t i ve l y expens i ve an i n l e t channe l , a l eve l por t i on , and an
out l e t channe l (F i gure 420 -23) . Dam out l e ts serve to ma i n t a i n a l i ve s t ream,
preserve downs t r eam uses of wa t er , aba t e
wa t e r po l l ut i on and a l l ow the emp t y i ng o f
a reservo i r for i nspec t i on , ma i n t enance , or
repa i r . Dam out l e ts are a l so used as serv i ce
sp i l l ways when used in con j uc t i on w i th
bypass over f l ows or when used as f l ood
cont ro l regu l a tors .

The out l e t wor ks and the i r cont ro l s are

des i gned to re l ease wa t e r a t prescr i bed
ra t es , as de t e rm i ned by downs t r eam
requ i rement s , f l ood cont ro l regu l a t i ons , or
s torage cons i dera t i ons . Any out l e t p i pe
unde r a dam on an ear th f ounda t i on mus t
be proper l y bedded to preven t fa i l ure
a l ong the p i pe . Th i s des i gn shou l d be
approved by an exper i enced geot echn i ca l
eng i neer .

Drop- i n l e t s cons i st o f a p i pe bar re l l oca t -

ed unde r the dam , w i th a r i ser connec t ed
0 to the ups t ream end of the bar re l (F i gure
420 -25) . The d i ame t e r o f the r i ser mus t be
somewha t l arger than the d i ame t e r of t he
bar re l i f the tube is to f l ow ful l . S i nce sma l l -
d i ame t e r p i pe is eas i l y c l ogged , a m i n i mum
N p i pe s i ze of 150 mm (6 in) in d i ame t e r
shou l d be used .
Dra i np i pes prov i de a means for both
F i gur e 420 - 22 . Typ i ca l s i phon sp i l l way f or a sma l l dam .
N par t i a l and comp l e t e dra i nage of reservo i rs

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 420- 1 9

F i gur e 420 - 24 . Typ i ca l poo l - t ype f i sh l adde r .

u1

a
0
a
F i gur e 420 - 25 . Typ i ca l drop- i n l e t t r i ck l e t ube w i t h dr a i n p i pe . Trash racks and ba f f l es at a l l i ntakes are not shown .
fA

N
T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture
 420- 2 0
Tab l e 420 - 13 . COMMON MATER I ALS USED FOR DAM FACE PROTECT I ON

Type o f ma t e r i a l S l ope Dep th p l aced Cons i de r a t i ons

R i prap (dumped) Ups t ream 450-900 mm P l aced 100-150 mm (4-6 in .)

Downs t r eam (18-36 in .) above e l eva t i on reached b
norma l spr i ng f l ood
Best t ype of prot ec t i on for l ow
u l t i ma t e cost

R i prap (handp l aced) Ups t ream 300 mm (12 in .) No t su i tab l e for areas w i th
Downs t r eam m i n i mum set t l ing
Re l a t i ve l y expens i ve F i gu r e 420 - 26 . S l ope p ro t ec t i on f or
Concre t e Ups t ream 150 mm (6 in .) Shou l d ex t end f rom crest to sma l l dams . The r equ i r ed m i n i mum
Downs t r eam m i n i mum be l ow m i n i mum wa t e r l ev dep t h may be ob t a i ned by t r ench i ng .
Expens i ve
No t su i tab l e for areas w i th
set t l ing Downs t r eam S l ope Pro t ec t i on :
La i d mono l i th i ca l l y or w i th
f ew sea l ed jo ints No spec i a l sur f ace t r ea t men t i s requ i red f or
Precas t b l ocks su i tab l e for l ess downs t r eam s l opes i f t he downs t r eam zone
i mpor t ant st ruc tures
Requ i res h i gher f reeboard o f an embankmen t cons i s t s o f rock or cob -
(some t i mes wave wa l l ) b l e f i l l . Downs t r eam s l opes o f dams w i t h
ou t e r sur f aces o f ear th , sand , or grave l
Aspha l t Ups t ream 100 mm (4 in .) Requ i res h i gher f reeboard
Downs t r eam l ayers (some t i mes wave wa l l ) shou l d be pro t ec t ed aga i ns t w i nd and
m i n i mum wa t e r by a l aye r o f rock , cobb l es , or sod
Ups t ream Expens i ve (see Tab l e 420 -13) .
Stee l
Se l dom used

Na t i ve grasses su i tab l e REFERENCES

Sod Downs t r eam
Dra i nage be rms requ i red
Fer t i l i zer and un i form Abbe t t , Robe r t W Ci v i l
i r r igat ion requ i red to Eng i nee r i ng Prac t i ce , vo l . 2, W i l ey , New
estab l i sh the sod York , 1956.

Re i nforced ear th Ups t ream Des i gned as comp l e t e dam Ame r i can I ron and St ee l Ins t i tut e . Hand -
Downs t r eam st ruc ture book o f St ee l Dr a i nage and H i ghway
Rock cobb l es Downs t r eam 75-300 mm Su i tab l e for ar i d reg i ons Cons t ruc t i on Produc t s , 2d ed. , Wash i ng -
(3-12 in .) ton , DC , 1971 .

Soi l cemen t Ups t ream 900-3 000 mm May be used in l i eu of r i prap Go l ze , A l f r ed R. ( ed. ) . Handbook o f Dam
(3-10 f t .) whe r e rock of adequa t e
Eng i nee r i ng , Van Nos t r and Re i nho l d , New
hor i zonta l s i ze is no t loca l l y ava i l ab l e
Ro l l ed compac t ed concre t e York , 1977 .

150-300 mm Stone p l aced in a mor t ar bed Mer r i t t , F r ede r i ck S . ( ed. ) . S t anda rd Hand -
Grou t ed r iprap Ups t ream
(6-12 in .) and f i l led in w i th mor t ar book f or C i v i l Eng i nee rs , 3d ed. , McG r aw -
Econom i ca l for sma l l dams H i l l , New York , 1983 .
w i th cheap source of 150 -
300 mm (6-12 in . ) s tone Munson , A l be E. Cons t ruc t i on Des i gn f or
Landscape Arch i t ec t s , McGr aw-H i l l , New
Concre t e i n j ect i on ma t s Ups t ream 150-200 mm Econom i ca l
(6-8 in . ) Eas i l y insta l l ed York , 1975 .
Use fu l for sma l l ponds and
See l ye , E l w i n E. Des i gn : Da t a Book f or Ci v i l
channe l s
Eng i nee rs , vo l . 1 , W i l ey , New York , 1960 .
Gab i on ma t s Ups t ream 150-300 mm Econom i ca l whe r e on l y sma l l
(6-12 in .) s tone s i zes are ava i l ab l e U . S . Depa r t men t o f Agr i cu l t ure , So i l Con -
Used on l y for t empora ry se rva t i on Se rv i ce . Na t i ona l Eng i nee r i ng
st ruc tures Handbook , Wash i ng t on , DC , 1977.
U. S. Depa r t men t o f Agr i cu l t ure , So i l
Conse r va t i on Se r v i ce . Ponds -P l ann i ng ,
f or sa f e t y and ma i n t enance r easons . A su i t - f ac i ngs a r e l i s t ed i n Tab l e 420 - 13 . Des i gn , Cons t ruc t i on , Agr i cu l t ur e Hand -
ab l e ga t e or o t he r con t ro l dev i ce shou l d be Pro t ec t i ve ma t e r i a l s shou l d ex t end f rom t he book 590 , Wash i ng t on , DC , June 1982 .
i ns t a l l ed , and t he dr a i np i pe shou l d be cres t o f t he dam t o 0. 6 m (2 f t ) be l ow m i n- U. S. Depa r t men t o f t he i nt er i or , Bur eau o f
a
ex t ended t o t he ups t r eam t oe o f t he dam i mum wa t e r l eve l . They shou l d be s i zed f or Rec l ama t i on . Des i gn o f Sma l l Dams , 2d
( F i gure 420 -25) . wave ac t i on and t e rm i na t ed on a suppor t - ed. , Wash i ng t on , DC , 1977.
i ng be rm ( F i gure 420 -26) . Ups t r eam r i prap
6. 8 Dam Fac i ng shou l d be pro t ec t ed wi th su i t ab l e
f i l t er / t rans i t i on l ayers . Re f e r t o Sec t i on 880 :
N Ups t r eam S l ope Pro t ec t i on : Geo t ex t i l es , f or mo r e i n f orma t i on on t he
Ups t r eam s l opes o f dams shou l d be pro- use o f f abr i cs f or s l ope pro t ec t i on .
t ec t ed aga i ns t wave ac t i on and bur row i ng
N an i ma l s . Common ma t e r i a l s used f or dam

T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 SECT I ON

Sur f ac i ng
and Pav i ng

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
N i cho l as T. D i nes
Consu l t an t :
Roys t on , Hanamo t o , Al l ey , and Abey
M i l l Va l l ey , Ca l i forn i a
Rev i ewe rs :
Robe r t Fage r
Sasak i Assoc i a t es , I nc .
Wa t e r t own , Massachuse t t s

Cha r l es W. Har r i s , Eme r i t us Pro f essor

Ha r va rd Gr adua t e Schoo l o f Des i gn
Cambr i dge , Massachuse t t s

CONTENTS

1 .0 Int roduc t i on Edge Th i cken i ng 3 . 4 Cos t and Ma i n t enance

1 .1 Gene ra l Edge Res t ra i nt Cos t
1 . 2 Pavemen t Con t ex t s C l ay So i l St ra t eg i es Ma i n t enance
2 .0 Bas i c Componen t s 2 .5 Pavemen t Jo i nt s 4 . 0 Ma t er i a l s Se l ec t i on n
2 .1 Subg r ade 3 . 0 Pavemen t Des i gn Cr i t er i a Re f e rences
2 .2 Aggrega t e Base and Subbase
2 .3 Pavemen t
3 .1 App l i ca t i on
Load-Bea r i ng Ab i l i ty a
F l ex i b l e Pavemen t s Durab i l i ty
R i g i d Pavemen t s Sa f e t y n
Porous Pavemen t s Aes the t i cs a
2 . 4 Pavemen t Edge 3. 2 C l i ma t e
Aggr ega t e Base Ex t ens i on 3. 3 Subgr ade n
c

u
N

T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 440 - 2

2 .0 BAS I C COMPONENTS mi n i ng var ious pavement layer thi cknesses .

1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON Mi t igat ing dev i ces such as fabr ic separator ,
1 .1 Genera l Pavements are l ayered compos i te st ructures act to prevent f ine col loida l soi l f rom
migrat ing upward into the aggrega te sub-

T
his sect ion covers the st ructura l des i gned to bear pedest r i an and vehi cul ar base (Refer to Sect ion 880 : Geotext i l es for
des ign of pedest r i an and vehi cul ar ci rculat ion loads, wh i l e prov id ing an even spec i f i c references) . Un i form subgrade
pavement s typica l ly encountered in we l l -dra ined sur face . The st ructura l layers mo i sture content is essent i a l to reduce gen-
resident ial , urban, inst i tut ional , and com- of pavement common l y consist of a pre- eral de format i on and di f ferent ial swe l l ing in
merc i a l si te p l ann ing appl i cat ions . I t focus- pared subgrade , an aggregate base , and a c l ay and in f rost / thaw cond i t ions .
es on const ruct ion factors requi red to wear i ng or sur face layer . F igure 440-10 dia- Per forated subdra ins a id in stabi l i z ing f luc-
accommoda t e var ious appl i cat ions, wi th grammat i ca l l y i l lust rates the component s of tuat ing wa ter tabl es and per iodi c h igh inf i l -
regard to loading, subgrade , c l imate , cost , a typical l ight road or heavy path pave- t rat ion rates (Refer to Sect ion 810 : Soi ls
and ma i nt enance . ment , indi cat ing prov i s ions for c lay soi l and Aggregates , and Sect ion 130 : Si te
const ruct ion, inc luding an addi t iona l aggre- Const ruct ion Operat ions) .
Thi s sect ion is supp l ement ed by da ta gate subbase , a subgrade fabr i c separator ,
conta i ned in other sect ions of this hand- and a per forated subdra in pipe system . If a 2 .2 Aggrega t e Base and Subbase
book . Division 800 prov ides des ign and f lexible pavement is used, it is common
const ruct ion da ta on a var i ety of mater i a l s pract i ce to rest ra in the edge to prevent lat - The base l ayer consists of a graded aggre-
used for pav i ng . Sect ions 820 : Aspha l t , and eral creep . Al l subdra ins must be p l aced gate founda t i on that t ransfers the pave-
830 : Concrete , refer in cons iderab l e detai l be l ow the local f rost l ine . ment load to the subgrade in a cont rol l ed
to the use of these two mater i a l s for radi at ing manner . The base a l so prevents
pav ing, and prov ide names of agenc i es, 2 .1 subgrade upward migrat ion of wa t er through capi l -
organi zat ions, and manufacturers of var i - lary act ion, and acts to di f fuse inf i l t rated
The subgrade is the soi l layer benea th the storm wa t er. Light duty pavements typi ca l -
ous products . Di v i s ion 900 inc ludes many pavement wh i ch bears the des ign load,
examp l es of pav i ng deta i ls for a var i ety of ly requi re a singl e layer of sand or stone
uses . It a l so inc ludes examp l es of re lated rece ives inf i l t rat ion water , and is subj ect to dust to serve both as a set t ing bed, as we l l
ground wa t er infus ion due to seasona l f luc-
detai ls, such as curbs, dividers, and edges . tuat ions or upward capi l lary migrat ion . I t
as a st ructura l base .

1 .2 Pavemen t Con t ex t s may cons i st of exist ing si te subsoi l at the Heavy-duty pavement s or weak sub-
bot tom pl ane of a grad i ng cut , or a con- grades , usua l l y requi re an addi t iona l l ayer
Pavement s are genera l l y classi f ied by the i r t rol led st ructura l fi l l , p l aced in compac t ed of base mater i a l , cal led a subbase , wh i ch
i ntended use wi th in a par t i cul ar l andscape l i fts . In e i ther event , it is common l y refer red a l so consists of a c l ean but coarser -graded
or des ign context . Pavement types and to as "prepared subgrade , " because a f ield aggregate l ayer. Both aggrega te base and
st ructura l character ist ics are mod i f i ed by operat ion is typica l ly requi red to prepare subbase typi ca l ly extend beyond the pave-
appl i cat ion load ing (heavy, med i um, or the new subsur face to insure proper pi tch, ment edge to prov ide lateral suppor t , and
l ight duty) , subgrade bear ing capac i ty, cl i - e l evat ion or depth, and un i formi ty. In most to prevent uneven subgrade load ing . In
mate , instal lat ion, and ma i ntenance costs . c i rcumstances , the subgrade is s loped par - heavy c lay c i rcumstances , the subbase is
Tab l e 440-1 i l lust rates how a dec i s ion al lel to the f ini shed pavement sur face to of ten extended we l l beyond the pavement
mat r i x mi ght be used to he lp des ign a par - insure proper dra i nage . edge to d i scourage lateral wa t er migrat ion
t icular pavement wi th in the contexts l isted under the pavement . Care must be taken
and i l lust rated in F igures 440-1 to 440-9. subgrade bear ing capac i ty, uni formi ty, when f ine bases are p l aced on top of
and permeab i l i ty are key factors in deter - course subbases to prevent f ines f rom

Tab l e 440-1 . PAVEMENT CLASSI F I CATI ON BY TYPE , CONTEXT , AND SITE FACTORS (Examp l e Ma t r i x)

App l i ca t i on Subso i l l~ C l i ma t e Cos t Ma i n t enance

(Hv , M , Lt ) (WD , C, (HA, HH , (H, M , L) (H , M , L)
I Deck ) T, Cd)
n Landscape Types :

Pub l i c P l aza

Townscape

Ath l et i c Fac i l i t i es
n H i ghway

Urban St reets

Park i ng Fac i l i t i es
a Pub l i c Ga rden

Roo f Ga rden

Pr i vate Ga rden

(Key: H= H igh, M= Med i um, L= Low ; Hv- - Heavy , Lt= Light ; WD= We l l Dra ined, C= Cl ay, Deck= Roof Deck ; HA= Hot Ar id, HH= Hot Humi d , T= Tempera te , Cd= Co ld)

Not e : Individua l pavement types may be des i gned to accommoda t e the typical var i abl es noted in the tabl e above . For examp l e , a Publ i c Pl aza pavement suppor t ing heavy duty loads on a c lay
subgrade in a Hot -Hum i d c l imate, wi thin a modera te instal lat ion and ma i ntenance budge t wou l d requi re a spec i f ic thickness, subbase depth, and l imi ted mater i a l and const ruct ion opt ions.

Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Archi tecture

 440 - 3

F i gur e 440-1 . Pub l i c p l aza pavemen t s . Pavemen t s are t yp i ca l l y sub j ec t ed to med i um to heavy du t y l oads due to dense pedes t r i -
an t raf f i c, serv i ce and eme rgency veh i c l e access , and l arge-sca l e mechan i ca l ma i n t enance prac t i ces. Cos t pe r squa re or l i near un i t is
o f t en h i gh due to the need for mor e durab l e f i n i shes and s t ronger ma t er i a l s requ i r i ng f requent repa i r f rom sus t a i ned use and per i od i c
access to bur i ed ut i l i t i es.

F i gur e 440 - 2 . Townscape pavemen t s . Pavemen t s may range f rom l i ght to heavy du t y based upon par t i cu l ar veh i cu l ar l oad i ng ,
bu t are genera l l y ra t ed as l i ght to med i um du t y. Pedes t r i an t raf f i c is l ess dense and ma t er i a l s t end to be mode r a t e in s t rength , typ i ca l
o f suburban and exurban env i ronmen t s . Cos t s assoc i a t ed w i th i nst a l l a t i on and ma i n t enance t end to be mode r a t e.

a
P

F i gur e 440 - 3 . At h l e t i c f ac i l i t y pavemen t s . Pavemen t s t yp i ca l l y range f rom l i ght to med i um duty , bu t occas i ona l l y mus t accom-
moda t e heavy dut y expos i t i on veh i cu l ar l oads. Th i s group o f pavemen t s are common l y assoc i a t ed w i t h t rack , f i e ld, cour t , and a rena
se t t i ngs . Inst a l l a t i on cos t s are h i gh due to spec i a l subgrade prepara t i on and dra i nage requ i remen t s , and l ong t e rm ma i n t enance is h i gh
due to un i form i t y requ i remen t s , spec i a l i zed equ i pmen t , and propr i e t ary sur f ace spec i f i ca t i ons .
 440 - 4

F i gure 440-4. H i ghway pavemen t s . Pavemen t s range f rom med i um to heavy du t y due to heavy t raf f i c l oads , speed , and spec i a l -
i zed des i gn requ i rement s , t yp i f i ed by mu l t i - l ayered and re i n forced cons t ruc t i on , w i t h spec i a l emphas i s on comp l ex sub-base des i gn .
Bo t h i nst a l l a t i on and ma i n t enance cos t s are h i gh , bu t vary by c l i ma t e zone.

F i gure 440-5. Urban s t ree t pavemen t s . Pavemen t s are s i m i l ar to H i ghway t ypes , bu t have pot ent i a l for grea t er var i e ty due to
l owe r speeds , and some we i gh t rest r i c t i ons (no t ruck i ng zones) . Inst a l l a t i on and ma i n t enance costs are t yp i ca l l y h i gh .
bA
n

a
a
-a
n
a

bA
n
.0
a

F i gure 440-6 . Pa rk i ng fac i l i ty pavemen t s. Pavemen t s are common l y l i ght to med i um du t y due to l ow ve l oc i t y and we i gh t requ i re-
men t s , and may i nc l ude re i n forced tur f , aggrega t es , un i t pavers , and i mpe rv i ous sur f ac i ng . Inst a l l a t i on and ma i n t enance costs are t yp-
i ca l l y l ow to mode ra t e , bu t may be i n f l uenced by ex t r eme c l i ma t e cond i t i ons.

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 440 - 5

F i gure 440-7 . Pub l i c ga rden pavemen t s . Pavemen t s may r ange f rom l i ght t o heavy du t y due t o t he va r i e t y o f i n t e rna l se t t i ngs
t yp i ca l l y encoun t e r ed. La rge c rowds and spec i a l f es t i va l or conce r t even t s r equ i r e med i um t o h i gh i ns t a l l a t i on and ma i n t enance cos t s.

F i gure 440-8. Roo f ga rden pavemen t s. Pavemen t s mus t be l i ght we i gh t and dur ab l e due t o ex t r eme l y va r i ab l e cond i t i ons . Cos t s
a r e med i um t o h i gh due to spec i a l subs t ra t e and dr a i nage r equ i r emen t s , and a r e gr ea t l y i n f l uenced by c l i ma t e va r i ab l es. Dur ab i l i t y i s
i mpor t an t due to t he h i gh cos t o f repa i r and r ep l acemen t i n such res t r i c t ed se t t i ngs (Re f e r to Sec t i on 690: Roo f t op Ga rdens ) .

40

a
d
n
a
40
n
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u
N

F i gure 440-9. Pr i va t e ga rden pavemen t s . Pavemen t s a r e o f t en modes t and sma l l i n sca l e , bu t may i nc l ude heavy du t y app l i ca -
t i ons i n h i gh l y r e f i ned c i r cums t ances. ( os t s a r e mo r e gove rned by aes t he t i c cho i ces ra t he r t han by heavy use . A w i de va r i e t y o f pave -
men t t ypes may be emp l oyed .

T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 440 - 6
or non-porous . (Re f er to F i gures 440-11
t hrough 440-13) .

F l ex i b l e Pavemen t s:

F l ex i b l e pavemen t s common l y have th i n

wea r i ng sur f aces and re l a t i ve l y th i ck aggre -
ga t e bases and subbases . A th i ck aggrega t e
base wi l l d i st r i but e des i gn l oads over a
grea t er subgrade area and wi l l l imi t sub-
grade de f orma t i on pot ent i a l . Pavemen t
s t rength is der i ved f rom the aggrega t e base
s t ruc ture .

F l ex i b l e mono l i th i c pavemen t s cons i st of

aggrega t es , shredded rubber , or po l yme rs
wh i ch are m i xed w i th an aspha l t or propr i -
e t ary b i nder and p l aced on a prepared base
to crea t e a seam l ess mono l i th i c sur f ace .
These pavemen t s may be porous or non-
porous , and f i rm or res i l i ent , depend i ng on
aggrega t e and b i nder compos i t i on . Aspha l t
and res i l i ent a th l e t i c sur f ac i ng are common
examp l es and are typ i ca l l y 40-100 mm
(1 ' /2-4 in) th i ck .

F l ex i b l e un i t pavemen t s typ i ca l l y cons i st

F i gur e 440 - 10 . Typ i ca l pavemen t componen t s d i agr am . The componen t s i nd i o f dry- l a i d , sand swep t , but t j o i nt ed con-
ca t e prov i s i ons for c l ay subgrade cond i t i ons . The f i gure i l l ust rates a var i e ty of pav i ng e l e crete , br i ck , s tone , or synthe t i c pav i ng un i ts
men t s requ i red in severe cond i t i ons . p l aced on a sand se t t i ng bed and a pre-
pared aggrega t e base . These pavemen t s by
v i r tue of the i r but t j o i nt cons t ruc t i on are
wash i ng down i nto the course ma t er i a l . 2 . 3 Pavemen t porous to sem i -porous . F l ex i b l e un i t pave -
men t app l i ca t i ons may range f rom cobb l e -
Such downwa rd m i gra t i on is typ i ca l l y pre-
ven t ed by means of aspha l t pene t ra t i ng The pavemen t ma t er i a l rece i ves t raf f i c wea r s tone serv i ce roads to l i ght -dut y f l ags tone
sea l ants , the use of dense graded subbase and t rans f ers l oads to the base and sub- ga rden pat i os , and typ i ca l l y requ i re edge
aggrega t e , or a f abr i c separa tor (Re f er to grade . Pavemen t s are c l ass i f i ed as be i ng rest ra i nts to prevent l atera l creep i ng ove r
D i v i s i on 900 : De ta i l s and Dev i ces , for spe- e i ther f l ex i b l e or r igid and as e i ther mono - t i me . Heavy du t y app l i ca t i ons requ i re h i gh
c i f ic examp l es of pav i ng de ta i l s) . l i thi c or un i t . Add i t i ona l l y , t hey are porous si l i ca con t en t sand se t t i ng beds and dense
graded aggrega t e bases to preven t the pu l -
ver i z i ng ac t i on ev i dent in s tone dus t unde r
repea t ed heavy l oads . Un i t th i ckness
ranges f rom a m i n i mum of 40 mm (1' /2 in)
Landuse , c l i ma te , subs t ra t e cond i t i on , l eve l of serv i ce , and cos t are pr i me de t erm i -
for cut s tone or pre-cas t concre t e , to 200
nant s of st ruc tura l pavemen t des i gn and on-go i ng ma i n t enance requ i rement s (Re f er mm (8 in) for veh i cu l ar gran i t e cobb l es .
to F i gures 440-1 through 440-9) . Heavy dut y br i ck and masonry pavers are
typ i ca l l y 80 mm (3' /4 in) th i ck and are
1 . Landscape t ype i nd i ca tes l oad i ng potent i a l and probab l e use i ntens i ty. Prudent
des i gn uses aggrega t e bases and pavemen t f i n i shes capab l e of accommoda t i ng asso- i ncreas i ng l y be i ng used as un i t pavers for
c i ated pedest r i an and veh i cu l ar t raf f ic, i nc l ud i ng ex t reme cases for each t ype . st ree ts and park i ng areas .
n
F l ex i b l e pavemen t s may requ i re edge
2 . Mo i s ture l oad i ng and f ros t / thaw cyc l es are cr i t ica l c l i ma t e factors . Pavemen t s mus t repa i r due to crush i ng , and per i od i c sea l i ng
be capab l e of w i ths t and i ng the c l i ma t e st resses and the ma i n t enance pract i ces to prot ec t sur f ace un i form i t y . Un i t pavers
requ i red w i th i n each reg i on .
may requ i re per i od i c re-se t t i ng and weed-
n i ng . These pavemen t s , cons t ruc t ed w i th
3 . Fros t / thaw c l i ma t es and swe l l i ng co l lo ida l soi ls s ign i f i cant l y a f fect pavemen t des i gn .
Both requ i re ext ra aggrega t e base ma t er i a l and pos i t i ve subdra i nage . proper l y spec i f i ed bases , are appropr i a t e in
co l d c l i ma t es and in c l ay subso i l areas due
.n to the i r capac i t y to move un i form l y dur i ng
c 4 . In reduced budge t c i rcumst ances , i t is bes t to spec i fy a l ess expens i ve f in i sh sur face ,
a ra ther than reduce the cost of subgrade prepara t i on or aggrega t e base p l acemen t swe l l and shr i nk cyc l es (Re f er to F i gure
for be t t er l ong- t erm per f ormance . 440-11) .

R i g i d Pavemen t s :
5 . Long t erm ma i n t enance costs and pro j ec t ed l ength of serv i ce mus t be cons i dered for
cost compar i son purposes . Pavemen t ut i l i ty wi l l d i mi n i sh rap i d l y w i thout per i od i c R i g i d pavemen t s ( i . e . re i nforced concre t e)
ma i n t enance . are st ruc tura l l y d i f f erent than f l ex i b l e pave -
men t s (F i gure 440-12) . Pavemen t l oads are

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 440 - 7

F i gur e 440 -11 . Typ i ca l f l ex i b l e pavemen t sec t i on show i ng F i gur e 440 - 12 . Typ i ca l r i g i d pavemen t sec t i on show i ng
mono l i t h i c (A) and un i t (B) t ypes. Fabr i c separa tor subgrade mono l i t h i c (A) and un i t (B) t ypes. A l t hough many l oca l prac-
re i nforc i ng is of t en used in weake r so i l s to ma i n t a i n st ruc tura l t i ces p l ace r i g i d pavemen t s d i rec t l y on t o prepa red subgrades ,
i nt egr i ty and to gua rd aga i ns t de f orma t i on . Un i t pavers sub j ec t to espec i a l l y in wa rm c l i ma t es , i t is h i gh l y r ecommended to use an
veh i cu l ar l oad i ng shou l d use h i gh s i l i ca con t en t sand , ra ther t han aggrega t e base for bes t l ong- t e rm resu l ts .
s tone dus t .
d i s t r i but ed i nterna l l y w i th i n the r ig id pave - Tab l e 440 - 2 . PAVEMENT DES I GN LOADS AND TYP I CAL D I MENS I ONS
men t and t rans f er red to the subgrade ove r
a broad area , in a manne r s i mi l ar to tha t R i g i d Pavemen t s ' " F l ex i b l e Pa v e men t s
f ound in a conc re t e spread f oo t i ng . Pavemen t Agg. Base Pavemen t Agg. Base
Genera l l y , g i ven equa l soi l t ypes , r ig id Heavy Du t y 150-200 mm ' 150-200 mm 115 mm 300-450 mm
pavemen t s requ i re a th i nner aggrega t e (6-8 in) (6-8 i n) (4 1 / 2 in) (12-18 in)
base th i ckness than f l ex i b l e pavemen t s
Med i um Du t y 125-150 mm 125-150 mm 65-75 mm 200-300 mm
des i gned to car ry t he same l oad (Re f er to (5-6 i n) (5-6 in) (2 1 / 2-3 in) (8-12 i n)
Tab l e 440-2) .
L i gh t Du t y 100 mm 50-100 mm 50-65 mm 150-200 mm
R i g i d mono l i th i c pavemen t s are typ i ca l l y (4 in) (2-4 i n) (2-2 1 / 2 in) (6-8 in)
cons t ruc t ed as cas t - i n-p l ace re i nforced con-
cre t e s l abs . R i g i d un i t pavemen t s requ i re 'Stat ic whee l loads on most muni c ipa l service paths, st reets, and roads can range f rom 910 kg-4500 kg (2,000- 10,000
un i t pavers to be mor t a red or g l ued to a Ibs). Al though stat ic whee l loads on ma jor h i ghways and f reight ways can exceed 6000 kg (14,000 Ibs) , this table is rest r icted
to the lesser loads of st reets and roads more common l y assoc iated wi th si te const ruct ion.
re i nforced concre t e base . Aggrega t e bases
"R ig id pavement thi ckness wi l l vary by cement content , reinforcing, and aggregate speci f icat ion (Re inforc ing is assumed) ,
are used t o i nsure subgrade un i form i t y , an
essent i a l cond i t i on for r ig id pavemen t biA
n

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n

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F i gur e 440 - 13 . Typ i ca l porous pavemen t sec t i ons . (A) Porous pavemen t s emp l oy open s t ruc ture wea r i ng sur f aces and spec i a l - 0
l y des i gned aggrega t e bases w i th l i m i t ed f i nes to i nsure f ree f l ow o f i nf i l t rat i on wa t e r . (B) Un i t pave rs w i t h spacer nubs a l l ow f ree
dra i nage. Typ i ca l l y rest r i c t ed to we l l dra i ned subgrade cond i t i ons .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 440 - 8

and subbases (Re f er to F i gure 440-13 , and

D i v i s i on 900 for typ i ca l porous pavemen t
deta i l s) .
Porous pavemen t may requ i re per i od i c
f l ush i ng w i t h ox i dant s to c l eanse granu l ar
f i l ter beds and assoc i a t ed per fora t ed dra i n
p i pes . Edg i ng may need re-se t t i ng (not rec-
ommended for use in ex t reme l y f i ne c l ay
soi ls) .

2 . 4 Pavemen t Edge

Pavemen t edges requ i re ex t ra re i nforc i ng

to preven t break i ng or c rumb l i ng due t o
eccent r i c l oad i ng , i nvas i ve p l ant roots , or
w i nd eros i on in coast a l sandy soi l s . Spec i a l
t rea tmen t is a l so requ i red in c l ay soi l cond i -
t i ons and f ros t / thaw reg i ons .

Aggr ega t e Base Ex t ens i on:

F i gur e 440 - 14 . Aggr ega t e base ex t ens i on a t pavemen t edge . R i g i d pavemen t s
(A) and f l ex i b l e pavemen t s (B) emp l oy ex t ended aggrega t es bases. Edges may a l so be Th i s is accomp l i shed in bo t h r ig id and f l ex-
t h i ckened in bo t h concre t e and aspha l t app l i ca t i ons. ib l e pavemen t s by ex t end i ng t he base
beyond the f i n i shed pavemen t edge .
Typ i ca l l y t he base is ex t ended 150-200 mm
bu i l d-up o f tox i ns f rom veh i cu l ar run-of f . (6-8 in) , but may ex t end 900-2 400 mm
des i gn . These pavemen t s are su i t ab l e in
Un i t pavers and tur f gr i ds are h i gh l y rec- (3-8 f t ) for roads bu i l t on c l ay subso i l s
areas tha t cont a i n un i form subso i l s w i th (Re f er to F i gure 440 -14) .
ommended for th i s purpose . Th i cknesses
mode r a t e bear i ng capac i t i es . Mor t a red un i t
pavers are not r ecommended for co l d cl i - range f rom 50 to 100 mm (2 to 4 in) , bu t
al l have spec i a l l y des i gned aggrega t e bases
ma t es due to h i gh ma i n t enance requ i re-
men t s and chem i ca l and mechan i ca l degra -
da t i on . Si te sca l e re i nforced concre t e pave - v~ r,. ` ~ r mm
men t s and bases common l y range in th i ck-
ness f rom 100-150 mm (4-6 in) . Pavemen t st ructura l l ayers common l y cons i st of a prepared subgrade , an aggrega t e
base , and a wea r i ng or sur f ace l ayer. Heavy l oads or weak so i l s may requ i re an add i -
Tab l e 440-2 i nd i ca t es the th i cknesses
t i ona l aggrega t e subbase .
requ i red to suppor t var i ous veh i cu l ar whee l
l oads for bo t h f l ex i b l e and r igid pavemen t s . 1 . The subgrade mus t be prepared to ach i eve a smoo t h un i form sur f ace wh i ch typ i ca l l y
As t he subgrade bear i ng capac i t y i ncreases ,
is graded to s l ope para l l e l to the proposed f in i sh grade .
the pavemen t th i ckness decreases . The
th i ckness range is w i de r in f l ex i b l e pave - 2 . Aggrega t e base ma t er i a l is typ i ca l l y p l aced in 100-150 mm (4-6 in) l i f ts for pedest r i -
men t s t han in r igid pavemen t s due to t he an pavemen t s , and 150 -200 mm (6-8 in) l i f ts for veh i cu l ar pavemen t s. Prepara t i on
manne r in wh i ch t he l oad is t rans f er red to i nc l udes spread i ng , rol l ing, and v i bra t i ng to crea t e f i rm cons i st ent bear i ng dens i ty.
the subgrade (Re f er to F i gure 440-12) .
3 . F l ex i b l e pav i ng t ransfers l oads mor e d i rect l y to the subgrade and there fore requ i re
R i g i d pavemen t s requ i re per i od i c expan-
th i cker aggrega t e bases than comparab l y l oaded r igid pavemen t s .
s i on j o i nt c l ean i ng and repa i r , and may
aA requ i re re-sea l i ng of propr i e t ary sur f ace 4. F l ex i b l e pavemen t s per form we l l in co l d c l i ma t es due to the i r abi l i ty to move un i -
n coa t i ngs . form l y w i th f ros t / thaw cyc l es , and the l ower ma i n t enance assoc i a t ed w i th mor t ar l ess
un i t paver const ruc t i on .
Porous Pavemen t s :
Porous pavemen t s are a c l ass of pavemen t s 5. Porous pavemen t s are common l y l i mi ted to we l l -dra i ned subgrades . Porous un i t
n s t ruc tured to a l l ow prec i p i t a t i on runof f to pavers may per form mor e e f fect i ve l y in co l d c l i ma t es than porous aspha l t due to the
dra i n f ree l y t hrough the pavemen t sur f ace h i gh potent i a l for c l ogg i ng f rom seasona l sand i ng .
t aA and aggrega t e base . Coa rse aggrega t e
n con t a i n i ng no f i nes and bound w i t h 6 . Pavemen t edges are typ i ca l l y re i nforced by ex t end i ng the aggrega t e base and sub-
c aspha l t , is a very common t ype used in base , th i cken i ng the pavemen t edge , or by the add i t i on of me t a l , pl ast i c, or s tone
a rest ra i n i ng dev i ces . Un i t pavers requ i re rest ra i n i ng edg i ng in al l insta l l at ions to pre-
wa rme r c l i ma t es . Spec i a l l y des i gned un i t
vent creep , and to prov i de st ructura l re i n forcement (Re f er to F i gures 440-14 and
pavers and tur f gr i ds ove r f ree dra i n i ng
440-15) .
N aggrega t e bases are be t t er a l t erna t i ves for
co l d , t empera t e , and ho t -hum i d c l i ma t es . 7 . Fabr i c separa tor re i nforc i ng is typ i ca l l y app l i ed to the subgrade in we t c l ay c i rcum-
The pavemen t des i gn mus t a l l ow for per i - st ances to he l p b i nd the aggrega t e , prevent upwa rd m i gra t i on of f ines due to pump-
od i c c l ean i ng w i th chem i ca l ox i dant s or ing, and to add tens i l e res i stance to subgrade de forma t i on (Re f er to F i gure 440-15) .
rep l acemen t of dra i nage s tone to avo i d

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 440 - 9

bb
n
a
a-
F i gure 440 - 15 . Edge t r ea t men t i n c l ay so i l cond i t i ons . (A) Subdr a i n i s p l aced a t F i gure 440 - 16 . Expans i on j o i nt i n
t he subbase edge , and f abr i c r e i n f or cemen t i s p l aced on t he subgr ade and a round p i pe conc re t e (A) and mor t a r ed br i ck (B) n
pavemen t . Bo t h de t a i l s r equ i r e j o i n t a
t r ench . (B) A f l a t edg i ng s t one i s used to avo i d need f or a ver t i ca l curb t rench , and per i -
od i c b l i nd dr a i n s t one t r enches re l i eve wa t e r pr essur e f rom t he subbase . sea l an t t o pr even t mo i s t ur e and debr i s aA
f rom en t e r i ng t he f i l l er ma t e r i a l , espec i a l l y n
i n (B). . l~

T i me -Save r S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 440 - 1 0

Edge Th i cken i ng. to Sec t i on 830 : Conc re t e for de ta i l s) . shou l d fal l w i th i n a CBR (Ca l i forn i a Bear i ng
Expans i on j o i nts mus t be expressed in Ra t i o) of 40-70 (Re f er to Sec t i on 810 : So i l s
In sandy coast a l reg i ons sub j ec t to w i nd
mor t a red un i t pavers to a l l ow for t rue base and Aggrega t es) .
eros i on , pavemen t s may be th i ckened at
s l ab i so l a t i on . Typ i ca l l y a f l ex i b l e po l yme r
t he edge to preven t unde rm i n i ng . Conc re t e Dur ab i l i t y .
backe r rod is pos i t i oned w i th i n the un i t
s l abs may be turned down and aspha l t
pave r expans i on j o i nt cav i t y and sea l ed Pavemen t des i gn mus t accommoda t e sus-
pav i ng may be th i ckened us i ng an ex t ra
w i th a l i qu i d wa t e rproo f sea l ant . F i gure t a i ned pavemen t l oad i ng as we l l as ma i n t e -
base course . Th i ckened edges may range
440-16 i l lust rates typ i ca l expans i on j o i nts in nance me t hods and na tura l wea t he r i ng
f rom 200-300 mm (8-12 in) in w i d t h .
concre t e and mor t a red br i ck pavemen t s e f f ec ts . Co l d c l i ma t es requ i re pavemen t s
Edge Res t r a i n t : respec t i ve l y . tha t are ab l e to w i ths t and the chem i ca l and
F l ex i b l e pavemen t s o f t en abu t r ig id abras i ve ma i n t enance me t hods used in
Edges of f l ex i b l e pavemen t s may be re i n-
pavemen t s and are sub j ec t to d i f ferent i a l snow remova l . Ho t -hum i d and hot -ar i d cl i -
forced w i th wood , stee l , s tone , or masonry
se t t l ement . A proper l y prepared aggrega t e ma t es requ i re pavemen t s to w i t hs t and
curbs ( ra i sed or f l ush) for add i t i ona l l atera l
base re i nforced w i th a fabr i c separa tor on ex t reme da i l y t empe ra t ure d i f ferent i a l s and
suppor t . Such rest ra i n i ng and cont a i n i ng
the subgrade is use fu l in preven t i ng com- sus t a i ned we t ness . Ma t er i a l poros i ty , dens i -
dev i ces are a f f ec t ed by heav i ng ac t i on of
press i on of the f l ex i b l e pavemen t suppor t ty, hardness or f l exibi l i ty, co lor , and f i n i sh
c l ays and f ros t / thaw cyc l es . Heavy wooden are al l charac t er i st i cs wh i ch de t e rm i ne cl i -
s t akes shou l d be avo i ded in these c i rcum- st ruc ture at the joint , espec i a l l y in veh i cu l ar
l oad i ng c i rcums t ances . D i f ferent i a l set t l e- ma t i c compa t i b i l i t y and l ong- t erm durab i l i -
s t ances . Me t a l " L" channe l s and po l yme r
men t may be m i n i m i zed when j o i n i ng t wo t y. Appropr i a t e st ruc tura l des i gn and deta i l -
t r i angu l ar prof i l e dev i ces , wh i ch are
d i f f erent f l ex i b l e pavemen t s by ma i nt a i n i ng i ng may ex t end a pavemen t ' s e f f ec t i veness .
des i gned to f l oa t a t op the aggrega t e base
and wh i ch are secured w i th l ong na i l s or a common pavemen t th i ckness so tha t a
Sa f e t y:
p i ns , are a be t t er a l t erna t i ve for rest ra i n i ng common aggrega t e base may be used to
pavemen t edges in al l c l i ma t es . suppor t bo t h f i n i shes . I f th i s is not poss i b l e , Bo t h veh i cu l ar and pedes t r i an pavemen t s
an i nt ermed i a t e ma t er i a l may be requ i red to are requ i red to be un i versa l l y access i b l e
C l ay So i l St ra t eg i es : serve as an edge for each pavemen t t ype . accord i ng to the s t andards se t for th by the
Ame r i cans w i th D i sab i l i t i es Ac t , and are
F i gure 440-15 i l l ust rates spec i a l edge
3 . 0 PAVEMENT DES I GN CR I TER I A there fore cons t ra i ned by texture , jo inery ,
de t a i l i ng in mo i s t or expans i ve soi ls, whe r e s l ope , dra i nage , and assoc i a t ed s i te furn i sh-
the subgrade is s l oped t owa rd subdra i ns to 3 .1 App l i ca t i on i ngs . Pavemen t co l or and f in i sh are a l so con-
ensure prope r dra i nage . I t is bes t prac t i ce to st ra i ned by ref l ect i v i ty, g l are , and permeab i l -
l oca t e t he subdra i n out s i de o f the aggre - Load -Bea r i ng Ab i l i t y:
i ty as they re l ate to c l i ma t e se t t i ng (Re f er to
ga t e base l oad bear i ng area . Al terna t i ve l y , Sec t i on 240 : Ou t door Access i b i l i ty) .
the subbase may be dra i ned us i ng aggre - Heavy , med i um , and l ight du t y app l i ca t i ons
genera l l y re f er to the t ype of veh i cu l ar and
ga t e b l i nd dra i ns se t a t regu l ar 3 000-4 500 Aes t he t i cs :
pedes t r i an t raf f i c wh i ch a pavemen t mus t
mm (10-15 f t ) i nterva l s to re l i eve inf i l t ra-
accommoda t e . Heavy du t y pavemen t s are Proper pavemen t des i gn a i ms to ach i eve
t i on wa t e r pressure wh i ch typ i ca l l y ent ers
the subbase a t t he pavemen t edge . Al l such capab l e of accommoda t i ng veh i c l es , st ruc tura l stabi l i ty, env i ronmen t a l appropr i -
dra i ns are typ i ca l l y wr apped w i th f abr i c i nc l ud i ng t rucks and buses typ i ca l l y f ound a t eness , and cu l tura l ut i l i ty wh i l e at t he
in c i ty cent ers , i nst i tut i ons , l arge parks , and same t i me comp l i men t i ng the overa l l
separa tor to preven t s i l t ing . In h i ghway
app l i ca t i ons , the subbase shou l der may be ar ter i a l h i ghways . Med i um du t y pavemen t s des i gn in a way tha t is aesthe t i ca l l y p l eas-
ex t ended to ' /3 of the tota l road w i d th to are capab l e of accommoda t i ng heavy i ng . F i gure 440-17 i l lust rates severa l com-
preven t edge inf i l t rat ion . Edge deta i l s in pedes t r i an t raf f i c and assoc i a t ed l ight ser - mon l y used pav i ng pa t t erns ach i evab l e
v i ce veh i c l es assoc i a t ed w i th i nst i tut i ons , t hrough bo t h f l ex i b l e and r ig id pav i ng sys-
c l ay soi l s shou l d avo i d t rench i ng requ i red of
ver t i ca l curbs , and shou l d i nst ead use edg- pr i va t e dr i ves , parks , and l i ght comme rc i a l t ems . Ca r e mus t be t aken to keep pa t t erns
se t t i ngs . L i ght du t y pavemen t s are typ i ca l l y and t extures in sca l e w i th the l arger des i gn
i ng wh i ch has a f l at bo t t om prof i l e to avo i d
assoc i a t ed w i t h res i dent i a l and rest r i c ted t o avo i d i nappropr i a t e comp l ex i t y or b l and-
i nt er rupt i ng the l atera l f l ow of subbase
pub l i c ga rden pa ths and p l azas . ness . Long t e rm ma i n t enance shou l d be a
U mo i s ture . (Re f er to D i v i s i on 900 : De ta i l s
n and Dev i ces , for severa l examp l es of pav i ng ma j or f ac tor in de t erm i n i ng f ina l f i n i shes
Tab l e 440-2 i l lust rates typ i ca l l oads asso-
edges , curbs , jo ints , and d i v i ders) . and t extura l t rea tmen t s to i nsure tha t the
a c i a t ed w i th var i ous uses and des i gn con-
t ex t s . Typ i ca l s i te sca l e deve l opmen t s des i gn i nt ent may be proper l y ma i n t a i ned .
2 .5 Pavemen t Jo i n t s Whe r e l i mi t ed resources are ava i l ab l e , i t is
requ i re pavemen t s tha t accommoda t e
bes t to s i mp l i f y to ach i eve a cons i s t ent
n R i g i d pavemen t s requ i re expans i on and l oads f rom 900 to 2 700 kg (2000 to 6000
overa l l appea rance .
çq jcont ro l j o i nts to a l l ow for cont rac t i on and lb) . Inst i tut i ona l wa l kways tha t prov i de
aA expans i on due to t empe ra t ure f l uc tua t i ons . eme rgency or ma i n t enance veh i c l e access ,
3 . 2 C l i ma t e
n Such j o i nts may be but t ed , dowe l ed , or requ i re pavemen t s tha t may accommoda t e
r C~ keyed us i ng pre -mo l ded expans i on j o i nt l oads f rom 900 to 1 800 kg (2000 to 4000 Reg i ona l c l i ma t e f ac tors of da i l y t empe ra -
a
f i l l ers . Al l such expans i on j o i nts shou l d be lb) , w i th adequa t e edge re i n f orcemen t . ture ex t remes , prec i p i t a t i on ra te and f re-
sea l ed w i th a bond i ng l i qu i d f i l ler to avo i d Such l oads can be suppor t ed by 40 to 75 quency , and f ros t / thaw cyc l es heav i l y inf lu-
N mo i s ture pene t ra t i on and depos i t i on o f f i ne mm (1' /2 to 3 in) of aspha l t concre t e on a ence pavemen t deta i l s and f i n i shes .
sands and si l ts dur i ng cont rac t i on per i ods . 100 to 200 mm (4 to 8 in) aggrega t e base ,
Ho t Ar i d : A w i de var i e ty o f ma t er i a l s are
Sand accumu l a t i on in the jo int , may i nh i b i t or by 100 to 125 mm (4 to 5 in) o f re in-
ava i l ab l e in th i s c l i ma t e zone . Ma t er i a l s are
i ts expans i on capac i t y , resu l t i ng in pave - forced concre t e on a 100 to 150 mm (4 to
typ i ca l l y l i ght in co l or to avo i d hea t absorp-
men t buck l i ng . Loca l prac t i ces va ry (Re f er 6 in) aggrega t e base . So i l bear i ng ra t i ngs
t i on , and may i nc l ude g l azed t i les and

T i me -Saver S t anda rds for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 440 - 1 1

porous f i n i shes due to l ow hum i d i t y and

re l a t i ve l y st ab l e t empe ra t ure ranges .

Ho t Hum i d : Dra i nage is cr i t i ca l to pre-

vent bu i l d-up o f mosses and a l gae , and to
accoun t for i nt ense per i ods of prec i p i t a t i on .
L i ght co l ors are of t en used to avo i d hea t
absorb t i on . St ab l e t empe ra t ures prov i de for
a w i de var i e ty of ma t er i a l s .

Tempe ra t e : Da rke r co l ors are typ i ca l to

absorb rad i ant so l ar ene rgy. Fros t / thaw
cyc l es requ i re care in aggrega t e base prepa -
ra t i on and subdra i nage . Heavy snow reg i ons
mus t accoun t for abras i ve c l ear i ng prac t i ces .
Mor t a red un i t pavers requ i re heavy ma i nt e -
nance in ex t ens i ve app l i ca t i ons .

Co l d : Co l d c l i ma t e areas requ i re s i mi l ar
t rea tmen t s as the t empe ra t e zone , but w i th
mor e rest r i ct i ons. F l ex i b l e pavemen t s are
pre f er red ove r r ig id and mor t a red un i t
pavers . Re i nforc i ng stee l mus t be p l aced
care fu l l y to avo i d damage t hrough chem i ca l
assau l t , or ex t reme expans i on coe f f i c i ent
d i f ferent i a l s w i th i n concre t e s l abs and curbs .

3 . 3 Subg r ade

We l l dra i ned or c l ay subso i l s , roo f top gar -

dens , or o ther un i que s i te subgrade f ea-
tures p l ay a s i gn i f i cant ro l e in de t erm i n i ng a
st ruc tura l pavemen t des i gn s t ra t egy .

We l l dra i ned soi l s : These soi l s are idea l

for cons t ruc t i on w i th regard to permeab i l i -
ty and bear i ng capac i t y , and t yp i ca l l y
requ i re on l y norma l s i te prepara t i on to
serve as pavemen t subgrades .

C l ay so i l s : These co l l o i da l soi l s are sub-

j ect to swe l l i ng due to mo i s ture inf i l t rat ion
and have a h i gh pot ent i a l for l atera l shear -
i ng . V i bra t i on f rom veh i cu l ar l oad i ng may
produce a pump i ng ac t i on resu l t i ng in
upwa rd m i gra t i on o f f i nes i nto aggrega t e
bases . F reeze / t haw ac t i ons crea t e severe
cons t ruc t i on prob l ems requ i r i ng dewa t e r -
i ng , ex t ra aggrega t e and fabr i c f i l t rat ion
F i gur e 440 - 17 . Common l y used pav i ng pa t t e rns f or bo t h f l ex i b l e and r i g i d aA
and re i n forcemen t . pav i ng sys t ems. n
Roo f s t ruc tures : Pavemen t des i gn is
h i gh l y rest r i c ted due t o l oad i ng and «3
cos t is a func t i on of l ength of serv i ce , annu- m2 ( f t2 ) . Examp l es of such l ayers or opera -
P
dra i nage requ i remen t s . Spec i a l dra i n ma t s al ma i n t enance requ i rement s , and rep l ace- t i ons are :
and i nsu l a t i on are typ i ca l l y requ i red unde r men t va l ue . Genera l l y , costs are l owe r for
1 . Thr ee sheep f oo t ro l l er subgr ade n
f in i sh pavemen t sur f aces (Re f er to Sec t i on s i mp l e one or t wo l ayer pav i ng sys t ems a
610 : Roo f and Deck Landscapes for mor e passes
wh i ch requ i re m i n i ma l edg i ng , l ow cos t
i nforma t i on) . ma t er i a l , and f ewe r l abor and equ i pmen t 2 . Aggr ega t e subbase per 150 mm (6 in)
rn
opera t i ons . Converse l y , mu l t i - l ayered pave - l i f t w i th three passes c
3 . 4 Cos t and Ma i n t enance men t s cons t ruc t ed of durab l e expens i ve a
ma t er i a l s wh i ch requ i re mu l t i p l e opera - 3 . Dense graded aggrega t e base pe r 100
Cos t : mm (4 in) l i f t w i t h t wo passes
t i ons , cos t mor e than do mos t s i mp l e pave -
Ini t i a l i nsta l l at i on cos t is a func t i on of ma t e - men t s . Every l ayer and assoc i a t ed opera - 4 . Sand base per 100 mm (4" ) o f sand
r ial cost , l abor , bus i ness ove rhead and prof - t i on car r i es a d i scree t cos t per m2 ( f t2) . Cos t v i bra t ed w i th four passes
i t requ i red to insta l l the pavemen t and there fore may be cons i dered as equa l to
assoc i a t ed suppor t s t ruc tures . Long t e rm the sum of each l ayer i nsta l l at i on cos t per 5 . Mor t a r se t t i ng bed per 25 mm (1 " )
depth , e t c .

T i me -Saver S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 440 - 1 2

Tab l e 440 -3 . PAVEMENT CHECKL I ST OF ADVANTAGES AND D I SADVANTAGES OF VAR I OUS PAVEMENT TYPES

TYPE OF
PAV I NG ADVANTAGES D I SADVANTAGES

I n - s i t u Pav i ng
Conc r e t e " Re l a t i ve l y easy t o i nsta l l " Jo i nt s a re r equ i r ed
" Ava i l ab l e w i t h seve ra l f i n i shes , many co l ors and va r i ous " Some sur f aces a r e aes the t i ca l l y unappea l i ng
t ex t ur es " Can d i s i n t egra t e i f no t prope r l y i ns t a l l ed
" Dur ab l e sur f ace " D i f f i cu l t t o co l or even l y and pe rmanen t l y
" Yea r - round and mu l t i p l e usage " L i gh t co l or is re f l ec t i ve and can cause g l are
" Low l i f e t i me ma i n t enance cos t s " Some t ypes can de t e r i ora t e f rom de i c i ng sa l ts
" Long- l as t i ng " Re l a t i ve l y l ow t ens i l e s t r eng t h: can c r ack eas i l y
" Low hea t absorbency " Low res i l i ency
" Ha rd , nonres i l i en t sur f ace
" Adap t ab l e t o curv i l i near f o rms
Aspha l t " Low hea t and l i ght re f l ec t i v i t y " W i l l f ray a t edges i f no t suppor t ed
" Yea r - round and mu l t i p l e use " Can so f t en i n wa rm wea t he r
" Dur ab l e " So l ub l e by gaso l i ne , ke rosene , and o t he r pe t ro l eum
" Low ma i n t enance cos t s so l ven t s
" Dus t - f r ee sur f ace " Suscep t i b l e to f reeze damage i f wa t e r pene t r a t es
" Res i l i ency can va ry depend i ng on m i x t ur e base
" Wa t e r repe l l en t sur f ace
" Adap t ab l e t o curv i l i near f o rms
" Can be made porous
Syn t he t i c " Can be des i gned f or a spec i f i c purpose (e .g . , cour t games , " Spec i a l l y t r a i ned l abor may be r equ i r ed f or
su r f ac i ng t rack) i ns t a l l a t i on or repa i r
Zsys t ems : W i de co l or r ange " Mo r e cos t l y t han aspha l t or conc r e t e
(propr i e t a r y ) " Mo r e res i l i ent t han conc r e t e or aspha l t
" Some t i mes can be app l i ed ove r o l d conc r e t e or aspha l t

Un i t Pav i ng
Br i ck " Nong l a r e sur f ace " H i gh i ns t a l l a t i on cos t
" Nonsk i d sur f ace " D i f f i cu l t t o c l ean
" W i de co l or r ange " Can d i s i n t egra t e i n f reez i ng wea t he r
" Good sca l e " Suscep t i b l e t o d i f f erent i a l se t t l emen t
" Eas i l y r epa i r ed " E f f l orescence
T i l es " Po l i shed i ndoor / ou t door appea r ance " Su i t ab l e on l y f or m i l de r c l i ma t es
" H i gh i ns t a l l a t i on cos t s
Adobe " Fas t and easy i ns t a l l a t i on " Tend t o c rumb l e a t t he edges
Br i cks " Can l ast i nde f i n i t e l y i f base con t a i ns an adequa t e amoun t o f " S t or e cons i de rab l e amoun t s o f hea t
aspha l t i c s t ab i l i zer " Frag i l e , requ i re l eve l f ounda t i ons ( f rac ture eas i l y)
" R i ch co l or and t ex t ur e " Dus t y
" Su i t ab l e on l y f or wa r m and nonhum i d a reas
F l ags t ones " Ve r y dur ab l e i f prope r l y i ns t a l l ed " Mode r a t e l y expens i ve t o i ns t a l l
" Na t ur a l wea t he r i ng qua l i t i es " M i gh t seem co l d , ha rd , or qua r ry - l i ke i n appea r ance
" Co l or and r andom pa t t e rn some t i mes d i f f i cu l t t o
wor k w i t h aes the t i ca l l y
" Can become smoo t h and s l i ppe ry when we t or worn
Gr an i t e " Ha rd and dense " Ha rd and dense ; d i f f i cu l t t o wo r k w i t h
" Ve r y dur ab l e unde r ex t r eme wea t he r i ng cond i t i ons " Some t ypes a re sub j ec t t o a h i gh ra t e o f chem i ca l
" W i l l suppor t heavy t ra f f i c wea t he r i ng
" Can be po l i shed t o a ha rd g l oss sur f ace t ha t is dur ab l e and " Re l a t i ve l y expens i ve
eas i l y c l eaned
L i mes t one " Easy t o wor k w i t h " Suscep t i b l e t o chem i ca l wea t he r i ng (espec i a l l y n
" R i ch co l or and t ex t ur e hum i d c l i ma t es and urban env i ronmen t s )
Sands t one " Easy t o wor k w i t h " Suscep t i b l e t o chem i ca l wea t he r i ng (espec i a l l y i n
" Dur ab l e hum i d c l i ma t es and u rban env i ronmen t s )
Slate " Dur ab l e " Re l a t i ve l y expens i ve
" S l ow to wea t he r " Can be s l i ppe ry when we t
" Range o f co l ors
Mo l ded " Can be des i gned or se l ec t ed f or va r i ous purposes (i . e ., f i rm, " Sub j e - t to vanda l i sm
Un i t s so f t ) " H l gh i i i ns t a l l a t i on cos t s t han aspha l t or conc r e t e
( syn t he t i c ) r Shor t i ns t a l l a t i on t i me
" Easy i ns t a l l a t i on , r emova l , and r ep l acemen t usua l l y w i t hou t
spec i a l i zed l abor
" W i de co l or r ange

So f t Pav i ng
Agg r ega t es " Econom i ca l sur f ac i ng ma t e r i a l " Requ i r es r ep l en i shmen t eve r y f ew yea rs depend i ng
" Range o f co l ors on amoun t o f use
" Po t en t i a l f or weeds
" Requ i r es edg i ng
Organ i c " Re l a t i ve l y i nexpens i ve " Su i t ab l e on l y f or l i ght t ra f f i c
Ma t e r i a l s " Compa t i b l e w i t h na t ura l sur round i ngs " requ i res pe r i od i c r ep l en i shmen t or r ep l acemen t
" Qu i e t , comf or t ab l e wa l k i ng sur f ace
Tur f gr ass " Co l or f u l " D i f f i cu l t and expens i ve t o ma i n t a i n , espec i a l l y in
" Nonabr as i ve a reas o f heavy use
" Dus t - f r ee
" c~ " Good dr a i nage charac t er i s t i cs
" Qu i e t , comf or t ab l e wa l k i ng sur f ace
" Idea l f or many t ypes of rec rea t i on
" Re l a t i ve l y l ow i ns t a l l a t i on cos t s
Tur f B l ocks " Same as tur f a l one bu t has added s t ab i l i t y t o w i t hs t and l i ght " Requ i r es h i gh l eve l s of ma i n t enance ( f r equen t
veh i cu l a r l oads wa t e r i ng , e t c. )
Ar t i f i c i a l " Same as tur f sur f ace " Resu l t s i n a h i ghe r numbe r o f p l aye r i n j ur i es
Tu r f " Can be used soone r a f t er ra i ns w i t hou t we t spo t s ( r ega rd i ng f i e l d spor t s )
" A l l ows f l a t gr ad i ng o f p l ay i ng sur f ace " Resu l t s i n f as t er and h i ghe r ba l l rol l and bounce
" Ava i l ab l e w i t h bu i l t - i n ma r k i ngs , e t c " In i t i a l i ns t a l l a t i on cos t s h i ghe r t han na t ura l t ur f grasa
" No i r r i ga t i on or ma i n t enance prob l ems as w i t h na t ura l
t ur f rass

No one sur f ace w i l l mee t t he needs of a l l ou t door ac t i v i t i es . Each ac t i v i t y has i ts own sur f ace r equ i r emen t s.
 440 - 1 3

Tab l e 440 - 4 . BAS I C PROPR I ETARY PAVEMENT SURFACES AND COAT I NGS

Ca t egor y o f Use Commen t s on Ma t e r i a l and

(Gene r i c Names ) Ran es o f Uses Propr i e t a r y Names and Sour ces
Syn t he t i c Emu l s i ons
Bond i ng Agen t s Spec i a l i zed compounds used to bond one The re are t oo many t rade names and manu f ac turers
ma t er i a l to another , i .e . , wa t erproo f membr ane to to a t t emp t to l ist here
roo f s l ab .
Cush i on Coa t s Spec i a l compounds of rubber granu l es , acry l i c P l ex i cush i on 8 by Ca l i forn i a Produc t s Corp .
po l yme r w i th e l as tomers , and res in par t i c l es or E l asta Cush i on ® by Ju l i cher Ath l e t i c Eng i neer i ng &
f i bers . Manu f ac t ure rs r ecommend th i ckness of Cons t ruc t ors
numbe r of l ayers for var i ous purposes .
Wea r i ng or Spec i a l compounds pu t ove r cush i on coa t or Cush i on cour t ® by Ju l i cher Ath l e t i c Eng i neer i ng &
Wea t he r i ng Sur f aces other ma t er i a l s to i mprove res i st ance to wea r Cons t ruc t ors
and wea ther i ng . Typ i ca l l y , severa l l ayers are F l ex i pave by Ca l i forn i a Produc t s Corp .
needed and f in i sh co l or and t ex ture are Ar i st rak or As i t ex 0 by Ath l e t i c Sur f ac i ng
i ncorpora t ed i nto these . Int erna t i ona l
Ac r l o-Ka t e 0 b Koch Aspha l t Co .
St r i p i ng , Pa i nt i ng , or Spec i a l compounds or pa i nts used by hand or P l ex i co l or , Acry l i c L i ne Pa i nt , or Acry l i c Resur f acer
Resur f ac i ng mach i ne to crea t e st r i p i ng or for add i ng co l or for by Ca l i forn i a Produc t s Corp .
o t he r purposes Ac r l o- l i ne Pa i nt ® b Koch Aspha l t Co .
Synthe t i c Sur f ac i ng A comb i na t i on of synthe t i c ma t er i a l s p l aced in As i t rak ® by Ath l e t i c Sur f ac i ng Int erna t i ona l
Sys t ems l ayers w i th each l ayer serv i ng a d i st i nc t func t i on Acry l i c Sur f ace by Koch Aspha l t Co .
to f orm a f ina l spec i f i ed sur f ace .
Pr e - f o rmed Ma t e r i a l s
Ar t i f i c i a l Tur f Deve l oped to prov i de a subst i tut e for na tura l As t rotur f © by Monsan t o Co .
tur f . It is genera l l y made of ny l on or other A l l -pro Tur f ® by A l l -Pro Ath l e t i c Sur f aces
synthe t i cs . Cour tur f ® by Ju l i cher Ath l e t i c Eng i neer i ng &
Cons t ruc t ors
Ar t i f i c i a l Ice A synthe t i c ma t er i a l used as an a l t erna t i ve to Lenn- i ce O by Ju l i cher Ath l e t i c Eng i neer i ng &
na tura l or re f r i gera t ed i ce . For i ce or rol l er Cons t ruc t ors
ska t i ng , cer t a i n cour t games , danc i ng , e t c .
Synthe t i c Un i t s or Mo l ded modu l a r shee t ma t er i a l used to crea t e Mu l t i deck ® by Ju l i cher Ath l e t i c Eng i neer i ng &
Shee t s and Ro l l s hard sur f aces for cour t games , t rack , decks Cons t ruc t ors
a round poo l s , e t c . Can be made porous to Duragr i d O by Duragr i d Inc .
perm i t dra i nage . Spor t an ® by Spor t an Sur f aces Inc .
Ca l - t rak , P l ex i cour t , and P l ex- t ac ® by Ca l i forn i a
Produc t s Corp .

Pavemen t cos t s mus t be ana l yzed on

bo t h a shor t - t e rm and a l ong - t e rm bas i s.
Cos t f ac t ors i nc l ude i n i t i a l i ns t a l l a t i on , on -
Landscape des i gn con t ex t o f t en de t e rm i nes t he t ypes o f pavemen t s requ i red f or
go i ng ma i n t enance , durab i l i t y , and r epa r a -
spec i f i c app l i ca t i ons w i t h rega rd t o l oad i ng and wea r i ng r equ i r emen t s (Re f e r to
b i l i ty. For i ns t ance , a non-un i t or r i g i d pave -
F i gures 440-1 t hrough 440-9) .
men t t ha t is d i f f i cu l t t o repa i r is se l dom a
1 . Wa l kways requ i r i ng occas i ona l veh i cu l a r access f or serv i ce shou l d be des i gned w i t h good cho i ce in a r eas sub j ec t t o f r equen t
aggr ega t e bases suf f i c i ent to suppor t 900 - 1800 kg (2000-4000 lb) (Re f er to Tab l e ma i n t enance damage , or whe r e access t o
440-2) . unde rg round ut i l i t i es , e t c . , may be
requ i red .
2. Spec i a l ma i n t enance procedur es such as sand i ng , sa l t i ng , and p l ow i ng in co l d c l i - hiA
Embod i ed ene rgy , or t he tot a l amoun t o f
ma t es can rap i d l y de t er i ora t e some pavemen t t ypes . Pavemen t se l ec t i on shou l d be
ene rgy requ i red t o produce and t o t rans-
l i m i t ed to t hose t ypes res i s t ant to such s t resses .
por t a par t i cu l ar ma t e r i a l i s an add i t i ona l
3. Pavemen t sur f aces , edge t rans i t i ons , and s l opes mus t con f orm t o l oca l codes and measu r e t o cons i de r i n tot a l cos t ca l cu l a -
hand i capped access i b i l i t y regu l a t i ons . t i on . Idea l l y , a pavemen t w i t h a h i gh
n
degr ee o f embod i ed ene rgy , and a h i gh ini - a
4. Comp l ex and h i gh l y re f i ned pavemen t i ns t a l l a t i ons t yp i ca l l y requ i re spec i a l i zed ma i n- t i a l i ns t a l l a t i on cos t shou l d a l so possess a
bA
t enance equ i pmen t and procedures t o pro t ec t t he aes the t i c i nt egr i t y of t he des i gn . I t l ong serv i ce l i fe po t en t i a l . n
-
is adv i sab l e t o s i mp l i f y t he des i gn i f such resources a re unava i l ab l e .
Ma i n t enance : û

5. Shor t t e rm i nst a l l a t i on cos t s and l ong- t e rm ma i n t enance cos t s mus t be ba l anced to The ac t ua l cos t o f a pavemen t mus t f ac t or
de t e rm i ne t he t rue cos t o f a pavemen t pe r mz ( f t2) ,
in t he annua l ma i n t enance cos t . O f t en , a
h i ghe r in i t i a l i ns t a l l a t i on cos t may resu l t i n a
6. Each pavemen t ma t er i a l has advan t ages and d i sadvan t ages for any par t i cu l ar app l i -
l owe r annua l ma i n t enance expend i t ur e .
ca t i on w i t h rega rd t o c l i ma t e rest r i c t i ons , human comf or t , reparab i l i ty , cost , ease o f
Add i t i ona l l y , t he se rv i ce l i fe o f a l ess expen -
0
i nst a l l a t i on and care (Re f er to Tab l e 440-3) .
s i ve i ns t a l l a t i on may be shor t , requ i r i ng
440 - 14
comp l e t e rep l acemen t w i th i n a br i e f 8 to 10 4 . 0 MATER I AL SELECT I ON REFERENCES
year per i od in severe cond i t i ons . I t is pru-
den t to i nves t in proper s i te prepara t i on Ca l l ender , John (Ed. ) . T i me -Save r
Tab l e 440-3 l ists the advan t ages and d i sad- St andards for Arch i t ec tura l Des i gn Da t a ,
and aggrega t e base insta l l at ion, due to
van t ages of var i ous t ypes of pavemen t . 6th ed. McGraw-H i l l , New York , 1982.
the i r cr i t i ca l ro l e in ma i n t a i n i ng f i n i sh sur -
Each t ype has bo t h advan t ages and d i sad-
f ace i ntegr i ty. I t is l ess pruden t to p l ace a van t ages wh i ch va ry by c l i ma t i c reg i on and Church , Thomas . Ga rdens Are for Peop l e ,
h i gh qua l i ty f i n i sh ma t er i a l ove r an i nade- 3rd ed. Gr ace Ha l l , M i chae l Laur i e
use i nt ens i ty. Spec i f i c act i v i ty requ i remen t s
qua t e , or l ess expens i ve aggrega t e base (Ed i tors) , Un i vers i t y o f Ca l i forn i a Press ,
and l ega l regu l a tory agenc i es may rest r i ct
and subgrade spec i f i ca t i on . Berk l ey , 1995.
cho i ces in many pub l i c and pr i va t e c i rcum-
Annua l ma i n t enance for pavemen t s t yp- s t ances . Ha l pr i n , Lawr ence . Ci t i es , M I T Press ,
Cambr i dge , Mass ., 1972 .
i ca l l y requ i res per i od i c coa t i ngs , po i nt i ng , D i v i s i ons 800 : Ma t er i a l s , and 900 :
c l ean i ng and sea l i ng of jo ints , repa i r of bro- Lynch , Kev i n , and Ga ry Hack . S i te
De ta i l s and Dev i ces , cont a i n t echn i ca l da t a
ken segmen t s or se t t l ed areas , re-se t t i ng of P l ann i ng , 3rd ed ., M I T Press , Cambr i dge ,
on var i ous ma t er i a l s and the i r app l i ca t i on in
un i t pavers , and genera l sweep i ng to pavemen t cons t ruc t i on .
Mass ., 1984 .
r emove accumu l a t ed f i nes and debr i s . Un i t Means , R . S. Means Cons t ruc t i on Cos t
pav i ng typ i ca l l y requ i res mor e a t t ent i on to A numbe r of key propr i e t ary sur f aces are Da t a , 1997 , R . S. Means Company , Inc .,
ma i n t enance of edges and vege t a t i ve i nva- br i e f l y descr i bed in Tab l e 440-4 , grouped K i ngs ton , MA , 1996.
s i on , but is eas i l y repa i red . Mono l i th i c accord i ng to ca t egor i es of use . These ma t e -
Ramsey / S l eepe r . Arch i t ec tura l Graph i c
pav i ng common l y requ i res l ess annua l r ia ls are norma l l y purchased in ready -m i xed
St andards , 9th ed. , John Ray Hoke , Jr.
ma i n t enance t han does f l ex i b l e un i t pav i ng . or manu f ac t ur ed f orm and some t i mes
(Ed.), W i l ey , New York , 1994 .
requ i re i nsta l l at i on by l i censed cont rac tors .
Long- t e rm ma i n t enance i nvo l ves such See / ye , E l wyn . Da t a Book for Ci v i l
cos t cons i dera t i ons as reparab i l i ty , spec i a l - The var i e ty of propr i e t ary produc t s ava i l - Eng i neers , W i l ey , New York , 1960.
i zed equ i pmen t requ i remen t s (sweepers , ab l e and the i r range of app l i ca t i on cont i n-
Wa l ker , Theodor e D . S i te Des i gn and
washers , e t c . ) , and per i od i c c l ean i ngs , and ues to expand and to change . Trade and
Cons t ruc t i on De t a i l i ng , 3rd ed. , Van
coa t i ngs . Embod i ed ene rgy and t ranspor t a- t echn i ca l rev i ew j ourna l s , and propr i e t ary
Nos t rand Re i nho l d , New York , 1992.
t i on costs represent a broade r perspec t i ve manu f ac turers ' l i terature and Int erne t s i tes
on l ong t e rm l i fe-cyc l e costs . I t is r ecom- are i mpor t an t i n forma t i on sources . We i nburg , Scot t , and Coy l e , Gr eg (Ed.) .
mended tha t l oca l and recyc l ed ma t er i a l s The Handbook o f Landscape Cons t ruc t i on ,
LAF , 1992
be g i ven pr i or i ty over ma t er i a l s i mpor t ed
f rom o ther reg i ons (Re f er to Sec t i on 230 :
Ene rgy and Resource Conserva t i on) .
 SECT I ON

Fences , Sc r eens ,
and Wa l l s

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
N i cho l as T. D i nes
Con t r i bu tors :
Don H i l derbrand t ,
Pa t r i ck Mu l l a l y and Ka t h l een Bogask
LDR Int erna t i ona l , I nc.
Co l umb i a , Ma r y l and
Ass i s t ant s :
Dav i d R . Ho l den
Cyn t h i a L . R i eme r
Cha r l es H . Shaw , Jr .
Nancy Takahash i
Cha r l es E . Ba i l ey
Rev i ewe rs:
Kenne t h DeMay
Sasak i Assoc i a t es , Inc .
Wa t e r t own , Massachuse t t s

1 . 0 Int roduc t i on 2 .2 Wooden Fences and Sc reens 2 . 7 M i sce l l aneous Ba r r i e r Ma t e r i a l s

1 .1 Gene r a l Se l ec t i ng Wood Ma t er i a l s 2 . 8 Ga t es
1 . 2 Des i gn Process St ruc tura l F r amewor k 2. 9 Connec t i ons to Bu i l d i ngs or O t he r
1 . 3 Des i gn Cons i dera t i ons Fenc i ng Ma t er i a l s St ruc tures
Purposes Wood Preserva t i ves and F i n i shes 2. 10 Ma i n t enance a round t he Base o f
Des i gn Cr i ter i a Jo i n i ng and Fas t en i ng Wa l l s and Fences n
Si te Con t ex t 2 .3 Me t a l Fences 2. 11 Reproduc i ng H i s tor i c St y l es
Of f -S i t e I mpac t Me t a l P i cke t Fences Re f erences r
Des i gn Express i on Me t a l Fabr i c Fenc i ng c
Lega l and Code Requ i remen t s 2. 4 Br i ck and Conc re t e B l ock Wa l l s
Feas i b i l i ty Br i ckwork Pa t t erns
2 . 0 Cons t ruc t i on Me t hods and De t a i l s Jo i nts c
2 .1 Foo t i ngs and Founda t i ons Mo i s t ure Con t ro l n
e
Foo t i ng Dep t h Br i ck Cap Un i t s
Soi l Cond i t i ons Re i n f orcemen t
Dra i nage 2. 5 S t one Wa l l s
Pos t s and Foo t i ngs S t onewor k Pa t t erns
W i nd Con t ro l Mor t a r M i x
Uneven Ter ra i n 2. 6 Pour ed Conc re t e Wa l l s
 4SO - 2

1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON
1 .1 Genera l

Th i s sect ion focuses on the bas i c pr inc ipl es

and techn iques of se l ect ing, des i gn i ng and
const ruct ing fences, screens, and wa l l s typ-
ical ly found in a var i ety of si te deve l opment
set t ings . Ma j or des ign cons iderat ions ,
st ructura l components , and me thods of
const ruct ion for fences, screens, and wa l l s
are prov i ded .
1 .2 Des i gn Process
F i gure 450-1 . P l acemen t of pr i vacy bar r i ers .
Program requ i rements : De termi ne the pur -
pose and use of the proposed barr ier , and
the degree of exc lus ion and t ransparency
requi red, as descr i bed in 1 .3 Des i gn
Cons i derat i ons .

Schema t i c Des i gn : a) . De termi ne barr ier

locat ion, type, si ze, and style ; b) . Ident i fy
c l imate mod i f i cat ions and genera l const ruc-
t ion me thods ; and c) . Formu l a te data to
suppor t the des ign recommenda t i ons .
Pl ant ing and grad i ng shou ld a l so be cons id-
ered as an a l ternat ive means of prov id ing
visua l screens and phys i ca l barr iers where
space permi ts .

Si z ing, se l ect ion of mater i a l s : Wa l l s are

of ten des i gned f rom the top down , (i .e .,
de termi ne wa l l widths , veneers and cap
si zes f i rst , and si ze foot ing last based on soi l
condi t ions, des ign loads, and local codes .)
Wa l l and fenc i ng mater i a l s may be se l ected
based on avai labi l i ty, and capac i ty to ma t ch
the local si te and archi tectura l character.
The span be tween posts or piers deter -
mi nes the si ze of both wood and meta l
fenc i ng rai ls and suppor ts . Pl ant mater i a l
shou ld be se l ected based on ex i st ing soi l
cond i t ions , exposure , hard iness zone ,
ma ture he ight and spread, ma i ntenance
requ i rements , and seasona l interests .

n Layout : The l ayout shou ld be coord inated

a wi th ut i l i t ies, grad i ng and pl ant ing pl ans .
t/f Pl ant ing and/or grad i ng can accomp l i sh the
n same purpose as a fence or wa l l , may be
more economi ca l to const ruct , and requi re
e
r less l ong- term ma i nt enance . Bar r i ers
c shou ld di sturb dra i nage pat terns on l y af ter
to i careful cons iderat ion of run-of f conse-
t /1 quences . Ideal ly, dra i nage shou l d be
U di rected away f rom barr ier foot ings and
c
n posts to reduce potent i a l damage to the
e st ructura l e l ements .
F i gure 450-2 . Bar r i ers for env i ronment a l mod i f i ca t i on . Fences, screens, and Deta i l s and Re f i nement of Des i gn : Non-
wa l l s can be used to a l ter mi crochma t i c qua l i t i es of a space in severa l ways . Examp l e st ructura l features such as fence or wa l l
here refers to the nor thern hemi sphere .
caps, post tops, wa l l veneer pat terns, and
 4SO - 3

f ence p i cke t shapes shou l d be re f i ned and C i rcu l a t i on Cont ro l : Bar r i ers can cont ro l
i nc l uded in the f ina l s t age of the des i gn and d i rec t the movemen t of peop l e , an i -
process . ma l s , or veh i c l es . Low wa l l s can channe l or
d i rec t pedes t r i an t raf f i c , bu t wa l l s shou l d be
1 . 3 Des i gn Cons i de r a t i ons des i gned to d i scourage unau thor i zed or
unsa f e shor t cut s . I t is of t en des i rab l e to see
The des i gn o f bar r i ers shou l d respond to
ove r a wa l l or f ence to know wha t is ahead
bo t h func t i ona l requ i remen t s and aes the t i c
or wha t may be approach i ng . A ga t e or
qua l i t i es of the s i te and sur round i ng deve l -
opmen t . These f ac tors requ i re care fu l con- por ta l can be des i gned to be i nt ent i ona l l y
un i nv i t i ng , or des i gned as a symbo l i c ent ry-
s i dera t i on at the out se t of the des i gn
process . way , i nv i t i ng peop l e i nto a space .

Fence and Wa l l Purposes : Env i ronmen t a l Mod i f i ca t i on : Bar r i ers can

reduce or e l i m i na t e heavy w i nds , no i se ,
The re l a t i onsh i ps be t ween typ i ca l f ence dr i f t i ng snow , g l are , and s t rong sun l i ght .
and wa l l app l i ca t i ons , phys i ca l des i gn , and St ra teg i ca l l y p l aced w i ndbreaks and shaded
v i sua l charac t er are descr i bed be l ow. areas can reduce the ene rgy requ i red for
hea t i ng and coo l i ng (F i gure 450-2) . Snow
Pr i vacy : Pr i vacy requ i res a degree of pro- f ences can cont ro l dr i f t i ng and thus mi t i -
t ec t i on aga i ns t v i sua l and / or phys i ca l i nt ru- ga t e snow remova l prob l ems . (Re f er to
s i on . The ex t en t of pr i vacy des i red and i ts Sec t i on 260 : C l i ma t e and Energy , for spe-
con t ex t wi l l grea t l y i nf l uence t he des i gn c i f ic i n forma t i on on mod i f i ca t i on of m i cro-
and ma t er i a l s used for pr i vacy bar r i ers . The c l i ma t e , e t c .)
mos t e f f ec t i ve pr i vacy bar r i er is of t en a
h i gh , so l i d bar r i er as c l ose as poss i b l e to the Aes the t i cs : Fences , screens , or wa l l s can
source of i nt rus i on (F i gure 450-1) . of t en comp l emen t the i r arch i t ec tura l sur -
round i ngs by ex t end i ng the l ines of a bu i l d-
Sa f e t y and Secur i t y : Bar r i ers can d i scourage i ng ou t i nto the l andscape . They can a l so
de l i bera t e t respass i ng , keep peop l e away be used to drama t i ze se l ec t ed v i ews , f orm
f rom such pot ent i a l l y dange rous i t ems as backdrops for spec i f i c se t t i ngs , or add i nter -
mechan i ca l equ i pmen t , e l ect r i c t rans form- est to an o therw i se f ea ture l ess or mono t o-
ers , or sw i mm i ng poo l s , and keep ch i l dren nous l andscape . In mos t cases , f ences or
and / or an i ma l s in sa f e areas . wa l l s shou l d be v i sua l l y a t t rac t i ve on bo t h
s i des .
Transparen t or sem i - t ransparen t bar r i ers
are some t i mes pre f erab l e to comp l e t e l y Des i gn Cr i t er i a:
so l id bar r i ers because t hey perm i t superv i -
s i on f rom e i ther s i de by proper t y owners , Type , s i ze , and ma t er i a l se l ec t i on wi l l be
po l i ce , or secur i ty personne l . So l i d bar r i ers de t e rm i ned by the purpose of the bar r i er. F i gur e 450 - 4 . Prov i d i ng human sca l e
shou l d be t ru l y i mpene t rab l e , to proh i b i t The na ture of the bar r i er wi l l be i n f l uenced w i t h l a rge wa l l s. Reduc t i on o f appa ren t
i nt ruders . by the fo l l ow i ng des i gn cons i dera t i ons : sca l e o f a wa l l by use o f t extures , shadow
l ines , and ar t i cu l a t i on o f de ta i l s .
1 . Whe t he r the bar r i er is an aes the t i c
Bounda r y De f i n i t i on : Fences and wa l l s are 3 . Whe t he r t he bar r i er is so l i d or a l l ows
f ea ture , a prac t i ca l boundary , or bo t h
common l y used to de f i ne boundar i es and some degr ee of v i sua l access i b i l i ty 1I )
to preven t or d i scourage t respass i ng . 2 . Whe t he r the bar r i er prov i des a s t rong
4 . Whe t he r t he bar r i er is in ha rmony or
sense o f pr i vacy or secur i ty
in cont ras t w i th o ther f ea tures
5 . Whe t he r areas nea r the bar r i er are
p l an t ed n

Des i gn l ayout requ i res accura t e s i te survey show i ng a l l proper t y l ines , easemen t s , 6 . Whe t he r p l ant i ng is heavy or on l y for s
contours , s i gn i f i cant vege t a t i on , dra i nage , and bur i ed ut i l i t i es to i nsure comp l i ance accen t n
w i th a l l codes and regu l a t i ons . Seasona l w i nd pa t t erns and of f -s i te no i se requ i r i ng
S i t e Con t ex t : r
a t t enua t i on shou l d be p l ot t ed .
fi
Des i gn ob j ec t i ves for f ences , screens , and
1 . Pr i vacy , sa fety and secur i ty, and env i ronment a l mod i f i ca t i ons typ i ca l l y requ i re bar r i - wa l l s need to be i nt erpre t ed re l at i ve to the
ers to be 1 800-2 100mm (6-7 f t ) h i gh , and are of t en opaque or f ine l y s l at ted . vï
l arger s i te con t ex t . For i ns t ance , secur i ty for
a f ac tory or a reta i l s tore wou l d norma l l y
2 . Ci rcu l a t i on cont ro l and bounda ry de f i n i t i on are of t en l ow or sem i - t ransparent bar r i - requ i re f ar mor e e l abora t e so l ut i ons t han n
ers w i th we l l de f i ned ga t es or por ta l s . G~
secur i ty for a home . A so l ut i on wou l d a l so
be d i f f erent in a c i ty t han i t wou l d be on a
3 . Ga t es shou l d a l l ow some v i sua l pene t ra t i on i f used as a ma i n ent rance , of t en
l arge suburban or rura l s i te .
ma r ked by a change in p l ane , l ight ing, or other des i gn f ea tures .
 450 - 4

Of f -S i t e I mpac t s : t i ons , bu i l d i ng he i ght s , wa l l s , or o ther F i re Lanes and Po l i ce Surve i l l ance : F i re and

arch i t ec tura l ar t i cu l a t i ons . po l i ce depa r t men t s requ i re read i l y ident i f i -
Poor l y sty l ed or i mproper l y bu i l t f ences , ab l e , bar r i er - f ree access to cer ta i n t ypes of
screens , or wa l l s can de t rac t f rom the s i tes. For i nst ance , they requ i re easy access
Rhy t hm : The l ine crea t ed by a bar r i er
appea rance of ad j acent proper t i es , become to m i d- or h i gh- r i se bu i l d i ngs and to bu i l d-
shou l d be cons i s t ent w i th o ther l ines in the
a nu i sance for ne i ghbors by b l ock i ng v i ews , l andscape . The rhy thm i c use of such e l e- i ngs or areas whe r e pot ent i a l l y haza rdous
cut of f des i red loca l breezes , or crea t e ma t er i a l s are s tored .
men t s as posts , s l ats, or pane l s can a f f ec t
unwan t ed shade (F i gure 450-3) . La rge
the perce i ved s i ze or sca l e of a bar r i er
wa l l s can a l ter s t ormwa t e r runof f pa t t erns Perm i t s and Codes : Perm i t s are requ i red
t hrough the use of t extures , shadow l ines ,
on ne i ghbor i ng s i tes and crea t e annoy i ng
and ar t i cu l a t i on of deta i l s , espec i a l l y w i th for f ences and wa l l s beyond a cer ta i n
pond i ng or sa tura t i on prob l ems . Al l po t en-
regard to percep t i on f rom a mov i ng veh i - he i gh t or l ength in mos t c i rcums t ances .
t i a l ly adverse of f -s i te i mpac t s need to be
cle . Des i gn m i n i mums or o ther pe r f ormance
assessed dur i ng the des i gn st ages , we l l s t andards for st ruc tura l integr i ty , sa f e ty , or
be fore any cons t ruc t i on beg i ns . v i sua l qua l i ty may a l so be i nc l uded in loca l
Co l or : L i ght er co l ors t end to ca l l a t t ent i on
Des i gn Express i on: to the i nd i v i dua l e l emen t s of a f ence or bu i l d i ng codes . For i ns t ance , bar r i ers are
wa l l , wh i l e darker co l ors appea r to un i f y manda t ory for s i te fac i l i t i es such as sw i m-
Choos i ng a bas i c f ence , wa l l type , or p l ant - m i ng poo l areas , wh i ch genera l l y mus t be
t he appea rance . The numbe r of co l ors used
i ng screen is on l y the f i rst s t ep in deve l op- enc l osed by a f ence or wa l l of a spec i f i ed
in a bar r i er shou l d be kep t to a m i n i mum .
i ng a success fu l des i gn so l ut i on . Des i gn e l e- he i gh t and t ype .
men t s and de ta i l s wh i ch make up the bar r i - Tex ture : The t ype o f ma t er i a l s used and
er mus t a l so be care fu l l y deve l oped and the k i nd of f i n i sh se l ec t ed wi l l a f f ec t the
Des i gn Con t ro l s and Covenan t s :
coord i na t ed . t ex ture o f the bar r i er . The d i s t ance
Covenan t s , loca l l ega l , or quas i - l ega l regu-
be t ween the bar r i er and the observer , and
l a t i ons may exerc i se cont ro l ove r the cho i ce
Compa t i b i l i t y : The des i gn o f a f ence or the speed o f the observer (i .e ., in a mov i ng
of ma t er i a l s and co l ors and even on the
wa l l shou l d respond to i ts l andscape con- veh i c l e) are ma j or f ac tors t o cons i der .
des i gn express i on and p l acemen t of f ences ,
t ext and ad j acen t arch i t ec ture . screens , and wa l l s .
Lega l and Code Requ i r emen t s:
Compa t i b i l i t y can be enhanced by us i ng
t he same or s i mi l ar ma t er i a l s , co l ors , t ex- A proposed bar r i er or screen mus t comp l y Feas i b i l i t y:
tures , deta i l s , and propor t i ons o f nea rby w i th al l re l evant l ega l and bu i l d i ng code
The feas ib i l i ty o f a proposed bar r i er shou l d
bu i l d i ngs , s t ree t scape e l ement s , and p l ant requ i rement s , i nc l ud i ng :
be s tud i ed based upon t he fo l l ow i ng f ac-
ma t er i a l s . tors .
Bounda r i es : Proper t y l ines shou l d be pre-
Sca l e : Large bar r i ers can be sca l ed down to
c i se l y de t e rm i ned to preven t poss i b l e l ega l Ava i l ab i l i t y of Ma t er i a l s , Labor , and
re l ate to human sca l e by the use of t extures
d i sput es . I f necessary , a bounda ry survey Equ i pmen t : I f a par t i cu l ar t ype of bar r i er is
and shadow l ines, and by the ar t i cu l a t i on o f
shou l d be pe r f ormed by a reg i st ered sur - chosen , the necessary ma t er i a l s , l abor , and
i nd i v i dua l e l ement s , such as posts , pane l s ,
veyor . Deed rest r i ct i ons shou l d a l so be equ i pmen t needed for cons t ruc t i on shou l d
rai ls, and caps (F i gure 450-4) .
rev i ewed for pot ent i a l des i gn l i mi t a t i ons . be read i l y ava i l ab l e at t he pr i ce es t i ma t ed .

Propor t i ons : The re l a t i onsh i p of the he i gh t

Easemen t s : Ut i l i ty and dra i nage easemen t s Cos t s : Budge t dec i s i ons abou t f ences or
to t he w i d t h of pane l s , pos t s i z ing, e t c .,
across a s i te genera l l y prec l ude us i ng those wa l l s shou l d be based upon a care fu l
shou l d be care fu l l y sca l ed to respond to t he
areas for pe rmanen t wa l l s or f ences , bu t assessmen t o f bo t h shor t - t erm and l ong-
es t ab l i shed des i gn express i on of ma j or hor -
non-pe rmanen t or moveab l e f ea tures are t e rm costs . The ini t ia l cons t ruc t i on cos t o f
i zont a l or ver t i ca l e l emen t s nea rby.
V1 usua l l y perm i t t ed . bu i l d i ng a f ence wi l l fal l abou t ha l fway
Cons i de r f enes t ra t i on , doorway propor -
be t ween the cos t of a p l ant ed bar r i er and a
masonry wa l l . Howeve r , f ences canno t per -
f orm al l of the t asks tha t wa l l s can , and
the i r costs may vary grea t l y accord i ng t o
n 1 . Si te Con t ex t and of f -s i te i mpac t s are key cons i dera t i ons in de t erm i n i ng bar r i er type , the t ype of ma t er i a l used , the amoun t of
a de t a i l i ng i nvo l ved , and the sk i l l of t he l abor
s i ze , and ma ter i a l . Ad j acent arch i tectura l sty l es, sca l e , dra i nage pa t terns , topography ,
and s i ght l ines are key cons i dera t i ons . needed t o bu i l d and ma i n t a i n t hem .
V1
n Fur thermore , t he l ong- t erm ma i n t enance
2 . L i ghter co l ors t end to emphas i ze the bar r i er st ruc ture wh i l e darker co l ors t end to and rep l acemen t cos t s for br i ck or concre t e
r recede and b l end into the l andscape . are much l ess t han for wooden f enc i ng or
c screen i ng.
3 . Mos t s i tes are h i gh l y cons t ra i ned by l ega l regu l a t i ons regard i ng se tbacks , d i men-
s i ons , and in some cases , ma t er i a l s and co l ors . Ma i n t enance Respons i b i l i t y : The feas i b i l i ty
c and u l t i ma t e se l ec t i on of a bar r i er des i gn
n 4 . Low ini t ial costs shou l d be ba l anced aga i nst annua l ma i n t enance costs and eventua l shou l d re f l ect the ava i l ab l e ma i n t enance
rep l acement . A mor e pe rmanen t screen may requ i re a heav i er ini t ia l i nves tment . personne l and budge t requ i red to ma i nt a i n
the bar r i er proper l y over the expec t ed l i fe
5 . Ma i n t enance access shou l d gu i de des i gn l ayout and ma t er i a l s se l ec t i on to prov i de of the s t ruc ture or p l ant i ng .
ease of rout i ne ma i n t enance on both s i des of the bar r i er .
 450 - 5

T i me: Some t ypes of bar r i ers requ i re mor e

t i me t o cons t ruc t t han others . Th i s can be
an espec i a l l y i mpor t an t cons i dera t i on on a
l arge pro j ec t whe r e the cons t ruc t i on dead-
l ine is shor t , or whe r e i mmed i a t e resu l ts are
requ i red .

2 . 0 CONSTRUCT I ON METHODS
AND DETA I LS

Typ i ca l componen t s for al l t ypes of f ences

and wa l l s , i nc l ud i ng ga t es , are presen t ed
be l ow. A st ruc tura l eng i nee r or cont rac tor
f ami l i ar w i th l oca l cond i t i ons , code requ i re-
men t s and s t andard prac t i ces shou l d be
consu l t ed for ma j or s t ruc tures (such as h i gh
masonry wa l l s) in d i f f i cu l t soi l cond i t i ons .

2 .1 Foo t i ngs and Founda t i ons

F i gur e 450 - 5 . Typ i ca l pos t and f oo t i ng de t a i l s .
Foot i ng Dep t h :
The dep t h of a foot i ng or f ounda t i on is
based upon the fo l l ow i ng f ac tors :

1 . St ruc tura l stab i l i ty (aga i ns t s t orm

w i nds , i mpac t , abuse , e t c .)

2 . We i gh t o f bar r i er

3 . Dep t h o f f rost l i ne

4 . Loca l code requ i remen t s

The dep t h o f t he loca l f rost l i ne and loca l

code requ i remen t s are the pr i mary cr i ter i on
regard i ng foot i ng or f ounda t i on depth , (see
Sec t i on 410 : Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s , for da t a on
the ave rage dep t h of f rost pene t ra t i on for
the Un i t ed St a t es) . The bo t t om of foot i ngs
shou l d be a m i n i mum of 50 mm (2 in)
be l ow the f rost l i ne to e l i m i na t e upwa rd
st resses on t he s t ruc ture . Na tura l st resses
such as heavy w i nds , soi l creep on s t eep
s l opes , or expans i ve soi l s may d i c t a t e even S
deepe r foot i ngs or f ounda t i ons .

So i l Cond i t i ons :
F i gur e 450 -6 . Typ i ca l pos t - t o- f oo t i ng connec t i ons .
Ex t reme l y sandy , heavy c l ay , expans i ve or
very we t soi l cond i t i ons requ i re spec i a l con- C
s i dera t i ons . In some cases the ex i s t i ng soi l
may requ i re rep l acemen t . (Re f er to Sec t i on V1
410 : Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s , for add i t i ona l da t a 1 . Top of toot i ng for wa l l s and masonry p i ers is typ i ca l l y set at 300 mm (1 f t ) be l ow n
f rom t he Un i f i ed Sys t em of So i l f ini sh grade in wa rm , non- f ros t areas , and be l ow or at the f rost l ine in co l d reg i ons to e
Cl ass i f i ca t i on and re l evant proper t i es of prov i de a sa f e ty f ac tor equa l to the foot i ng th i ckness . At a m i n i mum , bo t t om of r
foot i ng shou l d be set a t l east 50 mm (2 in) be l ow loca l f rost l ine (Check loca l
c
each t ype of soi l ) . N
codes) .
Dra i nage : s

F reeze / t haw processes in co l d c l i ma t es can 2 . C l ay and f ine t extured subso i l s may requ i re deeper and w i der foot i ngs to i nsure sta- c
bi l i ty aga i nst l atera l w i nd l oad st resses . n
cause heav i ng o f posts , foot i ngs , and foun-
da t i ons . Per i od i c or pers i st ent f l ood i ng of
3 . Con t i nuous concre t e wa l l founda t i ons typ i ca l l y requ i re stee l re i nforc i ng and masonry
l ow spot s can acce l era t e heav i ng as we l l as b l ock wa l l s usua l l y have grout ed and re i nforced cav i t i es to resist l atera l w i nd l oads
cause decay of wooden pos t s and damage on the exposed wa l l and p i ers above .
to foot i ngs or f ounda t i ons . Sur f ace wa t e r
shou l d no t be a l l owed to co l l ec t ad j acent
 4SO-6

F i gur e 450 - 7 . Con t i nuous - f oo t i ng

cons t ruc t i on .

to, and shou l d be dra i ned away f rom the

base of f ences , screens , and wa l l s .

Pos t s and Foot i ngs :

Wooden f ence pos t s are typ i ca l l y 100 x
100 mm (4 x4 i n)w i th 150x150mm( 6x
6 in) pos t s a t corners for added stab i l i ty.
Var i ous me t hods are emp l oyed to se t pos t s
in t he ground (F i gure 450-5) . In some cases
i t is be t t er to f as t en wood or me t a l pos t s to
concre t e foot i ngs w i th s t andard f as t en i ngs
(F i gure 450-6) . Decay- res i s t ant wood or
wood preserva t i ves shou l d be used .

Masonr y wa l l s requ i re con t i nuous foot -

i ngs wh i ch are genera l l y cons t ruc t ed of
cas t - i n-p l ace re i nforced concre t e . The wa l l
is t hen bu i l t upon these foot i ngs (F i gure
450-7) . F ree -s t and i ng conc re t e and
masonry wa l l s are examp l es of r ig id con-
s t ruc t i on whe r e any movemen t of the
s t ruc ture canno t be to l era t ed .
F i gur e 450 - 8 . Me t hods f or r espond i ng t o t er ra i n .
The exac t s i ze of t he foo t i ng and
amoun t of re i nforc i ng wi l l depend on soi l
cond i t i ons . Many codes requ i re foot i ngs for
non- l oadbea r i ng wa l l s to ex t end a m i n i -
mum of 150 mm (6 in) on e i ther s i de of the
n wa l l . Genera l l y , the s i ze of the foot i ng wi l l 1 . Posts and p i ers in c l ay and f i ne soi l s may be sub j ec t to seasona l upl i f t in f ros t - thaw
not be l ess t han 250 mm (10 in) deep by reg i ons . Granu l ar backf i l l and smoo t h concre t e forms may prevent upl i f t (F i gure
400 mm (16 in) w i de w i th t wo con t i nuous 450-5) .
S
n re i nforc i ng bars as requ i red by s i te cond i -
t i ons . 2 . D i rect bur i a l posts requ i re t rea ted or decay res i stant wood . Posts a t t ached to stee l
e f l anges and se t in concre t e p i ers prov i de the bes t l ong t erm resu l ts w i th regard to
r
c
N
Dry s tone wa l l s are an examp l e of f l ex i - stabi l i ty and rout i ne ma i n t enance or componen t rep l acement (F i gures 450-5 and
b l e cons t ruc t i on , wh i ch can to l era t e a cer - 450-6) .
N1 ta i n amoun t of d i f ferent i a l se t t l emen t w i th-
ou t be i ng s i gn i f i cant l y a f f ec t ed . F l ex i b l e 3 . Post dep th is typ i ca l l y ca l cu l a ted based upon soi l t ype and w i nd l oads . A m i n i mum
c wa l l s do not typ i ca l l y requ i re a base or dep th in norma l cond i t i ons may be de t erm i ned by add i ng 10% of f ence he i ght to
n
foot i ng tha t ex t ends be l ow the f rost l i ne i f 600 mm (2 f t ) . A 1 800 mm (6 f t ) f ence wou l d requ i re a m i n i mum pos t dep th of
su i t ab l e bear i ng ex i sts , such as und i s turbed 750 mm (2 f t -6 in) or to f rost depth , wh i cheve r is grea t er.
sub-so i l or a prepared sub-base .
4 . Hor i zont a l post spac i ng and ver t i ca l steps on s l opes shou l d be regu l ar for be t t er
v i sua l e f fect in undu l a t i ng l andscapes (F i gure 450-8) .
 450 - T

w i nd ove r the f ence and crea t es a w i de r

ca l m pocke t on the l eeward s i de of the
f ence . (Re f er to Sec t i on 260 : C l i ma t e and
Energy , for mor e i n forma t i on .)
The e f f ec t of w i nd l oads on f ences is a
func t i on of how deep the pos t is se t i nto
the ground , and the proper t i es and cond i -
t i ons of the ex i st i ng soi l . Norma l l y , a f ence
is embedded in the ground at l east one
th i rd of i ts he i ght , for w i nd l oads up to 147
kg / m2 (30 Ib/ f t z) or one ha l f the he i ght for
l oads ove r 147 kg / m2 (30 Ib/ f t ) for pos t s
p l aced 2 400 mm (8 f t ) on cent er .

Masonr y wa l l s wi l l requ i re add i t i ona l

ver t i ca l re i n forcemen t in areas of pot ent i a l
w i nd damage . The Br i ck Inst i tute r ecom-
mends tha t for 49 kg / M2 (10 Ibs/ f t z) w i nd
pressure , a st ra i ght br i ck wa l l shou l d not be
h i gher t han 3/ 4 o f the wa l l th i ckness
squa red . A 200 mm (8 in) w i de wa l l , for
examp l e , wou l d be l i mi ted to a max i mum 1
200 mm (4 f t ) he i ght . Re i n forced concre t e
p i ers w i th a masonry venee r and wa l l of f -
se ts can a l so be used to s t reng then wa l l s
and compensa t e for w i nd pressure . The
exac t s i ze and spac i ng shou l d be ca l cu l a t ed
re l at i ve to w i nd pressures , typ i ca l of the
s i te .

Uneven Te r ra i n:

Some t ypes of f ences and wa l l s can run par -

a l le l to a s l op i ng or ro l l ing l andscape , wh i l e
others requ i re some me t hod of s t epp i ng
down of pane l s be t ween posts or p i ers . I t is
genera l l y eas i er to s t ep down a f ence than a
wa l l . S i mp l e f ences such as spl i t rai l or horse
f ences can eas i l y adap t to the t opography of
the si te . The st r i ngers or ra i ls are run para l l e l
to the grade and the posts and p i cke ts
rema i n ver t i ca l . Pi er and p i cke t or pane l
f ences are l ess f l ex i b l e in st ruc ture and in
deta i l . Care fu l measur i ng is requ i red to i nsure S
tha t ra i ls rema i n hor i zont a l when s t epp i ng a
down a s l ope . St epped sec t i ons are mor e for -
ma l and wor k bes t w i th w i de f ence membe r s
and bays of equa l w i d th . I f t he grade var i es
n
great l y , however , the he i ght of the bay w i d th a
and s t eps be t ween bays wi l l a l so vary and
mus t be p l anned care fu l l y to ach i eve a regu- V1
l ar and order l y appea rance (F i gure 450-8) . n

2 . 2 Wooden Fences and Sc r eens

c
Se l ec t i ng Wood Ma t e r i a l s:
~I1
F i gur e 450 - 9 . Va r i ous t ypes o f f ence cons t ruc t i on . The type , grade , and spec i es of l umbe r for
f enc i ng wi l l a f f ec t i ts cost , appea rance , and c
n
W i nd Con t ro l : l ouver f ence wi l l reduce the ve l oc i ty and shor t and l ong- t erm ma i n t enance . Some e
a l ter the w i nd d i rec t i on . A ba f f l e a t the t op wood spec i es can be se l ec t ed for i nsec t and
A s l at f ence wi l l on l y reduce w i nd ve l oc i ty ,
of the f ence ang l ed 45 degrees i nto the decay res i stance , wh i l e others requ i re pro-
whe reas a so l i d f ence wi l l g i ve w i nd prot ec- preva i l i ng w i nd g i ves the grea t es t prot ec- 0
t ec t i on w i th chem i ca l preserva t i ves .
t i on on the s i de away f rom the w i nd for a t i on c l osest to the f ence . A 45-degree ba f - Hea r t wood typ i ca l l y has grea t er na tura l
d i s t ance equa l to the he i gh t of the f ence . A f l e ang l ed away f rom the w i nd d i rec ts the res i st ance to decay and f ewe r de f ec ts , t han
 450 - 8
ets , p l ywood pane l s , or o ther wooden f enc-
i ng (F i gure 450-9) . Caps can be added for
v i sua l appea l and / or to keep wa t e r of f of
t he tops of pos t s or o t he r st ruc tura l e l e-
men t s (F i gure 450-10) .

Fenc i ng Ma t e r i a l s :

Ava i l ab l e s t andard wood s i zes shou l d be

cons i dered dur i ng t he des i gn process .
Some of the mor e common t ypes of wood
f enc i ng ma t er i a l s ava i l ab l e are l i sted be l ow ,
howeve r , due to reg i ona l var i a t i ons , some
t ypes may no t be ava i l ab l e t hroughou t the
coun t ry.

Boa rd S i d i ng : Ava i l ab l e w i t h p l a i n or
t ongue - and-groove edges . Produces so l id
f ences w i th no gaps be t ween boards . 25 x
150 mm (1 x 6 in) boards are t he mos t
F i gur e 450 - 10 . Typ i ca l cap de t a i l s . F i gur e 450 -12 . Fas t en i ng t echn i ques common l y used s i ze .
f or wood f ences and sc r eens .
P l ywood-Use ext er i or grade on l y in th i ck-
ness of 10-75 mm ( 3 /8 -3/4 i n) for f enc i ng ,
and ava i l ab l e in shee t s 1 200 mm (4 f t )
w i de by 2 400-3 600 mm (8, 10, or 12 f t )
l ong .

Precut P i cke t s and Fenc i ng Lumbe r and

F i n i a l s : Pre-s i zed and cut for posts , rai ls,
boards , p i cke ts , and s i d i ng . Fence boards
and pos t s are o f t en ava i l ab l e in a var i e ty o f
s i mp l e p i cke t and pos t t op sty l es . F i n i a l s are
used as ornamen t s for t opp i ng pos t s and
are usua l l y made o f a var i e ty of ext er i or
woods , ava i l ab l e in many t rad i t i ona l sty l es .

Pa l i ngs and Po l es : Wood s t akes are ava i l -

ab l e in 50-300 mm (2-12 in) d i ame t e r w i th
po i nt ed tops . Pressure- t rea t ed po l es are
of t en used for s tockade -s t y l e f enc i ng .

Redwood Grapes t akes : Grapes t akes are

pr i mar i l y used in t he wes t e rn Un i t ed St a t es
as f ence s i d i ng . Ava i l ab l e in 25 x 50 mm (1
x 2 in) s l ats, some t i mes w i th one smoo t h
s i de and usua l l y 900-1 800 mm (3-6 f t )
n l ong .

V1 Sp l i t Pos t s and Ra i l s : Used for pos t and rai l

n
e f enc i ng and o ther rust i c sty l es . S i zes vary ,
F i gur e 450 -11 . Typ i ca l j o i n i ng t echn i ques f or wood f ences and sc r eens . bu t are typ i ca l l y no l onger t han 3 000 mm
r
c De t a i l s tha t t rap mo i s t ure shou l d no t be used i n hum i d c l i ma t es (10 f t ) . Common s i zes ava i l ab l e measur e
N 125 x150 x2400 mm (5 x6 in x8 f t ) l ong.
V1 sapwood , bu t is usua l l y mor e expens i ve . t i on of wood and wood produc t s su i t ab l e
for use ou t doors and the reg i ona l c l ass i f i ca- Ga rden La th : Used for woven l a t t i cework
c Any par t of the f ence wh i ch wi l l be w i th i n
n 150 mm (6 in) of soi l or embedded in con- t i on sys t ems used in the Un i t ed Sta tes) . or i nser t i ng i nto cha i n- l i nk f enc i ng .
cre t e shou l d be cons t ruc t ed f rom hear t - Common l y ava i l ab l e in 5 x 50 mm ( 1 /4 x 2
LJL St ruc tura l F r amewor k : in) w i de l a ths .
wood of na tura l l y decay res i st ant woods
such as r edwood , cedar or cypress , or of Hor i zont a l ra i l s a t t ached to posts make a
pressure t rea t ed l umbe r . (Re f er to Sec t i on bas i c st ruc tura l f r ame for suppor t i ng p i ck-
850 : Wood , for a comprehens i ve exp l ana -
 450 - 9
Wood Preserva t i ves and F i n i shes :

Chem i ca l preserva t i ves are typ i ca l l y used to

pro l ong the l i fe of a wooden f ence or
screen , par t i cu l ar l y i ts pos t s . I f pressure-
t rea t ed , the wood f i bers shou l d be sa tura t -
ed w i th the preserva t i ve , ( ful l ce l l me t hod) .
Preserva t i ves can a l so be pa i nt ed on or
soaked i nto the wood espec i a l l y whe r e the
wood has been cut or in areas whe r e wa t e r
may become t rapped . (Re f er to Sec t i on :
850-Wood , for fur ther d i scuss i on of pro-
tec t i ve t rea tment s , ma t er i a l s , and me t hods
of app l i ca t i on for wood produc t s) .

Ver t i ca l f ac i ng membe r s shou l d neve r

t ouch the ground . In some cases , dra i nage
ho l es can be dr i l l ed in the suppor t i ng ra i ls
to preven t t hem f rom t rapp i ng wa t e r .
F i gur e 450 - 13 . Typ i ca l me t a l p i cke t f ence cons t ruc t i on .
Jo i n i ng and Fas t en i ng:

F i gure 450-11 shows severa l ways to jo in

toge ther membe r s of wooden f ences or
screens . The t echn i que chosen and the qua l -
i ty of the ha rdwa re spec i f i ed wi l l a f f ec t the
v i sua l appea l and the st ruc tura l i ntegr i ty of
the f ence .

Ho t -d i pped ga l van i zed stee l , non- cor ro-

s i ve a l um i num a l l oys , or sta i n l ess stee l fas-
t en i ngs can be used to preven t the cor ro-
s i on or d i sco l or i ng of ma t er i a l s and f i n i shes .
Sc rews and bo l ts prov i de the f i rmes t con-
nec t i ons and may be needed to gua ran t ee
a s t rong suppor t i ng f r amewor k . Wood
screws can be used to j o i n p i eces 25 mm (1
in) th i ck or l ess, bu t l ag bo l ts , wh i ch come
in a range of s i zes , shou l d be used to jo in
mor e subs t ant i a l wooden membe r s .
F i gur e 450 - 14 . C l osed-p i cke t me t a l f enc i ng on mason r y wa l l .
Norma l l y , na i l s shou l d pene t ra t e a t l east
ha l f the th i ckness of the rece i v i ng membe r
of wood , and shanked na i l s shou l d be used
to preven t eventua l l oosen i ng of the na i l
(F i gure 450-12) .

Coun t e rsunk bo l t and sc rew f as t en i ngs

are l ess suscept i b l e to cor ros i on or vanda l -
i sm when h i dden by wooden p l ugs . Cove r
n
coun t e rsunk na i l s w i th a non-o i l y f i l l er i f a
the wood is to be s t a i ned or l ef t in i ts na t -
ura l st a t e . Use o i l -base put t y i f the wood
n
wi l l be pa i nt ed . Wood f i l lers may need t int - e
i ng to ma t ch the t one of t he wood . r
c
2 .3 Me t a l Fenc i ng
Me t a l P i cke t Fences:
c
Pos t s can be made of 25-100 mm (1-4 in) n
squa re or round t empe r ed stee l or a l u- e
ILL
m i num t ub i ng se t in concre t e foot i ngs .
P i cke ts are norma l l y made o f 20-25 mm F i gur e 450 - 15 . Me t a l f abr i c f enc i ng F i gur e 450 - 16 . Typ i ca l cha i n l i nk
(3/4- l i n) square or round t empe red stee l w i t h wood pos t cons t ruc t i on . f enc i ng. 0
 450- 1 0

F i gur e 450 - 17 . Cha i n l i nk - t o -wood

f r ame connec t i on de t a i l s .

or a l um i num tub i ng or so l i d bars . (F i gures

450-13 and 450-14) .

Me t a l Fabr i c Fenc i ng:

Me t a l f abr i c f enc i ng is typ i ca l l y s t re t ched F i gur e 450 - 18 . Types and app l i ca t i on o f me t a l f abr i cs .
be t ween pos t s se t in concre t e . As w i th
o ther f ences , corner pos t s are norma l l y
l arger and se t deepe r t han i nner pos t s me t a l f abr i cs in a var i e ty of co l ors and f ab-
wooden pos t s (F i gures 450-15 t hrough
. LA Me t a l p i cke t and me t a l f abr i c f ences can be r i c sty l es tha t can be used a t t rac t i ve l y in
450-18) .
comb i ned w i th o ther t ypes of f ences and
other app l i ca t i ons as we l l .
wa l l s . Cha i n l ink f abr i c is usua l l y s t re t chec Me t a l f abr i c f enc i ng was or i g i na l l y used
be t ween me t a l pos t s of 50-100 mm (2-4 for agr i cu l tura l and secur i ty purposes . Th i s 2 . 4 Br i ck and Conc r e t e B l ock Wa l l s
in) d i ame t er , bu t i t can a l so be moun t ed or ma t er i a l is now ava i l ab l e in v i ny l coa t ed
n Frees t and i ng masonry wa l l s can be made of
br i ck and / or concre t e b l ock (F i gure 450-19) .
S These non- l oad bear i ng st ruc tures car ry on l y
n the i r own we i gh t p l us any l atera l w i nd l oads .
e 1 . For best resul ts, al l hor i zonta l sur f aces shou l d s l ope to prevent wa t er sa tura t i on an Concre t e b l ock is norma l l y l ess expens i ve
r than br i ck , and i t is ava i l ab l e in s t andard and
c eventua l wood decay or preserva t i ve l each i ng (F i gure 450-10) .
spec i a l s i zes, f i n i shes and shapes . O f t en ,
2 . Use cor ros i on res i stant f ast eners for al l connec t i ons . Sta i n l ess stee l screws prov i de ho l l ow concre t e b l ocks are used to add
~I1
e the h i ghest qua l i ty non-s t a i n i ng dev i ces for natura l cedar and other decay res i stan th i ckness or to prov i de a st ruc ture tha t can
c woods . Screws a l so prov i de for eas i er rep l acement of key componen t s such as rai l -. be f aced on one or bo t h s i des w i th br i ck , t i le,
n braces , etc . stucco , or o ther ma t er i a l s .

Br i ckwork Pa t t erns :
3 . Lag screws and exposed bo l ts shou l d be coun t ersunk and p l ugged for best resis-
t ance to vanda l i sm and cor ros i on . F i gure 450-20 shows some of the mor e
common bonds used in br i ck l ay i ng . Because
 450 - 1 1

F i gur e 450 - 19 . Typ i ca l br i ck wa l l cons t ruc t i on .

n
F i gur e 450 - 20 . Common br i ckwor k pa t t e rns .

the ends of wa l l s are of t en v i s ibl e , they are shou l d be cons i dered as par t o f the overa l l masonry mor t a r j o i nt shou l d be se l ec t ed N1
usua l l y des i gned w i th a runn i ng bond pa t - sur f ace des i gn t rea t men t of f rees t and i ng based on the aes the t i c appea rance and the n
t ern or an end-wa l l p i er or co l umn . wa l l s . degr ee o f wa t e r t i ghtness requ i red . (Re f er
i
to Sec t i on 840 : Masonry , for t ypes of j o i nts c
Jo i nt s: Expans i on j o i nts are common l y 10 mm and wea therab i l i t y) .
( 1 /2 in) w i de and ex t end comp l e t e l y
Expans i on and cont ro l j o i nts are needed in t hrough the wa l l . They shou l d occur a t reg- t /1
Mo i s t ure Con t ro l :
mos t t ypes o f concre t e or mor t a red br i ck u l ar i nterva l s as requ i red by the ex i s t i ng c
wa l l s to m i n i m i ze or cont ro l t he poss i b l e cond i t i ons , norma l l y no fur ther t han 90 The t op sur f aces o f wa l l s shou l d be p i t ched n
damag i ng e f f ec ts of movemen t due to 000 mm (30 f t ) apar t . Expans i on j o i nts are to dra i n , and caps shou l d be ex t ended
st resses , expans i on and cont rac t i on , t em- a l so r ecommended a t wa l l of fsets , j unc- beyond the wa l l to shed wa t e r away f rom
pera ture var i a t i on , and the presence of t i ons , changes in ma ter i a l s , and corners . the wa l l f ace . Jo i nts on hor i zont a l sur f aces
mo i s ture . The spac i ng and p l ac i ng o f (Re f er to Sec t i on 830 : Concre t e , for fur ther shou l d be sea l ed to preven t seepage and
expans i on , cont ro l , and cons t ruc t i on jo ints exp l ana t i on o f j o i nt t ypes) . The t ype o f poss i b l e damage to t he j o i nt .
 4SO - 12

F i gur e 450 - 22 . Re i n f or cemen t f or

F i gur e 450 - 21 . Typ i ca l caps f or mason r y wa l l s .
mason r y wa l l s .

Br i ck Cap Un i t s:

Caps can be made f rom s t andard br i cks or

f rom br i cks cut on t he si te, and t hey can be
se t in a pa t t ern d i f f erent f rom t he wa l l
bond . The re are spec i a l br i ck cap un i ts for
t he wa l l ends and corners . Pre f abr i ca t ed
caps are a l so ava i l ab l e . Al t erna t i ve l y , caps
for masonry wa l l s can be of wood , precas t
concre t e , or cut s tone (F i gure 450-21) .

Re i n f orcemen t :

The th i ckness , he i gh t and amoun t of re in-

forc i ng for var i ous wa l l s are i nt er re l a t ed .
Check l oca l bu i l d i ng codes for l ega l rest r i c-
t i ons and bu i l d i ng spec i f i ca t i ons for he i ght ,
w i d th , and re i n f orcemen t requ i remen t s
be fore bu i l d i ng a wa l l .
Br i ck wa l l s can be re i nforced w i th l adder
S or t russ t ype w i re re i n forcemen t or st ruc-
tura l br i ck bonds ca l l ed heade r courses .
W i r e re i n f orcemen t is l a id hor i zont a l l y
w i th i n t he mor t ar bed be t ween every th i rd
or four th course to res i st l atera l d i sp l ace-
n men t in wa l l s ove r 600 mm (2 f t ) h i gh
(F i gure 450-22) . (Re f er to Sec t i on 840 :
Masonry , for fur ther exp l ana t i on of w i re F i gur e 450 - 23 . Re i n f or cemen t f or f r ees t and i ng mason r y wa l l s.
V1
re i n forcemen t t ypes and me t hods o f insta l -
l at i on) . In s i ng l e and doub l e wy t he wa l l s ,
Lc t he heade r course cons i sts of a br i ck l a id
cond i t i ons and s t andard prac t i ces shou l d be
consu l t ed .
h i gher ) and requ i re f ewe r s tones t han dry
wa l l s .
across the th i ckness of the wa l l . In doub l e
wy t he wa l l s i t t i es the wa l l f aces toge ther . Wa l l s can be l a id up in t wo rough
2 . 5 S t one Wa l l s
Frees t and i ng wa l l s above 1 200 mm h i gh wy t hes w i th rubb l e f i l l or bond s tones l a id
c (4 f t ) , shou l d have bar re i n forcemen t run- Two bas i c me t hods o f s tone wa l l cons t ruc - across the wa l l , t y i ng the wa l l f aces toge th-
n n i ng ver t i ca l l y , e i ther in the mor t a r be t ween t i on are dry and mor t ar - l a i d wa l l s . Dry er (F i gure 450-25) . A good genera l ru l e of
the br i ck or in t he open ce l l s of concre t e s t one wa l l s have no mor t ar , the s tones are t humb is to p l ace a m i n i mum o f one bond
b l ocks (F i gure 450-23) . For ma j or st ruc- i r regu l ar in shape , and are l a id f l at . Mor t ar - s tone for every 1 m 2 (10 f t ' ) of wa l l sur f ace .
tures in d i f f i cu l t soi l cond i t i ons , a st ruc tura l l a id s tone wa l l s have con t i nuous foot i ngs Ove r l ap of s t onewor k is cr i t i ca l for dry l a id
eng i neer or cont rac tor f ami l i ar w i th loca l (and there fore are s t ronger and can be and mor t a red s tonewa l l s . Ver t i ca l j o i nts
 450 - 1 3
shou l d be s t aggered , a l ways over l app i ng
t he s t one above and t he one be l ow .
Mor t a red j o i nts are typ i ca l l y recessed and
are no t f l ush w i th s tone sur f aces .
Wa l l s can be ba t t ered to prov i de
i ncreased stab i l i ty and res i st ance to over -
turn i ng . The amoun t o f ba t t er depends on
the s i ze and purpose of the wa l l , the shape
of t he s tones used and whe t he r or no t the
wa l l is mor t a red . Ve ry rounded s tones
requ i re mor e ba t t er . A typ i ca l ba t t er for dry
s tone wa l l s is to p l an 25-50 mm (1-2 in) of
ba t t er for each 300 mm (1 f t ) of r ise, but
o ther rat i os are o f t en used . When a wa l l
appea rs to be an ex t ens i on of a bu i l d i ng , a
ba t t ered wa l l is se l dom used (F i gures 450-
24 , 450-25 , and 450-26) .
F i gur e 450 - 24 . Typ i ca l s t one wa l l f oo t i ng cons t ruc t i on .
Stonework Pa t terns :
Two bas i c s t onewor k pa t t erns used in wa l l
cons t ruc t i on are r andom rubb l e and ash l ar
(F i gures 450-27 and 450-28) . Ash l ar typ i -
ca l l y cons i sts of f l at sur f aces and a l i mi ted
range of s i zes . Ful l y, t r i mmed ash l ar can be
eas i l y l a id, makes forma l or i nforma l cours-
i ng poss i b l e and requ i res l ess mor t a r than
rubb l e wa l l s . Rubb l e is i r regu l ar in shape
and is d i f f i cu l t to cut , bu t is an i nexpens i ve
ma t er i a l when l oca l l y ava i l ab l e . St ones
shou l d be s i mi l ar in s i ze , or , i f in a var i e ty of
shapes and s i zes, shou l d be even l y d i st r ib-
u t ed and the l argest s tones p l aced near the
base to g i ve a ba l anced appea r ance to the
wa l l .

Mor t a r M i x:
(Re f er to Sec t i on 840 : Masonry , for recom-
mended mor t a r t ypes and proper t i es) .
F i gur e 450 - 25 . Typ i ca l s t one wa l l cons t ruc t i on .
St one mus t be f ree of d i r t and t horough l y
we t t ed be fore be i ng se t .

2 . 6 Pou r ed Conc r e t e Wa l l s
tA
Poured concre t e wa l l s requ i re the same
t ype of foot i ng as o ther masonry wa l l s , a
w i th key j o i nts to l ock the foot i ng to the
wa l l above . Conc re t e wa l l s a l so requ i re
f ormwor k and ver t i ca l and hor i zont a l re in- n
forc i ng bars to prov i de stab i l i ty . A typ i ca l a
re i nforc i ng bar pa t t ern for a poured con- of
cre t e wa l l is shown in F i gure 450-29 . For n
wa l l s ove r 1 800 mm (6 f t ) in he i ght , a
st ruc tura l eng i nee r shou l d be consu l t ed to r
de t e rm i ne l oads and st ruc tura l spec i f i ca-
t i ons . Cont ro l and expans i on j o i nts shou l d
be used to cont ro l l oca t i ons of cracks , and V1
e
to re l i eve wa l l st resses , as descr i bed in 2 .4 c
Jo i nts . n
e
F i gur e 450 - 26 . Caps f or s t one wa l l s .
2 . 7 M i sce l l aneous Ba r r i e r Ma t e r i a l s

Pane l s for f ences and screens can be con-

s t ruc t ed of any numbe r of ma t er i a l s , espe -
c i a l l y i f the f ence or screen is go i ng to serve
 450- 1 4

F i gur e 450 - 27 . Random rubb l e mason r y pa t t e rns . Un i t s are squa red and
dressed by s tone masons in the f i e ld .

F i gur e 450 - 30 . A l t e rna t i ve ma t e r i a l s

f or f ence or sc r een pane l s .

F i gur e 450 - 28 . Ash l a r s t one mason r y pa t t e rns . Un i t s are precu t and dressed
be fore de l i very to s i te .

LA

n
V1 F i gur e 450 - 29. Typ i ca l pour ed conc r e t e wa l l cons t ruc t i on .
n F i gur e 450 -31 . Typ i ca l sc r een pane l
e cons t ruc t i on .
r
c e i ther a t empora ry or spec i a l need . F i gures 2 .8 Ga tes Sagg i ng is the ma i n st ruc tura l prob l em
w i th mos t ga t es ; there fore , the ga t e shou l d
450-30 and 450-31 show P l ex i g l as and Ga t e pos t s are usua l l y l arger , (e .g ., at l east
S
canvas app l i ca t i ons , bu t such ma t er i a l s are be as l i ght as poss i b l e and have d i agona l
150 x 150 mm (6 x 6 in)] and ta l l er t han brac i ng . A p l ywood pane l is one me t hod to
c sub j ec t to abuse or vanda l i sm and may t he pos t s used for t he rema i nde r of the
n there fore requ i re a h i gher degree of ma i n- f ence and o f t en the same s i ze as the corner
crea t e a sag- f ree ga t e (F i gure 450-33) .
Braces shou l d ex t end f rom the bo t t om of
t enance . The durab i l i ty of a ma t er i a l is pos t s . They shou l d a l ways be i nsta l l ed the h i nge s i de to the t op o f the l a tch s i de .
ano t he r f ac tor and may i mp l y a shor t er deeper , and of t en w i th concre t e foot i ngs I f a w i re and turnbuck l e is used , the w i re is
use fu l l i fe . (F i gure 450-32) . s t rung f rom the uppe r h i nge s i de to the
l owe r l a t ch s i de i ns t ead . Th i s p l acemen t
 450 - 1 5

suppor t s the f rame and coun t erac t s sag-

g i ng .

Bo l ts and wood screws i ns t ead of na i l s

shou l d be spec i f i ed for ga t e cons t ruc t i on .
Typ i ca l ga t e ha rdwa re is shown in F i gure
450-34 .

2 . 9 Connec t i ons t o Bu i l d i ngs

or O t he r S t ruc t ur es

The po i nt , or j unc ture , whe r e a bar r i er j o i ns

ano t he r s t ruc ture is a deta i l cruc i a l to good
appea rance and st ruc tura l i ntegr i ty (F i gures
450-35 , 450-36 , and 450-37) . I f needed , a
ga t e is o f t en l oca t ed at th i s po i nt to so l ve
the prob l em .

2 . 10 Ma i n t enance a round t he
Base o f Wa l l s and Fences
A f ence or wa l l on a paved sur f ace has f ew
ma i n t enance prob l ems , bu t i f se t on mown
grass , t hen a mow i ng or ma i n t enance st r i p
a l ong the base of the s t ruc ture m i gh t be
cons i dered . Al t erna t i ve l y , a l ow-ma i n t e -
nance ground cover can be subs t i tut ed for
F i gur e 450 - 32 . Typ i ca l ga t e and ga t epos t cons t ruc t i on .
the l awn (F i gure 450-38) . Curbs , car stops ,
or o ther such dev i ce shou l d be used to pro-
tec t bar r i ers f rom veh i cu l ar damage (F i gure
450-39) .

2 . 11 Reproduc i ng H i s t or i c St y l es

Accura t e reproduc t i ons o f ear l i er bar r i er

sty l es are some t i mes needed in h i stor i c
l andscape res tora t i on . In mos t cases , how-
ever , exac t reproduc t i ons are unnecessa ry.
Genera l l y , an h i stor i c appea r ance can be
sugges t ed by care fu l de t a i l i ng of the e l e-
men t s such as the caps , p i l asters , p i cke ts ,
posts , or f ini a l s as we l l as by choos i ng
ma t er i a l s tha t have s t rong h i stor i ca l conno-
ta t i ons s i mp l y because of the i r pas t w i de -
spread use (e .g . , s tone , br i ck , or i ron or
wooden p i cke t ) (F i gure 450-40) .
F i gur e 450 - 33 . Common br ac i ng t echn i ques f or wood ga t es .

Ash l ar : A t ype of cut s tone typ i ca l l y se l ec t ed

f rom st rat i f i ed rock such as l i mestone , n
sands tone and sha l e . Used for bu i l d i ng
sol id wa l l s . Ash l ar is a l so a name for LA
masonry made of squared s tone l a id in a n
1 . Al l br i ck and concre t e b l ock wa l l s requ i re cont i nuous concre t e foot i ngs and ver t i ca l e
r andom or coursed pa t tern , ca l l ed coursed
ash l ar . re i nforc i ng, ex t ended at l east ha l f way up the he i ght of the wa l l core , espec i a l l y for r
c
Ef f l orescence : A wh i t e powde ry subs t ance wa l l s grea t er than 1 200 mm (4 f t ) . N
composed of so l ub l e sa l ts car r i ed to the
wa l l or pav i ng sur f ace by the movemen t 2. Latera l re i nforc i ng may be requ i red in br i ck and concre t e b l ock wa l l s every 3 to 6 S
courses in heavy w i nd l oad app l i ca t i ons . So l id br i ck wa l l s requ i re F l emi sh or Eng l i sh e
and subsequen t evapora t i on of wa t er . c
Frost L i ne : The l owes t l eve l in soi l tha t f rosts bond to t i e wa l l f aces toge ther . C
or f reezes . e
Ga l van i zed : Process of d i pp i ng me t a l ob j ec ts 3 . Wa l l caps shou l d s l ope to dra i n . Concre t e wa l l tops may be p i t ched and beve l ed ,
in a hot ba th of meta l l i c z i nc . Th i s process and masonry wa l l s may use spec i a l l y f ormed masonry or precast concre t e cop i ngs
adds a meta l l i c z i nc coa t i ng wh i ch re tards (F i gure 450-21) . F l ash i ng and damp proof i ng may be requ i red in we t c l i ma t es .
rust .
 450 - 16
Masonry Heade r : A s i ng l e br i ck or course of
br i cks turned to span the w i dth of the
wa l l . Headers t i e t wo s ide by s ide t iers of
br i cks toge ther .
P l ywood : Pane l made by l am i na t i ng th in
shee ts of wood to a wood f i bercore .
Random Rubb l e : Stone wa l l pa t t ern us i ng
uncu t s tone l a id in uneven or i r regu l ar
courses .
Reba r : Abbrev i a t i on for re i nforc i ng bar ,
some t i mes re fer red to as rods . Round ,
stee l bars p l aced in concre t e and un i t
masonry wa l l s for re i nforcement purposes .
S i zed in 3 mm ( / e in) i ncrement s . (A No . 4
rebar is 10 mm ( ' /z in) d i ame t er ) .
Rubb l e : I r regu l ar rough s tones such as f i e ld-
stone , or broken p i eces of br i ck and con-
crete , usua l l y w i th at l east one good f ace
used for wa l l const ruc t i on .
Wy t he : The w i dth of one course of common
br i cks .

Ame r i can I ron and Stee l Inst i tute (AISI ) ,

Wash i ng ton , DC
The A l um i num Assoc i a t i on , Wash i ng ton , DC
Wes t e rn Wood Produc t s Assoc i a t i on ,
Por t l and , Or egon
Na t i ona l Concre t e Masonr y Assoc i a t i on
(NCMA) , Herndon , Vi rg i n i a
Bu i l d i ng Stone Inst i tute (BSI ) , New York ,
New York
Br i ck Masonry Inst i tute of Amer i ca , (BIA)
Reston , Vi rg i n i a

F i gur e 450 - 34 . Common ga t e ha rdwa r e . Ga l van i zed me t a l ha rdwa re is of t en used

to preven t rust i ng and consequen t s t a i n i ng o f wood.

n
e
e
r
c
N
V1
c
c
ILL
F i gur e 450 - 36 . O f f se t de t a i l s f or
F i gur e 450 - 35 . Aes t he t i c cons i de r a t i ons f or connec t i ons be t ween wa l l s or connec t i ons be t ween wa l l s or
f ences and bu i l d i ngs . f ences and bu i l d i ngs .
 450 - 1 7

F i gur e 450 - 37 . Aes t he t i c cons i de r a - F i gur e 450 - 38 . Low- ma i n t enance t echn i ques f or t he bases o f wa l l s and
t i ons f or bu i l d i ng / wa l l ex t ens i on . f ences .

1 . Dry s tone wa l l s typ i ca l l y requ i re

an aggrega t e base to prov i de a
un i form l eve l sur f ace on wh i ch
to l ay the s tone . Poor l y dra i ned
soi l may requ i re l atera l per fora t -
ed p i pe dra i nage to prevent
swe l l and shr i nkage , and / or
f rost heav i ng in co l d c l i ma tes
(F i gure 450-24) .

2 . Dry s tone may be p l aced on a

concre t e or graded aggrega t e
foot i ng set be l ow f rost to i nsure
a un i form wa l l e l eva t i on no t
F i gur e 450 - 39 . Ca r s t op f or pro t ec - sub j ec t to seasona l f l uc tua t i on .
t i on o f wa l l s or f ences . Wa l l s grea t er than 900 mm (3 S
f t ) h i gh , typ i ca l l y requ i re heade r
stone courses to t i e wa l l f aces
REFERENCES
toge ther in w i de or cav i ty wa l l
cons t ruc t i on (F i gure 540-25) .
Chambe r l i n , S. And Po l l ock , J . Fences ,
n
Ga t es & Wa l l s , HP Books , Los Ange l es , 3 . Mor t a red s tone wa l l s requ i re a
Ca l i forn i a 9983 F i gur e 450 - 40 . Repr esen t a t i ve con t i nuous concre t e foot i ng
Hornbos t e l , Ca l eb , Cons t ruc t i on Ma t er i a l s examp l e o f h i s tor i c de t a i l i ng . ex t end i ng be l ow f rost in co l d n
- Types Uses and App l i ca t i on , Second (Ot t erbe i n Church , Ba l t i more , Ma ry l and , c l i ma t es . Wa l l may be t i ed to
Ed i t i on , W i l ey , New York 1999 c. 1 850. foot i ng w i th a key s tone set in e
r
we t concre t e . Mor t ared wa l l s c
Landpha i r , H . C . and F red K l a t t , Jr. may have th i nner cross sec t i ons N
Landscape Arch i t ec ture Cons t ruc t i on , t i on , John Hoke , Jr. ed , W i l ey , New York , and requ i re l ess s tone per un i t
E l sev i er , Nor t h Ho l l and , New York , 1988 1988 V1
l ength than dry- l a i d wa l l s . e
Na t i ona l Fores t Produc t s Assoc i a t i on V i v i an , John , Bu i l d i ng Fences of Wood , c
n
(NFPA) Na t i ona l Des i gn Spec i f i ca t i ons for Stone , Me t a l and P l ants , W i l l i amson 4 . Cap s tones mus t s l ope to shed
Wood Cons t ruc t i on , Apr i l 1973 or l atest Pub l i sh i ng , Char l ot t e , Ve rmon t , 1987 wa t er. Precast or s i te-cast con-
ed i t i on crete cop i ngs may be used in
Wa l ker , Theodor e D . S i te Des i gn and
mor t ared s tone wa l l s (F i gure
C. G . Ramsey and H . R. S l eepe r . Cons t ruc t i on De ta i l i ng , PDA Pub l i shers ,
450-26) .
Arch i t ec tura l Graph i c St andards , 8th ed i - Wes t La f aye t t e , IN, 1992
 SECT I ON ~

Wood Decks and

Boa rdwa l ks
r .

Con t r i bu tor :
Ga r y M. F i shbeck
Techn i ca l Wr i t er :
Je f f rey D. B l ankensh i p
Graph i cs :
John Cop l ey
John Cop l ey and Assoc i a t es , Inc .
Bos t on , Massachuse t t s
Rev i ewe rs :
J . Brooks Br eeden
Depa r t men t o f Landscape Arch i t ec ture
Schoo l o f Arch i t ec ture
Oh i o St a t e Un i vers i t y
Co l umbus , Oh i o

O l i n Fra l i ck
Ma r v i n & Assoc i a t es , Inc .
Wa l t e rboro , Sou t h Ca ro l i na

Thomas and Hea t he r Ryan

Sasak i Assoc i a t es , Inc .
Wa t e r t own , Massachuse t t s
S

CONTENTS
a
1 .0 Int roduc t i on 3 . 0 Ma t er i a l s O
1 .1 Gene r a l 3 .1 Se l ec t i on o f Ma t er i a l s 4. 0 S i z i ng Wood Membe r s B
1 . 2 Des i gn Process 3 .2 Wood 4 .1 Us i ng Span Tab l es
1 . 3 Pre l i m i nary Des i gn Cons i dera t i ons Decay Res i s t ance 4 . 2 S i z i ng Examp l e n
2 .0 Pr i nc i p l es of Cons t ruc t i on Lumbe r Grades 4 . 3 Pos t S i z i ng «i
2 .1 F r am i ng Me t hods 3. 3 Ha rdwa r e 4 . 4 Beam S i z i ng
P l a t form F r am i ng Anchors , Hange rs , and P l a t es 4 . 5 Jo i s t S i z i ng Y
P l ank - and-Beam F r am i ng Na i l s 4 . 6 Deck i ng S i z i ng
c
2 .2 Bas i c Componen t s Wood Sc rews 5. 0 Cons t ruc t i on De t a i l s
Deck i ng Bo l ts G l ossa ry
0
Jo i sts 3 . 4 Masonr y Agenc i es and Organ i za t i ons
Beams 3 . 5 O t he r Ma t er i a l s Re f erences O
Pos t s P l ant Ma t er i a l s O
Foo t i ngs Me t a l s
Brac i ng and B l ock i ng P l ast i cs
Sta i rs and Ra i l i ngs Fabr i cs
2 .3 Ma i n t enance
 460-2
1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON

1 .1 Genera l
Thi s sect ion focuses on fundamenta l pr inci -
pl es and techn i ques of wood deck and
boardwa l k des ign and const ruct ion . Each of
the ma j or st ructura l component s of a deck
and i ts si z ing is descr ibed . Const ruct ion
deta i ls for var ious types of connect ions ,
inc luding steps and handra i l ings, are g i ven
at the end of the sect ion .
1 .2 Des i gn Process
The des ign of a deck or boardwa l k invol ves
an order l y dec i s i on-mak i ng process . Bas i c
steps in the process inc lude :
1 . Program requ i rements: Create a des ign
program wi th regard to proposed deck
uses and resul t ing si ze requ i rements .
2 . Schema t i c des ign : Deve l op deck or F i gure 460-1 . Typ i ca l p l a t form f ram i ng.
boardwa l k form, spat ial organi zat ion,
and expec ted c i rculat ion pat terns.
3 . Rough l ayout and f rami ng p l an :
Deve l op a rough l ayout and pre l iminary
f rami ng pl an wh i ch locates al l st ructural
e l ements requi red, such as foot ings,
beams , joists, deck ing pat tern, stai rs,
and rai ls . Ca l cul at ions cannot beg in unt i l
a rough f raming pl an is prepared .
4 . Si z ing wood members and ref ine-
ment of l ayout : Ca l cu l ate we i ghts and
si zes proceed i ng f rom wear i ng sur face
to pier foot ings to inc lude deck i ng
joists, beams , and f inal ly post ca l cul a-
t ions . (Refer to 4 .0 Si z ing Wood
Members in this sect ion for an expl a-
nat ion of si z ing ca l cul at ions .)
5 . Deta i l s and auxi l i ary features : Prepare F i gure 460-2 . Typ i ca l p l ank - and-beam f ram i ng .
_Y detai ls for al l assoc i ated features such
as steps, rai l ings, benches , hot tubs,
and pl anters . Such features wh i ch bear 3 . Ma i nt enance cons iderat ions P l a t form F ram i ng:
r on the deck st ructure must be inc lud-
a ed in we i ght ca l cul at ions. Me thods of Pl at form f rami ng is a beam-and- j o i st
2 .0 PR INCIPLES OF CONSTRUCT I ON
O a t tachment for these detai ls some- me thod of const ruct ion (F igure 460-1) .
B t imes become par t of the st ructura l 2 .1 F ram i ng Me t hods Few beams are necessary because joists
f rami ng pl an (e .g . st ructura l posts as car ry the load over a w i de area . Joists typi -
n posts for handra i l ings) . P l a t form f rami ng and p l ank-and-beam cal ly are of a nomi na l th i ckness of 50 mm
a f rami ng are the two me thods common l y (2 in) and essent ia l ly funct ion as c lose l y
tA 6 . Eva luat ion : Al l st ructura l systems emp l oyed in deck or boardwa l k const ruc- spaced beams . The spac i ng of joists is
Y shou ld be rev i ewed by local permi t t ing t ion . Both of these me thods have advan- de termi ned by (1) the load-car ry ing abi l i ty
c
agenc i es and st ructura l consul tants .
0 1 .3 Pre l i mi nary Des i gn Cons i dera t i ons
tages and d i sadvantages , depend i ng on the
obj ect i ves of the des i gner. The cho i ce of
of the joists themse l ves (a funct ion of the i r
cross-sect iona l d i mens i on and l ength of
one me thod over another is usua l ly based span) and (2) the max i mum a l lowab l e
O The factors that wi l l fundamenta l l y deter - on a comb i na t i on of cost compar i sons , aes- deck i ng spans, wh i ch depend on the cross-
O mi ne the appearance , st rength, and relat ive thet i c preference , and regiona l pract i ce . sect iona l d i mens i ons of the deck i ng ma ter -
costs of a deck or boardwa l k des ign are : The compara t i ve costs be tween these two ial and on the spec i es of l umber used .
f rami ng me thods need to be cons idered on Di f ferent spec i es of wood have di f ferent
0 1 . Frami ng me thod and l ayout a proj ect -by-proj ect bas i s due to the many inherent st rengths .
2 . Const ruct ion mater i a l s se l ect ion var i abl es invo l ved .
 460 - 3

Jo i sts mus t be or i ent ed so tha t the

cross sec t i on ' s l ong i tud i na l ax i s is ver t i -
ca l (i . e ., na r row d i mens i on up) .

2 . Idea l l y , joi sts shou l d be suppor t ed on

each end by a beam , a l edger , or me t a l
hangers , but na i l i ng d i rec t l y to a f acer
is some t i mes adequa t e for sma l l decks
w i th l ight l oad i ng requ i remen t s .

3 . Br i dg i ng is some t i mes used be t ween

joi sts to m i n i m i ze l atera l movemen t ,
espec i a l l y i f jo i st spans are l ong .

4 . When f as t en i ng jo i sts or beams , espe -

F i gur e 460 - 3 . L i ne o f max i mum shea r . Ex t ens i ve bo l t i ng a l ong the l i ne of c i a l l y w i th bo l ts , care mus t be exer -
max i mum shear w i l l weaken the beam . c i sed to preven t weaken i ng o f the
membe r a l ong the l ine of max i mum
shear (see F i gure 460-3) .

P l a t form f ram i ng resu l ts in a deepe r under l y i ng suppor t membe r s . The fo l l ow i ng Beams :

( th i cker ) deck prof i l e t han p l ank - and-beam des i gn f ac tors shou l d be cons i dered
f ram i ng because of the i nc l us i on of joi sts . Beams func t i on to suppor t the we i gh t of joists
1 . Deck i ng ma t er i a l shou l d be grea t er and deck i ng , t ransf er r i ng the l oad to posts or
P l ank - and-Beam F r am i ng: t han 25 mm (1 in) (nom i na l th i ckness) d i rect l y to a founda t i on . The i r spac i ng is d i rect -
un l ess not i ceab l e de f l ec t i on is accept - ly re l ated to the a l l owab l e span of the mem-
P l ank - and-beam f ram i ng re fers to a beam- ab l e . Pre -mo l ded 30 mm (5 / 4 in) bers wh i ch they are d i rect l y suppor t i ng ,
and-deck i ng me t hod o f cons t ruc t i on p l ank i ng is o f t en used , but 50 mm (2 whe t he r they are joi sts or deck i ng. Typi ca l l y,
(F i gure 460-2) . No joi sts are used because in) (nom i na l ) ma t er i a l is mor e com- beams are spaced 1 800 to 2 400 mm (6 to 8
the beams are spaced c l ose enough toge th- mon . f t ) apar t in p l ank - and-beam f ram i ng and 2 400
er to func t i on l i ke jo i sts . The spac i ng of
2 . The spac i ng be t ween deck i ng p l anks to 4 800 mm (8 to 16 f t ) apar t in p l a t form
beams is re l a ted t o the max i mum a l l owab l e
f ram i ng . The i r requ i red cross-sect i ona l d i men-
deck i ng spans , the cross-sec t i ona l d i men- shou l d be no mor e t han 3 mm (1 / 8 in)
s i on is d i rect l y re l ated to the l ength of the i r
s i on of the beams emp l oyed , and t he max - or the equ i va l ent th i ckness of a 16d
a l l owab l e span , g i ven any par t i cu l ar l oad i ng
i mum a l l owab l e beam spans . na i l . In some cases the l umbe r used is
requ i rement .
not comp l e t e l y dry and add i t i ona l
A ma j or advan t age of p l ank - and-beam shr i nkage can be expec t ed caus i ng a Common t ypes of beam suppor t sys t ems
f ram i ng ove r p l a t form f ram i ng is i ts sha l l ow hazardous gap ; there fore , i t may be i nc l ude :
prof i l e , wh i ch g i ves i t a s i mp l e and c l ean necessary to p l ace p l anks w i t hou t a
appea rance . I t is common l y emp l oyed in space to a l l ow for shr i nkage . 1 . S i mp l e beam : rests on a suppor t at
boa rdwa l k cons t ruc t i on . each end .
3 . Deck i ng w i de r t han 150 mm (6 in) is
2 . 2 Bas i c Componen t s no t r ecommended because of i ts 2 . Cant i l evered beam : suppor t ed a t one
end on l y.
propens i t y to wa rp .
The fo l l ow i ng descr i pt i ons of the var i ous
componen t s of wood deck and boa rdwa l k 4 . Deck i ng shou l d be l a id w i th the bark 3 . Ove rhang i ng beam : pro j ec t s beyond
cons t ruc t i on app l y to bo t h me t hods of s i de up to avo i d cupp i ng of the deck - one or bo t h suppor t s .
f ram i ng : i ng ma t er i a l and consequen t dra i nage 4 . Con t i nuous beam : rests on three or
prob l ems . mor e suppor t s .
Deck i ng. r
Jo i s t s: 5 . F i xed beam : f i xed a t bo t h ends
Deck i ng re f ers to the sur f ace wa l ked upon . O
I t is suppor t ed d i rect l y by e i ther jo i sts or Jo i sts are used on l y in p l a t form f ram i ng and F i gure 460-3 i l lust rates st ress pa t t erns and B
beams , depend i ng on t he f ram i ng me t hod . func t i on to suppor t deck i ng ma t er i a l of re l a- the l ine of max i mum shear in beams . The fol -
The a l l owab l e span of the deck i ng ma t er i a l t i ve l y shor t spans and to d i st r i bute i mposed l ow i ng des i gn f ac tors shou l d be cons i dered : n
de t erm i nes t he max i mum spac i ng o f t he l oads over a w i de r area . They are typ i ca l l y
j o i s t s-or , in the case o f p l ank - and-beam spaced c l ose toge ther [i .e ., 400 to 600 mm 1 . Gr aded l umbe r shou l d be spec i f i ed for
f ram i ng , the max i mum spac i ng of t he (16 to 24 in) apar t ) because of the l i mi ted beams and st r i ngers (NFPA) . c
beams . span of deck i ng membe r s . Except i ona l l y 2 . Beams mus t be so or i ent ed tha t the
l ong spans may requ i re a 300 mm (12 in) cross sec t i on ' s l ong i tud i na l ax i s is ver -
Deck i ng is usua l l y l a id f l at but can a l so be
spac i ng for added s t rength . St ress pa t t erns t ica l (i .e . na r row d i mens i on up) .
l a id on edge . The appea rance and f in i sh of and t ypes of fa i lure are the same in joi sts as O
al l as deck i ng is usua l l y mor e i mpor t an t than 3 . Cen t er - to-cen t er spans ra ther than O
t hey are in beams . The fo l l ow i ng des i gn f ac-
the appea rance of st ruc tura l membe r s tha t tors shou l d be cons i dered : e f f ec t i ve spans (i . e . , the spac i ng

0
are ou t of the v i ew of users . For th i s reason , be t ween suppor t i ng membe r s ) are
the t ype of wood used for deck i ng is typ i ca l - 1 . D i mens i oned l umbe r as c l ass i f i ed by typ i ca l l y used in s i z i ng ca l cu l a t i ons for
ly of be t t er qua l i ty than the t ype used for the the Na t i ona l Forest Produc t s Assoc i a t i on an added measur e of suppor t .
(NFPA) shou l d be spec i f i ed for joi sts .
 460- 4

TABLE 460-1 . RELAT I VE COMPAR I SON OF VAR I OUS QUAL I T I ES OF WOOD USED I N DECK CONSTRUCT I ON

Doug l as Sou t he rn Hem l ock So f t Wes t e rn

F i r -Larch P i ne Fi r' P i nes t Red Ceda r Redwood Spruce Cypr ess

Ha rdness Fa i r Fa i r Poor Poor Poor Fa i r Poor Fa i r

Wa rp res i s t ance Fa i r Fa i r Fa i r Good Good Good Fa i r Fa i r
Ease of wor k i ng Poor Fa i r Fa i r Good Good Fa i r Fa i r Fa i r
Pa i nt -ho l d i ng Poor Poor Poor Good Good Good Fa i r Good
Sta i n accep t ance$ Fa i r Fa i r Fa i r Fa i r Good Good Fa i r Fa i r
Na i l -ho l d i ng Good Good Poor Poor Poor Fa i r Fa i r Fa i r
Hea r t wood decay Fa i r Fa i r Poor Poor Good Good Poor Good
res i st ance
Propor t i on o f Good Poor Poor Fa i r Good Good Poor Good
hea r t wood
Bend i ng s t rength Good Good Fa i r Poor Poor Fa i r Fa i r Fa i r
St i f fness Good Good Good Poor Poor Fa i r Fa i r Fa i r
St rength as a pos t Good Good Fa i r Poor Fa i r Good Fa i r Fa i r
F r eedom f rom p i t ch Fa i r Poor Good Fa i r Good Good Good Good

Inc l udes Wes t Coas t and eas t ern hem l ocks .

t Inc l udes wes t e rn and nor theas t ern p i nes.
t Ca t egor i es refer to sem i t ransparent oi l base sta i n .
Source: C. G . Ramsey and H. R . S l eeper , Arch i t ec tura l Graph i c St andards , 9th Ed . , John R . Hoke , ed ., W i l ey , New York , 1994 .

4 . Stee l and concre t e beams are l ess com- depend on c l i ma t e . Avo i d w i ck i ng or capac i t y of mos t soi ls, espec i a l l y i f the
mon l y used in deck or boa rdwa l k con- mo i s ture en t r apmen t by spec i f y i ng a foot i ng is tw i ce the cross-sec t i ona l
st ruc t i on excep t unde r unusua l l oad i ng c l earance or some sor t of bar r i er area of the p i er. Avo i d us i ng a na r row
cond i t i ons , in except i ona l l y l ong spans , be t ween the p i er and pos t . p i er w i t hou t a foot i ng , as spear i ng
or in very l arge deck sys t ems . may resu l t .
6 . St ee l or masonr y co l umns are usua l l y
Pos t s : no t t es t ed for bear i ng s t rength excep t 3 . Re i n forc i ng is necessary in l arger foot -
unde r ex t reme l y heavy l oad i ng cond i - i ngs and p i ers to preven t fa i l ure of the
Posts car ry the we i gh t of t he ent i re deck t i ons . concre t e , espec i a l l y in co l der c l i ma t es .
s t ruc ture to the f ounda t i on . Pos t s are com-
mon l y used in one way or ano ther to con- 7 . M i n i m i ze mo i s ture inf i l t rat ion a t the 4 . Hum i d c l i ma t es requ i re d i f f erent foot -
t rol t he f i n i shed e l eva t i on of a deck or exposed top end of wood pos t s by i ng t ypes and pos t connec t i ons t han
boa rdwa l k . Posts are no t a necessary par t ang l e cut t i ng , capp i ng , or cover i ng. ar i d c l i ma t es because of mo i s ture
of the cons t ruc t i on i f the deck or boa rdwa l k t rapp i ng prob l ems . In hum i d c l i ma t es ,
Foo t i ngs : avo i d the poss i b i l i ty o f w i ck i ng ( i .e . ,
is to l ie c l ose to t he ground . Beams or jo i sts
can rest d i rec t l y on f ounda t i ons . Whe r e cap i l l ary absorp t i on of wa t er ) , mo i s-
Foot i ngs anchor a deck or boa rdwa l k to the
posts are used , the i r spac i ng is d i rec t l y ture en t rapmen t , and unnecessa ry
ground , suppor t i ng i ts we i gh t and i ts
re l a ted to the a l l owab l e span o f t he beams con t ac t be t ween wood pos t s and
expec t ed l i ve l oad i ng . In co l d and t empe r -
t hey are suppor t i ng . The fo l l ow i ng des i gn mo i s ture -bear i ng ma t er i a l s such as
a t e c l i ma t es , foot i ngs mus t ex t end be l ow
S f ac tors shou l d be cons i dered : soi l , masonry , or concre t e .
_Y
the l ine of max i mum f rost pene t ra t i on to
preven t movemen t caused by f reeze / thaw 5 . Prot ec t foot i ngs f rom the poss i b i l i ty o f
1 . Lumbe r c l ass i f i ed as pos t and t i mbers
processes . Sma l l f rees t and i ng decks and soi l eros i on a round the foot i ng .
(NFPA) graded to car ry l ong i tud i na l
l ight s t ruc tures can to l era t e marg i na l soi l
l oad shou l d be spec i f i ed for pos t s .
r movemen t and do not necessar i l y requ i re Brac i ng and B l ock i ng:
2 . Wood pos t s of approx i ma t e l y square foot i ngs be l ow the f rost l ine . I f a t t ached to
O Brac i ng and b l ock i ng he l p stab i l i ze the deck
m cross-sec t i on have t he l east propens i - stab i l i zed st ruc tures , howeve r , decks mus t
or boa rdwa l k by l i mi t i ng l atera l movemen t
t y to tw i st or wa rp . a l so be stab i l i zed . (Re f er to Sec t i on 810 :
of t he s t ruc ture . The use of brac i ng shou l d
n So i l s and Aggrega t es , for i n forma t i on on
a 3 . Wood pos t s shou l d be s i zed to res i st be cons i dered on al l ver t i ca l suppor t i ve
the proper t i es o f var i ous soi l s, i nc l ud i ng t he
buck l i ng and , unde r unusua l l y heavy membe r s exceed i ng 1 500 mm (5 f t ) in
S bear i ng capac i t i es of common soi l t ypes .)
l oad i ng cond i t i ons , to res i st crush i ng . he i ght , and i t is espec i a l l y i mpor t an t at cor -
The fo l l ow i ng des i gn f ac tors shou l d be con-
c O f t en posts are s i zed beyond the i r rec- ners of the s t ruc ture . Free -s t and i ng st ruc-
e s i dered :
ommended d i mens i on , as ca l cu l a t ed tures requ i re mor e suppor t t han those sup-
for the proposed l oad , in order to add 1 . Expans i ve c l ay soi l s, uns t ab l e organ i c por t ed by ad j acent s t ruc tures . B l ock i ng is
" v i sua l s t rength" and user con f i dence . soi ls, and deep f i l ls requ i re p i er -and- mor e common in p l a t form f ram i ng than i t is
O beam f ounda t i ons . in p l ank - and-beam f ram i ng. The fo l l ow i ng
O 4 . Pos t s ex t ended up t hrough t he deck f ac tors shou l d be cons i dered for brac i ng
or boa rdwa l k can a l so serve as a ra i l - 2 . The foot i ng s i ze requ i red depends on
and b l ock i ng :
i ng componen t . t he we i gh t to be suppor t ed and on
0 5 . Var i ous t ypes of pos t - to-p i er connec -
t he l oad-bear i ng capac i t y of the soi l . 1 . Me t hods of f as t en i ng are i mpor t an t in
The we i gh t of mos t decks and l ight brac i ng de ta i l s . Mo i s t ure t rapp i ng
t i ons are poss i b l e . Cho i ces o f t en
st ruc tures rare l y exceeds t he bear i ng shou l d be avo i ded and connec t i ons
 460- 5
shou l d no t be weakened by i nappro- Sta i rs , ramps , ra i l ings, and other such Sec t i on 340 : Pedes t r i an C i rcu l a t i on
pr i a t e or excess i ve bo l t i ng , na i l i ng, e t c . f ea tures con t r i bu t e s i gn i f i cant l y t o t he for i n forma t i on on t read/ r i ser rat i os .)
overa l l appea rance o f the f i n i shed deck or
2 . For shor t l engths of brac i ng [i . e ., l ess 3 . Leve l changes can be accomp l i shed in
boa rdwa l k and there fore requ i re care fu l
t han 2 400 mm (8 f t ) ] , 2 x 4' s are a var i e ty of ways . Inves t i ga t e a l t erna-
a t t ent i on to des i gn deta i l . The fo l l ow i ng
common l y used , wh i l e 2 x 6' s are t i ves such as regrad i ng , p l a t forms ,
f ac tors shou l d be cons i dered for sta i rs and
common for l onger l engths . and r amps .
ra i l i ngs :
3 . Severa l brac i ng t echn i ques are com- 4 . Cons t ruc t i on t echn i ques for sta i r and
1 . Loca l bu i l d i ng codes shou l d be
mon l y used , some s t ronger than oth- ra i l i ng connec t i ons vary w i de l y . The
checked for sa f e t y requ i remen t s per -
ers , bu t t he t echn i que used is l arge l y a des i gn is of t en de t e rm i ned by the
t a i n i ng to t read/ r i ser rat ios, ra i l i ng
ma t t er of aes the t i c pre f erence. ex t en t of durab i l i ty and sa f e t y neces-
he i ghts , rai l spac i ng , e t c . (Re f er to
sary. Na i l s some t i mes are no t s t rong
St a i rs and Ra i l i ngs : Sec t i on 240 : Ou t door Access i b i l i ty ,
enough for ra i l i ng- to-deck connec -
and t he Ame r i cans w i th D i sab i l i t i es
t i ons . De ta i l s tha t i ncorpora t e bo l ts or
The need for sta i rs and / or ra i l ings on a Ac t Access i b i l i ty Gu i de l i nes (ADAAG )
deck or boa rdwa l k depends on i ts he i gh t l ag bo l ts are pre f er red .
for i n f orma t i on on hand i capped
above ground l eve l . They become i ncreas- access requ i remen t s .) 5 . Benches can of t en serve as sa f e t y bar -
i ng l y necessary w i t h grea t er e l eva t i ons r i ers on l ow decks .
2 . Tread / r i ser rat i os are a func t i on of the
above ground . Sta i rs essent i a l l y func t i on as
d i f f erence be t ween the t op of sta i r
a means of l eve l change . Thus , the i r pur - 2 .3 Ma i n t enance
e l eva t i on and the bo t t om of sta i r e l e-
pose can some t i mes be accomp l i shed by
va t i on or , i f uncons t ra i ned cond i t i ons Ma i n t enance costs are an i mpor t an t par t of
o ther means , such as regrad i ng , t er raced
ex i st , are de t e rm i ned accord i ng to a wood deck and boa rdwa l k des i gn . The
deck i ng , or r amps . Boa rdwa l ks can undu-
par t i cu l ar mood , charac t er , or k i nes- ma i n prob l em to ove r come is wood decay ,
l ate ver t i ca l l y w i th t he ground p l ane and
the t i c rhy t hm tha t the des i gner w i sh- espec i a l l y in hum i d c l i ma t es. Th i s is l arge l y
l ess o f t en requ i re steps , t er rac i ng , or ra i l -
es to convey. Norma l l y , ou t door sta i rs accomp l i shed by m i n i m i z i ng the i nc i dence
i ngs . Low-pro f i l e decks and boa rdwa l ks
are l ess s t eep t han i ndoor sta i rs, and of inf i l t rat ing mo i s ture , espec i a l l y a t po i nt s
may no t requ i re e i ther st eps or ra i l ings, bu t
are genera l l y mor e p l easant , safer , of connec t i on . Mo i s ture t rapp i ng can be
e l eva t ed decks usua l l y requ i re bo t h .
and eas i er to negot i a t e . (Re f er to avo i ded , or a t l east m i n i m i zed , by the prop-
er use of spacers , f l ash i ng , cau l k i ng , deck -
t apes , and appropr i a t e j o i nery . P l ank - and-
beam f ram i ng has an advan t age ove r p l a t -
TABLE 460 -2 . TABLE FOR SELECT I ON OF DECK I NG LUMBER f orm f ram i ng in th i s regard , for i t has f ewe r
pot ent i a l mo i s ture t raps and l ess tota l area
We i gh t of wood sur f ace requ i r i ng prot ec t i on .

Mo i s ture Cont ent , 15% Mo i stu r e Cont ent , 8% Des i gn de ta i l s for wood decks and
boa rdwa l ks shou l d be su i t ab l e for ou t door
So f t woods Ib/ f t ' kg / m ' Ib / f t ' kg /m'
use. Many deta i l s tha t are typ i ca l for i ndoor
Cedar , A l aska 31 . 6 506 .23 30 . 4 487 .01 s i tua t i ons are no t su i t ab l e for use out -of -
Cypress , ba l d 32 .6 522 . 25 31 .4 503 . 03 doors , i nc l ud i ng t ongue - and-groove deck -
Fi r , Doug l as 30 . 5- -34 .3 488 . 61-549 . 49 29 . 2-33 .1 467 . 78-530 . 26
ing, t i ght l y m i t ered corners , e t c . The use of
Fi r , t rue eastern 26 .9 430 . 94 26 .4 422 .93
25 .8 27 .2 413 . 32-435 . 74 such deta i l s can resu l t in acce l era t ed deter i -
Fi r , t rue wes t ern 26 . 7-28 .3 427 . 73-453 . 37 S
Hem l ock , eastern 29 , 0 464 . 58 28 .0 448 . 56 ora t i on of the wood s t ruc ture because of
Hem l ock , wes t ern 29 .6 474 . 19 28 .7 459 . 77 the i r t endency to t rap mo i s ture . Some f orms
Cedar , i ncense 25 .5 408 .51 24 .2 387 . 68 of f ram i ng ha rdwa re ( joi st hangers , ang l e
l arch, wes t ern 39 .4 613 . 19 38 .2 611 . 96 i rons , p l ates , e t c .) have the d i sadvan t age of
Pine , eastern wh i t e 25 .4 406 .91 24 .2 387 . 68
t rapp i ng mo i s ture un l ess care fu l l y de t a i l ed . a
Pine , l odgepo l e
O
(knot ty p i ne)
Pine , p i tch
29 .2
34 .9
467 .78
551 . 09
28 .2
33 .8
451 . 76
541 . 48
Exposed wood st ruc tures shou l d dra i n
f ree l y and shou l d be m i n i ma l l y exposed to
B
Pine , pond 38 .7 619 .97 37 .5 600 . 75
Pine , ponderosa 28 .6 618 . 37 27 .5 440 . 55 con t ac t w i th p l ant ma t er i a l s and mo i s t so i l s . n
Pine , red 31 .4 503 .03 30 .4 487 .01
Spec i a l preserva t i ve t rea tmen t s and / or
Pine , southern ye l l ow 41 . 6-43 .9 666 . 43-703 . 28 40 . 3-42 .6 645 . 61-682 .45 s
35 .7 36 .3 571 . 91-581 . 53 34 . 6-25 .3 554 . 29-565 .51 f i n i shes are an i mpor t ant par t of ma i nt a i n i ng
Pine , sugar 26 .0 416 . 52 24 .0 384 . 48 a deck or boa rdwa l k . Mos t woods requ i re c
Pine , wes t ern wh i t e 28 .0 448 . 56 27 .1 434 . 14 some k i nd of chem i ca l prot ec t i on , espec i a l l y
Cedar , Por t Or ford 30.1 482 . 20 28 .9 462 . 98 in hum i d c l i ma t es . Term i t es are a l so a prob- 0
Cedar , red eastern 33 .5 536 . 67 32 .2 515 . 84 l em in cer ta i n reg i ons and may requ i re spe-
Cedar , red wes t ern 23 .4 347 . 87 22 .4 358 . 85 O
438 . 94
cial f l ash i ng and / or chem i ca l t rea tmen t s
Redwood 28 .6 458 . 17 27 .4 O
459 . 77-435 . 74 (Re f er to Sec t i on 850 : Wood , for mor e i nfor -
Spruce , eastern 29 . 4-28 .4 470 . 99-459. 97 28 . 7-27 .2
Spruce , Enge l mann 24 .1 386 . 08 23 .2 371 . 66 ma t i on) .
Spruce , Si tka 28 .1 450 . 16 27 .1 434 . 14
Tamarack 37 .6 602 . 35 36 .3 480 . 53

Source : Adapt ed f rom U .S . Forest Produc ts Laboratory , Wood Eng i neer i ng Handbook , Prent i ce-Ha l l ,
Eng l ewood Cl i f fs, New Jersey .
 460 - 6

Decay Res i s t ance :

Decay res i s t ance is a very i mpor t an t con-

s i dera t i on in wood deck and boa rdwa l k
des i gn . No t al l woods are su i t ab l e for use
ou t -o f -doors . Some spec i es (e .g ., Ca l i forn i a
r edwood) are na tura l l y res i st ant to decay ,
but no spec i es of wood , regard l ess of i ts
i nherent na tura l res i stance , wi l l l ast i nde f i -
n i te l y w i t hou t prevent a t i ve ma i n t enance .
Because the e f f ec ts of c l i ma t e vary f rom
reg i on to reg i on , the t ype of t rea t men t nec -
essary wi l l a l so vary (Re f er to Sec t i on 850 :
Wood , for a comprehens i ve d i scuss i on of
wood preserva t i ves) .

Lumbe r Gr ades:

Care fu l a t t ent i on to qua l i ty and the se l ec-

t i on of gr ade des i gna t i ons are i mpor t an t for
many reasons in wood deck cons t ruc t i on .
Cos t s , appearances , and re l at i ve res i st ance
to decay vary be t ween spec i es and grades ,
and in some cases be t ween hea r t wood and
sapwood w i th i n the same spec i es .
Hea r t wood typ i ca l l y has grea t er na tura l
res i st ance to decay than sapwood but is
usua l l y mor e expens i ve . Appea r ance is
l arge l y a sub j ec t i ve ma t t er , bu t sapwood
may be weak as a resu l t of too many kno t s .
Kno t s a l so accep t sta i ns and pa i nt s poor l y.
3 . 3 Ha rdwa r e
F i gur e 460 - 8 . Typ i ca l me t a l s t r aps
and br acke t s . Var i ous t ypes of me t a l ha rdwa re are typ i -
ca l l y used in deck and boa rdwa l k cons t ruc -
t i on , pr i mar i l y as a means o f f as t en i ng
3 . 0 MATER I ALS wood membe r s toge ther . Represent a t i ve
examp l es of each are descr i bed be l ow.
3 .1 Se l ec t i on o f Ma t e r i a l s :
Anchors , Hange rs , and P l a t es:
The se l ec t i on o f ma t er i a l s ( i . e . l umbe r and
ha rdwa re ) and the i r f i n i sh i ng wi l l have an Var i ous t ypes of anchors , hangers , and
i mpor t an t a f f ec t on the f ina l deck or board- p l a t es are used to fac i l i tate easy and s t rong
wa l k . For examp l e , the appea r ance of t he connec t i ons be t ween st ruc tura l membe r s
wood is a f f ec t ed by the cho i ce o f preserva- (F i gures 460-4 t hrough 460-8) .
t i ve or f i n i sh . Some woods (e .g ., cedar and
r edwood) turn an a t t rac t i ve gray co l or i f Na i l s :
r l ef t unpro t ec t ed ove r t i me . A sea l ant can be F i gure 460-9 i l lust rates those t ypes of na i l s
used to ha l t the wea t he r i ng process a t any common l y used in wood deck and board-
O des i red po i nt in the co l or change . St a i n i ng
B l umbe r wi l l y i e l d var i ous aes the t i c charac -
wa l k cons t ruc t i on . (Re f er to Sec t i on 860 :
Me t a l s , for a comprehens i ve descr i pt i on of
ter i st i cs depend i ng on t he spec i es and severa l o ther t ypes o f na i l s .) The fo l l ow i ng
n
grade of l umbe r . Cor ros i on of me t a l s is t yp- f ac tors shou l d be cons i dered for na i l s :
i ca l l y avo i ded , bu t the e f f ec ts of cor ros i on
Y can be used to aes the t i c advan t age . 1 . The d i mens i ons , shape , and sur f ace of
c a na i l a f f ec t i ts ho l d i ng powe r .
e
3 .2 Wood Norma l l y , a na i l 2-1 / 2 t i mes as l ong as
the th i ckness of the boa rd shou l d be
Tab l es 460-1 and 460-2 prov i de compa r a -
used . Ho t -d i pped ga l van i zed , z i nc-
O t i ve i n forma t i on on var i ous spec i es of wood
coa t ed , cemen t - coa t ed , r ing, and sp i -
O common l y used for deck cons t ruc t i on .
ra l na i l s a l so res i st w i thdrawa l .
In forma t i on on decay res i s t ance and the
grad i ng of l umbe r fo l l ows (Re f er to Sec t i on 2 . Na i l s w i t h heads (e . g ., common )
850 : Wood , for a comprehens i ve exp l ana - shou l d be used for st ruc tura l f ram i ng .
t i on of wood and wood produc t s su i t ab l e F i n i sh na i l s are on l y used in nons t ruc -
F i gur e 460 -6 . Typ i ca l j o i s t hange r s
for use ou t -o f -doors .) tura l s i tua t i ons whe r e appea rance is
and g i rde r hange r s .
 460- 7
i mpor t an t . Dr i v i ng the na i l a t a s l i ght fac i l i tate the i nsta l l at i on of the l ag
ang l e wi l l i mprove i ts ho l d i ng powe r . bo l t and wi l l preven t sp l i t t i ng o f t he
wood membe r .
3 . Na i l s may t end to pu l l ou t unde r
heavy l oad i ng cond i t i ons . Bo l ts or l ag 3 . 4 Mason r y
bo l ts shou l d be used in such i ns t ances .
A l t hough th i s sec t i on focuses on the use of
4 . A l um i num , sta i n l ess-stee l , and hot - wood as a ma t er i a l , i t shou l d be no t ed tha t
d i pped ga l van i zed na i l s res i st rust i ng in many i ns t ances o ther ma t er i a l s of f er
and consequen t s t a i n i ng of wood . advan t ages . For i ns t ance , concre t e and
5 . Na i l s are ava i l ab l e in z i nc , brass , masonry ma t er i a l s (such as br i ck and s tone)
mone l , copper , a l um i num , i ron, stee l , can be used to bu i l d the suppor t sys t em or
sta i n l ess stee l , coppe r bear i ng stee l , be used for o ther componen t s of a deck or
and mun t z me t a l . Coa t i ngs i nc l ude boa rdwa l k . Some of these non -wood
t in, copper , cemen t , brass-p l a t ed , ma t er i a l s are much s t ronger and mor e
z i nc , n i cke l , chrome , cadm i um , e t ched durab l e t han wood in cer ta i n c l i ma t es , and
ac i d , and parker i zed . can of f er many aes the t i c advan t ages .
F i gur e 460 - 9 . Na i l s common l y used
Wood Sc r ews: 3 . 5 O t he r Ma t e r i a l s i n wood deck cons t ruc t i on .

F i gure 460-10 i l l ust rates those t ypes of P l ant Ma t er i a l s :

screws tha t are common l y used in wood
P l ant ma t er i a l s can be used w i th l ow decks
deck and boa rdwa l k cons t ruc t i on . (Re f er to
and boa rdwa l ks to de f i ne edges and to
Sec t i on 860 : Me t a l s , for a comprehens i ve
he l p preven t users f rom acc i dent a l l y wa l k -
descr i pt i on of severa l o ther t ypes of
i ng or fa l l i ng of f the s t ruc ture . P l ant ma t e -
screws .) The fo l l ow i ng f ac tors shou l d be
r ia ls can a l so prov i de screen i ng and w i nd-
cons i dered for wood screws :
breaks .
1 . A sc rew shou l d be l ong enough to
Me t a l s :
embed mor e than one -ha l f o f i ts
l eng th i nto the base . In add i t i on to hardware , me t a l produc t s
such as tub i ng can be used for ra i l ings, foot
2 . C l earance and p i l ot ho l es fac i l i tate the
rests , arbors , ove rhead canop i es , and
i nsta l l a t i on of sc rews and wi l l preven t
p l ant ers . Membe r s such as 1-beams and
sp l i t t i ng of the wood membe r .
me t a l co l umns can be subs t i tut ed for F i gure 460 -10 . Wood sc r ews common -
3 . F l a thead screws may be f l ush or wooden beams and posts , respec t i ve l y. l y used i n wood deck cons t ruc t i on .
coun t e rsunk . Washe r s unde r the head
are r ecommended for roundheaded Pl ast i cs :
screws , espec i a l l y w i th sof t er woods . The w i de var i e ty of p l ast i cs ava i l ab l e make
These can a l so be coun t e rsunk . th i s ma t er i a l i dea l for many s i tua t i ons . Used
for ra i l ings , arbors , ove rhead canop i es ,
Bo l t s:
tubs , and p l ant ers , p l ast i cs of f er durab i l i ty ,
F i gure 460-11 i l lust rates those t ypes of l i ght we i ght , and a w i de var i e ty of co l ors .
bo l ts tha t are common l y used in wood deck
and boa rdwa l k cons t ruc t i on . (Re f er to Fabr i cs :
Sec t i on 860 : Me t a l s , for a comprehens i ve Fabr i cs are i dea l for such st ruc tures as
descr i pt i on of severa l o ther t ypes of bo l ts .) screens , ove rhead canop i es , and mi sce l l a- r
The fo l l ow i ng f ac tors shou l d be cons i dered neous decora t i ve e l emen t s . The many co l - cl i
for bo l ts : O
ors ava i l ab l e , espec i a l l y in the l i ghtwe i ght
synthe t i c fabr i cs , are advan t ageous for use
B
1 . Bo l ts shou l d be l ong enough to perm i t
a washe r unde r bo t h the head and the as ove rhead canop i es , or roof s of gazebos .
G
nu t and a l l ow at l east 5 mm (3 / 16 in) Fabr i cs can a l so be used as screens on ra i l -
to prot rude beyond the nut . Car r i age i ngs for added pr i vacy. S
bo l ts are used w i th me t a l p l a t es w i th c
a squa re ho l e to preven t the bo l t f rom 4 . 0 S I Z I NG WOOD MEMBERS
turn i ng wh i l e be i ng t i ght ened . F i gur e 460 -11 . Bo l t s common l y uses 0
4 .1 Us i ng Span Tab l es
2 . A ho l e 1 mm ( 1 /16" ) grea t er t han the i n wood deck cons t ruc t i on .
For the purpose of pre l i m i nary des i gn and O
d i ame t e r of the bo l t shou l d be dr i l l ed O
for a snug f i t . Washe rs a t bo t h ends of l ay i ng ou t a rough f ram i ng p l an , span
t ab l es are prov i ded for qu i ck re f erence .
bo l ts are r ecommended .
Mos t span t ab l es for wood deck and
3 . Lag bo l ts requ i re a washe r unde r the boa rdwa l k s i z i ng are ca l cu l a t ed for l umbe r
head . The threaded end of a l ag bo l t grades of No . 2 or be t t er . Tab l e 460-3 c l as-
shou l d never be exposed . Pi lot ho l es s i f i es var i ous spec i es of wood accord i ng to
 460 - 5
the i r i nhe ren t s t reng t h charac t er i s t i cs and house si l l a l ong one edge . The j o i sts a re sup-
TABLE 460 - 3 . STRENGTH GROUP I NGS
shou l d be used in con j unc t i on w i t h t he por t ed by a l edge r connec t ed t o t he house si l l
OF COMMON SOFTWOOD SPEC I ES
span t ab l es . I t is r ecommended t ha t l oca l and a con t i nuous beam wh i ch in t urn is sup-
code en f or c i ng agenc i es and a s t ruc tura l por t ed by t hr ee 1 200 mm (4 f t ) l ong p i ers .
S t r eng t h G r oup Spec i es
eng i nee r be consu l t ed when f i na l i z i ng any A l t hough t he e f f ec t i ve span is t he d i s t ance
deck or boa rdwa l k des i gn . f rom t he f ace o f beam t o t he f ace of t he si l l H i gh Doug l as f i r
Hem l ock , wes t e rn
l edger , a ma rg i n o f sa f e t y is ach i eved by
Recommended l i ve4oads f or Larch , wes t e rn
d i f f e ren t deck i ng uses : us i ng t he cent er l i ne span va l ue in ca l cu l a - P i ne :
t i ons . Bas i c wood deck and boa rdwa l k mem- Lob l o l l y t
Load : _ . -
kg / m l ( Ib/ f t2) be r s i z i ng i nvo l ves t he f o l l ow i ng s t eps : Long l ea f t
Type o f Deck
P i t ch
Res i dent i a l decks 195-290 (40-60) 1 . Pr e l i m i na ry F r am i ng P l an : Deve l op a S l ash
pre l i m i na ry f r am i ng p l an t o l oca t e t he Shor t l ea f
Pub l i c decks 390 - 490 (80-100)
Vi rg i n i a
pos i t i on o f bea r i ng beams , assoc i a t ed Spruce :
Foot br i dges 490 (100)
pos t s and p i ers , j o i sts , and deck i ng Canad i an coast a l
L i ght veh i cu l ar br i dge 980-1 470 (200-300) sys t ems w i t h t he a i m o f c rea t i ng a Coas t Si tka
s i mp l e , unc l u t t e r ed s t ruc tura l des i gn . Mode ra t e Cedar , wes t ern red
The average dead load a l l owance (we ight of deck i ng p l us Cypress
fasteners, etc. per m 2 (f t2 ) is 49 kg/n,2 (10 Ib/ f i z).
2 . Es t i ma t e t he Des i gn Loads : Es t i ma t e Doug l as f i r (south)
F i r:
t he l oads t o be car r i ed by each s t ruc-
F i gur e 460-12 shows t he i nt er re l a t i on- Suba l p i ne
tura l e l emen t o f t he deck and t he
sh i ps be t ween deck i ng spans , j o i s t spans , Wh i t e
accumu l a t ed l oads bea r i ng down on Hem l ock :
and beam spans . Tab l es 460-4 t hrough
each pos t or p i er . Loca l codes requ i re Eas t ern
460-8 prov i de a qu i ck means f or de t e rm i n - Wes t e rn
m i n i mum l oad a l l owances f or l i ve
i ng max i mum a l l owab l e spans f or deck i ng , P i ne :
l oads (peop l e , snow dr i f ts , e t c .) and
j o i sts , and beams based on the i r cross-sec - Eas t ern wh i t e
dead l oads (deck i ng and ha rdwa r e Lodgepo l e
t i ona l d i mens i ons , t he spec i es o f l umbe r
we i gh t ) ,
wh i ch va ry f rom r eg i on t o Ponde rosa
used , and in t he case o f j o i sts and beams ,
r eg i on . (Re f e r t o 4 .3 Es t i ma t i ng Red
the i r spac i ng . Tab l e 460-9 shows pos t s i zes Suga r
Des i gn Loads f or ca l cu l a t i ons) .
and cor r espond i ng max i mum a l l owab l e Wes t e rn wh i t e
he i gh t s based on t he c ross - sec t i ona l Redwood , Ca l i forn i a
3 . Ca l cu l a t e Lumbe r D i mens i ons : Us i ng
Spruce :
d i mens i ons and t he spec i es o f l umbe r used . t he appropr i a t e span t ab l es , de t e rm i ne
Eas t ern
t he d i mens i ons requ i red f or each s t ruc- Enge l mann
4 . 2 S i z i ng Examp l e
tura l e l emen t , i n th i s case , t he j o i sts , S i tka
beams , and pos t s . The des i gn l oads Tama rack
F i gure 460-13 shows t he gene r a l l ayou t o f Low Cedar , nor thern wh i t e
exe r t ed by each t r i but ary l oad a r ea ( t )
a s i mp l e 4 800 x 7 200 mm (16 x 24 f t ) p l a t -
a r e t rans f e r red t o t he i r respec t i ve No. 1 or be t ter .
f orm- f r amed res i dent i a l deck a t t ached t o a
pos t s . F i gur e 460-13 i l l us t ra t es t he t A l so known as southern p i ne .
gene r a l f r am i ng p l an o f t he proposed Source : Adap t ed f rom U .S . Depa r t men t o f Agr i cu l -
ture Cons t ruc t i on Gu i des for Exposed Wood Decks ,
deck , and t he dashed l i nes ou t l i ne t he
U .S . D .A . Handboo k No , 432 , 1972 .
cen t e r ( t , ) and corne r ( t2) l oad a reas .
The tot a l t r i but ary l oad a r ea exe r t ed on

I.-
a
O
B
n
c~t

O
O

F i gu r e 460 - 12 . Deck i ng , joist , and F i gur e 460 - 13 . Examp l e p r ob l em : Gene r a l l ayou t o f p l a t f o r m- f r amed r es i -
beam span r e l a t i onsh i ps . den t i a l deck .
 460 - 9
each pos t can be ca l cu l a t ed us i ng t he
TABLE 460 - 4 . MAX I MUM DECK I NG SPANS ( JO I ST SPAC I NG ) f ormu l ae in F i gure 460 -14 , wh i ch
show f i ve d i f f erent s t ruc tura l cases ,
Spec i es Nom i na l Recommended l abe l ed A , B, C , and D.
Deck i ng S i ze Span
4. Re f i ne s t ruc tura l des i gn : Re f i ne t he
Doug l as- F i r , RED ' 16 " `
s t ruc tura l des i gn to re f l ec t t he ca l cu l a -
Sou t he rn P i ne ,
t i ons and comp l e t e t he f i na l des i gn .
Hem- F i r , SPF , 2 x 4b 24 "
SPF (south) ,
4 . 3 Pos t S i z i ng
Ponde rosa P i ne , 2 x 6b 24 "
Redwood , Pos t he i gh t is measur ed f rom t he t op o f
Wes t e rn Ceda r f oo t i ng t o t he bo t t om o f t he beam t o
FRED is rad i us edge deck i ng , 4" to 6" w i d ths . wh i ch i t is a t t ached . Pos t s i ze i s a f unc t i on
" Grade is No . 2 or be t t er . o f wood spec i es , he i gh t , c ross sec t i ona l
`Sou thern P i ne RED can span 24 " . a rea , and tot a l we i gh t car r i ed , ca l l ed t he
Source : Adap t ed f rom McDona l d et .al , Wood Decks : Ma t er i a l s , Cons t ruc t i on , and t r i bu t a ry a r ea l oad . F i gur e 460 - 13 i l lus-
F i n i sh i ng Forest Produc ts Labora tory , Mad i son , WI , 1996 .
t ra t es t he t r i bu t ary l oad a r eas f or t he cen t e r
pos t ( t , ) and corne r pos t s ( t2) . The cen t e r
t r i bu t a ry a r ea is grea t es t and t he r e f or e
exe r t s t he l arges t pos t l oad . The s i z i ng o f
Spec i es Jo i st Jo i st Spac i ng ( Inches on Cen t er ) t he pos t ca r ry i ng t he mos t l oad is t yp i ca l l y
S i ze t 40 Ib/ f t ' L i ve Load ' 60 Ib/ f t ' L i ve Load ' used t o de t e rm i ne t he pos t s i ze f or a l l o t he r
12 " 16 " 24 " 12 " 16 " 24 " deck pos t s . The pos t spac i ng d i s t ance is
2 x6 10 ' 4 " 9 ' 5" 7 ' 10 " 9 ' 0" 8 ' 2" 6 ' 8" mu l t i p l i ed by t he beam spac i ng d i s t ance t o
Doug l as-F i r , 2 x8 13 ' 8 " 12 ' 5 " 10 ' 2 " 11 ' 11 " 10 ' 6 " 8 ' 7" de t e rm i ne t he cen t e r t r i bu t ary a r ea i n a
Sou thern P i ne 2 x 10 17 ' 5 " 15 ' 5 " 12 ' 7 " 15 ' 0 " 13 ' 0 " 10 ' 7 " symme t r i ca l l y l oaded deck . Howeve r , t he
2 x 12 20 ' 0 " 17 ' 10 " 14 ' 7 " 17 ' 5 " 15 ' 1 " 12 ' 4 " examp l e deck i n F i gur e 460 - 13 shows a
2 x6 9 ' 2" 84 " T3 " 8 ' 0" 7 ' 3" 03 " can t i l eve r or ove rhang cond i t i on , wh i ch
Hem-F i r , SPF , 2 x8 12 ' 1 " 10 , 11 1, 9 ' 6" 10 ' 6 " 9 ' 6" 8 ' 0" requ i res a d i f f eren t me t hod o f ca l cu l a t i on .
SPF (south) 2 x 10 15 ' 4 " 14 ' 0 " 11 ' 7 " 13 ' 5 " 12 ' 0 " 91 10 "
Th i s deck i s bes t r epr esen t ed by case " D "
2 x 12 18 ' 8 " 16 ' 6 " 13 ' 6 " 16 ' 1 " 14 ' 0 " 10 ' 10 "
in F i gure 460-14 , wh i ch requ i res t he beam
2 x6 81 10 " 8, 0 " 7 ' 0" 7 ' 9" 77 " 5 ' 11
spac i ng t o be d i v i ded by t wo and added t o
Ponde rosa P i ne , 2 x8 11 ' 8 " 10 ' 7 " 8 1 10 " 10 ' 2 " 9 ' 2" 7 ' 6"
t he ove rhang va l ue . The resu l t an t va l ue " t "
Redwood , 2 x 10 14 ' 10 " 13 ' 3 " 10 ' 10 " 12 ' 11 " 11 ' 2 " 9 ' 2"
is t hen mu l t i p l i ed by t he pos t spac i ng t o
Wes t e rn Ceda r 2 x 12 17 ' 9 " 15 ' 4 " 12 ' 7 " 15707771 3 ' 0" 10 ' 7 "
de t e rm i ne t he cen t e r pos t t r i bu t a ry a r ea :
" Inc l udes 10 Ib/ f t ' dead l oad
tJo i sts are on edge , and Gr ade is No . 2 or be t t er . F rom F i gur e 460 - 13 :
Sour ce : Adap t ed f rom McDona l d e t .al , Wood Decks: Ma t er i a l s , Cons t ruc t i on , and
F i n i sh i ng , Fores t Produc t s Labora tory , Mad i son , WI , 1996 . Beam spac i ng (a) = 3 600 mm
Ove r hang (d) = 1 200 mm
Pos t spac i ng (B) = 3 000 mm

t =a / 2+d
tn
t = 3 600 / 2 + 1 200
t = 1 800 + 1 200
t =3000
Tr i bu t a ry l oad a r ea = t x B

Tr i bu t a ry l oad a r ea = 3 000 x 3 000

O
a r ea equa l s = 9 000 000 mm 2 or 9 m2
m
Tab l es 460 - 9 i nd i ca t es t ha t a 4x4 pos t
w i l l suppor t a 195 kg / M2 (40 Ib / f t 2 ) l i ve n
a
l oad t o a max i mum 2 400 mm (8 f t ) he i gh t
s
and a 293 kg / m 2 (60 Ib / f t 2 ) l i ve l oad t o a
max i mum 1 800 mm (6 f t ) he i gh t us i ng a c
Sou t he rn p i ne spec i es f or a t r i bu t ary l oad e
a r ea o f 9 m2 (100 f t2 ) . Gr ea t e r pas t he i gh t s
0
requ i re a t h i cke r c ross sec t i on or a shor t e r
pos t he i gh t (No t e : use t he nex t l owes t a r ea O
O
va l ue in t he t ab l e t o de t e rm i ne t he max i -
mum pos t he i gh t i f ca l cu l a t ed t r i bu t ary l oad
a rea fa l l s be t ween t ab l e a r ea va l ues .

F i gur e 460 - 14 F i ve s t ruc t ur a l cases

 460 - 1 0

TABLE 460 - 6 . MAX I MUM BEAM SPANS ( POST SPAC I NG ) FOR DOUGLAS - F I R AND SOUTHERN P I NE

Beam S i ze t Tr i bu t ary Load W i d t h , f t

4' 5' 6' 7 8' 9' 10 ' 11 ' 12 ' 13 ' 14 ' 15 ' 16 '
40 Ib/ f t2 L i ve Load Deck Des i gn*
( 2 ) 2x6 7' 6'
(2) 2 x 8 9' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6'
(2) 2 x 10 11 ' 10 ' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6' 6'
(3) 2 x 8 12 ' ill 10 ' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6'
(2) 2 x 12 13 ' 12 ' 10 ' 10 ' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6'
(3) 2 x 10 15 ' 13 ' 12 ' 11 ' 10 ' 10 ' 9' 9' 8' 8' 8' 7' 7'
(3) 2 x 12 16 ' 15 ' 14 ' 13 ' 12 ' 11 ' 11 ' 10 ' 10 ' 9' 9' 8' 8'
4 x 6 7' 7' 6'
4 x 8 10 ' 9' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6'
6 x 8 12 ' 10 ' 9' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6' 6'
4 x 10 12 ' ill 10 ' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6' 6'
4 x 12 14 ' 13 ' 11 ' 10 10 ' 9' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7' 7'
6 x 10 15 ' 13 ' 12 ' ill 10 ' 10 ' 9' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7'
6 x 12 16 ' 16 ' 15 ' 13 ' 12 ' 12 ' 11 ' 10 ' 10 ' 10 ' 9' 9' 8'
60 Ib/ f t2 L i ve Load Deck Des i gn*
( 2 ) 2x6 6'
(2) 2 x 8 7' 7' 6'
(2) 2 x 10 9' 8' 7' 7' 6'
(3) 2 x 8 10 ' 9' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6'
(2) 2 x 12 ill 10 ' 9' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6'
(3) 2 x 10 12 ' ill 10 ' 9' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6' 6'
(3) 2 x 12 14 ' 13 ' 12 ' 11 ' 10 ' 9' 9' 8' 8' 8' 7' 7' 6'
4x6 6'
4 x 8 8' 7' 6' 6'
6 x 8 10 ' 9' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6'
4 x 10 10 ' 9' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6'
4 x 12 12 ' 10 ' 9' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6'
6 x 10 12 ' ill 10 ' 9' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6' 6'
6 x 12 15 ' 13 ' 12 ' 11 ' 10 ' 10 ' 9' 9' 8' 8' 8' 7' 7'
S
_Y * I nc l udes 10 Ib/ f t2 dead l oad
t Numbe r in pa ren t heses is numbe r o f fu l l - l ength na i l ed l am i na t i ons .
Sour ce: Adap t ed f rom McDona l d e t .al , Wood Decks : Ma t er i a l s , Cons t ruc t i on , and
F i n i sh i ng , Fores t Produc t s Labora tory , Mad i son , W I , 1996 .
r
O
B
n

c
O

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0
 460 - 1 1

TABLE 460-7 . MAX I MUM BEAM SPANS (POST SPAC I NG) FOR HEM- F I R , SPF , AND SPF (SOUTH)

31,
r

S
c

0
 460- 1 2

TABLE 460 -8 . MAX I MUM BEAM SPANS ( POST SPAC I NG ) FOR PONDEROSA P I NE , REDWOOD , AND WESTERN CEDAR

Beam S i ze t Tr i bu t a Load W i d t h , f t
4' 5' 6' 7 8' 9' 10 ' 11 ' 12 ' 13 ' 14 ' 15 ' 16 '
40 Ib/ f t? L i ve Load Deck Des i gn*
( 2 ) 2x6 6'
(2) 2 x 8 8' 7' 6' 6'
(2) 2 x 10 9' 8' 8' 7' 6' 6' 6'
(3) 2 x 8 10 ' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6
(2) 2 x 12 ill 10 ' 9' 8' 7' 7' 7' 6 6'
(3) 2 x 10 13 ' ill 10 ' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7'
(3) 2 x 12 15 ' 13 ' 12 ' ill 10 ' 9' 9' 8' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7'
4 x6 7' 6'
4 x8 9' 8' 8' 7' 6' 6' 6'
6 x8 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6'
4 x 10 10 ' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6'
4 x 12 12 ' ill 10 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6' 6'
6 x 10 12 ' ill 10 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6'
6 x 12 15 ' 13 ' 12 ' 11 ' 10 ' 9' 9' 8' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7'
60 Ib/ f t2 L i ve Load Deck Des i gn*
( 2 ) 2x8 6' 6'
(2) 2 x 10 8' 7' 6' 6'
(3) 2 x 8 9' 8' 7' 6' 6'
(2) 2 x 12 9' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6'
(3) 2 x 10 ill 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6'
(3) 2 x 12 12 ' ill 10 ' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6'
4 x 8 7' 6' 6'
6 x 8 8' 7' 6' 6'
4 x 10 9' 8' 7' 6'
4 x 12 10 ' 9' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6'
6 x 10 10 ' 9' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6'
6 x 12 12 ' 11 ' 10 ' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6'
* I nc l udes 10 Ib/ f t2 dead l oad
t Numbe r in pa ren t heses is numbe r o f fu l l - l ength na i l ed l am i na t i ons .
Adap t ed f rom McDona l d e t .a l . , Wood Decks: Ma t er i a l s , Const ruct ion, and F ini shing,
S Fores t Produc t s Labora tory , Mad i son , W I 1996 .

O
B
n

0
O
O
 460-13
TABLE 460 - 9. MAX I MUM POST HE I GHTS

Spec i es Pos t Tr i but ary Load Area to Pos t , f t '

S i ze
36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192 204 216 228 240 256
40 Ib/ f t ' L i ve Load Deck Des i gn*
4x4 10' 10' 10' 9' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6' 6' 5' 5' 5' 4' 4' 4'
Sou t he rn 4x6 14' 14' 13' 12' 11 ' 10' 10' 9' 9' 8' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7' 7' 6' 6 6'
P i ne , 6x6 17' 17' 17' 17' 17 ' 17' 17' 17 ' 17' 17 ' 17 ' 17' 16 ' 16' 15 ' 15 ' 14' 14' 13 '
Doug l as - (No .1)
Fi r 6x6 17' 17' 17' 17' 17 ' 17' 17' 17' 16' 16 ' 15 ' 14' 13 ' 13' 12 ' 11 ' 10' 8'
(No .2)
4x4 10' 10 ' 10' 9' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6' 6' 5' 5' 5' 4' 4' 4'
Hem-F i r , 4x6 14' 14 ' 13' 12' 11 ' 11' 10' 9' 9' 9' 8' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7' 7' 6' 6'
SPF 6x6 17' 17' 17' 17' 17 ' 17' 17' 17 ' 17' 17' 17 ' 16' 16 ' 15 ' 15 ' 14 ' 13' 13' 12 '
(No .1)
6x6 17' 17 ' 17' 17' 17 ' 17' 17' 17 ' 16' 15' 13 ' 12' 10 ' 8'
(No .2)
Ponde rosa 4x4 10' 10 ' 9' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 5' 4'
P i ne , 4x6 14 ' 13 ' 12 ' 11' 10 ' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7' 6' 6' 5' 5' 4' 4'
Redwood , 6x6 17' 1T 17' 17' 17 ' 17 ' 17' 17 ' 16' 15 ' 15 ' 14' 14 ' 13 ' 13 ' 12 ' 12' 11' 11 '
Wes t e rn (No .1)
cedar , 6x6 17' 17 ' 17 ' 17' 17 ' 16 ' 13' 7'
SPF (south) (No .2)
601b / f t ' L i ve Load Deck Des i gn*
4x4 10 ' 10 ' 9' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 5' 5' 5'
Sou t he rn 4x6 14 ' 12 ' 11 ' 10 ' 9' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6' 5' 5' 5' 5'
P i ne , 6x6 17 ' 17 ' 17 ' 17 ' 17 ' 17 ' 17' 17 ' 16' 15 ' 14' 14 ' 13 ' 13 ' 12' 12 ' 11 ' 11 ' 10 '
Doug l as - (No .1)
Fi r 6x6 17 ' 17 ' 17 17 ' 17 ' 16 ' 15 ' 14 ' 13 ' 12 ' 11' 9' 6'
(No .2)
4x4 10 ' 10 ' 9' 8' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6' 5' 5'
Hem-F i r , 4x6 14 ' 13 ' 11 ' 10 ' 9' 9' 8' 8' 7' 7' 7' 6' 6' 6' 5' 5'
SPF 6x6 17 ' 17 ' 17 ' 17 ' 17' 17 ' 17 ' 16 ' 16 ' 15 ' 14' 13 ' 12' 12 ' 11' 10' 9' 8' 7'
(No .1)
6x6 17 ' 17 ' 17 ' 17 ' 17' 16 ' 14 ' 12 ' 10 '
(No .2)
Ponde rosa 4x4 10 ' 9' 7' 7' 6' 5'
Pine , 4x6 13 ' 11 ' 10' 9' 8' 7' 7' 6' 5' 5'
Redwood , 6x6 17 ' 17 ' 17 ' 17 ' 17' 16 ' 15 ' 14 ' 13 ' 13 ' 12' 11' 11' 10' 10' 9' 9' 8' 6'
Wes t e rn (No .1)
cedar , 6x6 1 7' 17 ' 1T 15 ' 9'
SPF (south) (No 2)
' Inc l udes 10 l b / f t ' dead l oad
Sour ce: Adap t ed f rom McDona l d e t .a l ., Wood Decks : Ma t er i a l s , Cons t ruc t i on , and F i n i sh i ng ,
Fores t Produc t s Labora tory , Mad i son , W I 1996 .

a.
0
m

c
0
-a
0
0

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 460 - 14

4 .4 Beam S i z i ng
F i gure 460-13 i l lust rates the beam span to
be d i mens i on " B" [3 000 mm (10 f t ) ] , or
the d i s t ance be t ween suppor t i ng posts . The
t r i but ary l oad w i d t h for deck beams is ca l -
cu l a t ed by us i ng Case " D " in F i gure 460-
14 as be fore , y i e l d i ng t = 3 000 mm .

Tab l es 460-6 t hrough 460-8 [195 and

Il 1 1 293 kg / m2 (40 and 60 Ib/ f t2 ) des i gn l oads]
show tha t a beam w i th a 3 000 mm (10 f t )
t r i but ary l oad , and a 3 000 mm (10 f t ) pos t
spac i ng , wi l l requ i re a 150 x 300 mm (6 x
12 in) Doug l as f i r or Sou t he rn p i ne beam
for a 195 kg / m2 (40 Ib/ f t z) l oad . Howeve r ,
a 293 kg / M2 (60 Ib/ f t ' ) l i ve l oad wi l l requ i re
c l oser pos t spac i ng to sa f e l y car ry the t r ib-
ut ary l oad . I f the pos t s are spaced 2 400
mm (8 f t ) apar t , then a Doug l as- f i r , or
F i gur e 460 - 15 . Jo i s t can t i l eve r pr i nc i pa l . Sou t he rn p i ne beam measur i ng 150 x 250

3.1
r

F i gur e 460 - 16 . Bu i l t -up beam F i gur e 460 - 17 . Bu i l t -up pos t s and co l umns .
assemb l i es .
 460 - 1 5

mm (6 x 10 in) wou l d sa f e l y car ry the t r ib- Tab l e 460-5 prov i des joi st span da t a for severa l other deta i l s and pr i nc i p l es com-
ut ary l oad . I t shou l d be no t ed tha t so l id var i ous wood spec i es , jo i st s i zes and spac - mon l y used in wood deck and boa rdwa l k
wood beams are ra t ed for grea t er spans i ng va l ues (D) . A 195 kg / m 2 (40 l b/ f t2 ) cons t ruc t i on .
than are compos i t e beams f ash i oned f rom l oad wou l d requ i re 50 x 200 mm (2 x 8 in)
doub l e or t r ipl e 50 mm x (2 x) s tock . Doug l as f i r / Southern p i ne jo i sts spaced 400
mm (16 in) on cent er to e f f ec t i ve l y span
4 . 5 Jo i s t S i z i ng 3 600 mm (12 f t) . Howeve r , i f requ i red to
suppor t a 293 kg / M2 (60 l b/ f t 2) l i ve l oad
F i gure 460-13 i l lust rates a tota l deck w i d th
us i ng 400 mm (16 in) on cent er spac i ng ,
of 4 800 mm (16 f t ) us i ng jo i sts wh i ch can-
t hen the jo i sts wou l d need to be a t l east 50
t i l ever ove r t he ma i n beam for a d i s t ance of
x 250 mm (2 x 10 in) to ach i eve a t l east a
1 200 mm (4 f t ) . F i gure 460-15 i l lust rates
3 600 mm (12 f t ) span .
the pr i nc i p l e tha t the cant i l ever of a s i mp l e
jo i st shou l d no t exceed 1 /4 of the tota l jo i st 4 . 6 Deck i ng S i z i ng
l ength . The cent ra l jo i st span f rom si l l to
beam is 3 600 mm (12 f t) . The jo i st spac i ng Tab l e 460-4 shows max i mum deck i ng spans
( " D " in F i gure 460-13) is l i mi ted by the as mod i f i ed by spec i es and deck i ng s i ze.
deck i ng ma t er i a l max i mum span . Th i s deck
uses 25 mm (1 in) rad i us edged cedar deck - 5 . 0 CONSTRUCT I ON DETA I LS
i ng wh i ch has a max i mum span of 400 mm
(16 in) . Howeve r , it shou l d be no t ed tha t In add i t i on to the var i ous deta i l s shown
Sou t he rn p i ne rad i us edged deck i ng may ear l i er in th i s sec t i on , F i gures 460-16
span 600 mm (24 in) . t hrough 460-33 of th i s sec t i on i l lust rate

Wood decks and boardwa l ks mus t be cons t ruc t ed to w i ths t and the comb i ned we i gh t
of both st ruc tura l ma t er i a l s and the i nt ended users , and mus t be de t a i l ed to w i th-
s t and the decay i ng e f f ec ts of the exter i or env i ronmen t .

1 . Des i gn we i ght s range f rom 195-290 kg / M2 (40-60 Ib/ f t 2 ) for res i dent i a l decks , to
980-1 465 kg / m 2 (200-300 Ib/ f t 2) for l ight veh i cu l ar br i dges .

2 . Graded l umber mus t possess the st ructura l proper t i es requ i red for des i gna t ed spans
and l oad i ng (Re f er to Tab l es 460-4 through 460-9) , and mus t be su i tab l e for ext e-
r ior exposure .

3 . Span t ab l es or span formu l as shou l d be used conserva t i ve l y to account for unfore-

seen event s or l oad i ng c i rcums t ances. Avo i d work i ng a t the out er l imi ts of each
st ructura l ca l cu l a t i on .

4 . Loca l bu i l d i ng codes shou l d be stud i ed pr ior to des i gn to i nsure comp l i ance w i th i n S

the typ i ca l perm i t t i ng process .

5 . Both pressure t rea ted and unt rea t ed decks shou l d s l ope at l east 2% , and rai ls,
caps , and other hor i zonta l sur f aces shou l d be mi l l ed to dra i n to protec t st ructura l
r
integr i ty . a
O
6 . I t is r ecommended tha t beams bear d i rect l y onto posts or no t ched si l ls, rather than B
be a t t ached to pos t f aces w i th l ag screws or bo l ts to gua rd aga i nst spl i t t ing .
n
7 . P l a t ed or sta in l ess stee l f as t eners are requ i red for al l exter i or connec t i ons .

8 . Wood shou l d be sea l ed w i th appropr i a t e pene t ra t i ng coa t i ngs to prevent wood Y

c
gra i n f rom exposure to the e l ement s . e
9 . Ledgers and si l ls shou l d be proper l y f l ashed and spaced to a l l ow for a i r c i rcu l at i on
to avo i d mo i s ture pene t ra t i on .
O
O
10 . Posts shou l d be a t t ached to concre t e p i er foot i ngs us i ng coa t ed me t a l f ast eners
des i gned to a l l ow a i r c i rcu l at i on around the pos t bo t t om .

11 . Grad i ng around foot i ngs shou l d prevent eros i on in s l op i ng cond i t i ons f rom wash i ng
soi l cover away f rom pi ers, espec i a l l y in f ros t / thaw reg i ons , or c l ay reg i ons .
 460- 1 6

F i gure 460-18 . Foo t i ngs and p i ers .

F i gure 460-20. Typ i ca l brac i ng

sys t ems .

r
O
B
n
a F i gure 460-19 . Deck i ng de t a i l s .
S
Y
c

O
O

O
 460- 1 7

F i gure 460-21 . Brac i ng de t a i l s . F i gure 460-24 . Typ i ca l r amp

assemb l i es .

d
r

F i gure 460-23 . Typ i ca l sta i r de t a i l s O

m
n

V
Y
O

O
O

0
F i gure 460-22 . Br i dg i ng de t a i l s .
 460- 1 8

F i gure 460 -26 . St a i r t o ra i l i ng de t a i l s .

F i gur e 460 - 27 . Beam t o pos t

a connec t i ons .
3
0
B
d
c

O
O
F i gur e 460 - 25 . Typ i ca l ra i l i ng assemb l i es .

0
 460 - 1 9

ct i

BO
c
a

O
O

F i gur e 460 - 28 . Pos t t o p i e r F i gur e 460 - 30 . Anchor age t o f i xed s t ruc t ures .
connec t i ons .
 460- 20

3
r F i gur e 460 - 33 . Gu i de t o bo l t / l ag
F i gur e 460 -31 . Low pro f i l e decks F i gur e 460 -32 . Leve l change i n
BO on gr ade . deck i ng. spac i ng .

n
a

c
0
O
O

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 460 - 2 1

GLOSSARY AGENC I ES AND ORGAN I ZAT I ONS

Bend i ng momen t (M) : The st ress resul t
Ca l i forni a Redwood Assoc i at ion (CRA)
ing f rom the forces act ing on the beam and
San Franc i sco, Ca l i forni a
the react ion of the suppor ts . The bend i ng
momen t at any sect ion in the beam is the
Nat iona l Bui lding Code (NBC)
sum of the momen t s on e i ther side of the
c /o Amer i can Insurance Assoc i at ion
sect ion . Expressed in i nch-pounds ( in- Ib) .
New York , New York
Def l ect ion (D) : The tendency of a mem-
ber to de form when p l aced under a load ; Nat iona l Fi re Protect ion
present in al l st ructures regardl ess of the Assoc i at ion (NFPA)
mater i a l or magn i tude of the load . Boston, Massachuse t ts
Common acceptab l e l imi ts of def l ect ion
range f rom 1 /200th to 1 /360th the ef fec- Nat iona l Forest Products
t ive span of the member in quest i on . Assoc i at ion (NFPA)
Expressed in inches ( in) . Wash i ngton , D .C .
Ext reme f iber st ress in bend i ng ( fb) : A Southern Bui lding Code
measure of inherent st rength in a spec i es Congress Internat iona l
and grade of l umber. Expressed in pounds Bi rmi ngham, A l abama
per square inch (psi ) .
Load i ng (P): Dead load is the we i ght of Un i form Bui lding Code
the mater i a l s in the st ructure, inc luding per - c /o Internat iona l Conf erence
manent l y at tached f ixtures and equ i pment . of Bui lding Of f ic ia ls
Live load is the we i ght of the peop l e us ing Whi t t i er , Ca l i forni a
the st ructure, the moveab l e furni ture and
equ i pment , snow, water , ice, and w i nd . Western Wood Products Assoc i at ion
Expressed in pounds per square foot (psf ) . Por t l and, Oregon
Modu l us of e l ast i c i ty (E) : A measure of REFERENCES
how much a mater i a l de forms in re lat ion to
the load appl i ed . Goet z , Kar l -He i nz . T i mber Des i gn and
Momen t : The tendency of a force to Const ruct ion Source Book , McGraw-H i l l ,
cause rotat ion about an axis . Momen t is New York, 1989 .
the product of a force and a di stance .
Landpha i r , H . C ., and Fred Klat t , Jr.
Momen t arm : The perpend i cu l ar dis- Landscape Arch i tecture Const ruct ion, 2nd
tance f rom the l ine of act ion of a force to ed ., Elsevier , Nor t h Ho l l and , New York,
the point be ing acted on . 1988 .
Momen t of iner t ia (I) : An abst ract mea-
sure descr ibed as the sum of al l the prod- McDona l d , et a l ., Wood Decks : Mater i a l s,
ucts of al l inf ini tely sma l l areas t imes the Const ruct ion, and F ini shing, Forest
square of the i r di stance f rom the neut ra l Products Labora tory , Mad i son , W l , 1996 .
sur face of the beam .
Munson , Al be E. Const ruct ion Des ign for r
Sect ion modu l us (S) : The rat io of the a
Landscape Archi tects, McGraw-H i l l , New
momen t of iner t ia to the di stance of the O
York, 1975.
most remot e f iber in the beam . Expressed B
in cubi c inches ( in3) .
Na t i ona l Forest Produc ts Assoc i at i on
n
Span versus ef fect i ve span (L) : Span (NFPA) . Nat iona lDes i gn Spec i f i cat ion for a
refers to center - to-center measurement . Wood Const ruct ion, 1986 . l J1
Ef fect ive span refers to the di stance mea-
sured be tween suppor ts . c
Ramsey , C. G . and H. R . Sl eeper. Archi tectura l
Graph i c Standards, 8th ed ., Rober t T. Packard,
ed., Wi l ey, New York, 1994 .
O
Wa l ker , Theodor e D . Si te Des i gn and O
Const ruc t i on Deta i l ing, 3rd ed ., PDA
Pub l i shers , Mesa , Ar i zona , 1992.
 SECT I ON ~ I

Pedes t r i an Br i dges
I N 011111

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
Cha r l es W. Har r i s
Techn i ca l Wr i t ers :
Je f f rey D. B l ankensh i p
Tess Can f i e l d
Resea rch Ass i s t ant :
Ga r y Sch i f f

Se l ec t ed Graph i cs:
Je f f rey Lakey

Rev i ewe rs:

Hans W i l l i an Hagen , P.E .
LeMessur i e r Assoc i a t es , I nc .
Cambr i dge , Massachuse t t s

S t ephen E . Hamwey , P.E .

Sasak i Assoc i a t es , Inc .
Wa t e r t own , Massachuse t t s

An t hony Hun t
An t hony Hun t Assoc i a t es
London , Eng l and

Henr y H . L i ede
Kane , L i ede & Ra t yna , P. C .
P l easantv i l l e , New Yor k

1 .0 In t roduc t i on Des i gn Load i ng Bear i ngs

2 .0 Des i gn Cons i dera t i ons Use r Loads for Na r row Foo tbr i dges 4 .0 Typ i ca l Des i gns for Shor t -Span
2.1 De f i n i ng t he Use r Pedes t r i an Load i ng Foo t br i dges
2. 2 Spa t i a l St anda rds Horse and R i der Load i ng 4. 1 Log Foo tbr i dge s
2. 3 Use r Sa f e t y De f l ec t i ons 4. 2 Sawn T i mbe r Foo tbr i dge
Gene ra l 3 . 5 Subs t ruc tures (Founda t i ons) 4. 3 Ga l l oway T i mbe r Foo tbr i dge
Land i ngs , Res t Areas , and Load i ng on Subs t ruc tures 4. 4 Ga l l oway St ee l Foo t br i dge
Handra i l i ngs Founda t i ons and Soi l Bear i ng Capac i t y 4. 5 St ee l Beam Foo tbr i dge
B
c
Deck i ng and Sur f ace Trea t men t s Cho i ce of Founda t i on (Foot i ngs or 4. 6 Suspens i on Br i dge
3 .0 Br i dge Cons t ruc t i on Pi l es) 4. 7 Conc re t e or Masonr y Arch Foo t br i dge
3 .1 Si te Se l ec t i on and Survey
Se l ec t i on Cr i ter i a
Types o f Abu t men t s
W i ng Wa l l s
5 .0 Typ i ca l Des i gns for Pre f abr i ca t ed Br i dges
6 .0 Prob l ems of Erec t i ng Br i dges
rL
Si te Survey S i mp l e Abu t men t s for Foo tbr i dges 7 .0 Ma i n t enance of Br i dges S
3 . 2 Se l ec t i on of Foo tbr i dge Type P i ers 7.1 Ma i n t enance in Des i gn
Bas i c Componen t s Excava t i on Shape and Shea r Keys 7. 2 Ma i n t enance i n Cons t ruc t i on
Se l ec t i on Cha r t Inc l i ned Foo t i ng 7. 3 Ma i n t enance i n Use
Add i t i ona l Cons i dera t i ons Dra i nage 7. 4 Inspec t i on
3 .3 Se l ec t i on o f Ma i n St ruc tura l Membe r s Bear i ng She l ves Re f e rences
3 . 4 Load i ngs on t he Br i dge ' s Prot ec t i ve Coa t i ngs
Supers t ruc ture Groundwa t e r
Types of Load i ng F l ood Damage and Scour
 470 - 2

1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON are invo l ved in cold c l imat i c zones , ice f loes Handra i l ings that are easi ly grasped
can create ser ious prob l ems if not account - shou l d ext end cont i nuous l y a l ong the

P
edest r i an br idges are st ructures bui l t ed for in the des ign . ent i re l ength of the br idge , on both sides,
in the l andscape to a l low movemen t inc luding approach ramps .
across areas that wou l d otherwi se be 2 .3 User Sa f e t y
di f f icul t or dangerous to t raverse . Br idges Deck i ng and Sur f ace Trea tment s :
become a necessary means for connec t i ng Genera l :
two points in the presence of such obsta- The cho i ce of deck i ng and sur face t reat -
The pr inc ipa l hazard to users of br idges is ments for br idges is very i mpor tant . Nons l ip
cles as water , steep topography , or ma j or fal l ing f rom the br idge or i ts approach sur faces are cruc ia l . Wood deck i ng is
roadways . Though br idges can enhance the paths . Depend i ng upon the expec ted users
sceni c character of a si te, they mus t be ser i - acceptab l e if the joints are less than 12 mm
and types of dangers , prov i s ions cou ld ( ' /z in) w i de . Sl ip- resistant meta l checker -
ous l y cons idered in the context of cost and range f rom no handra i l s over sha l l ow
l iabi l i ty . plates, wa l kway grat ings, or t ract ion st r ips
st reams to shou lder -h igh rai ls wi th inf i l ls of are of ten used .
In a lmost al l cases, the des ign of br idges mesh over deep gorges .
requi res the ass i stance of st ructura l and/or Cons i derat i ons for hand i capped users 3 .0 BR I DGE CONSTRUCT I ON
civi l eng i neers . Al l d i mens i ons inc luded in shou ld inc lude appropr i ate des ign of the
this sect ion are for gu i dance onl y and for approaches to the br idge. Land i ngs and
indi cat ing the sca l e of par ts . 3 .1 Si te Se l ec t i on and Survey
pl at forms, rest areas, handra i l ings, and
wa l k i ng sur faces are al l e l ements that Se l ec t i on Cr i ter i a :
2 .0 DES I GN CONS I DERAT I ONS shou ld be checked for comp l i ance wi th
nat iona l and loca l codes . (Refer to Sect ion Si te factors to cons ider when dec id ing on
2 .1 De f i n i ng the User 240: Outdoor Accessibi l i ty, for more infor - the prec i se locat ion for a br idge inc lude the
ma t i on .) fo l lowing :
Des ign de termi nants for br idges are based
on both user and si te character ist ics . Types 1 . Wh i ch area requi res the shor test
Land i ngs , Res t Areas , and Handra i l i ngs :
of users may inc lude : span?
Leve l l and ings or p l at forms shou ld be pro-
1 . Peop l e as individua ls or in sma l l or 2. Wh i ch area has the best foundat i on
v ided at the top and bot tom of ramp runs .
l arge groups ( the lat ter re lated to Where pedest r i an ramp grades exceed the cond i t ions? ( In most cases a geo l og-
spectators or tour ists, etc .) . max i mum 1 : 12 or 8 .33 percent , intermed i - ical eng i neer shou ld be consu l ted)
2 . Peop l e us ing whee l cha i rs , bicyc les, or ate l and ings shou ld occur no more than 3 . Wh i ch area is c losest to the l ine of
other nonmotor i zed vehi c l es. 9 000 mm (30 f t) apar t . The l and i ng shou l d the ex i st ing footpath?
have a c l ear w i dth at least equa l to the
3 . Peop l e on horseback and us ing a w i dth of the largest ramp l ead ing to it . The 4. Wh i ch area has the fewest obstac l es
range of motor i zed vehi c l es (motor m i n i mum l and ing depth shou ld be 1 500 in the way of the br idge and/or i ts
bi kes, motorcyc l es , power mowers , mm (5 f t) . approaches?
and in some instances singl e cars or
Pl aces to si t or rest are par t icular ly benef i - 5 . Wh i ch area a l lows the most clear -
l ightwe ight t rucks, cat t le, etc .) .
cial on very long br idges . They can a lso func- ance f rom f lood ing?
Any of the above types of users may use t ion as vantage points for sceni c v i ews .
a br idge in accordance to or cont rary to the
des igner 's intent ion . In genera l , pedest r i an
br idges must conform to the standards of
uni versa l accessibi l i ty and in the Un i ted
Des i gn determinants for br idges are based on both user and si te character ist ics . The
States mus t mee t the Amer i cans w i th
potent i a l users of pedest r i an br idges must be understood in determin ing spat ial
Disabi l i t ies Ac t Access ibi l i ty Gu i de l i nes d i mens i ons and des ign load ing for an appropr i ate br idge type (Tabl e 470-2) .
(ADAAG) . Refer to Sect ion 240: Outdoor Understand i ng si te condi t ions wi l l he lp create a br idge that takes advantage of l and-
Accessibi l i ty for more informat ion . scape amen i t i es wh i l e avo id ing negat i ve env i ronmenta l impacts or safety hazards .
S 2 .2 Spa t i a l St andards
e 1 . In genera l , pedest r i an br idges must conform to the standards of universa l accessibi l i -
Spat ia l standards for br idges to serve bicy- ty and in the Uni ted States mee t the Amer i cans wi th Disabi l i t ies Act Accessibi l i ty
M cl ists, pedest r i ans, and those who are hand- Guide l ines (ADAAG) .
B i capped are g i ven in Tabl e 470-1 . Br idges
to serve r iders on horseback shou ld be at 2. Cons iderat ions for hand i capped users, inc luding l andings and pl at forms, rest areas,
IC handra i l ings, and wa l k i ng sur faces should be checked for comp l i ance wi th nat iona l
least 1 200 mm (4 f t) w i de for s ingl e pas-
and local codes . (Refer to Sect ion 240: Outdoor Accessibi l i ty, for more informat ion .)
sage cross ing .
s
If a br idge is to be bui l t , then cons idera- 3 . Where pedest r i an ramp grades exceed the max i mum 1 :12 or 8 .33 percent , interme-
t ion mus t be g i ven to wha t may pass diate l andings shou ld occur no more than 9 000 mm (30 f t) apar t . The m i n i mum
undernea th . Statutory cons i derat i ons l anding depth shou ld be 1 500 mm (5 f t) .
invo l v ing c l earances and safety measures
app l y to roads, rai ls, and wa ter courses 4 . The choi ce of deck ing and sur face t reatments for br idges is very impor tant . Sl ip-
used by canoe i sts, peop l e f i shing or sai l ing resistant meta l checkerpl ates, wa l kway grat ings, or t ract ion str ips are of ten used for
boats, or commerc i a l t raf f ic . Where st reams safety .
 470- 3
6. Wh i ch area is eas i est t o reach w i th
equ i pmen t , l abor , and ma t er i a l s?
7. Wh i ch area has the f ewes t hazards?
(e .g . prec i p i ces , s t eep pa ths , or
exposure to s t rong w i nds)

8. Wh i ch l oca t i on wou l d users pre f er

and en j oy t he mos t ? For i ns t ance ,
are there poo l s benea t h for l ook i ng
a t f i sh, wh i t e -wa t e r rap i ds in s ight ,
or except i ona l v i ews f rom each s i de
of t he br i dge and approaches?

S i te Survey:
Once t he l oca t i on for a br i dge is de t er -
m i ned , the s i te mus t be surveyed to ob t a i n
necessa ry i n f orma t i on for t he br i dge
des i gn , i ts founda t i ons , and approaches . A
p l an of t he area w i th spot e l eva t i ons and
l atera l and l ong i tud i na l cross sec t i ons are
essent i a l for l ay i ng ou t t he des i gn .

3 . 2 Se l ec t i on o f Foo t br i dge Type

Bas i c Componen t s:

F i gure 470-1 i l lust rates the bas i c compo -

nen t s of s i mp l e footbr i dges .

Se l ec t i on Cha r t :

The r e are many f ac tors tha t requ i re cons i d-

era t i on when se l ec t i ng a br i dge t ype . Tab l e F i gur e 470-1 . Bas i c Componen t s o f a Br i dge . (1) Handra i l , (2) supers t ruc ture , (3)
approach pa th , (4) ma i n beam , (5) br i dge bear i ng , (6) abu t men t , (7) end dam , (8) sub-
470-2 i l lust rates 16 st ruc tura l f orms and
descr i bes the ma t er i a l s , f ounda t i on cond i - st ruc ture , (9) bear i ng st rata , (10) end sear , (11) p i er , (12) approach r amp.
t i ons , and spans for wh i ch they are su i t ab l e .
Vanda l i sm : In areas of r i sk f rom vanda l i sm, Because peop l e t end to s l ow down ,
Add i t i ona l Cons i de ra t i ons : cer t a i n t ypes o f br i dges tha t have par ts l inger , and some t i mes congrega t e a t a foot -
In add i t i on to the des i gn cons i dera t i ons wh i ch can be eas i l y de t ached or broken br i dge , approach pa ths shou l d be w i dened
g i ven in Tab l e 470-2 , the fo l l ow i ng po i nt s shou l d be avo i ded . to fac i l i tate easy pedes t r i an f l ow .
shou l d be kept in m i nd when se l ec t i ng a
Resources Ava i l ab l e : Br i dges in rura l or 3 . 3 Se l ec t i on o f Ma i n St ruc t ura l
br i dge t ype .
r emo t e areas may have to be cons t ruc t ed Membe r s

C l ea rance : The c l earance requ i red wi l l w i th l ow-sk i l l ed l abor and l oca l l y ava i l ab l e When a br i dge t ype has been se l ec t ed , the
de t e rm i ne the cons t ruc t i on dep t h ava i l ab l e ma t er i a l s . s i ze and f orm of the ma i n st ruc tura l mem-
be t ween t he deck and the unders i de of the bers may be de t e rm i ned for one of the fo l -
br i dge . The br i dge can be ra i sed by us i ng P l ann i ng , Des i gn , and Eng i nee r i ng l ow i ng three ca t egor i es:
approach r amps bu t usua l l y at i ncreased Know l edge : Loca l codes or ord i nances usu-
1 . Typ i ca l br i dge des i gns : for spans
cos t s . Tab l e 470-3 l ists some typ i ca l a l l y requ i re t he use o f a reg i s t ered eng i neer
unde r 9 000 mm (30 f t ) whe r e no s i te
requ i remen t s for c l earance and the resu l t - for de t a i l ed br i dge des i gn . In the absence e
d i f f i cu l t i es ex i st , a typ i ca l foo tbr i dge
i ng l engths of r amps based upon 8 and 10 of such prof ess i ona l ass i st ance , i t may be bA
necessary to rest r i ct the cho i ce of br i dge may be bu i l t . (Re f er to 4 .0 Typ i ca l
percen t grad i ent s .
Des i gns for Shor t -Span Foo tbr i dges in
t ypes to f ami l i ar des i gns w i th m i nor spans
of 9 000 mm (30 f t ) or l ess .
th i s sec t i on for i n forma t i on on mem- B
Access i b i l i t y: The d i f f i cu l ty of t ranspor t i ng
ber se l ec t i on .) n
t he ma i n st ruc tura l membe r s to t he s i te a
may e l i m i na t e cer t a i n t ypes of br i dges F i t t i ng the Br i dge to a S i te : A br i dge is 2 . Pre f abr i ca t ed br i dge des i gns: spec i a l -
wh i ch requ i re l ong , heavy membe r s . The essent i a l l y a con t i nua t i on o f a pa th . ist supp l i ers of f er a range of s t andard s
d i f f i cu l ty of ge t t i ng ea r t hmov i ng equ i p- There fore , i t shou l d t i e in we l l w i th the br i dge t ypes , e i ther in k i t f orm or
men t to both s i des o f the s i te may l imi t the overa l l des i gn of the l andscape . When a comp l e t ed and ready to p l ace in pos i -
amoun t of f ounda t i on and approach pa t h br i dge has to be se t h i gher than the or ig i - t i on . Common l y ava i l ab l e br i dge
wor k wh i ch can be done and thus i nf l uence na l ground l eve l on e i ther s ide , then access t ypes in the Un i t ed St a t es i nc l ude :
the t ype of br i dge . r amps wi l l be necessary . Tab l e 470-3 shows
a . Lam i na t ed t i mbe r beams
0
typ i ca l l engths of r amps for pedes t r i an
br i dges .
 470 - 4

Tab l e 470-1 . SPAT I AL STANDARDS FOR BR I DGES FOR USE BY BI CYCLI STS ,
PEDESTR I ANS , AND HAND I CAPPED
I ND I V I DUALS

B i cyc l e Un i ve r sa l Pedes t r i an Des i gn

Geomet r i c e l ement Max_i mum or m i n i mum Desi rable Max i mum or mi n i mu Desi rable
Cl ear wi dth
One- l ane 1 050 mm min . (3 .5 f t ) 1 200 mm or more f t) mm m i n i mum ft)
(4 .0 900 (3 .0 1 200 mm or more (4 .0 f t )
Two- l anes 2 100 mm mi n . (7 .0 f t ) 2 400 mm or more ft) mm m i n i mum
(8 . 0 1 200 (4 .0 f t ) 1 650 mm or more (5 .5 f t
(to pass two whee l cha i rs)
More than two l anes*
Cl earance
Ver t ical -
unobst ructed he ight 2 490 mm min . (8 .3 f t ) mm Same as pedest r i an
2 850 (9 .5 f t ) Same as pedest r i an
Lateral c l earance
to obst ruct ions 300 mm min . (1 .0 f t ) 600 mm Same as pedest r i an
(2 .0 f t ) Same as pedest r i an
Grades
10% for max i mum for 5% for max i mum 8 . 33 % max i mum l ength 5% or less
distances of 1 500 mm distances of run is 9 000 mm (30 f t )
(50 f t ) or less 90 000 mm (300 f t ) or less

Cross s lope
2% m i n i mum on curves Ca l cul ated f rom 2% max i mum 1% or less
supere l evat ion formul as
Des ign speed (bicycles)
16 . 09 km/h m i n i mum km/h (15 mph)
24 . 14 Not appl i cabl e
(10 mph)
Not appl icable
km/h on long
32 . 19
down grades (20 mph)
Rad ius of curvature (bi cycles)
4 500 mm m i n i mum Ca l cul ate f rom appropr i ate Not appl icable Not appl i cabl e
(15 f t ) formul as (see Tabl e 470-3)
Sight distance
Var ies wi th grade and speed Prov ide signi f icant sight Prov ide signi f icant sight
Ca l cul ate f rom appropr i ate distance at curves and turns distance at curves and turns
formul as (see Tabl e 470-4) . to avoid col l ision to avoid col l ision
*Where volumes of all types of user groups are heavy, widths should be calculated by using level of servi re concepts .
Source : DeLeuw, Cather & Company, Inc ., Boston, Massachuset ts .

b. Ha rdwood beams and made -up ing, and s i ze of founda t i ons ; (2) the zones 2 . L i ve l oad:
g i rders of soi l prov i d i ng suppor t ; and (3) the re l a-
t ive di f f i cul t i es of const ruc t i ng d i f ferent a . The we i ght of peop l e , toge ther
c . Stee l l at t i ce g i rders
t ypes of founda t i ons . w i th any dynam i c ef fect f rom the i r
d. A l um i num l at t i ce g i rders movemen t
S Des i gn l oads on a par t i cu l ar founda t i on
e . Precast concre t e beams m i gh t be ad j ust ed by a change in the b . W i nd pressure on the br i dge st ruc-
l ength of spans or the form of deck con- ture , or suc t i on or pressure on the
. (Re f er to 5 .0 Typ i ca l Des i gns for br i dge deck
st ruct ion .
r Pre fabr i cated Br i dges in this sect i on for
m more i nforma t i on .) 3 .4 Load i ngs on t he Br i dge ' s
c . Accumu l a t i on of snow and i ce
n Supe rs t ruc ture d. Wa t e r pressure v i a f l ood i ng ac t i ng
a 3 . Spec i a l des i gns : cus t om-made br i dge
st ructures may be des i gned by expe- on the br i dge st ruc ture or t ransmi t -
Types o f Load i ng: t ed to the br i dge st ructure f rom
(A r i enced eng i neers , espec i a l l y for
spans exceed i ng 9 000 mm (30 f t) . f loat ing debr i s and i ce
Var i ous l oads wh i ch a br idge ' s superst ruc-
NOTE : The conceptua l des i gn of subst ruc- ture mus t suppor t i nc l ude (F i gure 470-2) : Des i gn Load i ng:
tures ( founda t i ons , etc .) shou l d be done in
para l l e l w i th the des i gn of the br i dge deck The des i gn l oad i ng shou l d be de t erm i ned
and approaches . Dec i s i ons re l ated to span 1 . Dead l oad: the we i ght of the br i dge based on ant i c i pated use (pedest r i ans and
ar rangemen t af fect : (1) the number , l oad- mater i a l s themse l ves sma l l veh i c l es , emergency veh i c l es , e t c .) .
 470 - 5

When es t i ma t i ng l oad i ngs , cons i dera t i on a l ong the membe r w i th an i mpac t

mus t be g i ven to except i ona l cond i t i ons f ac tor of 1 . 000 (F i gure 470-3) .
wh i ch may cause ex t reme st resses on the
Hor se and R i de r Load i ng
s t ruc ture . For examp l e , i f a br i dge spans a
s t ream on wh i ch boa t races may occur , 1 . Ma i n beams and g i rders : horses and
spec t a tor c rowd i ng on the br i dge ( f i rst on r i ders in s i ng l e f i l e a t spac i ngs of 1' /2
t he ups t ream s ide , and t hen sh i f t i ng to the horse l engths w i th an i mpac t f ac tor
downs t r eam s i de) cou l d cause tw i s t i ng and of 1 . 300 .
ex t reme l oad cond i t i ons . I f the br i dge is on
a ceremon i a l rout e , whe r e l arge numbe r s o f 2 . Deck membe r s : whe r e the deck is of
peop l e wa l k in step , concen t ra t ed rhy thm i c sma l l i nd i v i dua l un i ts , such as deck
i mpac t s cou l d cause excess i ve v i bra t i on and boards , the ful l we i gh t of a t rot t i ng
consequen t f a i l ure . Ex t r eme cond i t i ons an i ma l rest i ng on one hoo f shou l d be
may resu l t when the br i dge is opened or assumed . For a horse , th i s l oad wi l l
ded i ca t ed and is sub j ec t ed to heavy c rowd be on a 175 mm (7 in) square w i t h an
l oad i ngs . i mpac t f ac tor of 1 . 250 .

Use r Loads for Na r row Foo tbr i dges : De f l ec t i ons :

Mos t na r row footbr i dges wi l l rare l y be The de f l ec t i on of t he i nd i v i dua l st ruc tura l

w i de r than 900-1 500 mm (3-5 f t ) and wi l l membe r s and the ma i n beams and g i rders
rare l y be sub j ec t ed to l arge c rowds or o ther unde r ful l l oad i ng shou l d be l i mi ted to
ex t raord i nary l oads . Na r row br i dges wh i ch ' /24oth of the span . Whe r e poss i b l e , st ruc-
prov i de access to popu l a r tour i st a t t rac t i ons tures shou l d be bu i l t w i t h a pr ecambe r a t
l i ke gorges or wa t er f a l l s shou l d be des i gned l east equa l to the dead l oad de f l ec t i on
to hand l e t he we i gh t of l arger groups of (F i gure 470-4) . The aes the t i c appea rance
peop l e . Tab l e 470-4 shows l oad i ngs for of a foo tbr i dge is i mproved by mak i ng th i s
na r row br i dges based upon l i ke l y uses . pr ecambe r subs t ant i a l . Use 10 mm / m ( ' /e
in/ f t ) of tota l span t o 35 mm / m ( ' / 16 in/ f t ) .
Pedes t r i an Load i ng: The t op end of th i s range resu l ts in a deck
grad i ent of abou t 1 :15, wh i ch is reasonab l e
1 . Ma i n beams and g i rders : a un i form l y
for pedes t r i an t raf f i c .
d i s t r i but ed l i ve l oad (UDLL) ove r the
who l e span is equ i va l en t to tha t Dynam i c De f l ec t i on : Long- span foo t -
shown for norma l and c rowd l oad i ng br i dges [over 19 500 mm (65 f t )] shou l d be
(F i gure 470-3) . checked for the i r response to dynam i c
l oad i ng and to exc i t a t i on by w i nd . The
2 . Deck membe r s : whe r e the deck is
des i gn shou l d avo i d t he use of s t ruc tures
made of sma l l i nd i v i dua l un i ts , such
whose pr i mary na tura l f requency co i nc i des
as deck boards , the ent i re we i gh t
w i th the pace f requency of pedes t r i ans
concen t ra t ed on one foot shou l d be
(i .e . , approx i ma t e l y 2 .0 cyc l es per second) .
assumed : e .g ., tota l we i gh t 112 kg
The ca l cu l a t i on of the v i bra t i on f requency
(246 Ibs) on a 75 mm (3 in) square ,
of a s t ruc ture is comp l ex and requ i res con-
i nc l ud i ng an i mpac t f ac tor of 1 . 250 ,
su l t a t i on w i t h an exper i enced eng i neer .
or a l ine of peop l e each we i gh i ng 90
kg (200 Ibs) a t 600 mm (2 f t ) cent ers

In a l mos t al l cases , the des i gn and cons t ruc t i on of br i dges requ i res the ass i st ance of
st ruc tura l and / or c ivi l eng i neers and mus t mee t the requ i rement s of un i versa l
bA
access i b i l i ty .

1 . For spans unde r 9 000 mm (30 f t ) whe r e no s i te di f f i cul t i es ex i st , a typ i ca l foot - m

br i dge may be bui l t . Cus t om-made br i dge st ruc tures may be des i gned by exper i - n
enced eng i neers , espec i a l l y for spans exceed i ng 9 000 mm (30 f t ) .
-i
2 . The conceptua l des i gn of subs t ruc tures ( founda t i ons , abu tmen t s , p i ers e t c .) shou l d S
be done in para l l e l w i th the des i gn of the br i dge deck and approaches . Dec i s i ons
re l ated to span a r rangemen t af fect : (1) the numbe r , l oad i ng , and s i ze of founda -
t i ons ; (2) the zones of soi l prov i d i ng suppor t ; and (3) the re l at i ve di f f i cul t i es of con-
st ruc t i on of d i f ferent t ypes of founda t i ons .
0
3 . The des i gn l oad i ng shou l d be de t erm i ned based on ant i c i pa t ed use . Tab l e 470-4
shows l oads for nar row footbr i dges .
 470 - 6

Tab l e 470 - 2 . BR I DGE SELECT I ON CHART

KEY TO CLASS I F I CAT I ONS

Key # Compa r a t i ve Ma i n t enance L i f e c l ass i f i ca t i on

cos t s (CC) c l ass i f i ca t i on (MC) (LC) Des i gn and erec t i on c l ass i f i ca t i on (DEC)
1 Lowes t cost Every f i ve years Over 30 years S-Standard des i gn may be used
2 Low costs Pa int /preservat i ve every 20-30 years C-Des i gn by st ructura l eng i neer
three years
3 Med i um costs Repa i r deck i ng and 10-20 years V-Can be erected by vo l untary unsk i l l ed l abor wi th sk i l led
handra i l ing every two years superv i sor
4 H i gh costs Repa i rs requ i red every year 5-1 0 years F-Can be erected by vo l untary unsk i l l ed l abor wi th sk i l led
superv i sor us i ng prefabr i cated par ts made by a subcont ractor
5 H i ghest costs Regu l ar at tent ion Up to f i ve years P-Mus t be erected by a cont ractor
throughout year
Not es : The c l assi f i cat ion is based upon typi ca l compara t i ve costs, assumi ng bui l t by a cont ractor , si te wi th easy access, and s imp l e foundat i ons .
It is assumed al l footbr i dges are we l l bui l t us i ng sound mater i a l s .
Annua l inspect ion and good regu l ar ma i nt enance is requi red for al l st ructures .
In al l cases the const ruct i on of the footbr i dge shou l d be car r i ed out in accordance wi th the const ruct ion p l ans and spec i f i cat ions .

Br i dge d i agram Ma t er i a l Span range CC MC LC DEC No t es

S I MPLY SUPPORTED BEAM O R SLAB
T i mber : -Th i s is the s impl est footbr idge for shor t
spans . Where there are poor foundat i on
condi t ions, some set t l ement at abutments
can be tol erated .
-Beams can be shaped and cambered.
Transpor t prob l ems due to l ength .
Log beams Up to 10 2 4 5 SV
Sawn beams Up to 10 2 3 4 SV
Lami na ted t i mber beams 8 to 25 5 3 3 CF
Stee l beams : -St ee l requi res good pa int spec i f i cat ions .
T i mber deck 5 to 15 3 3 3 SF
Concrete deck 5 to 15 4 2 2 CP
Concrete : -Can be shaped for aesthet i c ef fect .
Center i ng requi red .
In si tu re inforced s l ab Up to 10 5 1 1 CP -Heavy sect ions for t ranspor t and
erect ion . Factory made .
Precast re inforced or Up to 20 5 1 1 CP
pretens i oned beams
CONT I NUOUS BEAM OR SLAB
-Econom i ca l wi th regard to ma i n st ructura l members;

0,
_- - -_ - requi res sound foundat i ons because set t l ement can
overst ress the super -st ructure . The span range is g i ven
for the center span . Side spans can be up to approx i -
mate l y two- th i rds of the center span .
4
Lami na t ed t i mber beams 8 to 25 5 3 3 CP -Beams can be shaped and cambered . Transpor t of
s . , . long l engths di f f icul t . Si te spl i ces requ i red .
Stee l beams:
T i mber deck 8 to 19 3 3 3 CF -St ee l beams can be t ranspor ted in shor t l engths
. a= and spl i ced at si te .
m Concrete deck 8 to 19 4 2 2 CP -St ee l beams can be t ranspor ted in shor t l engths
and spl i ced at si te .
n
Concrete :
In si tu re inforced s l ab or 6 to 20 5 1 1 CP -Can be shaped ; center i ng requ i red .
S beam
In si tu or precast sect ions 10 to 25 5 1 1 CP -Heavy sect ions for t ranspor t and erect ion .
pretens i oned
a.
 470 - 7

Tab l e 470 - 2 . BR I DGE SELECT I ON CHART ( con t i nued )

Br i dge d i agr am Ma t e r i a l Span r ange CC AK LC DEC No t es

CANT I LEVER AND SUSPENDED SPAN ( BEAM OR SLAB) _

- Has the same advan t ages as a cont i nuous spanbu t
can to l erate some se t t l ement of the suppor t s ; may
cause upl i f t prob l ems at t he abutment s , espc i a l l y
w i th shor t s i de spans . The span l engths are g i ven for
the p i er to pi er d i st ances . The l ength of the suspend-
ed span shou l d be approx i ma t e l y 0 .6 of thi s . Si de
spans can be up to the l ength of the suspended
span .

- Beams can be shaped and cambe red . Transpor t of

l ong l engths di f f i cul t . Si te sp l i ces requ i red .

Stee l beams:
T i mber deck 8 to 19 3 3 3 CF -St ee l beams can be t ranspor t ed in shor t
l engths and sp l i ced at s i te .
Concre t e deck 8 to 19 4 2 2 CP -St ee l beams can be t ranspor t ed in shor t
l engths and sp l i ced at si te .
Concre t e :
In si tu beam and s l ab 6 to 20 5 1 1 CP - Can be shaped ; cent er i ng requ i red .
Precast beam and s l ab 10 to 25 5 1 1 CP -Heavy sec t i ons for t ranspor t and erec t i on .

TRUSSED BEAM
- - I -__ -Requ i res amp l e c l earance be l ow the
" t ens i on membe r to prevent damage . By
f orm i ng a t russ, it a l l ows use of a s l ender
ma i n membe r .

' Stee l beams and rod or 10 to 20 3 3 1 CP -Requ i res sk i l l ed f abr i ca t i on of st ruts and
' w i re rope t ens i on anchorage po i nts .
membe r ; t i mber or
precast concre t e deck

LATT I CE G I RDER ( t hrough- t ype or Wa r r en t russ)

-A l l ows m i n i mum const ruc t i on dep t h be l ow deck
l eve l . The st ruc tura l g i rder membe r s ac t as handra i l -
-- i ng . Top f l anges of the g i rders shou l d be braced w i th
rak i ng suppor t s or ove rhead f rames . Hor i zont a l brac-
i ng for w i nd may be requ i red . The sma l l st ructura l
membe r s are mor e suscept i b l e to acc i denta l damage
than beam- t ype footbr i dges . G i rders can be t rans-
por t ed to the si te in sma l l sec t i ons and assemb l ed .

T i mber : sawn sect i ons 5 to 15 5 4 3 CF / P -Sk i l l requ i red in f abr i ca t i on and erec t i on .
St ee l
Ang l es 10 to 25 1 3 2 CF / P - " F " for sma l l er spans .
Rec t angu l ar ho l l ow 10 to 25 1 3 2 CF / P
sect i ons
Tubes 10 to 25 1 3 2 CF / P
A l um i num (st andard des i gn 8 .75 to 30 5 3 1 CP -These requ i re good pa i nt spec i f i ca t i ons
by Br i t ish A l um i num Co ., Ltd .)
BOW STR I NG G I RDER

NOW
- An econom i ca l so l ut i on for l onger spans whe r e the I IA
t op cords can be braced toge ther above head he i ght
of t he user . Hor i zont a l w i nd brac i ng may be requ i red .
- G i rders can be t ranspor t ed to the s i te in sma l l sec-
- t i ons .

T i mber : sawn sec t i ons 15 to 30 5 4 3 CP B

' ' Stee l (al l sect i ons , i nc l ud i ng 15 to 30 2 3 2 CP
RHS and tubes
.
ri
THREE - P I NNED ARCH _
S
-Requ i res good founda t i on cond i t i ons w i th l i t t le set -
t l emen t . Pre formed arch membe r s can be t ranspor t ed
to si te in ha l f -span l engths . Best su i ted for l onger
spans whe r e appearance is i mpor t an t . Comp l ex erec-
t i on procedure .
i
Lam i na t ed t i mber 15 to 30 5 3 2 CP - Ar ch r ibs can be t ranspor t ed in ha l f -spa l engths .
Stee l 15 to 30 5 3 1 CP - Ar ch r ibs can be t ranspor t ed in shor t sec t i ons .
Concre t e : In s i tu and 15 to 30 1 1 1 CP -Requ i r es in s i tu cent er i ng. Precas t un i ts are l ong ,
precas t heavy , and di f f i cul t to t ranspor t .
 470 - 8

Tab l e 470 - 2 . BR I DGE SELECT I ON CHART ( con t i nued )

Br i dge d i agr am A l l a t e rW Span r ange CC AK LC DEC No t es

SUSPENS I ON
- The span range shown refers to the ma i n span
on l y . Th i s type is good for l ong spans over wa t e r or
deep rav i nes whe r e i nt ermed i a t e p i ers are no t poss i -
b l e . Some t i mes used for shor t er spans for aesthe t i c
reasons . W i nd brac i ng is some t i mes requ i red and the
w i dth of the wa l kway may be de t erm i ned by st ruc-
tura l stabi l i ty cons i dera t i ons . Cab l e anchorage po i nts
shou l d be f i rm and sa f e f rom acc i dent s or vanda l i sm .
The des i gn and erec t i on is comp l ex and requ i res a
t ra i ned st ructura l eng i neer and exper t const ruc t i on
superv i s i on .
Cab l es - H i gh r isk of cor ros i on at cab l e and suspender
anchorage po i nts , wh i ch requ i res good const ruc t i on
de ta i l i ng and regu l ar i nspec t i on .
Ga l van i zed h i gh- tens i l e
stee l w i re ropes
Suspenders
Ga l van i zed h i gh- tens i l e
w i re ropes or stee l rods
Deck st ructure and towers :
T i mber : sawn st ruc ture 15 to 35 3 4 3 CF / P - " F " for shor t er spans .
Stee l : t i mber deck 20 to 60 3 3 2 CP -La t t i ce g i rders can a l so ac t as handra i l s .

Foo t br i dges f ound t o be suscep t i b l e t o spr ead i ng t he i mposed l oad . H i gh- t ens i l e
v i bra t i on can be dampened in a va r i e t y o f p l as t i c f i be r shee t s wh i ch a l l ow t he passage
ways , i nc l ud i ng t he use o f rubbe r bea r i ngs , o f mo i s t ur e bu t no t o f so i l ma t e r i a l a r e now
or o f s i de guys f or suspens i on br i dges . common l y used . (Re f e r t o Sec t i on 880:
(Re f e r t o Sec t i on 460: Wood Decks and Geo t ex t i l es , f or mor e i n f orma t i on on t hese
Boa rdwa l ks f or mo r e i n f orma t i on . ) ma t e r i a l s . )

3 .5 Subs t ruc t u r es ( Founda t i ons ) The overa l l s t ab i l i t y o f t he f ounda t i on

shou l d be cons i de r ed . For examp l e , abu t -
Subs t ruc t ur es a re t he pa r t s o f t he br i dge men t s s i t ed on s t eep l y s l op i ng ground may
wh i ch t ransm i t l oads f rom t he br i dge span fa i l when an en t i re sec t i on o f t he bank
F i gur e 470 - 4 . Cambe r . Whe r e poss i b l e ,
t o t he ground . Subs t ruc t ur es i nc l ude abu t - beg i ns s l i pp i ng ( F i gure 470-5) . s t ruc t ures shou l d be bu i l t w i t h a p r ecambe r
men t s , end sea t s , and p i ers .
The managemen t o f wa t e r i n excava - a t l eas t equa l to t he dead l oad de f l ec t i on .
Load i ng on Subs t ruc t ur es: t i ons is d i f f i cu l t and car r i es cons i de r ab l e
r i sk . Many ma t e r i a l s , espec i a l l y sand ,
Tab l e 470 - 5 l i sts va r i ous des i gn l oad i ngs f or
become uns t ab l e when sub j ec t ed to por e -
br i dge subs t ruc t ur es .
wa t e r f l ow , wh i ch is t he d i rec t resu l t o f
Founda t i ons and So i l Bea r i ng Capac i t y : pump i ng wa t e r f rom a ho l e . These ope r a -
t i ons shou l d on l y be unde r t aken by expe r i -
The app l i ed l oad f rom t he subs t ruc t ur e enced con t rac t ors unde r t he d i rec t i on o f an
mus t be res i s t ed by t he ground t o pr even t expe r i enced geo t echn i ca l eng i nee r.
f a i l ure and excess i ve se t t l emen t (Tab l e 470-
6) . In a l mos t a l l cases , eng i nee r i ng adv i ce i s Cho i ce o f Founda t i on ( Foo t i ngs or P i l es) :
bD r equ i r ed when es t i ma t i ng so i l bea r i ng
Eng i nee r i ng adv i ce i s i mpor t an t f or a l l bu t
capac i t y.
L t he s i mp l es t o f s t ruc t ures when se l ec t i ng an
B So f t c l ay and ma t e r i a l s o f l ow bea r i ng appropr i a t e f ounda t i on des i gn . Spr ead
n capac i t y and h i gh wa t e r con t en t a r e l i ke l y f oo t i ngs a r e usua l l y pre f e rab l e t o p i l es
t o compr ess unde r l oad and resu l t i n rap i d because t hey a r e l ess expens i ve and gene r -
r
shor t - t e rm or s l owe r l ong - t e rm se t t l emen t . a l l y pose l ess r i sk in t e rms o f encoun t e r i ng
un f or eseen and expens i ve t echn i ca l and F i gur e 470 - 5 Ground Fa i l ur e a t Br i dge
W i t h i n l i m i t s , such se t t l emen t may no t be
e Founda t i on . Abu t men t s s i t ed on s t eep l y
se r i ous f or a f oo t br i dge o f a shor t t o med i - con t r ac t ua l prob l ems dur i ng cons t ruc t i on .
s l op i ng g round may fa i l when an en t i re
e um span . For l onge r con t i nuous beam
Tab l e 470 - 7 l i sts some o f t he g round sec t i on o f t he bank s l i ps.
br i dges , such se t t l emen t cou l d cause h i gh
cond i t i ons and cons t ruc t i on cons i de r a t i ons
s t resses w i t h i n t he br i dge beams .
0 f or wh i ch f oo t i ngs or p i l es have been f ound
The bea r i ng capac i t y o f poor so i l s , such t o be advan t ageous . For s i t es w i t h s t ra t a o f
as pea t and so f t c l ay , can be i mproved by va r i ab l e bea r i ng qua l i t i es , des i gne rs may
 470 - 9

Tab l e 470 -3 . TYP I CAL RAMP LENGTHS FOR PEDESTR I AN BR I DGES

App rox i ma t e l eng t h o f one

approach r amp
Desc r i p t i on o f s t ruc t ure Requ i r ed ver t i ca l E l eva t i on change , 8% gr ade , 10% gr ade ,
c l ea rance , mm ( f t ) mm ( f t ) mm ( f t ) mm ( f t )

Br i dge over h i ghway 5100(17) 5 700-6 300(19-21) ascent 75 000 (250) 60000 (200)

Br i dge over road or st reet 450005 ) 5 100-5 700 (17-19) ascent 67 500 (225) 54000 (180)

Br i dge over ra i l road 6900(23) 8 100-9 000 (27-30) ascent 108 000 (360) 85 500 (285)

Br i dge over e l ect r i f i ed ra i l road 7800(26) 9 000-9 900 (30-33) ascent 120 000 (400) 94 500 (315)

* Land i ngs are not cons i dered , bu t i f they are used , the approach r amp shou l d be l engthened . Source: DeLeuw , Ca ther & Company , Inc. , Bos ton , MA .

Tab l e 470 -4 . LOADS FOR NARROW FOOTBR I DGES `

Load i ng

Membe r Load t ype Un i f orm l y d i s t r i bu t ed Po i n t l oad Rema r ks

Ma i n beams Pedes t r i an /norma l 2 .3 KN / m ' (48 Ibs/ f t2 ) For w i der footbr i dges and urban si tes,
c rowd 3 .2 KN / m 2 (67 Ibs/ f t2 ) use appropr i a t e l oad i ng s t andards.
Horse and r ider 2 .3 KN / m ' (48 l bs / f t )

Shor t -span membe rs Pedest r i an The grea t er: e i ther 3 .2 KN / m2 (67 Ibs/ f t ' ) or 1 .6 Al l shor t -span membe rs may car ry c rowd
norma l KN (364 Ibs) on a 75 mm (3" ) square up to a l oad i ng . Ind i v i dua l t i mber deck boards
c rowd 1 900 mm (6 ' -4" ) span . Therea f ter 1 .69 KN / m may car ry po i nt or l ine l oad .
(116 lbs/ f t ) run of membe r .

Horse and r ider 3 .2 KN / m2 (67 Ibs/ f t ' ) or 8 .12 KIN (1 826 Ibs)
on a 75 mm (3" ) square

Handra i l (hor i zonta l l oad) Pedes t ran / norma l 0 .74 KN / m (50 Ibs/ f t ) , 1 000 mm (3 ' -4" ) above deck
c rowd 1 .4 KN / m ( Ibs . / f t ) , 1 100 mm above deck
Horse and r ider 1 .3 KN / m (89 Ibs/ f t ) , 1 250 mm (4 ' -2" ) above deck

Al l membe r s Snow 0 .4 KN / m ' (8 .3 lbs/ f t )

Un l oaded footbr i dge W i nd : 40 000 mm / sec 1 .4 KN / m ' (29 .3 l bs / f t ) Permi ss i b l e st resses i ncreased by 25%.
(133 f t /sec)
(hor i zonta l l oad)

Loaded footbr i dge W i nd : 28 000 mm / sec 0 .7 KN / m ' (14 .6 l bs / f t )

(93 f t /sec)
(hor i zonta l l oad)

* W i d t h of footbr i dge is 800-1 700 mm .

Source : Adap t ed f rom Re i ach Ha l l Bl yth Par tnersh i p , preparers , Footbr i dges in the Count rys i de , the Count rys i de Comm i ss i on for Scot l and , Per th, 1981 .

have to wor k t hrough a range of types , suppor t the heavy we i gh t of a c l osed abu t - cho i ce of geome t r y is usua l l y cont ro l l ed by
depths , and s i zes of f ounda t i on to i dent i f y men t , or whe r e hor i zont a l forces mus t be the t opography of t he s i te , cons t ruc t i on
the mos t accep t ab l e econom i c so l ut i on . kept to a m i n i mum . S i nce the bank sea t rest r i ct ions , and the cons t ruc t i on sequence .
set t l es w i t h the embankmen t , the prob l ems I f poss i b l e , it is advan t ageous to des i gn t he
Types o f Abu t men t s : of se t t l emen t of backf i l l beh i nd t he abu t - w i ng wa l l s so tha t a cont rac tor can con-
V1
men t are m i n i ma l . st ruc t t hem be fore cons t ruc t i ng t he deck . e
Open Abu t men t s : Open abu t men t s , w i t h
the end spans of the deck bear i ng on Bea t - W i ng wa l l s o f t en can be st ruc tura l l y i nde- to
i ngs a t t he t ops o f embankmen t s , are o f t en
Wa l l Abu t men t s : Var i ous t ypes of wa l l
abu t men t s are descr i bed in Tab l e 470-9 .
penden t o f the abu t men t , in wh i ch case t he . ri
pre f erab l e to, and can l ook be t t er than , a j o i nts be t ween t hem need to be des i gned
to perm i t s i gn i f i cant movemen t , w i th prov i -
m
re t a i n i ng wa l l t ype of abu t men t (Tab l e 470- St rut t ed , Por t a l , and Box St ruc tures :
s i ons made to h i de m i nor t i l ts . D i f f erences n
8) . The cos t of t he end span , pi er , and end St rut t ed , por ta l , and box st ruc tures are
descr i bed in Tab l e 470-10 . in se t t l ement be t ween the abu t men t and
suppor t of a na r row br i dge is l i ke l y to be
l ess t han tha t of a c l osed abu t men t w i t h the w i ng wa l l s can be due l arge l y to t he S
W i ng Wa l l s: grea t er pressure on the abu t men t . e
w i ng wa l l s and a re t a i ned f i l l . For a w i de
br i dge , the cos t o f w i ng wa l l s is re l a t i ve l y The cos t of w i ng wa l l s can be a s i gn i f i cant S i mp l e Abu t men t s for Foo t br i dges:
l ess s i gn i f i cant , and the c l osed abu t men t is par t o f the tota l cos t of a subs t ruc ture , par -
t hen l i ke l y to be mor e econom i ca l . t i cu l ar l y for na r row br i dges (Tab l e 470-11) . Soph i s t i ca t ed abu t men t s are no t necessary
They can a l so have a nega t i ve e f f ec t on the for na r row f oo tbr i dges . Al l abu t men t s
Open abu t men t s are par t i cu l ar l y su i t ab l e
aes the t i c appea rance o f the br i dge and shou l d prov i de adequa t e a i r space and
whe r e the ground is no t f i rm enough to
resu l t in on l y a marg i na l cos t sav i ng . The
 470 - 1 0

Tab l e 470 -5 . LOAD I NG ON SUBSTRUCTURES AND FOUNDAT I ONS "

Load i ng Commen t

Dead l oad a . Se l f we i gh t of subs t ruc t ure

b . We i gh t o f f i l l suppor t ed by f ounda t i on
c . Dead l oad and supe r i mposed l oad o f supe rs t ruc t ure

Ear th pr essur e Con t i nuous l y ac t i ng on comp l e t ed subs t ruc t ure bu t l i ke l y t o f l uc tua t e i n i nt ens i -
ty w i t h subs t ruc t ure movemen t , v i bra t i on , wa t e r t ab l e , e t c .

D i f f erent i a l se t t l emen t D i f f erent i a l se t t l emen t o f embankmen t re l a t i ve t o subs t ruc t ure t rans f ers l oad t o
subs t ruc t ure and f ounda t i ons . D i f f erent i a l movemen t s o f suppor t s o f i nde t e rm i -
na t e br i dge change reac t i ons .

Hydr au l i c P i ers in r i vers a re sub j ec t ed t o l a t era l forces f rom change o f d i rec t i on o f wa t e r -

f l ow. For ces i ncrease i n t i mes o f f l ood .

F l ood D r awdown cond i t i on f o l l ow i ng f l ood i ng o f embankmen t . A l so , f l ood i ng o f

re t a i n i ng wa l l dr a i nage memb r ane f rom beh i nd or above .

Cr eep and shr i nkage Cr eep and shr i nkage movemen t s o f supe rs t ruc t ure can a f f ec t reac t i ons and
thrus t s on subs t ruc t ure .

Tempe r a t ur e Tempe r a t ur e changes i n supe rs t ruc t ure can a l t er reac t i ons and thrus t s or app l y
d i sp l acemen t t o suppor t s (wh i ch can i n turn a l t er ear th pressures) . Tempe r a t ur e
changes i n par t s o f subs t ruc t ures and ground a f f ec t t he forces and d i f f erent i a l
movemen t be t ween t hem .

Tra f f i c on br i dge De t a i l ed i n f orma t i on is i nc l uded in va r i ous br i dge -des i gn s t anda rds for l oad i ng
f rom :
a. Ver t i ca l grav i t a t i ona l l oad i ncorpora t i ng i mpac t a l l owance
b. Cen t r i f uga l l oad ac t i ng rad i a l l y
c. Long i t ud i na l l oads , wh i ch can ac t t owa rd or away f rom subs t ruc t ure F i gur e 470 -7 .
Beam bo l t ed t o abu t men t .
Tra f f i c on abu t men t L i ve l oad surcha rges to represen t ver t i ca l t ra f f i c l oad i ng a re g i ven i n s t anda rds
for br i dge des i gn .
Hor i zon t a l l oads due t o br ak i ng and t rac t i on can ac t on subs t ruc t ure t hrough dra i nage at the bear i ng area (F i gure 470 -
f i l l and pavemen t .
6) .
W i nd De t a i l ed i n f orma t i on on w i nd l oads on supe rs t ruc t ure and p i ers is i nc l uded in
t he s t anda rds l i sted above . Foo tbr i dges may have to be bo l t ed or
c l amped to t he abu t men t s to ho l d t hem in
I mpac t P i ers may be vu l ne rab l e t o i mpac t f rom veh i c l es , t ra i ns , and r i ver cra f t .
S t anda rds prov i de gu i dance f or p i ers a l ongs i de h i ghways . Mass i ve abu t men t s p l ace dur i ng f l ood i ng or wh i l e v i bra t i ng
and f ounda t i ons a re much l ess vu l ne rab l e and no t l i ke l y t o fa i l , a l t hough some unde r l i ve l oads (F i gure 470 - 7 ) .
d i sp l acemen t can occur f rom seve re i mpac t .
The s i mp l es t abu t men t is a bank sea t ,
Excep t i ona l Cons t ruc t i on Snow , i ce packs , ea r t hquake , e t c .
Comb i na t i ons o f any o f t he above l oads can be cr i t i ca l for i ncomp l e t e sub- whe r e the br i dge supers t ruc ture mee t s the
s t ruc tures dur i ng s t ages o f cons t ruc t i on t oge t he r w i t h l oads due t o t empor a r y ground a t i ts na tura l l eve l on a st ab l e area
wor ks , s t ored ma t er i a l s , mov i ng l oads , and poss i b l y a l so accompan i ed by of su i t ab l e bear i ng capac i t y. In such cases ,
reduc t i on o f suppor t .
a concre t e st r ip f ounda t i on is adequa t e
' Th i s t ab l e l ists va r i ous des i gn l oad i ngs for subs t ruc t ures . The l oad i ngs are no t cons i de r ed to ac t a l l a t (F i gure 470 - 8 ) .
t he same t i me , and va r i ous comb i na t i ons are i dent i f i ed dur i ng des i gn .
T i mbe r bank sea ts can be used bu t wi l l
Sour ce : Bu i l d i ng Resea r ch Es t ab l i shmen t .
have a l i mi ted l i fe . T i mbe r mus t be t rea t ed
w i th some t ype o f wood preserva t i ve , and
Tab l e 470 - 6 . PERM I SS I BLE BEAR I NG PRESSURE
a t i le dra i n is necessary (F i gure 470 - 9 ) .
Pe rm i ss i b l e bea r i ng Whe r e the br i dge deck l eve l is above the
p r essu r e on
na tura l ground l eve l , a mass abu t men t can
Ma t e r i a l g round , KN / m ' Tons / f t '
S be cons t ruc t ed . The f i l l used to r amp the
Ha rd rock 2 150 21 foo tpa th can be a l l owed to spi l l na tura l l y
bA
Sha l e and sof t rock 1 075 11 a round i t. Whe r e abu t men t s are se t on
s t eep s l opes , i t may be necessary to re t a i n
m Compac t sand or grave l and ha rd compac t c l ay 430 4
t he f i l l for t he foo tpa th by w i den i ng the
F i rm sand , sandy c l ay , and ord i nary fa i r l y dr y bou l de r c l ay 215 2
n abu t men t or prov i d i ng w i ngwa l l s (F i gures
a 1 470 - 10 and 470 - 11 ) .
. We t or l oose sand and sof t c l ay 105
ri
S
Unconso l i da t ed f i l l , a l l uv i a l so i l pea t Var i es up t o 25 Up t o 0 . 25 F i gures 470 - 12 and 470 - 13 show typ i ca l
e sma l l abu t men t s su i t ab l e for na r row foot -
br i dges . I f h i gh abu t men t s [over 3 000 mm
e No t e: Th i s t ab l e shou l d be used for pre l i m i nary es t i ma t i ons on l y.
iP (10 f t )] are requ i red or i f the soi l has poor
Sour ce : Adap t ed f rom Reach Ha l l B l y th Par tnersh i p , preparers , Foo t br i dges in t he Coun t rys i de , t he bear i ng capac i ty , then mor e soph i s t i ca t ed
Coun t rys i de Comm i ss i on f or Sco t l and , Per th , 1981 .
so l ut i ons , us i ng re i nforced concre t e or p i l ed
founda t i ons , can be adop t ed . In al l these
 470 - 1 1

Tab l e 470 -7 . GENERAL GU I DE TO CHO I CE OF FOUNDAT I ON

Ground Foot i ngs pre f er red P i l es pre f er red

St i f f clay, med i um-dense dry sand, or grave l Foot ings are most of ten appropr i ate for Pi les may have to be used
footbr idges for reasons of cost , rel iabi l i ty, where very heavy concent rated loads
and ease of const ruct ion . have to be t ransmi t ted to ground .
F i rm c l ays, loose dry grave l s, or sand and grave l Some des igners prefer to use foot ings Pi les are of ten the prefer red solut ion because
wi th bear i ng pressures as l ow as set t l ement of a pi le group is of ten as much as
100-150 kN /m' if signi f icant set t l ement one-ha l f or one- thi rd of that of a foot ing
is expected dur ing or soon af ter const ruct ion . and takes pl ace rapidly .
St i f f st ratum at modera t e depth w i th deep wa ter tabl e Sha l l ow spread foot ings suppor ted on mass
concrete or granu l ar fill wh i ch forms a f i rm
st ratum are some t i mes less expens i ve
than deep foot ings .
H i gh wa ter tabl e in permeab l e ground Dr i ven or cased bored pi les are typical ly used,
but insta l lat ion can be di f f icul t.
St i f f ground over l y ing sof t ground, e . g., grave l over c l ay Sha l l ow foot ings can be des i gned to make Use of pi les can create dr iving or bor ing
use of load-spread ing qua l i ty of the st i f f ground . prob l ems and by concent rat ing the load above
or in the c l ay can cause l arger set t l ements .
Sof t si l ty c l ays, peat , and uncompac t ed f i l ls Spread foot ings can be used on fill Pi les are usua l ly prefer red. Measures some-
i f the ground can be consol idated in advance t imes have to be taken to prevent damage
by use of a surcharge . f rom lateral load ing due to ad j acent
embankmen t .
Interbedded sand and si l t l ayers Excavat i on can be h indered by wa ter in layers,
but instal lat ion of bored pi les has a l so
g i ven many prob l ems .
Loose sands increas ing in st rength w i th depth Improv i ng the st rength of exi st ing sand of ten is Dr i ven pi les compac t the sand and prov ide high
cheaper than us ing pi les, but it is di f f icul t to load capac i ty wi th m i n i mum set t l ement . (Note :
predi ct and mon i tor these spec ia l techn i ques. singl e si ze sands can be imposs ibl e to compac t .)
Therefore , pi les are some t i mes prefer red .
Cha l k Use foot ings unl ess cha l k is deeper than the If upper sur face is at unpred i ctab l e depths due
spread foot ings . Even sof t cha l k consol idates to swa l l ow hol es, pi les may be bet ter because
qui ck l y under a load (usua l ly dur ing const ruct ion) . they can be dr i ven to di f ferent depths wi thout
Unpred i ctab l e and i mpenet rab l e ground, de l ays in the cont ract . Cha l k sof tens dur i ng
such as bou lders or rock wi th c l ay mat r i x dr i v ing or bor ing but recovers some st rength
can be very di f f icul t , wi th predi ct ions of movemen t dur i ng fo l lowing weeks; therefore de l ay test ing
unre l i abl e . Sha l l ow foot ings can be the more test pi les at di f ferent depths to de termi ne the
economi ca l . opt i mum . Excavat ion for foot ings or instal lat ion
of pi les
Compac t ed f i l l We l l -compac ted , sui table, or se l ected fill is genera l l y Stee l H pi les have been dr i ven e i ther to deep
as good as, if not bet ter than, natura l depos i ts f i rm st ratum or to suf f icient depths to mobi l i ze
of the same mater i a l . adequa t e f r ict ion .
Steep l y d i pp i ng rock subst ra tum Mass concrete fill can gr ip stepped inter faces I f st ratum is very deep, then precast concrete
where pi les mi ght g l ance of f . pi les wi th rock shoes or use steel pi les .

cases , an exper i enced eng i neer shou l d be

consu l t ed .

P i ers:
s
Pi ers are used to break up l ong spans . They e
shou l d be adop t ed on l y whe r e they can be bA
l oca t ed eas i l y on sound founda t i ons . P i ers r
in wa t e rways are d i f f i cu l t to cons t ruc t and i
are sub j ec t to abnorma l cond i t i ons f rom
B
f l ood i ng . Exper t adv i ce shou l d be sough t n
F i gur e 470 -9 . cr i
be fore such a so l ut i on is adop t ed . F i gur e 470 - 8 . Typ i ca l bank sea t . ~L
Typ i ca l t i mbe r bank sea t .
When f ounda t i ons mus t be prepared I IA
be a t t emp t ed excep t unde r the d i rec t i on o f
underwa t er , a co f f e rdam is necessary to
an exper i enced eng i neer .
keep ou t the wa t e r wh i l e the foot i ng is
be i ng p l aced . When t he wa t e r is deep or P i ers can be used to l imi t t he s i ze o f
the cur rent sw i f t , these co f f erdams are very abu t men t s and to avo i d f orm i ng embank -
expens i ve , and t he cons t ruc t i on of each men t s for f oo tpa ths by us i ng t hem t o sup- 0
one is a separa t e prob l em wh i ch shou l d no t
 470-12
Tab l e 470 - 8 . OPEN ABUTMENTS

Type , use , and commen t Ske t c l

Bank seats: Of t en used in cut areas
and less common in fill areas .

Bank seats are s imp l e econom i c st ructures of

semi mass or re inforced concrete . Idea l for br idges
where there is f i rm und i sturbed ground .

The exposed bear ing she l f is more economi ca l than

the bur i ed type because of the reduced l ength of deck ,
but the f ront edge of the foot ing shou ld be kept back
f rom the s lope face because of eros ion, f rost act ion,
and because the fill on a s lope is not we l l compac t ed .
W i ng wa l ls are const ructed as cant i levers or on foot ings .

F i gur e 470 - 10 .
Typ i ca l mass abu t men t .

Bank seats on pi l es: Used occas iona l l y.

Bank seats are p l aced on pi les when the
ground or fill is not st rong enough .

F i gur e 470 - 11 . Typ i ca l mass abu t -

men t w i t h w i ng wa l l s .
Source : Mod i f i ed f rom Bu i l d i ng Research Estab l i shment .
Three typ i ca l l oca t i ons for shear keys are
(F i gure 470-19) :

1 . Fron t shear keys : have to be far

por t the ma i n span and an approach r amp enough be l ow ground l eve l to avo i d
Excava t i on Shape and Shea r Keys :
(F i gure 470-14) . so f t en i ng due to f rost ac t i on and to
The f ounda t i on for an abu t men t shou l d be reduce the r i sk of l a ter scour i ng or
The top of a p i er mus t be w i de enough l eve l . S l i d i ng mus t be res i sted by f r i ct ion excava t i ons in f ront of the t oe .
to accommoda t e bear i ngs and beam ends . unde r the base or by pass i ve res i st ance in
I f the spans are s i mp l y suppor t ed , t wo 2 . M i dd l e shear keys : are usua l l y eas i er
f ront of the toe . O f t en a w i de r base is
bear i ngs wi l l be necessary , bu t for a cont i n- to excava t e and do no t cause comp l i -
s needed t o preven t s l i d i ng t han for bear i ng
uous beam on l y one bear i ng need be spec- ca t i ons in the f orma t i on of the abu t -
or to prevent over turn i ng . For th i s reason ,
i f i ed (F i gure 470-15) . men t .
some des i gners d i mens i on the base for
. bear i ng and prov i de add i t i ona l res i st ance to
ri Br i dge supers t ruc tures exer t l ong i tud i na l 3 . Rea r or back shear keys : ga i n add i -
B forces f rom expans i on , w i nd , and t rac t i on , s l i d i ng by us i ng a shear key or by i nc l i n i ng t i ona l l atera l res i s t ance f rom the
n the foot i ng (F i gures 470-19 and 470-20) . ground because of the i ncreased ver -
wh i ch have an over turn i ng e f f ec t on p i ers
(F i gure 470-16) . To m i n i m i ze ground so f t en i ng , some t i ca l compress i on of the abu t men t
des i gners g i ve t he foot i ng a sma l l cross fa l l and t oe . The excava t i on for a rear
The s i mp l es t p i ers to cons t ruc t , and the to i mprove dra i nage . shear key norma l l y causes l ess d i stur -
e mos t econom i ca l , are those tha t are ver t i ca l bance of the suppor t i ng soi l but caus-
w i th a un i form rec t angu l ar or c i rcu l ar cross The process of cons t ruc t i ng a shear key
es mor e excava t i on on the re t a i ned
f requent l y l oosens the subbase . A l so , ra i n-
sec t i on . Typ i ca l p i er de ta i l s are shown in s i de .
F i gures 470-17 and 470-18 . wa t e r can cause a sof t en i ng of the soi l .
There fore , when shear keys are used , t hey
shou l d be excava t ed and concre t ed in one
con t i nuous process .
 470 - 1 3
The dra i nage sys t em requ i res an out l e t ,
mus t be t est ab l e , and has to be eas i l y ma i n-
t a i nab l e . F i gure 470-21 shows uses of a
porous b l ock or equ i va l en t porous ma t er i a l
t hrough wh i ch t he wa t e r can dra i n to a
p i pe tha t can be c l eared by rods . Weep
ho l es are of t en spec i f i ed to a l l ow dra i nage
in case of p i pe b l ockage .
NOTE : A dry s tone wa l l 450 mm (18 in)
w i de or w i de r may be equa l l y as good as or
be t t er t han a concre t e abu t men t in reg i ons
whe r e l oca l rock and sk i l l ed l abor are ava i l -
ab l e .

Bea r i ng She l ves :

I f bear i ng she l ves are used , then they

requ i re dra i nage (F i gure 470-22) . A chan-
ne l a l ong the t op of the bear i ng she l f
shou l d be access i b l e for c l ean i ng. P l ac i ng
the channe l in f ront of the bear i ngs makes
i t s i mp l er to c l ean .

Prot ec t i ve Coa t i ngs:

The back f aces of concre t e abu t men t s can

be g i ven some f orm of prot ec t i ve coa t i ng
F i gur e 470 - 12 . Typ i ca l sma l l - abu t men t ( end- sea t ) de t a i l . Back f i l l i ng shou l d be to i nh i b i t cor ros i on of the re i nforc i ng in the
we l l compac t ed and wa t e r shou l d be l ed away f rom the abu t men t . concre t e .

Groundwa t e r :
Inc l i ned Foo t i ng: Dra i nage:
Groundwa t e r a f f ec ts t he pe r f ormance of
A foot i ng w i t h an i nc l i ned bo t t om has a In c l i ma t es w i t h cons i derab l e ra infa l l , ode br i dge subs t ruc tures by :
s i mp l er cross sec t i on t han one w i th a shear qua t e dra i nage is necessary beh i nd th
1 . Reduc i ng the bear i ng capac i t y of
key , bu t the excava t i on and cons t ruc t i on of abu t men t to preven t the bu i l dup of wa t e
subs t ra t a.
th i s i nc l i ned foot i ng can be mor e expens i ve pressure and the sa tura t i on o f the sc
t han a shear key (F i gure 470-20) . beh i nd t he abu t men t . 2 . Increas i ng l atera l pressures caused by
f l ood i ng or a pe rched wa t e r t ab l e .

S
e
bA

m
n
r« f
ir

a
O
F i gur e 470 - 13 . Typ i ca l mass - conc r e t e abu t men t and w i ng wa l l s .
 470 - 14

Tab l e 470 - 9 . WALL ABUTMENTS

Typ e , use , and commen t Ske t ch

Mass or grav i t y t ype : Common usage for wa l l s
up to 1 800-2 700 mm (6-9 f t) . Rare above 5
400 mm (18 f t) .
Mass concrete wi thout re inforcement pro-
v ides a s imp l e form of const ruct ion but the ;
large quant i ty of concrete is relat ively expen- d. o
sive .
Lack of re inforcement may make it idea l for v ° a
a sma l l cont ract wi th l i tt le or no other steel used
in the const ruct ion . Low st rength concrete can
be used wi th less heat due to hydrat ion and less
crack ing prob l ems. ~' .

Sem i mass : Common usage .

=J~1
A comb i nat i on of mass concrete and mini -
mum re inforcement .
v . .
:
b

b .
. .
o

Re i nforced T. ' Mos t common form of const ruc-

t ion . M i n i mum width of base can be ach i eved if I I I I1I I4=111-
hee l is l arger than the toe .
Comp l i ca ted re inforcement deta i ls make
const ruct ion s lower than Semi mass.

'a a

i
=III i

Count er for t Se l dom used except for very tal l

wa l l s . The comp l i cated const ruct ion of counter -
for ts and much formwork make this uneco-
nomi c for wa l l s less than 9 000-10 500 mm
(30-35 f t) in he ight . " .,
Compac t i on of fill be tween counter for ts is -
di f f icul t and not a l ways sat isfactory .
F i gur e 470 - 16. E f f ec t o f supe r s t ruc -
t ur e expans i on on p i ers . P i ers mus t be
cons t ruc t ed to coun t e rac t ove r t urn i ng III
e f f ec ts due to l ong i tud i na l forces such as a

br i dge expans i on , w i nd , and t rac t i on .

Abu t men t on f i l l : Used on l y when appropr i ate .
3 . Lead i ng to f rost heav i ng o f l i ght A deep foundat i on can of ten be ach i eved more _~ -
economi ca l l y by pl ac ing a sma l l abutment on fill ; . -uL~l - , 'u=
s t ruc tures . than by const ruct ing a l arge abutment . In di f f icul t .;
ground condi t ions fill can be se l fcompact ing, such `,
aA
4 . Reduc i ng the stab i l i ty of ear th s l opes as by mass concrete , and p l aced w i thout work- a.y
suppor t i ng bank sea ts or abu t men t s men enter ing the excavat ions . Speed and simpl ici -
(hor i zont a l and ver t i ca l boreho l es for ty of const ruct ion more than compensa t e for the
cost of large quant i t i es of mater i a l .
B dra i nage can he l p stab i l i ze a banks-
n l ope in sha l es , muds t ones , e t c .) .
Re i nforced ear th: Re inforced ear th may be
Leve l s of groundwa t e r in test boreho l es appropr i ate where f i l led embankment s are
4-0 shou l d be recorded at the t i me of cons t ruc - beh i nd the abutments , but are not appropr i ate ~ - I Î I~fW=11Î I=
t i on . Pe rmanen t s t andp i pes or p i ezome t ers in cut areas.
These types of st ructures have a large toler-
are necessary i f groundwa t e r is, or is ance for movement and are idea l for si tes wi th
t hough t to be , a ser i ous prob l em . poor ground near the sur face (but not if poor
st ratum is deep because c i rcular sl ip is not
In reg i ons whe r e there are very l arge resisted by t ies) . A bat ter to the f ront face is
0 des i rabl e.
seasona l and year l y var i a t i ons in the Be sure to assess the cor ros ion l i fe of t ies
groundwa t e r l eve l , i t is i mpor t an t to record and f i t t ings and the possibi l i ty of eros ion
through gaps in some types of fac ing.
 470 - 1 5
the s t andp i pe l eve l s regu l ar l y and for as
TABLE 470 -9 (Con t i nued) l ong a t i me as poss i b l e .

F l ood Damage and Scour :

Type , use , and commen t Ske t ch F l oods and f l ood debr i s can some t i mes
D i aphr agm (cont i guous bored p i l e or shee t pose a grea t er threa t dur i ng br i dge con-
p i l e) wa l l : Used for spec i a l s i tuat ions on l y. L!=71 Î hrW^ s t ruc t i on t han a f t erwards . Dur i ng the
These forms of st ruc ture are conven i ent for ; -w` -
const ruc t i on f rom ground l eve l , when the i r h i gh
des i gn s t age , it is i mpor t an t to obt a i n i nfor -
cost is compensa t ed for by the speed of con- ma t i on on f l ood f requenc i es and to make
st ruc t i on and l ack of t emporary works. They th i s i n forma t i on ava i l ab l e to b i dders and
usua l l y requ i re some form of fac i ng a f ter exca-
cont rac tors .
va t i on .
The pi l es can be in l ine or s t aggered to
F l oods may cause damage to a br i dge in
i ncrease the wa l l th i ckness and prov i de a tol er -
ance for var i a t i on in pi le s i ze. the fo l l ow i ng manne r :
D i aphragm wa l l i ng may be econom i c for
l arge or repet i t i ve works . It . can be cons t ruc t ed 1 . Insuf f i c i ent wa t e rway a t t he br i dge
w i th precast e l ement s w i th adequa t e dra i nage s i te caus i ng f l ood i ng and / or h i gh
beh i nd it.
Stee l shee t pi l ing may not be su i tab l e for
wa t e r ve l oc i t i es resu l t i ng in scour of
pe rmanen t works w i th a l ong des i gn l i fe . t he s t r eambed and banks , wh i ch may
Economy is par t i cu l ar l y ev i dent when they are unde rm i ne the abu t men t s
good for t emporary cof f erdams.
2 . Insuf f i c i ent wa t e rway downs t r eam o f
t he br i dge caus i ng back -up , or i nsuf -
f i c i ent wa t e rway ups t ream of the
r ®J l ~~a~ r A~
br i dge caus i ng h i gh f l ows , can resu l t
(®e®c~e~± f s~r in the s t ruc ture f l oa t i ng of f i ts bear -
i ngs and be i ng car r i ed away

3 . F l oa t i ng debr i s and i ce wedg i ng

aga i ns t the br i dge st ruc ture , crea t i ng
st ress and poss i b l e st ruc tura l fa i l ures

Anchors and t i es: Ground anchors are pract i ca l Avo i d i ng F l ood Damage : F l ood damage
for abu t men t s if t he ex i st i ng soi l is no t cohes i ve can be avo i ded by (1) se t t i ng the br i dge
or whe re there is a l ow wa t er tab l e .
When t ies are used for deadman anchors , h i gh enough to a l l ow passage of t he h i gh-
prov i s i on shou l d be made for se t t l ement of wa l l est f l ows and to prov i de c l earance for f l oat -
and fi l l . A l l ow the movemen t needed to mob i - i ng branches and o ther debr i s , and (2) p l ac-
l i ze the anchor res i stance .
Anchors and t ies, l ike ground st ruts used for i ng abu t men t s whe r e f l ow wi l l no t be
re i nforced ear th, can be damaged dur i ng exca- b l ocked or rest r i c ted . Areas ups t ream of the
va t i on when serv i ces are per formed at a l ater br i dge shou l d be i nspec t ed to de t e rm i ne
da t e . C_=111=1dL-111= I l l s wha t can be car r i ed downs t r eam dur i ng a
f l ood .
Y : ~~
Scour : Scour is one of the mos t f requen t
causes of fa i l ure in br i dges ove r s t reams .
The dange rs of scour a round abu t men t s
and p i ers can be m i n i m i zed when :
1 . The abu t men t s are kep t beh i nd the
na tura l bank l ine so they do not
become an obs t ruc t i on .

2 . The founda t i ons are se t we l l be l ow

bA
the l owes t l eve l of the scour .

F i gur e 470 - 17 . Typ i ca l suppor t p i e rs

B
f or t i mbe r beam br i dges (span unde r n
a
10 me t e rs f i xed a t bo t h ends. ) Sma l l e r
p i ers use t op of sec t i on (as shown w i t h
.
ir
cross-ha t ch i ng) .
e

0
 470 - 1 6

Tab l e 470 - 10 . STRUTTED , PORTAL , AND BOX STRUCTURES .

1yPe , use , and commen t Ske t ch

St ru t t ed or ver t i ca l beam abu t men t s : O f t en used for sma l l : . sw ' : I I I ®u~ i l i
br i dges , bu t se l dom used or spans exceed i ng
18 000 mm (60 f t ) .
Many sma l l br i dges of spans up to 13 500 mm (45 f t ) use
the deck and st ruc ture of the br i dge as a st rut to the t op of
abu t men t s . Th i s a l l ows the founda t i ons to be nar rower and
s i mp l er than for f rees t and i ng cant i l ever wa l l s .
Usua l l y the wa l l s are mono l i th i c w i th the foot i ngs . St rut t i ng I I IL - UI I ;
II-, .
of abu t men t s is no t r ecommended for skews grea t er than
6 000 mm (20 f t ) , a l though the ef fect of the skew depends
on the l ength-w i dth rat io .
é

III

Por t a l f r ames : Th i s type is occas i ona l l y used .

m n~ om
Por ta l f rames are used for the same advan t age as st rut ted
abutment s , bu t for much l onger spans. I t is poss i b l e to use
a more s l ender deck than for a s i mp l e suppor t ed span . The ro,_ ~
I _ ._ .=uu'
por ta l f rames are genera l l y more expens i ve , and the i r foun-
da t i ons have to resist hor i zonta l movemen t to prevent
overst ress i ng the top corners of the por ta l .

Source : Mod i f i ed f rom Bu i l d i ng Resea r ch Es t ab l i shmen t.

lA

m
n

e
 470 - 17

f ab l e 470 - 11 . W I NG WALLS

Type , use , and co mmen t Ske t ch

W i ng wa l l s para l l e l t o abu t men t :

W i ng wa l l s para l l e l to t he abu t men t f ace are no t as '

econom i c as ang l ed wa l l s bu t are usua l l y s i mp l e r t o .
bu i l d . They are o f t en des i gned mono l i t h i c w i t h
abu t men t . For br i dges cons t ruc t ed on ex i s t i ng .;
embankmen t s , t hey cause l ess d i s t urbance .

W i ng wa l l s a t ang l e t o abu t men t f ace :

These a re gene ra l l y t he mos t econom i c as f ar as

ma t er i a l s used .

W i ng wa l l s para l l e l t o t he br i dge:

Less econom i c t han ang l ed wa l l s , bu t con t i nue l i ne

o f deck and prov i de suppor t f or pa r ape t s . Such w i ng r j
wa l l s may no t be appropr i a t e when t hey or the i r
excava t i ons i mp i nge on ad j acen t s t ruc tures , serv i ces , r j
or t ra f f i c d i vers i on . Prope r compac t i on o f back f i l l i n
t he corne rs is se l dom ach i eved , and f orm i ng o f
exposed edges o f abu t men t s requ i res spec i a l care . .

Can t i l eve r w i ng wa l l s para l l e l t o ove r road:

Common l y used w i t h s l op i ng abu t men t s

An abu t men t w i t h l arge cant i l ever w i ng wa l l s l ooks

s i mi l ar , when comp l e t e , t o t he abu t men t w i t h w i ng
wa l l s on f oo t i ngs para l l e l t o t he br i dge . I t . has t he
advan t age o f hav i ng t he who l e s t ruc ture suppor t ed
on a s i ng l e foo t i ng , wh i ch can se t t l e as a s i ng l e ,
body , bu t i t a l so has t he same prob l ems dur i ng con-
s t ruc t i on as t he one above . Re i n f orced ea r t h or
shee t p i l i ng can some t i mes be used for w i ng wa l l s
t o a conc r e t e abu t men t .

Cr i b wa l l s :

Cr i b wa l l i ng is su i t ab l e f or w i ng wa l l cons t ruc t i on . ( I t zc$ 3g

is no t cons i de red su i t ab l e for abu t men t s .) I ts
appea r ance makes i t mo r e accep t ab l e in rura l t han °% \\
i n urban s i tua t i ons .

Sour ce : Mod i f i ed f rom Bu i l d i ng Resea r ch Es t ab l i shmen t.

B
n
a
s
G~
 470 - 1 8

3 . The f ace of the abu t men t is made

Tab l e 470 - 12 . S I ZE RANGES OF PREFABR I CATED BR I DGES
rough , to reduce t he speed of the
wa t e r f l ow.
I ns i de Truss
4 . The p i ers , i f used , are s t ream l i ned to wi dth, he i gh t ,
Type Span , mm ( f t ) mm ( f t ) mm ( f t )
cause f ewe r edd i es .
Low-prof i l e br i dge (stee l ) 3 000-31 500 (10-105) 1 200-3000 1 200(4)
5 . The shee t pi l ing, i f used for cof f erdams , (4-10)
is l ef t in p l ace for scour prot ec t i on .
H i gh-prof i l e br i dge (stee l ) 3 000-31 500 (10-105) 1 200-3000 2400(8)
(4-10)
6 . Scour prot ec t i on t echn i ques (gab-
i ons , r i prap, e t c .) are used to s l ow A l um i num box t russ pedest r i an br i dge 18 000-33 900 (60-113) - -
down the f l ow . 3 000-30 000 (10-100) 1 200 (4)
Stee l arch br i dge
in 1 500 mm (5 f t ) i ncrement s 1 800(6)
I f scour prot ec t i on dev i ces and t ech- 2400(8)
n i ques are necessary , t hey shou l d ex t end 300000 )
f ar enough ups t ream and downs t r eam tha t 2400(8)
Stee l through t russ 21 600-50 400 (72-168) 1 800 (6)
t he s t ream canno t e rode beh i nd t hem . in 2 400 mm (8 f t ) i ncrement s 2400(8)
O f t en the scour prot ec t i on dev i ce is t urned
back i nto the s t ream bank in order to pro-
t ec t the ends f rom scour i ng . Bea r i ngs : unde r 9 000 mm (30 f t ) whe r e the l oad i ng
is l i mi t ed to Pedes t r i an-norma l (see Tab l e
Common t echn i ques of scour prot ec t i on When supers t ruc tures rest on abu t men t s 470-4) . Whe r e the spans are grea t er t han 9
i nc l ude (F i gure 470-23) : and p i ers , t he l oad is t rans f er red t hrough 000 mm (30 f t ) , an expe r i enced br i dge
some f orm of bear i ng dev i ce wh i ch a l l ows des i gner shou l d be consu l t ed .
1 . R i prapp i ng : s tones or precas t con- the br i dge to expand and cont rac t unde r
cre t e un i ts are l a id on a bed of sma l l - t empe ra t ure or mo i s ture changes . Bear i ngs 4 .1 Log Foo t br i dge
er s tone or grave l . The prof i l e of the a l so l et the ends o f the beam f l ex s l i ght l y as
r i prapp i ng shou l d d i ver t the wa t e r For a l og foo tbr i dge (F i gure 470-24) , na t -
they are l oaded and un l oaded (see F i gure
f l ow smoo t h l y a round the abu t men t 470-12) . ura l l ogs are o f t en used when t i mbe r can
w i t hou t any obs t ruc t i on . I f t he be cut a t or nea r the foo tbr i dge s i te .
r i prapp i ng becomes damaged , the T i mbe r Foo t br i dges : T i mbe r s t ruc tures Na tura l l og footbr i dges may have a re l a-
damaged a rea can en l arge very expand in re l at i ve l y sma l l amoun t s and do t i ve l y shor t (8 to 10 year ) l i fespan, depend-
qu i ck l y and cause a comp l e t e break - no t need spec i a l expans i on bear i ngs un l ess i ng on the durab i l i ty o f the l ogs and the
down . the spans are ove r 30 000 mm (100 f t ) . we t ness of the l oca l c l i ma t e . The mos t
G l ass- f i ber - re i nforced b i tum i nous fe l t , l ead , decay- res i s t ant spec i es o f t i mber shou l d be
2 . Stone- f i l l ed w i re gab i ons : gab i ons are or rubber pads can be used as bear i ngs . se l ec t ed .
ga l van i zed w i re cages f i l l ed w i th cob- Because t i mber br i dges are re l at i ve l y l ight -
b l es . They mus t be i nsta l l ed st r i ct l y in we i ght , v i bra t i on f rom heavy use may 4 . 2 Sawn T i mbe r Foo t br i dge
accordance w i t h the manu f ac turer ' s move the br i dge of f i ts bear i ngs , or f l ood-
i nst ruc t i ons . S i nce a l arge amoun t of The ma i n beams of a sawn t i mbe r foot -
i ng may f l oa t i t away . There fore , mos t
s tone f i l l ing is requ i red , gab i ons are br i dge (F i gure 470-25) shou l d be of h i gh-
wood br i dges shou l d be he l d down by bo l ts qua l i ty wood and shou l d be pressure- t rea t -
bes t su i t ed for areas whe r e th i s can or sta i n l ess-stee l s t raps . (See F i gures 470-
be ob t a i ned l oca l l y. (Re f er to Sec t i on ed w i th an appropr i a t e wood preserva t i ve
25 and 470-26 .) to prov i de l ong l i fe . Sawn t i mbe r is l i ghter
410 : Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s , for mor e i nfor -
ma t i on on gab i ons .) St ee l and Conc re t e Foo tbr i dges : St ruc tures and eas i er to hand l e t han na tura l l ogs , and
made o f stee l or concre t e may be moun t ed such br i dges have a be t t er l i fe t han l og
3 . Reve t men t s : wood or precas t con- br i dges , typ i ca l l y rang i ng f rom 15 to 20
on g l ass- f i ber - re i nforced b i t um i nous fe l t ,
cre t e can be used to crea t e a wa l l l ead , or rubber pads for spans up t o abou t years . (See Sec t i on 850 : Wood , for mor e
( reve tment ) , wh i ch is t hen f i l l ed w i th 9 000 mm (30 f t ) . Because a stee l foot - i n forma t i on on the use of wood in ou t door
s tone and / or grave l . Var i ous t ech- br i dge is re l a t i ve l y l i ghtwe i ght , a pos i t i ve cons t ruc t i on .)
n i ques are emp l oyed in t he cons t ruc -
s me t hod of ho l d i ng i t down shou l d be i ncor -
t i on of reve t men t s . F i gure 470-23 4 . 3 Ga l l oway T i mbe r Foo t br i dge
pora t ed in the bear i ngs . Recen t exper i ence
bA shows one t echn i que us i ng wood . shows tha t pre f abr i ca t ed bear i ngs w i th Th i s des i gn (F i gure 470-26) was deve l oped
. Conc re t e cr i bb i ng is a l so used and sta i n l ess stee l s l i d i ng on a pad o f f l uorocar -
ri w i th the fo l l ow i ng a i ms :
m genera l l y has a l onger l i fe, a l t hough i t bon prov i des very l ow f r i ct ion forces for
may be mor e expens i ve to cons t ruc t . 1 . The ma i n beams wou l d not be pene -
n bo t h stee l and concre t e br i dges .
a (Concre t e cr i bb i ng is descr i bed br i ef l y t ra t ed by bo l t ho l es or o ther f as t eners
' a= in Sec t i on 410 : Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s .) a f t er preserva t i ve t rea tmen t .
4 . 0 TYP I CAL DES I GNS FOR
4 . Int er l ock i ng stee l shee t p i l i ng : stee l SHORT - SPAN FOOTBR I DGES 2 . The br i dge wou l d be demoun t ab l e to
e
shee t p i l i ng may be advan t ageous in pe rm i t per i od i c ma i n t enance and
e par t i cu l ar l y d i f f i cu l t s i tua t i ons whe r e Th i s subsec t i on i nc l udes dr aw i ngs and easy rep l acemen t of damaged sec-
P ground cond i t i ons are very poor . Th i s
i n forma t i on on seven t ypes of footbr i dges . t i ons .
t echn i que usua l l y requ i res i nsta l l at i on
by an exper i enced cont rac tor . F i gures 470-24 to 470-30 show repre- 3 . Sk i l l ed s i te wor k wou l d no t be
sent a t i ve des i gns for footbr i dges for spans requ i red .
 470 - 1 9
These a i ms have been ach i eved by us ing
bent bol ts to bind the br idge par ts togeth-
er so that f r ict ion be tween the faces
repl aces bo l ted connect i ons . The bent bol ts
cou ld be l oosened to a l low par ts to be
removed for ma i nt enance or repa i r. The
prob l em of fasten ing handra i l posts has
been so l ved by us ing a prefabr i cated H
f rame wh i ch is made of f -si te . The br idge is
assemb l ed by unsk i l l ed l aborers on-s i te
f rom a ki t of par ts .

4 .4 Ga l l oway Stee l Footbr i dge

The Br i t ish Army deve l oped this des ign
(F igure 470 -27) f rom the Ga l l oway t imber
footbr idge . The stee l beams extend the
useful span and are l ighter than t i mber.
Hor i zonta l brac ing is requi red be tween the
stee l beams because they are less st i f f in
this di rect ion than t imber . A good pa int
spec i f i cat ion and regul ar ma i nt enance are
requi red to extend the l i fe of the stee lwork .
The longer spans shou ld not be a t tempted
w i thout eng ineer ing adv i ce .

4 .5 Stee l Beam Footbr i dge

Two suggested cross sect ions for steel
beam st ructures are shown in F igure 470-
28 . The l i fe of the st ructure wi l l depend on
the qua l i ty of the ma i ntenance protect ing it
f rom cor ros ion .
4 .6 Suspens i on Br i dge
Suspens i on br idges (F igure 470 -29) are
used when (a) st reams have f luctuat ing
wa ter levels, (b) the cur rents are very rapid,
(c) cond i t ions for foundat ions , par t icular ly
intermed i ate piers, are impract i ca l , and (d)
si tes are remot e so that sma l l pi eces need-
ed for a suspens i on br idge can be carr ied
in . Where large crowds are not expec ted
l ow techno l ogy solut ions are poss ibl e for
footbr idges of 14 700 to 19 800 mm (49 to
66 ft) .
The si zes of al l members of a suspens ion
br idge must be de termi ned by an exper i -
enced des i gner or eng i neer who wi l l a lso
check the me thod of erect ion . Thi s shou ld e
WO
be done under the gu i dance of a compe-
tent const ruct ion superv i sor. Erect ion of a
suspens ion br idge is hazardous . Safe work- B
ing procedures mus t be formu l ated and n
used by exper i enced personne l us ing cor - a
rect equ i pment .
4 .7 Concre t e or Masonry Arch G, l
Footbr i dges e
In addi t ion to the six types of wood and
a.
meta l br idges, there are severa l br idge
types that cou l d be const ructed f rom
poured- in-p l ace concrete or var ious k inds
 470 - 20
of masonr y cons t ruc t i on . F i gure 470-30
shows t wo var i a t i ons , one us i ng concre t e
and one us i ng s tone . In t he l at ter examp l e ,
o ther t ypes of masonry (such as br i ck or
precas t concre t e) cou l d be used as the
st ruc tura l ma t er i a l or as a f ac i ng ma t er i a l
for a pour ed concre t e footbr i dge .
As w i th o ther t ypes o f footbr i dges , con-
cre t e or masonry arch br i dges requ i re so l i d
f ounda t i ons . Mos t concre t e or masonry
arch br i dges requ i re the adv i ce of a st ruc-
tura l eng i neer to ensure comp l i ance w i th
sa f e des i gn and cons t ruc t i on s t andards .

I f rough s tone or rubb l e masonry is used

to cons t ruc t the arch , t hen the s tones
shou l d be rough l y squa red and l a id in por t -
l and cemen t mor t a r . The s tones mus t be
hard , durab l e , and reasonab l y f l at . No t
mor e t han one - th i rd of the s tone shou l d be
l ess t han 300 mm (1 f t ) th i ck , and no s tone
shou l d be l ess t han 150 mm (6 in) th i ck and
have a bed area o f l ess than 300 mm (1 f t )
squa re . Wa l l s mus t be l a id us i ng l arge , f lat ,
se l ec t ed s tone in the bo t t om and hav i ng a t
l east one- f i f th of t he wa l l sur f ace made o f
f ace headers . Al l of the spaces in the hear t
o f the wa l l shou l d be f i l l ed w i th su i t ab l e
s tones or spa l l s wh i ch are thorough l y bed-
ded in cemen t mor t a r . The ou t er arch r i ng
shou l d be made of fu l l -s i ze s tones tha t
have been rough-dressed to crea t e
smoo t he r abut t i ng i nner sur f aces . They
shou l d be l a id s i mu l t aneous l y f rom bo t h
ends , w i th mor t a r j o i nts no t exceed i ng 25
mm (1 in) in th i ckness .

Ar ch cent ers shou l d no t be s t ruck unt i l

d i rec t ed by the des i gner . The tops of t he
f ace wa l l s shou l d be f i n i shed w i th cope -
s tones no l ess t han 150 mm (6 in) th i ck and
450 mm (18 in) w i de , w i th a l ength of a t
l east 1 1 /2 t i mes the bread th .

Dry rubb l e masonry can be used , bu t i t

shou l d mee t al l of the o ther requ i remen t s
for rough-s tone or rubb l e masonry. On l y
f l at s tones a t l east tw i ce as w i de as th i ck
shou l d be used . Genera l l y , the l arger s tones
V shou l d be p l aced in the l ower par t of the
dA wa l l , a l t hough d i f f erent s i zes can be mor e
even l y d i s t r i but ed ove r the wa l l f ace .

B I f the wa l l is s l oped , t hen the s tones

n shou l d be p l aced a t r i ght ang l es to the
s l ope and every s tone mus t ex t end t he ful l
dep t h of the wa l l .

5 .0 TYP I CAL DES I GNS FOR

e PREFABR I CATED BR I DGES
112-
Manu f ac t ur ed pre f abr i ca t ed br i dges can
of f er advan t ages in s i tes whe r e access is
F i gur e 470 - 25 . Sawn t i mbe r f oo t br i dge .
easy , whe r e l ong spans are necessary ,
 470 - 2 1

whe r e m i n i ma l costs are requ i red , or whe r e

sk i l l ed l abor is unava i l ab l e .

F l a t -span and arch-span t ypes of br i dges

are ava i l ab l e in t he Un i t ed St a t es for spans
rang i ng f rom 3 000 to 48 000 (10 to 160
f t ) . Leng t hs ove r 19 500 (65 f t ) are fabr i -
ca t ed in sec t i ons to be bo l t ed toge ther in
the f i e ld . Carbon-s t ee l or se l f -wea ther i ng-
stee l br i dge s t ruc tures f i n i shed w i t h wood -
en deck i ng and handra i l i ngs are a l so ava i l -
ab l e . Load i ngs are des i gned in accordance
w i t h AASHTO spec i f i ca t i ons . Op t i ona l
handra i l i ngs 1 350 (54 in) h i gh are ava i l ab l e
when use by b i cyc l i sts is ant i c i pa t ed .

The same care fu l cons i dera t i on of foun-

da t i on and abu t men t des i gn is requ i red for
pre f abr i ca t ed br i dges as for s i te-bu i l t
br i dges because manu f ac t ure rs prov i de
on l y br i dge supers t ruc tures .

Tab l e 470-12 g i ves t he s i zes of pre f abr i -

ca t ed br i dges cur rent l y ava i l ab l e in the
Un i t ed St a t es .

, 6 . 0 PRO13LEMS OF ERECT I NG
BR I DGES

Every s i te wi l l present i ts own d i st i nc t i ve

prob l ems in the erec t i on of a br i dge . Four
of the mos t common areas o f d i f f i cu l ty are :
1 . Access to the s i te : whe r e access is
par t i cu l ar l y di f f i cul t , i t may be neces-
sary to des i gn ma i n st ruc tura l mem-
bers w i th sma l l p i eces tha t can be
assemb l ed at the br i dge s i te .

2 . Amoun t of c l ear , l eve l a rea for

assemb l y of br i dge e l emen t s : i f st ruc-
tura l e l emen t s have to be assemb l ed
a t the s i te be fore be i ng p l aced across
a gap , a su i t ab l e l eve l area is
requ i red .

3 . Li f t i ng ma i n st ruc tura l membe r s i nto

pos i t i on : the me t hod used to p l ace
these membe r s wi l l depend on the i r
l ength , we i gh t , stab i l i ty , and the
na ture of the equ i pmen t wh i ch can e
be brough t to the s i te . Th i s shou l d be aA
ant i c i pa t ed at the beg i nn i ng of t he
des i gn process (F i gure 470-31) .
m
4 . Ma i n t a i n i ng sa f e work i ng cond i t i ons :
n
acc i dent s can be avo i ded on l y by .
a
adop t i ng sa f e wor k i ng me t hods ri
wh i ch are care fu l l y superv i sed .
e
7 . 0 MA I NTENANCE OF BR I DGES e
a.
Al l br i dges de t er i ora t e ove r t i me as a resu l t
of cons t an t use and o f decay. There fore , a l l
br i dges need per i od i c i nspec t i ons and F i gur e 470 - 26 . Ga l l oway t i mbe r f oo t br i dge .
 470 - 22
repa i r . The fo l l ow i ng procedures shou l d be
adop t ed to ensure l onger l i fe of t he br i dge .

7 .1 Ma i n t enance i n Des i gn
Prov i de for ma i n t enance in des i gn by :

1 . Ensur i ng tha t the ma i n beams can be

i nspec t ed a l ong the i r ent i re l ength
and espec i a l l y whe r e t hey rest on
p i ers and end sea ts

2 . Ensur i ng tha t seconda ry e l emen t s

(deck i ng , handra i l i ngs , e t c .) can be
r emoved and rep l aced w i t hou t
undue d i f f i cu l ty
3 . Ensur i ng tha t i nspec t i ons are easy to
car ry out , i nc l ud i ng the prov i s i on of
anchor po i nt s for harnesses and / or of
p l a t forms for l adders or sca f fo l ds

4 . Ensur i ng tha t des i gn assump t i ons are

recorded and tha t des i gn draw i ngs
and spec i f i ca t i ons are kept secure

7 . 2 Ma i n t enance i n Cons t ruc t i on

Prov i de for ma i n t enance in cons t ruc t i on by :

1 . Ensur i ng tha t the br i dge is bu i l t to
des i gn s t andards and spec i f i ca t i ons

2 . Ensur i ng tha t var i a t i ons are recorded

and tha t an accura t e se t of as-bu i l t
draw i ngs is produced , i nc l ud i ng a
s i mp l i f i ed p l an and e l eva t i on for
i nspec t i on purposes
3 . Tak i ng a se t of pho tographs , so tha t
cons t ruc t i on work , par t i cu l ar l y tha t
wh i ch wi l l be h i dden , is recorded , and
so tha t progress i ve de t er i ora t i on can
be assessed by compa r i son w i th t he
or i g i na l cond i t i on .

7 . 3 Ma i n t enance i n Use
Prov i de for ma i n t enance in use by :

1 . Br i e f i ng ma i n t enance staf f on st an-

da rds and procedures

2 . Ma i n t a i n i ng a record f i l e for each

S br i dge

3 . Inspec t i ng each br i dge and i ts

B
approaches annua l l y , prepa r i ng a
br i dge i nspec t i on repor t , and ensur -
n i ng tha t ma i n t enance r ecommenda -
t i ons are i mp l emen t ed

Sens i b l e housekeep i ng measures i nc l ude

Cu c l ean i ng vege t a t i on and soi l f rom t i mber
deck i ng , ma i n t a i n i ng f ree a i r space a round
a
e beam ends , and t i ght en i ng l oose f ast en-
i ngs . Wood preserva t i ve shou l d be reap-
p l i ed eve ry 3 years , and me t a l pa i nt eve ry 5
F i gur e 470 - 27 . Ga l l oway s t ee l f oo t br i dge . years . Rus t spot s shou l d be c l eaned eve ry
 470- 2 3
year , coa t ed w i th ant i rus t pr i mer , and
t ouched up .

7 . 4 I nspec t i on

Po i nt s to l ook for dur i ng i nspec t i on are :

1 . Scour i ng o f r i verbed and br i dge

f ounda t i ons

2 Damage to banks and ad j acent l and

3 . Unsa f e t rees c l ose to the br i dge

4 . Muddy or worn footpa ths , steps , and

r amps

5 . Decay of t i mbers , espec i a l l y a t ho l es ,

cracks , and ends

6 . Wa t e r and mo i s ture t raps on hor i zon-

ta l sur f aces and j o i nts
7 . Loose bo l ts , screws , na i l s, posts , and
handra i l i ngs

8 . Me t a l cor ros i on

bA

B
n

F i gur e 470 - 28 . St ee l beam f oo t br i dge .

0
 470 - 2 4

REFERENCES

Ame r i can Assoc i a t i on o f St a t e H i ghway

and Transpor t a t i on Of f i c i a l s (AASHTO ) .
St andard Spec i f i ca t i ons for H i ghway
Br i dges , 15t h ed. , Wash i ng t on , DC , 1992 .

DeLeuw Ca ther , e t a l . Ef fect i ve Trea tment

of Ove r and Undercross i ngs for Use by
Bi cyc l i sts, Pedest r i ans and t he Hand i -
capped , FHWA-RD -79-70 , U . S. Federa l
H i ghway Adm i n i s t ra t i on , Wash i ng t on , DC ,
Janua ry 1981 .
Hambe rg , E. C . Br i dge Founda t i ons and
Subst ructures , Bu i l d i ng Research Est ab l i sh-
men t , Depa r t men t of the Env i ronmen t ,
HMSO , London , 1979 .
Re i ach Ha l l B l y th Par tnersh i p . Foo tbr i dges
in t he Coun t rys i de -Des i gn and Const ruc-
t ion . Coun t rys i de Comm i ss i on for Scot -
l and , Per th , Scot l and , 1981 . (The source
f rom wh i ch mos t o f the da t a in Sec t i on 470
was t aken .)

S
e
aA

m
n

S
e
e
P

F i gure 470-29. Suspens i on f oo tbr i dge .

 470 - 2 5

V1
0
tao

m
n

S
F i gure 470-31 . Me t hods o f br i dge
erec t i on . The me t hod used to p l ace
membe r s w i l l depend on the i r l ength , a
we i ght , and stab i l i ty and on the na ture o)
t he equ i pmen t wh i ch can be brough t tc 0
t he s i te .
F i gure 470-30. Conc re t e or masonr y arch f oo tbr i dge .
I mprovemen t s
 rSECT I ON I

S i t e Furn i ture
and Fea t ures

Con t r i bu t or:
I l se Jones , G . H. Lee ,
and Kev i n M. Car l
Jones & Jones , Arch i t ec t s
and Landscape Arch i t ec t s
Sea t t l e , Wash i ng t on
Por t l and , Or egon

Rev i ewe rs :
N i cho l as T. D i nes
Un i vers i t y o f Massachuse t t s
Amhe r s t , Massachuse t t s

Uf
r
CONTENTS
M
1 . 0 Int roduc t i on 2 .3 Env i ronmen t a l Fac tors e
1 .1 Gene r a l Tempe r a t ur e
1 . 2 Des i gn Ob j ec t i ves Prec i p i t a t i on 06
Appropr i a t eness W i nd
Response to Se t t i ng L i ght r
2. 0 Des i gn De t e rm i nan t s No i se
2 .1 Cu l tura l Fac tors 2 . 4 Ope ra t i ona l Fac tors .
Soc i a l Con t ex t Human Body D i mens i ons and C
r
Po l i t i ca l Con t ex t Movemen t
2 . 2 Phys i ca l Fac tors Regu l a tory St andards
C l i ma t e 3 . 0 Des i gn Cons i de ra t i ons
Phys i ography 3 .1 Se l ec t i on Process
Bu i l t Env i ronmen t 3 . 2 Des i gn E l emen t s N
Re f e rences
 510 - 2

1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON
1 .1 Genera l
l ements p l aced in a l andscape or

E st reetscape for comfor t , conven i ence ,

informat ion, c i rculat ion cont rol , pro-
tect ion, and user en j oyment are col lect ive ly
refer red to as si te furni ture (F igure 510-1) .
Benches , bol lards, s ignage , l ight ing, t ree
grates, and ut i l i ty boxes are but a f ew
examp l es . The i r des ign and p l acement
requi re careful cons iderat ion, invol v ing sev-
era l factors, each of wh i ch is descr ibed in
this sect ion .
Many of the same types of furni shings
are a lso used for simi lar reasons in spec ia l
l andscapes, such as inter iors or roof decks .
(Refer to Sect ions 620 : Inter ior Landscapes ,
and 610: Roof and Deck Landscapes , for
more informat ion .)
1 .2 Des i gn Ob j ec t i ves F i gure 510-1 . The l arger se t t i ng prov i des the cont ex t of s i te furn i ture .

Appropr i a teness :
Appropr i ateness is a ma j or obj ect i ve in the
des ign and p l acement of si te furni ture e le-
ments . It is i mpor tant to respond to the
character of a si te as we l l as i ts exist ing and
proposed funct ions (F igures 510-2 and
510-3) .
Response to Set t i ng:
Des i gn shou ld respond to the essent i a l
ident i ty or inherent character of a pl ace .
Successful , last ing des ign wi l l f l ow out of i ts
set t ing, cont inua l l y respond i ng to the
needs of i ts users, mee t i ng funct iona l
requ i rements , and adapt i ng to the env i ron-
menta l st resses af fect ing it.

2 .0 DES I GN DETERM I NANTS

(A
Set t ings shou ld be ana l yzed in terms of
both cul tura l and phys i ca l factors . F i gure 510-2 . Si te cont ext : Informa l charac t er.
r
Cul tura l factors inc lude : Inat tent ion to the cul tura l habi ts and
a 2 .1 Cu l tura l Fac tors
1 . Soc i a l context des i res of par t i cul ar groups and the use of
Soc i a l Context : i mproper e l ements can foster negat i ve
2 . Pol i t ical context react ion in a ne i ghborhood . The use of
At tent ion to both the ex i st ing and pro- themes or vernacu l ar forms wh i ch have no
Physi ca l factors inc lude : posed l arge-sca l e social set t ing wi l l indi cate
i local cul tura l root se l dom cont r ibute to the
1 . Cl i mate who is cur rent l y us ing the si te and who wi l l evo l v ing ident i ty of a pl ace .
l ikely use the si te in the future . The manner
nr 2 . Natura l phys i ography in wh i ch the si te is be i ng used requi res Some ethn i c groups , for instance, have
3 . The ex i st ing bui l t env i ronment careful invest igat ion (F igure 510-4) . need for spec ia l types of si te furni ture
appropr i ate to par t i cul ar act ivi t ies. F ind ing
Each of these factors is descr ibed be l ow. The t radi t ions and habi ts of par t i cul ar wha t is needed is not on l y a bas i c respons i -
e user groups prov i de a basis for un i que
bi l i ty of the des igner , but of ten opens up an
N des ign depar tures that can enl i ven the set - oppor tun i ty to exp lore new des ign ideas .
t ing as a who l e , wh i l e at the same t ime
serv ing spec i f ic needs . This can be ref l ected
both in si te organ i zat ion as a who l e and the
des ign of indi v idua l e l ements themse l ves .
 S10 - 3
Po l i t i ca l Con t ex t :

Des i gn i deas wi l l evo l ve f rom though t fu l

exam i na t i on of the na tura l , bui l t , and soc i a l
se t t i ng , bu t a comp l ex and cont rad i c t i ng
ar ray of adm i n i s t ra t i ve , opera t i ona l , regu l a-
tory , and l ega l i ssues can comprom i se a
des i gn (F i gure 510-5) . Des i gn i ng so l e l y to
mee t these regu l a t i ons of t en produces
no th i ng of present or endur i ng va l ue . Th i s
is par t i cu l ar l y t rue regard i ng the des i gn and
p l acemen t of furn i ture in pub l i c spaces
whe r e a grea t numbe r of func t i ona l , v i sua l ,
and regu l a tory f ac tors co i nc i de .

The na ture of t he se t t i ng , whe t he r a

pub l i c square or a corpora t e cour t yard ,
i mp l i es ma j or d i f f erences in the cho i ce of
des i gn e l emen t s . Pub l i c st ree ts and spaces
are suscept i b l e to i nc i dences of vanda l i sm,
and are a l so per i od i ca l l y abandoned by rev-
F i gur e 510 -3 . S i t e con t ex t : Forma l cha r ac t e r .
enue -s t a rved l oca l gove rnmen t s . Last l y ,
i ssues of l ong- t erm ma i n t enance , pub l i c
sa f e ty , and c i rcu l a t i on cont ro l requ i re care- F i gure 510-8 i l lust rates the typ i ca l m i x o f
uses and se t t i ngs to wh i ch furn i sh i ng sys-
fu l cons i dera t i on .
t ems mus t re l ate .
2 . 2 Phys i ca l Fac t ors
Furn i ture e l emen t s shou l d re f l ect the
C l i ma t e: charac t er of t he bu i l t env i ronmen t , be
i nterna l l y i nt egra t ed be t ween themse l ves ,
D i f f erent c l i ma t es and / or drama t i c season- and no t promo t e a c l ut t ered appea r ance . In
a l changes can s i gn i f i cant l y i nf l uence the any s t ree t scape , for i nst ance , e f f ec t i ve s i te
des i gn of s i te furn i ture and the consequen t furn i ture des i gn and p l acemen t can reso l ve
comf or t of the users . F i gure 510-6 shows a chaot i c scene of l i ght s t andards , park i ng
typ i ca l c l i ma t e f ac tors . A t horough under - me t ers , ma i l boxes , newspape r st ands , and
s t and i ng of the consequences of seasona l t rash recept ac l es . The re shou l d be a ba l -
var i a t i on , i nc l ud i ng bo t h advan t ages and ance be t ween the v i sua l i mpor t ance o f
d i sadvant ages , is an essent i a l prerequ i s i t e i nd i v i dua l furn i ture e l emen t s and the i r
for t he des i gn of s i te furn i sh i ngs . compa t i b i l i t y w i th i n the v i sua l con t ex t o f
the se t t i ng . I t is i mpor t an t to i ncorpora t e F i gur e 510 -4 . D i ve rs i t y o f soc i a l
Phys i ogr aphy.,
the v i stas , v i ews , and v i sua l compos i t i on o f se t t i ngs .
Par t i cu l ar l and forms , vege t a t i on , and o ther the ent i re s i te .
d i st i nc t i ve qua l i t i es wh i ch g i ve an area i ts
spec i a l reg i ona l or loca l charac t er shou l d be
r esponded to in a congruen t manne r
(F i gure 510-7) . For i ns t ance , in the Un i t ed
St a t es the bu i l d i ng vernacu l ar of the Rocky 1 . The cu l tura l t rad i t i ons and hab i ts of par t i cu l ar user groups prov i de a bas i s for tA
un i que des i gn depar tures tha t can en l i ven the set t i ng as a who l e . Simi l ar l y, i na t ten-
e
r
Moun t a i ns is d i st i nct l y d i f f erent f rom tha t
o f t he Appa l ach i an H i gh l ands . Spec i a l t ion to these hab i ts and des i res can foster nega t i ve reac t i on in a ne i ghborhood .
a t t ent i on shou l d be g i ven to exam i n i ng
loca l l andscapes and ma t er i a l s be fore t rans-
2 . Des i gn mus t ba l ance the thought fu l exam i na t i on of the natura l , bui l t , and soc i a l e
set t ing, w i th regu l a tory concerns and po l i t i ca l l y-charged i ssues of ma i n t enance and
l at i ng progr am requ i remen t s i nto bu i l t e l e-
sa fety .
men t s .

Bu i l t Env i ronmen t : 3 . Par t i cu l ar l andforms , vege t a t i on , v i stas, and other d i st inct i ve qua l i t i es tha t g i ve an r
area i ts spec i a l charac t er shou l d be cons i dered in the se l ect i on, des i gn and p l ace-
Si te furn i sh i ngs can s t reng then the l ink men t of s i te furn i sh i ngs.
r
n
r
be t ween a deve l opmen t and i ts sur round-
ings , can persona l i ze the se t t i ng , and can 4 . Furn i ture e l ement s shou l d ref l ect the charac t er of the bu i l t env i ronment , be interna l - u
enhance the pos i t i ve aspec t s of the sur - ly i nt egra t ed be t ween themse l ves , and not promo t e a c l ut tered appearance .
round i ng bu i l t l andscape .
l 5 . The phys i ca l d i mens i ons and movemen t character i st i cs of the human body are
A care fu l i nventory of the ex i s t i ng bu i l t essent i a l de t erm i nant s for the des i gn of s i te furn i ture . Sec t i ons 210 : Spat i a l
env i ronmen t shou l d precede dec i s i ons of St andards , and 340 : Pedest r i an Ci rcu l at ion, prov i de i nforma t i on on human d i mens i ons
sca l e , pa t t ern , co l or , sequence , age , qua l i ty , and movemen t . 1
ma t er i a l s , and cons t ruc t i on de t a i l i ng .
 510 - 4
shou ld be cons idered when se l ect ing each
i tem . Consu l t wi th manufacturers to deter -
mi ne the a l l -weather va lue of var ious prod-
ucts .
Mater i a l s used in cold c l imates shou ld not
become br i t t le when cold, espec i a l l y in
locat ions where they may be st ressed by
norma l use . Mos t cast meta l s and some
k inds of plast ics shou l d be careful ly ana-
l yzed before be i ng used in cold c l imates .
Fasteners and joints shou ld a lso be abl e to
wi thstand st resses caused by expans i on
and cont ract ion of the mater i a l s .
Prec i p i t a t i on:

Ra in : In reg ions subj ect to ra in and/or

snowfa l l , some of the si te furni ture used for
si t t ing shou ld be p l aced in she l tered loca-
t ions .
Benches shou ld dra in we l l ; they cou ld be
F i gure 510-5 . D i vers i ty of regu l a tory s t andards . const ructed of nonabsorpt i ve mater i a l s to
promot e rapid dry ing . They shou ld a lso be
located to take advantage of the warm i ng
ef fects of sunl ight . Mater i a l s se l ected for
use in hum i d c l imates shou ld be natura l l y
decay and fungus- res i stant , or spec i a l ly
t reated to mi n i mi ze mi l dew, rot , and conse-
quent sta ining .
Snow : Logi ca l p l acement of si te furni ture in
areas of high snowfa l l wi l l depend on the
me thods to be used for snow remova l .
Areas where snow is t rapped or stockpi l ed
shou ld be ident i f ied before locat ing furni -
ture to avo id damage f rom snow remova l
equ i pment . Maneuver i ng space and c l ear -
ances shou ld be prov i ded so that ma j or
pedest r i an ways can rema i n open to al l
essent i a l access points .
Adequa t e dra i nage is essent i a l for car ry-
ing of f snowme l t and prevent ing ice forma-
t ion . Furni ture shou ld be located where
winter sunl ight can he lp to me l t the snow.
F i gure 510-6 . C l i ma t i c f ac tors . F i gure 510-7 . Phys i ograph i c f ac tors .
e
r W i nd :
2 .3 Env i ronment a l Fac tors Benches , handl es, and handra i l s exposed
a to ful l sunl ight shou ld be nonmeta l l i c Si te furni ture (benches , tables, etc .) shou ld
e Indi v idua l si te furni ture e l ements shou ld and/or l ight in color to rema i n comfor tab l e be located to mi n i mi ze any negat i ve gust -
mee t the fo l lowing env i ronmenta l cr i ter ia to the touch . ing i mpacts upon users in areas subj ect to
(F igure 510-9) . st rong preva i l ing w i nds . Pat terns of snow
Co l d : Si te furni ture shou ld be p l aced to dr i f t ing shou ld be studi ed to mi n i mi ze i ts
i
Tempe ra t ure : take advant age of natura l sun t raps in coo l accumu l a t i on on furni ture .
Hea t : The c l imate of a par t i cul ar area is a wea ther regions, thereby extend i ng the
key cons iderat ion when t ry ing to de termi ne usefulness of the si te . Mater i a l s wh i ch Furni ture can be located to take advan-
n whe ther permanent , par t ial , or temporary absorb and radi ate hea t are advant ageous tage of natura l coo l ing breezes in wa rm cl i -
r
shade and gl are reduct ion measures are in co ld c l imates . Dark l y colored, smooth l y ma t es . Trees can prov i de shade and, to
needed . Furni ture e l ements , such as per - textured mater i a l s wi l l inhibi t snow and ice some extent , cont rol the movemen t of ai r.
manent benches , shou ld not be p l aced near accumu l a t i on .
L i gh t .
extens i ve areas of pav i ng or wa l l sur faces Furni ture shou ld be des i gned to mi n i mi ze
wh i ch ref lect or radi ate excess i ve amount s wa t er or ice accumu l a t i on . For some e le- Si te furni ture shou ld take advantage of the
of heat , unl ess adequate l y buf fered by ments of furni ture it may be necessary to qua l i ty and character of l ight ava i l abl e on
shade , etc . per iodi ca l ly shut down serv i ce on the si te or the si te .
total lv remove the furni ture . Such factors
 51 O - 5

The se l ec t i on and des i gn of s i te fur -

n i ture shou l d t ake c l i ma t i c i ssues of
t empera ture , and prec i p i ta t i on i nto
cons i dera t i on .

1 . In hot c l i ma tes , furn i ture e l ement s

shou l d be nonme t a l l i c or l ight in
color , and p l aced away f rom sur -
f aces tha t ref l ect or rad i a te exces-
s i ve amoun t s of hea t .

2 . In coo l c l i mates , furn i ture shou l d be

dark in co lor , p l aced to t ake advan-
F i gur e 510 - 8 . Bu i l t env i ronmen t . t age of na tura l sun t raps and avo i d
areas whe re snow is stockp i l ed .

3 . In we t c l i ma tes , benches shou l d

dra i n we l l and be cons t ruc t ed of
nonabsorpt i ve ma t er i a l s to promo t e
rap i d dry i ng .

4 . Ma t er i a l s se l ec ted for use in hum i d

c l i ma t es shou l d be be natura l l y
decay and fungus- res i stant , or spe-
c i a l ly t rea ted to m i n i m i ze m i l dew ,
rot , and sta i n i ng .

t rad i c tory) than in urban pub l i c r i ghts-of -

way , whe r e the grea t es t numbe r of j ur i sd i c-
t i ona l doma i ns over l ap . For examp l e , typ i -
ca l s t andards dea l w i th requ i red l ight i nt en-
s i t i es for pedes t r i ans and veh i c l es , l ight f i x-
ture moun t i ng he i ght s , the prox i m i t y of
t rees to ut i l i ty po l es and unde rground ut i l i -
t i es, t raf f i c s i gna l i za t i on , s i gnage and con-
t rol sys t ems , i nt ersec t i on se tbacks , whee l -
F i gur e 510 -9 . Env i ronmen t a l f ac t ors . cha i r r amp grad i ent s and p l acemen t , t he
he i gh t of ma i l boxes , the w i d t h of veh i cu l ar
l anes , turn i ng radi i , curbs i de usage , and
Whe r eve r poss i b l e , m i n i m i ze the g l are 2 . 4 Ope r a t i ona l Fac t ors even the s i ze of ga rbage cans (F i gure 510-
f rom l ight f i xtures and i nt ense sun l i ght . 10) .
Human Body D i mens i ons and Movemen t :
Recogn i z i ng tha t l ight cond i t i ons change
bo t h da i l y and seasona l l y , l oca t e furn i ture
These regu l a t i ons requ i re care fu l scrut i ny L
The phys i ca l d i mens i ons and movemen t ra ther than s l av i sh adhe rence in order to u
and espec i a l l y ou t door s i gns in such a way
charac t er i s t i cs o f the human body are ach i eve a qua l i ty resu l t . The des i gner mus t a
as to m i n i m i ze the g l are caused by l ow sun
essent i a l de t erm i nan t s for the des i gn o f al l unde rs t and the purpose and ra t i ona l e for
ang l es on we t , f rost ed , or o therw i se ref l ec-
t ypes of s i te furn i ture . These common the regu l a t i on , and t hen be ab l e to inter -
t i ve sur f aces . denom i na t ors se t al l work i ng d i s t ances and pre t i ts mos t appropr i a t e app l i ca t i on and be
No i se: opera t i ona l d i mens i ons in the des i gn of fur - prepared to negot i a t e crea t i ve l y.
n i ture componen t s and the i r aggrega t e l ay- r
Si te furn i ture may be f ocused t owa rd p l eas- ou t . Sec t i ons 210 : Spa t i a l St andards , and The vas t numbe r of of f - the-she l f com-
ant sources such as the sounds of song- ponen t s ava i l ab l e are sub j ec t to the same
340 : Pedes t r i an Ci rcu l a t i on , prov i de i nfor - n
regu l a tory cr i ter i a . In some cases , t hey may r
b i rds , ch i l dren , st ree t per formers , and t he ma t i on on human d i mens i ons and move -
l i ke . Rec i proca l l y , undes i rab l e sounds can men t . be ne i ther adap t ab l e nor appropr i a t e .
be b l ocked . Sound bar r i er wa l l s , ear th
G~
mounds , and o ther t echn i ques o f no i se Regu l a t ory St anda rds:
cont ro l shou l d be cons i dered . (Re f er to
S i te furn i ture mus t a l so con f orm to a hos t
Sec t i on 660 : Sound Cont ro l , for mor e i nfor - o f regu l a tory s t andards i mposed by mun i c -
ma t i on .) ipa l , st a t e , and f edera l gove rnmen t s .
Nowhe r e are these mor e pro fuse (and con-
 510- 6
p l es . D i agr ams and no t es i l l ust rat i ng s i te
concep t s are i nc l uded to fur ther a i d the
des i gner .
Appropr i a t eness is the key to the s i t i ng
and des i gn of these e l emen t s . (See 1 .2
Des i gn Ob j ec t i ves in th i s sec t i on .) On l y
a f t er care fu l i nventory and eva l ua t i on of
these cr i t i ca l des i gn ob j ec t i ves and cr i ter i a
can prope r concep t s and so l ut i ons for
p l acemen t and des i gn be made for these
e l emen t s .

REFERENCES

Cerver , Franc i sco Asens i o . Wor l d of

Env i ronmen t a l Des i gn E l emen t s of
Landscape , Barce l ona , Spa i n , 1995.
Ha l pr i n , Lawr ence . Ci t i es , M I T Press ,
Cambr i dge , MA , 1972 .
PLAE , Inc. Un i versa l Access to Ou t door
Recrea t i on : A Des i gn Gu i de , Berke l ey , CA ,
1993 .
Sea t t l e Ar t s Comm i ss i on . F i e l d Gu i de to
F i gur e 510 - 10 . Regu l a t or y S t anda rds . Sea t t l e ' s Pub l i c Ar t , 1991 .
Ser ra , Joseph M . Urban E l ement s , Furn i ture
and M i cro-Arch i t ec ture , Gus t avo Gi l i ,
Barce l ona , Spa i n , 1996 .
St a t e o f Wash i ng t on . Access i b i l i ty Des i gn
for Al l : An I l l ust rated Handbook , 1996.
Why t e , W i l l i am H. The Soc i a l Li fe of Sma l l
Urban Spaces , 1980.

0
e
r
F i gur e 510 -11 . Se l ec t i on process d i agr am .

3 . 0 DES I GN CONS I DERAT I ONS Key f ac tors in the process of e i ther

se l ec t i ng r eady -made or cus t om des i gn i ng
e l emen t s are : (1) ava i l ab i l i ty o f each un i t ,
3 .1 Se l ec t i on Process
(2) ma i n t enance requ i rement s , (3) ini t ia l
3 F i gure 510-11 i l l ust rates how s i te furn i ture and l i f e t i me costs , and (4) whe t he r the
and f ea tures can be se l ec t ed by care fu l so l ut i on wi l l be cons i s t ent w i th the overa l l
n eva l ua t i on of s t a t ed s i te ob j ec t i ves and use des i gn of the pro j ec t .
r
cr i ter i a .
3 .2 Des i gn E l emen t s
These ob j ec t i ves and needs are ma t ched
w i t h a range of a l t erna t i ves , such as The ca t egor i es of des i gn e l emen t s , umma -
whe t he r t o se l ec t the e l emen t s f rom ex i st - r i zed in F i gures 510-12 t hrough 510-20
i ng r eady -made sources , make mod i f i ca - i l lust rate a range of des i gns , ma t er i a l s , and
t i ons to such manu f ac t ur ed des i gns , or uses of s i te furn i ture for var i ous purposes .
These f i gures show bas i c componen t s of
1 deve l op a new des i gn .
each e l ement , a l ong w i th gener i c exam-
 510-7

a
e

.
C
r

1
F i gu r e 510 - 12 . Sea t i ng .
 510-8

u,
r
a

F i gur e 510 - 13 . She l t e r .

 510 - 9

.C
r

F i gur e 510 - 14 . Conven i ence e l emen t s .

 510 - 10

S
r

r
u

"n
r

F i gur e 510 - 15 . I n f orma t i on .

 510 - 11

F i gur e 510 - 16 . L i gh t i ng .
 510 - 1 2

. c

O
qvm
F i gur e 510 - 17 . Tra f f i c con t ro l and pro t ec t i on .
 510 - 1 3

o6

. c

O
F i gur e 510 - 18 . Ut i l i t i es .
 510 - 14

.n
r

1 F i gur e 510 - 20 . Spec i a l f ea t ur es .

 SECT I ON I

Rec rea t i ona l and

Ath l e t i c Fac i l i t i es

. .
Con t r i bu tors :
James D. Me r t es , Ph . D .
Depa r t men t of Pa rk , Rec rea t i on and
Tour i sm Resour ces
M i ch i gan St a t e Un i vers i t y
Eas t Lans i ng , M i ch i gan

Pro f essor Gay l an Rasmussen , BLA , MLA

Depa r t men t of Pa rk , Rec rea t i on and
Tour i sm Resour ces
M i ch i gan St a t e Un i vers i t y
Eas t Lans i ng , M i ch i gan

Kay Hu t mache r , ASLA

F resno , Ca l i forn i a

Gene Schr i cke l , Ter ry Cheek ,

and V i c tor Bax t e r
Schr i cke l , Ro l l i ns and Assoc i a t es S
Ar l i ng ton , Texas Mon t y L . Chr i s t i ansen ,
Assoc i a t e Prof essor ,
Techn i ca l Wr i t e r :
Depa r t men t o f Rec rea t i on and Pa rks r
Je f f rey D . B l ankensh i p
Pennsy l van i a St a t e Un i vers i t y c
Resea rch Ass i s t ant s : Un i vers i t y Park , Pennsy l van i a
Robe r t B. Ru t h
E . Br i an Br i s t ow
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

s
Rev i ewe rs :
Kev i n A. Ne l son , Ph . D. Cand i da t e The au t hors wou l d l i ke t o acknow l edge

a
Depa r t men t o f Parks , t he a i d and i ns i ght prov i ded by M r . Ern i e
Rec rea t i on and Tour i sm Ra l s ton , l andscape arch i t ec t , Ma rsha l l ,
M i ch i gan St a t e Un i vers i t y Mak l i n , Monaghan L i m i t ed , Edmon t on ,
Eas t Lans i ng , M i ch i gan A l be r t a; and M r . Ga r re t t Gi l l , Depa r t men t
o f Pa rk Adm i n i s t ra t i on and Landscape
Pro f essor Eme r i t us Lou i s F. Twa rdz i k Arch i t ec ture , Texas Tech Un i vers i t y , n
Depa r t men t o f Parks , Lubbock , Texas ; and Dav i d G i l l
Rec rea t i on and Tour i sm Corpor a t i on (go l f course arch i t ec t ) , St .
M i ch i gan St a t e Un i vers i t y Char l es , I l l ino i s .
Eas t Lans i ng , M i ch i gan r

A l be r t J . Ru t l edge , Pro f essor & Cha i rma r

Depa r t men t o f Landscape Arch i t ec ture
I owa St a t e Un i vers i t y
Ames , I owa
N
 520 - 2

CONTENTS
1 . 0 Int roduc t i on Wad i ng Poo l s 9 .2 RV Camp i ng
1 .1 Trends in Recrea t i ona l Or i en t a t i on 6. 5 F i sh i ng 9 .3 Ind i v i dua l Camps i t es
1 .2 St anda rds 6. 6 Access i b l e Sw i mm i ng , F i sh i ng , and 9 .4 P i cn i c Areas
1 .3 Gene ra l Concep t s i n Fac i l i ty Des i gn Boa t i ng 10 . 0 Range Spor t s
Sa f e t y and Secur i ty Sw i mm i ng Poo l s 10.1 R i f l e and P i sto l Range
Prov i s i on for E l der l y and Hand i capped Beaches Gene ra l In forma t i on
Use rs F i sh i ng and Boa t i ng Range D i s t ances
Ma i n t enance , Opera t i ons , and 6. 7 Wa t er -sk i i ng 10 . 2 Ar che ry
Inspec t i ons 6. 8 Cr ew 10 . 3 Dr i v i ng Ranges (Go l f )
Pa rk i ng 7 .0 W i n t e r Spor t s Ac t i v i t i es 11 .0 Spec t a tor Fac i l i t i es
S i gnage 7. 1 Snowmob i l mg 11 .1 Counc i l R i ngs
2 .0 Cour t Games 7. 2 Cross -Coun t ry (Nord i c) Sk i i ng 11 . 2 Amph i t hea t e rs
2.1 Gene r a l 7 .3 Downh i l l (A l p i ne) Sk i i ng Sma l l Amph i t hea t e rs
2. 2 Bas i c D i mens i ons Gene ra l Ma j or Ou t door Thea t ers
3 .0 F i e l d Spor t s Ma j or Cons i dera t i ons 11 . 3 Spor t s St ad i ums
4 .0 Track and F i e l d 7 .4 I ce Ska t i ng Gene ra l
4.1 Gene r a l 7 .5 I ce Boa t i ng Spa t i a l St anda rds
4. 2 Bas i c D i mens i ons 7 . 6 Toboggan , S l edd i ng , and Tub i ng 12 .0 Spec i a l Areas
4. 3 Or i en t a t i on 7 . 7 Bobs l ed and Luge 12 .1 Danc i ng
4. 4 Gr ad i ng Requ i r emen t s 8. 0 Spec i a l Courses and Areas 12 .2 Box i ng
4. 5 Cons t ruc t i on Ma t er i a l s 8 .1 Go l f 12 .3 Wres t l i ng
4. 6 Typ i ca l Syn the t i c Track Cons t ruc t i on The Si te 12 .4 Tab l e Games
Ins i de Curb The Course Checke rs / Chess
F i e l d Even t s The Var i a t i ons Tab l e Tenn i s (P i ng-Pong)
5 .0 Mu l t i purpose Ath l e t i c F i e l d Comp l exes 8. 2 Eques t r i an Fac i l i t i es 13 . 0 Tot Lots and P l aygrounds
5 .1 Gene r a l Si te Cr i ter i a 13 .1 Gene r a l
Advan t ages of Mu l t i purpose Des i gn Cr i ter i a Sa f e t y Measur es
Comp l exes 8. 3 In- l i ne Ska t i ng Inspec t i ons
D i sadvan t ages of Mu l t i purpose 8. 4 Ska t eboa rd Pa rks D i mens i ons
Comp l exes 8. 5 Jogg i ng Pa t hs 13 .2 Adven t ur e P l aygrounds
5 .2 Des i gn Cons i dera t i ons 8. 6 Exerc i se Courses 13 .3 Commun i t y -Bu i l t P l aygrounds
6 . 0 Wa t e r -Based Fac i l i t i es 8. 7 Rock C l i mb i ng Wa l l s Recrea t i on and Spor t s Organ i za t i ons
6 .1 Docks 8. 8 Na t ure Tra i l s Re f e rences
6 . 2 Launch Fac i l i t i es 9 .0 Camp i ng and P i cn i ck i ng
6 .3 Sw i mm i ng Beaches 9.1 Organ i zed Camp i ng
Gene ra l De f i n i t i ons
Spa t i a l St anda rds Des i gn
6. 4 Sw i mm i ng Poo l s Spa t i a l St anda rds
Gene ra l Ame r i can Camp i ng Assoc i a t i on
Spa t i a l St anda rds St anda rds

s t a ture , and l eve l o f sk i l l . A vas t , a l mos t f orms o f ou t door rec rea t i on . Th i s repre -
e
1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON
end l ess a r ray o f new ac t i v i t i es , equ i pmen t , sen t s 189 m i l l i on par t i c i pan t s na t i onw i de .

T
he s t anda rds f or recrea t i ona l and a t h- and i ns t ruc t i ona l progr ams a r e cons t an t l y Par t i c i pa t i on i n a t l eas t one ac t i v i t y rose
l et i c fac i l i t i es in th i s sec t i on r epr esen t appea r i ng . The des i gne r now has t he 13 . 4 pe r cen t s i nce 1982 - 83. Tab l e 520-1
t he s t a t e o f t he ar t as deve l oped by I n t e rne t as a resource f or t he mos t r ecen t shows t he pe r cen t ages o f Ame r i cans who
agenc i es , organ i za t i ons , manu f ac t ur e r s , i n f orma t i on r ega rd i ng any spor t or recre - par t i c i pa t ed in ou t door rec rea t i on ac t i v i t i es ,
c and va r i ous i nt eres t groups . a t i on ac t i v i t y or f ac i l i ty unde r cons i de ra - common t o t wo surveys , i n 1982 and
t i on . 1994 .
By de f i n i t i on , rec rea t i on represen t s any
t ra t i ona l human ac t i v i t y t ha t resu l t s i n a 1 . 1 Tr ends i n Rec r ea t i ona l 1 . 2 S t anda r ds
p l easur ab l e r esponse , a t any t i me , p l ace or O r i en t a t i on
Q c i r cums t ance , w i t h a t t endan t enr i ch i ng The s t anda rds f or rec rea t i ona l and a th l e t i c
phys i ca l , i nt e l l ec tua l , or emo t i ona l bene f i t s , In Nor t h Ame r i ca , t he r e is an emphas i s on f ac i l i t i es a r e expr essed i n many ways . Th i s
w i t h i n t he cons t ra i n t s o f i nd i v i dua l mora l i t y deve l opmen t o f c i ty , coun t y , s t a t e and sec t i on desc r i bes t he des i gn s t anda rds
and / o r soc i a l accep t ab i l i t y (Doe l l and reg i ona l pa r ks . Fam i l y -or i en t ed ac t i v i t i es es t ab l i shed f or many ac t i v i t i es . These s t an-
n
Twa rdz i k , E l emen t s o f Pa r k and Rec r ea t i on w i t h i n t hese fac i l i t i es con t i nue t o be o f da rds a re comp i l ed f rom nume rous sour ces
O
Adm i n i s t r a t i on) . Par t i c i pa t i on in rec rea t i on- pr i me i mpor t ance . and r ange f rom r i g i d d i mens i ons requ i red
a l and a th l e t i c ac t i v i t i es i nvo l ves v i r tua l l y f or regu l a t i on p l ay t o sugges t i ons de r i ved
The i n t roduc t i on o f new equ i pmen t and f rom expe r i ence . Adhe r ence t o s t anda rds
eve r y age g roup and segmen t o f soc i e t y
ac t i v i t i es has resu l t ed i n a gr ea t e r popu l a r -
f rom ch i l dren t o sen i or c i t i zens , i nc l ud i ng assur es con t i nu i t y o f expe r i ence , rega rd l ess
e i za t i on o f spor t s ac t i v i t i es among a l l groups
t hose who a re i nf i rm, i nca rce ra t ed , or phys - o f l oca t i on . Conve rse l y , t he des i gne r needs
and ages . A 1997 s t udy , Ou t doo r
t o be sens i t i ve t o necessa r y ad j us t men t s in
i ca l l y and / o r men t a l l y hand i capped .
Rec r ea t i on in t he Un i t ed St a t es r epor t ed s t anda rds as demanded by t he l oca l cond i -
Phys i ca l ac t i v i t i es go beyond exe rc i se and
t ha t i n 1994-95 , 94 . 5 pe r cen t o f Ame r i cans
a th l e t i c progr ams f or you t h and pro f ess i on- t i ons , budge t , and c l i ent .
N par t i c i pa t ed in a t l eas t one o f t he sur veyed
a l t eams t o emb r ace eve r y i nt eres t , phys i ca l
 520- 3
percept i ons shou l d be ab l e to ga i n access to
Tab l e 520-1 . POPULAR I TY OF OUTDOOR RECREAT I ON ACT I V I T I ES . recrea t i ona l fac i l i t i es . The pr i mary concerns
of the des i gner w i th regard to hand i capped
users are access , mob i l i t y , and sa f e t y .
I n f orma t i on on comp l i ance w i t h t he
Ame r i cans W i t h D i sab i l i t i es Ac t is ava i l ab l e
f rom t he Boa rd of Arch i t ec ture Comp l i ance ,
the U .S . Depa r t men t of Just i ce and the
Na t i ona l Park Serv i ce (Re f er to Sec t i on 240 :
Ou t door Access i b i l i ty for mor e i n forma -
t i on .)
The Re f erences at the end o f th i s sec t i on
prov i de mor e de t a i l ed i n forma t i on on the
des i gn o f spec i a l i zed recrea t i ona l fac i l i t i es .

Ma i n t enance , Ope ra t i ons and

Inspec t i ons :

The da i l y opera t i ons and ma i n t enance of

fac i l i t i es are cr i t i ca l to user sa t i s f ac t i on . The
ma i n t enance adm i n i s t ra t i on can be cent ra l -
i zed or decent ra l i zed , depend i ng upon the
s i ze , charac t er , l oca t i on , and use l eve l of
the fac i l i t i es .
Ma i n t enance fac i l i t i es usua l l y i nc l ude :
adm i n i s t ra t i ve headquar t ers , shop and cov -
ered s torage , open-a i r or bu l k s torage ,
ga rage and / or serv i ce park i ng , and some -
t i mes gr eenhouses and nursery space .
These areas are bes t l oca t ed ou t of v i ew
bu t shou l d rema i n eas i l y access i b l e by
mo t or veh i c l es . Ope ra t i ons fac i l i t i es may in
some i ns t ances have an i nt erpre t i ve and / or
educa t i ona l va l ue , as for examp l e t he
k i t chen and ve t er i nary fac i l i t i es in a zoo . In
th i s case , cont ro l l ed pub l i c access may be
sough t or at l east perm i t t ed .

Inspec t i ons may be made on a f requen t

bas i s (up to four t i mes a year ) depend i ng 4A
on the t ype of fac i l i ty, na ture of use , and
loca l , state , or f edera l regu l a tory or i nsur -
ance car r i er requ i remen t s . I t ems such as .
û
p l ayground equ i pmen t , t enn i s cour ts , b i cy-
c l e t ra i l s and pa ths , or mechan i ca l equ i p-
men t shou l d be i nspec t ed on a f requen t c
bas i s .
_W
Pa rk i ng: t

St andards for park i ng vary w i th each t ype Q

of act i v i ty. In Nor t h Ame r i ca i t is common 06
1 . 3 Gene r a l Concep t s in Fac i l i t y des i gner and adm i n i s t ra tor . U l t i ma t e l y , user prac t i ce to prov i de one park i ng space for
Des i gn sa t i s f ac t i on w i th a fac i l i ty is re l a t ed to how every three users . Park i ng areas for fac i l i t i es a
sa f e and secure the users f ee l . St ra t eg i es for n
The purpose of th i s sec t i on is to prov i de tha t some t i mes a t t rac t l arge crowds , such
d i scourag i ng vanda l i sm and i ncreas i ng O
as schoo l s , spor t s comp l exes , and spor t s
s t andards for the deve l opmen t of ou t door secur i t y mus t be i ncorpora t ed i nto the s t ad i ums can a l so be served by mor e f l ex i -
recrea t i ona l fac i l i t i es . I t is i mpor t an t to con- p l ann i ng , des i gn , cons t ruc t i on , opera t i on , b l e a r r angemen t s . An over f l ow park i ng lot i
s i der the fo l l ow i ng f ac tors as they re l ate to
al l t ypes of fac i l i t i es .
and ma i n t enance of a fac i l i ty. can be des i gned to accommoda t e o ther c
act i v i t i es , such as baske tba l l or tenn i s ,
Prov i s i on for E l der l y and Hand i capped
Sa f e t y and Secur i t y : when park i ng demand is l ow . Large park i ng
Use rs:
lots howeve r i ncrease ma i n t enance cos t s
Use r sa f e t y and secur i ty for each act i v i ty a l ong w i th i ncreased l i abi l i ty when l arge
shou l d be pa r amoun t conce rns o f the
Any persons w i th t empora ry or pe rmanen t
l i mi t a t i ons of the i r mo t or act i v i ty or sense expanses of pavemen t are used as t empo-
N
 520 - 4

F i gur e 520 -1 . Ma j o r t ypes o f s i gns .

F i gur e 520 -3 . Handba l l / r acque t ba l l .

rary mu l t i p l e use cour t s . Increas i ng use o f 2 . 0 COURT GAMES 3 . 0 F I ELD SPORTS

park i ng lots for rol l er hockey ra i ses ma i n t e -
nance and l i abi l i ty conce rns . 2 .1 Gene r a l F i e l d spor t s i nc l ude any act i v i t i es p l ayed ,
S i gnage : pre f erab l y , on sof t ( tur f ) sur f aces . As d i s-
Cour t games are spor t s p l ayed pr i mar i l y on
ha rd sur f aces ra ther t han on tur f . The s t an- cussed for cour t games , the s t andards
S i gnage shou l d be coord i na t ed t o prov i de da rds for cour t s vary , depend i ng on g i ven here for f i e ld spor t s are to be cons i d-
essent i a l i n forma t i on w i th i n a cons i s t ent ered des i rab l e . D i mens i ons for compe t i t i on
whe t he r compe t i t i on is unde r t he ausp i ces
graph i c f r amewor k . As i l l ust rated by F i gure qua l i ty f i e l ds shou l d be ver i f i ed w i th t he
S of i nt erna t i ona l , na t i ona l , co l l eg i a te , or
520-1 , there are four ca t egor i es of s i gns : gove rn i ng organ i za t i on . In some cases
h i gh schoo l soc i e t i es . The organ i za t i ons
+-ri re f er red t o mos t ex t ens i ve l y in th i s sec t i on (soccer , for i ns t ance , whe r e prec i se st an-
are the Na t i ona l Federa t i on of St a t e H i gh dards have no t been es t ab l i shed) a range o f
. t~ 1 . In forma t i ona l : these s i gns con t a i n d i mens i ons is shown . Adequa t e sur f ace and
Schoo l Ath l e t i c Assoc i a t i ons , t he
graph i c and / or wr i t t en i n forma t i on subsur f ace dra i nage is very i mpor t an t . The
Int erna t i ona l Ama t eur Ath l e t i c Federa t i on
i n t ended to enhance the use and t ype of tur f used shou l d be s turdy and non-
c ( IAAF ) and t he Na t i ona l Co l l eg i a t e Ath l e t i c
en j oymen t of a s i te . s to l on i f erous i f shoes w i th c l eats are to be
Assoc i a t i on (NCAA) . For compe t i t i on-qua l -
2 . Ident i f i ca t i on : these s i gns are used for i ty cour t des i gn , cont ac t t he organ i za t i on used . Whe r e t empora ry b l eachers are to be
Z used , a l l ow a w i d th of 18 000-27 000 mm

a
ent rances and i dent i f y i ng i nd i v i dua l se t t i ng the ru l es and s t andards . Ma j or
fac i l i t i es . organ i za t i ons in the Un i t ed St a t es are l i sted (60-90 f t ) be t ween the s i de l i nes and t he
p l ay i ng f i e l ds (F i gure 520-11 and Tab l e
a t the end of th i s sec t i on unde r Recrea t i on
06 3 . D i rec t i ona l : these s i gns channe l the 520-3) .
and Spor t s Organ i za t i ons .
f l ow of v i s i tors /users . They shou l d be
c+d
s i mp l e and shou l d be p l aced in l oca-
n 2 . 2 Bas i c D i mens i ons 4 . 0 TRACK AND F I ELD
O t i ons appropr i a t e to the speed o f the
user . Some fac i l i t i es are prov i ded pr i mar i l y for 4 .1 Gene r a l
a popu l ar en j oymen t ; there fore , the i r d i men-
O 4 . Regu l a tory : these i nc l ude speed l imi ts,
r s i ons can be changed to f i t t he s i te , c l i ent , The des i gn of comb i ned t rack and f i e ld
c proh i b i t ed behav i ors , and o ther ru l es
and / or budge t . The s t andards shown in fac i l i t i es depends upon the age group and
O as needed . Th i s i n forma t i on shou l d be
F i gures 520-2 t hrough 520-10 and Tab l e c l ass of a th l e t es us i ng the fac i l i t i es . The r e
presen t ed in a pos i t i ve way .

0
520-2 shou l d there f ore be cons i de red are f ew spec i f i cs in t e rms of overa l l t rack
des i rab l e ra ther t han manda t ory . and f i e ld l ayout s . The d i mens i ons and spec-
N i f i cat i ons presen t ed here (F i gures 520-12
t hrough 520-32) are on l y gu i de l i nes and
 520 - 5

F i gur e 520 - 4 . Baske t ba l l . F i gur e 520 -5 . Vo l l eyba l l .

e
+t

c
iri
s
Q

c
0
a
e
r
c
IY
F i gur e 520 - 6 . Tenn i s and P l a t f orm t enn i s. F i gur e 520 - 7 . Shu f f l eboa rd .
0
N
 520 - 6

F i gur e 520 -8 . Padd l e t enn i s . F i gur e 520 - 9 . Deck t enn i s . F i gur e 520 - 10 . Goa l - i n .

shou l d be checked aga i ns t t he s t andards

es t ab l i shed by the appropr i a t e gove rn i ng
organ i za t i on .

4 . 2 Bas i c D i mens i ons

Accord i ng to the s t andards pub l i shed in t he

Un i t ed St a t es by t he NCAA , a champ i -
onsh i p t rack sha l l be a t l east 400 m (440
yds) in l ength , w i th un i f orm st ra i ghts and
F i gur e 520 -11 . Dr a i nage a l t e rna t i ves f or f i e l ds .
curves . The t rack w i d t h shou l d be a mi n i -
mum of s i x l anes , a l t hough t racks for l arge
mee t s o f t en have e i ght l anes , and a f ew W i t h i n the c i rc l es for t hrow i ng even t s there 4 . 6 Typ i ca l Syn t he t i c Tr ack
t racks have mor e . The l ane w i d t h var i es
shou l d be a s l ope of no mor e t han 0 .1 per - Cons t ruc t i on
f rom 900 to 1 200 mm (36 to 48 in) . Many cent (1 : 1000) in the t hrow i ng d i rec t i on .
h i gh schoo l s have 900 mm (36 in) l anes , Ins i de Curb:
espec i a l l y for prac t i ce t racks . On wor l d 4 . 5 Cons t ruc t i on Ma t e r i a l s
c l ass t racks , 1 200 mm (48 in) l anes are Bo t h the NCAA and the IAFF requ i re a curb
a pre f er red , bu t the mos t common l ane Tracks shou l d be cons t ruc t ed of ma t er i a l s 50 mm (2 in) h i gh a l ong the i nner edge of
w i d t h is 1 050 mm (42 in) . tha t wi l l crea t e a un i form, smoo t h , safe , an ova l t rack . The a l l owab l e m i n i mum curb
c and comf or t ab l e runn i ng sur f ace . w i d th is 50 mm (2 in) for t he I AFF and 150
Cons t ruc t i on me t hods t end to vary accord- mm (6 in) for the NCAA. O f t en , a r emov -

s
4 . 3 Or i en t a t i on
i ng to l oca l cons t ruc t i on prac t i ces and in ab l e a l um i num curb is used ; Ame r i can and
Or i ent a t i on is no t as v i ta l a conce rn in t rack response to spec i f i c soi l cond i t i ons .
a l ayout as i t is for f i e ld even t s . A nor th-sou th
or i ent a t i on a l ong the l eng th of the st ra i ght -
way is pre f er red . Fac tors such as space con-
st ra i nts , grad i ng , and preva i l i ng w i nds
o f t en a l ter the or i ent a t i on s l i ght l y . 1 . Accord i ng to the s t andards pub l i shed in the Un i t ed States by the NCAA , a champ i -
n onsh i p t rack sha l l be at l east 400 m (440 yds) in l ength w i th s i x to e i ght l anes at
4 . 4 Gr ad i ng Requ i r emen t s 900-1 200 mm (36-48 in) in w i dth .

e Long i tud i na l s l opes for t racks , runways , 2 . Long i tud i na l s l opes for t racks , runways , and l and i ng areas for f i e ld event s shou l d not
r exceed a max i mum of 0 .1 percent (1 : 1000) . Cross s l opes shou l d be no mor e than 1
c and l and i ng areas for f i e ld even t s shou l d
no t exceed a max i mum of 0 .1 percent percent (1 :100) or , for h i gh schoo l s , 2 percent (2 :100) .
(1 : 1000) . Cross s l opes shou l d be no mor e 3 . Both the NCAA and the IAFF requ i re a curb 50 mm (2 in) h i gh a l ong the i nner edge
t han 1 percent (1 : 100) or , for h i gh schoo l s , of an ova l t rack . Ame r i can and wor l d records wi l l not be accept ed w i thout thi s i ns i de

N 2 percen t (2 : 100) . The s l ope shou l d be

p i t ched t owa rd the i ns i de of the t rack.
curb .

Lim
 520-7

Tab l e 520 - 2 . COURT GAMES

Use a r ea r equ i r ed
i nc l ud i ng
Spo r t c l ea r zones Cou r t d i mens i ons* Or i en t a t i on Su r f ace

Badm i n t on

Doub l es 1 500 mm (5 f t ) 6 096 X 13 411 .2 mm Compe t i t i on p l ay is Any ha rd sur f ace or

c l ear zones be t ween (20 X 44 f t ) usua l l y i ndoors . tur f ; dra i n as in t enn i s .
cour t s and a t end Ou t door cour t s l ong
ax i s nor t h- sou t h .

S i ng l es Same as doub l es 5 181 .6 X 13 411 .2 mm (Same ) .

(17 X 44 f t )

Baske t ba l l

H i gh schoo l 25 603 .2 X 15 240 mm Nor t h- sou t h Conc re t e , dra i n end t o

(84 X 50 f t ) end a t 25 mm pe r 3 m
(1 i n pe r 10 f t )

Co l l ege 34 200 X 21 000 mm 28 651 .2 X 15 240 mm (Same ) (Same )

(114 X 70 f t ) (94 X 50 f t )

Int erna t i ona l 18 m X 30 m 14 000 X 26 000 mm (Same ) (Same )

Goa l -h i 18 000 X 18 000 mm t o C i r c l e -12 000 t o 18 000 mm Op t i ona l Aspha l t or syn the t i c ;
24 000 X 24 000 mm (40 t o 60 f t ) in d i ame t e r dra i n t o edges.
(60 X 60 f t t o
80 X 80 f t )

Handba l l

One wa l l 10 200 X 6 000 X 10 363 .2 X 6 096 X4 876 .8 Can be added to Any ha rd sur f ace ;
4 800 mm (34 X 20 X 16 f t ) h i gh ex t er i ors o f gym or may dra i n f rom f ron t t o rear .
(34 X 20 X be f ree s t and i ng
16 f t ) h i gh

Thr ee or f our wa l l s 12 000 X 6 000 X 12 192 X 6 096 X 6 096 mm Compe t i t i on p l ay (Same )

6 000 mm (40 X 20 X 20 f t ) h i gh norma l l y i ndoors
(40 X 20 X 20 f t ) h i gh

Racque t ba l l Same as handba l l

Shu f f l eboa rd 15 600 X 3 000 mm 15 849 .6 X 1 828 .8 mm Long ax i s nor t h- sou t h Ha rd / smoo t h conc r e t e
(52 X 10 f t ) , (52 X 6 f t ) w i t hou t expans i on j o i nt s .
i nc l ud i ng 1 200 mm A l l ey depr essed and
(4 f t ) be t ween cour t s dra i ned w i t h ca t ch bas i ns .

Tenn i s 18 000 X 36 000 mm 10 972 .8 X 23 774 .4 mm Long ax i s nor t h- sou t h is Many , i nc l ud i ng concre t e ,
(60 X 120 f t )
for one doub l es cour t .
(36 X 78 f t ) OK l ong ax i s 22 degr ees
wes t o f nor t h and eas t
c l ay , aspha l t , and tur f .
Dra i n s i de t o s i de (pre f er red) S
Mu l t i p l es can be des i gned o f sou t h is be t t er i n or end t o end a t 0 .8 to 1
w i t h 3 000 to 3 600 mm sou t he rn l a t i tudes . (nonporous ) or 0 . 003
(10 to 12 f t ) be t ween cour t s . t o 0 . 004% (porous ) .
Neve r a l l ow h i gh po i n t a t ne t c
Deck 7 800 X 15 000 mm 5 486 .4 X 12 192 mm Long ax i s nor t h- sou t h . Aspha l t or conc r e t e ; dra i n
(26 X 50 f t ) (doub l es)
[needs a 3 000 mm (10 f t )
(18 X 40 f t ) s i de t o s i de a t 25 mm
pe r 3 m (1 in pe r 10 f t ) c

s
f ence ]

Padd l e 11 100 X 24 000 mm 6 096 X 15 240 mm Long ax i s nor t h- sou t h . Same as deck t enn i s
(37 X 80 f t ) [needs (20 X 50 f t )
an 2400mm( 8 f t )
f ence ]
Q
P l a t f orm 9 000 X 18 000 mm 6 096 X 13 411 .2 mm Long ax i s nor t h- sou t h . Ra i sed l eve l wood or a l um i num
(30 X 60 f t ) [needs (20 X 44 f t ) p l a t f orm ; 5 mm (1 / 4 i n)
a 3 600 mm (12 f t ) f ence ] spac i ng be t ween 150 mm
(6 i n) deck i ng . n
Vo l l eyba l l 15 000 X 24 000 mm 9 144 X 18 288 mm Long ax i s nor t h- sou t h . Aspha l t , sand , c l ay m i x , tur f
(50 X 80 f t ) pre f e r red ; (30 X 60 f t ) ( ropes are used for ma r k i ng
(42 X 72 f t ) OK sand and tur f ) ; dra i n
r
a t 25 mm pe r 3 m
(1 i n pe r 10 f t )
c
` Al l convers i ons to me t r i c are exac t

N
 520- 8

F i gur e 520 -12 . Compa r a t i ve f i e l d s i zes o f common f i e l d spor t s .

wor l d records wi l l not be accep t ed w i t hou t

th i s i ns i de curb .

F i e l d Even t s :
F i e l d even t s may be l oca t ed on the i nter i or
of the t rack to conse rve space . Throw i ng
even t s may be moved out s i de the t rack to
a l l ow for a wa rm-up area , to accommoda t e
a footba l l f i e ld, or to prov i de for add i t i ona l
sa f e t y.

The re is no prescr i bed a r r angemen t for

tA t he var i ous fac i l i t i es . They shou l d be
e F i gur e 520 - 13 . Typ i ca l f i e l d s i zes .
a r ranged to re f l ect the oppor tun i t i es and
cons t ra i nt s crea t ed by soi l cond i t i ons , pre-
va i l i ng w i nds , and sa f e t y cons i dera t i ons .
Samp l e a r r angemen t s are shown in F i gure
520-32 .
c

s 5 . 0 MULT I PURPOSE ATHLET I C

F I ELD COMPLEXES
Q 5 .1 Gene ra l
Ath l e t i c comp l exes can t ake t he f orm of
c l over l eafs , or fourp l exes , whe r e the home
n F i gur e 520 - 14 . Hor seshoes . p l a t es of the ba l l d i amonds (sof tba l l /base-
O ba l l ) are nea r a cent ra l core and
footba l l / soccer f i e lds over l ap the out f i e l ds ,
e as shown in F i gure 520-34 . Storage , con-
r
c cess i on s t ands , l ocker rooms and res t rooms
e are of t en l oca t ed unde r t he b l eacher areas .

Advan t ages o f Mu l t i purpose Comp l exes :

The advan t ages of mu l t i purpose comp l exes

N i nc l ude common use of the same park i ng
F i gur e 520 - 15 . Quo i t s .
 520- 9

F i gure 520-16 . Roque / c roque t . F i gure 520-17 . Cr i cke t p i t ch . F i gure 520-18 . Bocce .

(A
e
+LI

S
a

n
O
a
O
c

F i gure 520-19 . Lawn bow l i ng . F i gure 520-20 . Typ i ca l t rack sec t i ons . N
 520- 1 0

F i gure 520-21 . Bas i c l ayou t : 400-me t e r t rack .

_N
t F i gure 520-23 . Sho t pu t . F i gure 520-25 . Hamme r t hrow .
Q

n
O
a

GC

N
F i gure 520-22 . Jave l i n . F i gure 520-24 . D i scus . F i gure 520-26. H i gh j ump .
 520-11
Tab l e 520 -3 . F I ELD SPORTS

Spo r t Use a r ea r equ i r ed P l ay i ng a r ea*** Or i en t a t i on D r a i nage Commen t s

Bocce 5 .7 to 7 .7 m X 74 . 6-30 .3 m 3 962 .4 to 5 791 .2 mm X Nor t h- sou t h pre f er red Dra i n in any 250 to 300 mm wooden
(19 t o 25 f t 6 in X 23 400-27 600 mm bu t no t cr i t i ca l d i rec t i on a t 1 % boa rds used a t end
82-101 f t ) (13 t o 19 f t 6 in X 78 -92 f t) and s i de as backs t ops

Bow l i ng ( l awn) 39 X 39 m (130 X 130 ft) 5 791 .2 to 6 400 .8 mm X (19 t o 21 f t X Dead l eve l - A l l eys grouped i n
36 576 mm 120 f t) a l l eys use unde rdr a i nage banks of s i x

Cr i cke t S i ze var i es , bu t a rea No of f i c i a l s i ze

gene ra l l y ova l w i t h no f or f i e l d, bu t p i t ch is
pa r t o f bounda r y c l oser 20 116 .8 X 3 048 mm
t han 70 m (75 yds) t o p i t ch (66 X 10 f t)

Croque t 3 .5 X 22 .5 m (45 X 75 ft) 12 192 X 21 336 mm Or i en t so t ha t Dra i n as in A* " a t

(40 X 70 f t) (sma l l er s i ze b l eache rs do no t a max i mum s l ope o f 2
is appropr i a t e f or f ace sun
nonr egu l a t i on p l ay)

F i e l dba l l i dent i ca l t o socce r f i e l d Ident i ca l to socce r f i e l d Ident i ca l t o socce r f i e l d i dent i ca l t o socce r f i e l d Ident i ca l to socce r f i e l d

F i e l d hockey
Women 91 440 X 45 720 mm Same as footba l l Same as footba l l
(300 X 150 f t )

Men 91 440 X 54 864 mm Same as footba l l Same as footba l l

(300 X 180 f t )

F l ag or t ouch 40 X 95 m (44 X 104 yds) 12 192 X 30 480 mm Same as footba l l Same as footba l l
footba l l (40 X 100 yd s)
[ i nc l udes t wo 9 m
(10 yd) end zones]

Foo tba l l M i n i mum 51 .6 X 48 768 X 109 728 mm Long ax i s , nor t hwes t Dra i n as in A ; B or C " '
111 .6 m (172 X 372 f t) (160 X 360 f t ) t o sou t heas t , or a re pe rm i t t ed bu t
[ i nc l ud i ng t wo 9 m nor t h- sou t h for no t pre f er red , prov i de
(10 yd) end zones] l onge r season adequa t e unde rdr a i nage

Hor seshoes 6 X 21 m (20 X 70 f t ) 3 048 X 15 240 mm Long ax i s , nor t h- sou t h Dr a i n as in " A " ; t wo end
(10 X 50 f t) pegs mus t have i dent i ca l e l eva t i on

Lac rosse
Women Bounda r i es se t by re t erce , Same as footba l l Same as footba l l
m i n i mum w i d t h 45 720 mm
(150 f t), l eng t h 109 728-
124 968 mm (360-410 f t)

Men 60 X 105 m (200 X Pre f er 54 864 X 100 584 Same as footba l l Same as footba l l
350 f t ) w i t h f ence ; mm (180 X 330 f t), bu t can
66 X 111 m (220 X be p l ayed on footba l l f i e l d
370 f t) w i t hou t f ence
S
Po l o P l ay a rea i nc l udes 91 440 X 48 768 mm
sa f e t y a r ea (300 X 160 yds) i f boa rded ;
91 440 X 60 960 mm
(300 X 200 yes) i f no t r c. i
-3 000 mm

Quo i t s A l l ow 1 500-3 000 mm 16 459 . 2-21 945 .6 mm X Same as horseshoes Same as horseshoes
(5-10 f t) a t s i de and back -3 000 mm c
bounda r i es (54-72 f t X - 10 f t)

Rogue 120 X 210 m (40 X 70 f t ) 9 144 X 18 288 mm Same as c roque t Dead l eve l ; use Sur f ace is packed ea r t h
(30 X 60 f t ) unde rground dr a i nage s
Rugby 100 .6 X 54 .9 m Same as foo tba l l Same as footba l l a
(League - (110 X 60 yds)
pro f ess i ona l ) " p l us 5 . 5-11 m
(6-12 yds) a t
each end f or i ngoa l
n
(un i on- ama t eur ) 100 .6 X 54 .9 m Same as footba l l Same as footba l l
(110 X 60 yds) p l us 22 .8 m
(25 yds) a t each end for i ngoa l

Socce r 9 m (10 yds) on a l l s i des 50 -70 m X 90 - 110 m X 100 Nor t h- sou t h , excep t Same as foo tba l l The r e a re no of f i c i a l r
f ree of obs t ruc t i ons -120 yds) 68 . 58 X 109 73 m sou t h o f 38 t h para l l e l s t anda rds for socce r c
(75 X 120 yds) for whe r e l ong ax i s may s i ze var i es even among
champ i onsh i p approach 20 degr ees O l ymp i c s i tes
wes t o f nor t h

Speedba l l
Women 54 . 86 X 91 . 44 m Same as footba l l Same as foo tba l l N
(60 X 100 yds)
t in
Men 48 . 77 X 109 . 73 m Same as footba l l Same as foo tba l l
(53 1 / 3 X 120 yds) Same as footba l l

' When not spec i f i ed, no s t andard exists, 9 m (10 yds) is r ecommended on al l s ides .
" See F i gure 520-11 .
" ' A l l convers i ons to me t r i c are exac t .
 520- 1 2

F i gure 520-27 . Po l e vau l t . F i gure 520-28 . Long j ump . F i gure 520-29 . Tr ip l e j ump .

lot for separate spor ts, the same i rr igat ion A comp l ex capab l e of accommoda t i ng four
and l ight ing systems, and use of singl e d i amonds , each w i th 90 m (300 f t) long
rather than separate t racts of l and . foul l ines, wi l l occupy a space approx i ma te-
Rest rooms , concess ions, and other com- ly 240 m X 240 m (800 f t X 800 f t) . W i th
mon suppor t faci l i t ies are concent rated for the addi t ion of park ing and buf fer areas,
more cost -ef fect i ve ma i nt enance . A cen- the comp l ex wi l l occupy approx i mate l y 7 to
t ral i zed admini st rat ion can he lp to schedu l e 8 hectares (18 to 20 acres) of relat ively
l eague and tournament pl ay. level l and and more if si ted on s loping l and .
F igures 520-33 through 520-35 show two
D i sadvant ages of Mu l t i purpose bas i c grad i ng concepts that can be used in
Comp l exes. this type of comp l ex . The f i rst concept uses
The d i sadvantages of mu l t ipurpose com- a high spot at the center wi th wa ter dra in-
e
pl exes are the amount of t raf f ic, noise, and ing of f toward al l edges , and the other cal ls
gl are f rom night l ight ing that may di sturb for a p l ane wi th a un i form s lope across the
.U nearby resident ial areas . Other d i sadvan- comp l ex . As a lways , loca l si te condi t ions
a wi l l di ctate the f inal solut ion .
tages inc lude the need for por tabl e out f i e ld
c fences dur ing champ i onsh i p or tournament
bal l games and for por tabl e goa l s dur ing 6 .0 WATER -BASED FACILITIES
footba l l or soccer pl ay. Al so, a greater
t potent i a l exists for schedu l i ng conf l i cts 6 .1 Docks F i gure 520-30 . Wa t e r j ump .
when al l four spor ts have demands dur ing
Q over l app i ng seasons . Fur thermore , not al l
Two cour tesy docks are needed for each
storage tanks underground and above the
l aunch i ng faci l i ty (F igure 520-36) . The mi n-
f ields wi l l en joy opt i mum or i entat ion . h i gh-water l ine as spec i f i ed by loca l and
i mum w i dth of al l docks is 1 800 mm (6 f t ) .
The park i ng requ i rements for a fourp l ex F inger wa l kways be tween sl ips can be as Nat iona l Fi re Protect ion Assoc i at ion (NFPA)
n comp l ex (as shown in F igure 520-34) when nar row as 750 mm (2 1/2 f t ) if they are less codes . Dumps , comfor t stat ions, and other
O than 6 000 mm (20 f t) l ong . F loat ing docks permanent st ructures shou ld a lso be con-
games are c lose ly schedu l ed is approx i - st ructed above the 100-year f lood l ine or
mate l y 250 cars . are prefer red to stat ionary ones when the
U wa ter he ight f luctuates more than 450 mm shou ld be f lood proofed .
r
c 5 .2 Des i gn Cons i dera t i ons (18 in) . At least one comfor t stat ion shou ld
e be located wi thin 120 m (400 f t) of the 6 .2 Launch Fac i l i t i es
Bal l f ields need adequa te separat ion to dock . Fi re codes re l at ing to dock areas
mi n i mi ze hazards f rom foul bal ls and to Launch l anes shou ld be at least 4 500 mm
shou ld be consu l ted . (15 f t) w i de in a mul t ipl e- l ane faci l i ty and
reduce noi se and confus i on . An opt i mum
5 400 mm (18 f t) w i de in a s ingl e- l ane faci l -
N di stance be tween the foul l ines of ad j acent A serv i ce dock or f loat is necessary to i ty (See F igure 540-37) . The prepared sur -
bal l d i amonds is 36 to 42 m (120 to 140 f t ) . supp l y fuel to outgo i ng boats . Locate fue l
 520 - 1 3

F i gur e 520 -31 . Comb i ned l ong j ump , t r i p l e j ump , and po l e vau l t .

F i gur e 520 - 32 . Schema t i c a r r angemen t o f i n f i e l d .

f ace shou l d be f i n i shed w i th a cross-scored and cons i st of sand or a soi l m i x ture hav i ng 6 . 4 Sw i mm i ng Poo l s
pa t t ern . The r amp gr ade shou l d be no sandy qua l i t i es .
s t eeper t han 12 to 15 percen t . The l owes t Genera l : S
end of t he r amp shou l d ex t end i nto the
Spa t i a l St andards: e
Sw i mm i ng poo l s can be made in a var i e ty
wa t e r to a po i nt whe r e i t wi l l be a t l east Lookou t t owe rs shou l d be prov i ded every of shapes , f rom f ree - form to T or L shapes ,
1 200 mm (4 f t ) be l ow t he l owes t wa t e r 90 m (300 f t ) . A sw i mm i ng area of 4 .6 m ' but t he bas i c des i gn of al l pub l i c and sem i -
e l eva t i on in order to prot ec t the base of the (50 f t ' ) shou l d be a l l owed for each ba ther . pub l i c poo l s shou l d be checked aga i ns t
r amp f rom wave ac t i on . The back i ng d i s- Ladders shou l d be prov i ded on a l l docks loca l hea l th codes .
t ance of a veh i c l e shou l d be l i mi t ed to 60 m w i th i n and ad j acent to sw i m areas . Docks c
(200 f t ) . The maneuve r i ng area on l and shou l d be a m i n i mum of 450 mm (18 in) Spa t i a l St andards:
shou l d be at l east 24 m (80 f t ) , and pre f er - above wa t e r l eve l (F i gure 520-38) .
ab l y 30 m (100 f t ) , in d i ame t e r . In nor thern The fo l l ow i ng s t andards are cons i dered t
typ i ca l for sw i mm i ng poo l s:
c l i ma t es , d i rec t i on of i ce f l ows in the spr i ng The s l ope of the beach t owa rd the wa t e r
Q
of the year shou l d be cons i dered when or i - shou l d be a m i n i mum of 2% and a max i -
1 . Recrea t i ona l poo l s are s i zed to a l l ow 1
en t i ng l aunch fac i l i t i es . mum of 5% . The s l ope unde r wa t e r shou l d m2 (10 f t2) of wa t e r sur f ace for eve ry
range f rom 7% to 10% , be f ree f rom rocks ,
wade r or nonsw i mme r expec t ed , and a
6 . 3 Sw i mm i ng Beaches and have no sudden changes in e l eva t i on 2 .5 mz (27 f t2 ) of sur f ace for eve ry n
or deep ho l es in the sw i mm i ng area . O
Genera l : sw i mme r .
Dur i ng ave rage per i ods of use , approx i - 2 . The area for nonsw i mme r s shou l d be
c~s
Good sw i mm i ng beaches shou l d be pro- O
ma t e l y 70% of beach users wi l l be on the r
t ec t ed f rom boa t s , fue l sp i l l age and organ- l ess than 1 500 mm (5 f t ) deep . c
beach , w i th the rema i n i ng 30% in the
ic po l l ut ants , and wa t e r shou l d c i rcu l a t e wa t e r (F i gure 320-38) . 3 . Many pub l i c poo l s have 80 percent of
t hrough the area . Idea l l y , the beach shou l d t he wa t e r area devo t ed to nonsw i m-
f ace t he ful l or a t l east the a f t ernoon sun . I t me rs (F i gure 520-39) .
shou l d have a cross-sec t i ona l s l ope of 4 to
N
10 percen t (based upon loca l hea l th codes)
 520 - 1 4

s
Q

c
0

e
r
c

O
N
F i gur e 520 -33 . So f t ba l l / baseba l l l ayou t .
 520 - 1 5

F i gur e 520 - 35 . Baseba l l / f oo t ba l l

comp l ex (baseba l l pr i ma r y ) .

s i dered undes i rab l e because they pro-

v i de breed i ng and prot ec t i on areas for
some sma l l er spec i es of f i sh, wh i ch
may l ead to ove rc rowd i ng for the
des i red spec i es .

3 . Dep t hs shou l d be i ncreased in ar i d

areas whe r e evapora t i on is a prob l em
or in areas whe r e i ce f orms .
4 . The wa t e r supp l y shou l d have a l ow
amoun t o f si l t . I f dra i np i pes are
i nsta l l ed, t hey shou l d be w i de enough
to a l l ow the f i sh to pass t hrough
F i gur e 520 - 34 . Schema t i c spor t s comp l ex . unha rmed .

4 . An ex t ra 28 m2 (300 f t 2 ) shou l d be Wad i ng Poo l s: 5 . For cast i ng , a l l ow 1 800 mm (6 f t )

added for each d i v i ng board . be t ween each pe rson f i sh i ng . A l ong
Wad i ng poo l s can be p l aced in t he same
some areas of the shore l i ne , a l l ow a t
5 . Twen t y- f i ve yards (75 f t 1- ' / z in to comp l ex as compe t i t i on-s i ze poo l s , bu t
l east 1 800 mm (6 f t ) o f unobs t ruc t ed
accommoda t e t i m i ng equ i pmen t ) is they shou l d be separa t ed and f enced for
space be t ween the wa t e r edge and
the m i n i mum l ength for i nt erscho l as- sa f e t y. Fount a i ns or sprays can be added . I f
any dense vege t a t i on .
t i c or i nt erco l l eg i a t e compe t i t i on in fac i l i ty is outdoors , shaded sea t i ng shou l d
the Un i t ed St a t es . Int erna t i ona l com- be prov i ded for parent s or o ther superv i - 6 . A gent l y s l op i ng shore l i ne is the l east
pe t i t i on requ i res a 50-m l ength poo l . sors . prone to eros i on and the sa f est for
t hose f i sh i ng . c
6 . Lanes shou l d be 2 100 mm (7 f t ) w i de
6 . 5 F i sh i ng
be t ween the cent er l ines , ma r ked 7 . An access po i nt for a t ruck is neces-
w i th l ane st r i pes 250 mm (10 in) F i sh i ng t akes p l ace in ponds , l akes , s t reams sary for the s tock i ng and fer t i l i zat ion c
w i de . Add 450 mm (18 in) to each of and we t l ands . Wa t e r dep th , t empera ture , o f a f i sh i ng pond .
the out s i de l anes .

7 . The deck space a round recrea t i ona l

chem i s t ry and b i ot i c compos i t i on comb i ne
to i nf l uence the f i sher i es w i th i n a par t i cu l ar
body of wa t e r . The fo l l ow i ng gu i de l i nes
8 . F i sh i ng ponds wh i ch a t t rac t the grea t -
est numbe r of young ch i l dren and
s
poo l s shou l d be at l east equa l to the non- sw i mme r s shou l d i nc l ude rescue Q
h i gh l i ght some key concerns when es t ab-
wa t e r sur f ace because genera l l y on l y equ i pmen t such as throw- r i ngs and
l i sh i ng a na tura l or cons t ruc t ed f i sh i ng
one- th i rd of the sw i mme r s wi l l be in reach i ng po l es .
pond : a
the poo l a t any one t i me . A 3 :1 to 4 :1
n
rat io be t ween deck and wa t e r sur f ace 6 . 6 Access i b l e Sw i mm i ng , F i sh i ng ,
O
prov i des the mos t func t i ona l ar range - 1 . A sur f ace area of 0 .4 ha (1 acre) is and Boa t i ng
men t . suf f i c i ent ; a comme r c i a l spor t i ng Mor e comp l e t e and comprehens i ve i nfor -
opera t i on can be ma i n t a i ned i f the r
8 . Of f i c i a l s t anda rds for wa t e r po l o ma t i on on the des i gn of wa t e r -based fac i l i - c
depend on t he s t andard-se t t i ng sur f ace area is a t l east 4 ha (10 acres) . t i es for access i b l i ty is f ound in Sec t i on 240:
agency (F i gure 520-40) . Ou t door Access i b i l i ty. CC
2 . 1 800 mm (6 f t ) is a good ave rage
dep t h . Areas l ess t han 900 mm (3 f t )
0
deep wi l l encourage the grow t h of
aqua t i c p l ant s . These p l ant s are con- N
 520 - 1 6

Sw i mm i ng Poo l s :
Sw i mm i ng poo l s need ent ry r amps at a
s l ope o f 1 :12 or l ess . Two handra i l s 750 to
900 mm (2 1 / 2 to 3 f t ) h i gh and 900 mm
(3 f t ) apar t shou l d be prov i ded . In a na tur -
al se t t i ng , prov i de a paved (or a t l east a sta-
b i l i zed) sur f ace be t ween t he ba t hhouse and
the wa t e r .

Beaches :
At beaches , t he pa th shou l d t erm i na t e in a
1 800 X 1 800 mm (6 X 6 f t ) paved area
and shou l d prov i de a handra i l approx i -
ma t e l y 800 mm (32 in) h i gh tha t ex t ends
i nto the wa t e r to a dep t h of 750 mm (2 1 / 2
f t ) . The beach grad i ent shou l d be no s t eep-
er t han 1 :12 .

F i sh i ng and Boa t i ng:

Docks prov i de access to boa t i ng and f i sh i ng
for those who are hand i capped . These
docks shou l d be a t l east 2 400 mm (8 f t )
w i de , w i th the boa rds l a id perpend i cu l ar to
the d i rec t i on of t rave l and w i t h the open
j o i nts no grea t er t han 10 mm (1 / 2 in) w i de .
At l east one s i de o f the dock shou l d have a
ra i l ing tha t wi l l suppor t a 136 kg (300 lb)
i nd i v i dua l dur i ng l oad i ng and un l oad i ng .
F i sh i ng ra i ls shou l d have a she l f for ba i t and
t ack l e tha t is 200 to 300 mm (8 t o 12 in)
w i de and 750 mm (30 in) above the dock
sur f ace . The top rai l shou l d be 900 mm (36
in) h i gh and s l ope at 30 degrees t owa rd t he
user as an a rm- and-po l e rest . Prov i de a k i ck
p l a t e to preven t whee l cha i r foot peda l s
f rom go i ng of f p i ers . Segmen t s of the dock
or p i er shou l d have a roof or shaded area
tha t is fu l l y access i b l e .

e 6 .7 Wa t e r - sk i i ng
The l ake s i ze shou l d be 3 .25 to 6 ha (8 to
c 15 acres) per boa t . The h i gher f i gure shou l d
a
be used whe r e cons i derab l e powe rboa t
c t raf f i c is ant i c i pa t ed . I f many boa t s are
i nvo l ved , a propor t i ona t e numbe r o f p i ers ,
docks , e t c . shou l d be added .
t
6 .8 Cr ew
Q
Int erna t i ona l c r ew races are se t a t 2 000 ,
1500 , and 1000 m and requ i re a t l east an
add i t i ona l 250 m (820 f t ) d i s t ance beyond
n the f in i sh l ine . Races requ i re a wa t e r body
O w i th no mov i ng wa t er , no br i dges , and no
tL3 preva i l i ng crossw i nds . A un i f orm dep t h of
a t l east 3 000 mm (10 f t) is requ i red . The
c course cons i s t s of six para l l e l l anes and one
re turn l ane , each a m i n i mum o f 12 .5 m (41
f t) w i de . A l t hough na tura l areas such as
r i vers have been used , recent O l ymp i c
races have been he l d in ar t i f i c i a l ponds .
N
Lf t
 520- 1 7
7 .0 W I NTER SPORTS ACTI VI TI ES other act ivi t ies, and it shou ld inc lude the 1 . Env i ronmenta l protect ion and man-
fo l lowing : agement shou ld be the ma j or cons id-
7 .1 Snowmob i l i ng erat ion in the p l ann ing, des ign, con-
1 . Adequa t e separat ion f rom such con- st ruct ion, and operat ion of the faci l i ty.
Snowmob i l es are of ten used on terrain and f l ict ing uses as snowmob i l i ng and Fragi le mounta i n ecosystems can be
trai l systems such as exist ing snow-covered downh i l l (a lpine) sk i ing i mpac ted adverse l y by poor l y p l anned
f i re lanes, trai ls, and rural roads extend i ng 2 . Passage over a var iety of terrains, ski deve l opments . Because ski areas
out f rom a cent ra l l odge faci l i ty (F igure f rom f lat open meadows to steeper are of ten at the headwa ters of a
520-41) . Snowmob i l es are usua l ly cons id- grades wa tershed , they genera l l y have thin
ered incompat ib l e wi th most forms of non- soi l layers, shor t grow i ng seasons, and
motor i zed winter recreat ion, such as sk ing 3 . Re l at i ve safety f rom r isk of ava l anche a h igh degree of of f -si te visibi l i ty.
and snow shoe i ng . Grades in excess of 12 (see Sect ion 253 : Natura l Hazards :
percent , as we l l as trai ls cut into steep side Lands l ides and Snow Ava l anches) 2 . Faci l i t ies such as wa t er tanks (wi th
s lopes, shou ld be avo i ded . Ice-covered the i r dist r ibut ion l ines) and sani tary
l akes and ponds are of ten t raversed . 7 .3 Downh i l l (A l p i ne) Sk i i ng faci l i t ies (wi th the i r pipe l ines) shou ld
be located away f rom the trai ls and
Snowmob i l i ng is of ten a group spor t . Genera l : out of v i ew of skiers . If feasible, ut i l i -
Groups gather to race and tour. Rac i ng t ies shou ld be instal led dur i ng the f i rst
faci l i t ies inc lude t racks, genera l l y 1 .6 to 3 .3 Prec ise des ign cr i ter ia and standards for
downh i l l ski areas cannot be establ i shed phase at the ul t imate si ze and capac i -
km (1 to 2 mi ) in l ength over wooded ter- because each deve l opment is inf luenced by ty requi red .
rain, and spr i nts-45 to 800 m (50 yd to the oppor tuni t i es af forded by (1) the si te
1/2 mi ) st r ips wi th a run-out of approx i - 3 . Exist ing and potent i a l w i nd pat terns
and i ts topography and (2) the character i s- shou ld be ana l yzed before locat ing
mate l y 100 m (1/16 mi ) . Cross-count ry t ics of the targeted marke t area. Sk i s lopes
races and tours may invol ve severa l hun- runs, par t icular ly runs through dense
dred par t i c ipants rac ing aga inst a c lock and are usua l l y des ignated as nov i ce , intermed i - t i mber. Adverse w i nd pat terns can
are genera l l y 40 to 160 km (25 to 100 mi ) ate and advanced . Comput er s imul at ions cause a s l owdown or stoppage of l i fts,
are of ten used to mode l the proposed can scour snow f rom prev ious l y we l l -
in l ength . Star t ing areas need to be large deve l opment of ski areas and to b l end the
enough to accommoda t e the potent i a l l y packed s lopes, and can decrease com-
l arge number of ent rants ; an open meadow ski trai ls w i th the pre-ex i st ing visua l e le- for t and safety. T i mber is best c l eared
ments of the terrain . in sma l l increments , wi th a constant
is of ten used . Snowmob i l e trai ls are of ten
based on a t i me and di stance cyc l e . The fo l lowing s lope percentages are eva luat ion of changes in w i nd pat -
based on di f f icul ty : tern . Leave the edges of t imber l ines
7 .2 Cross-Coun t ry (Nord i c) Sk i i ng feathered to appear more natura l and
Nov i ce 5-20% s lope to reduce abrupt changes in w i nd pat -
The des ign of cross-count ry faci l i t ies shou ld terns .
ref lect the skier 's desi re to be isolated f rom Intermed i ate 21-35% s lope
Advanced 36 % and above s lope 4 . Avo i d areas that are ava l anche-prone ,
Ma j or Cons i derat i ons : s ince the predi ct ion and prevent ion of
ava l anches is not a rel iable sc i ence .
Ma j or cons iderat ions in the p l ann i ng and
des ign of downh i l l sk i ing faci l i t ies inc lude 5 . Nor th fac ing s lopes are prefer red
because they a l low a longer sk i ing s
the fo l lowing : season . e

c
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a

e
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cc
F i gure 520-40 . Wa t e r po l o . F i gure 520-41 . Schema t i c w i nt er F i gure 520-42 . Ice hockey. 0
spor ts area .
N
tti
 520 - 1 8
6 . Sur face dra i nage shou ld not be di rect - a race t rack but can be done more infor - 7 .6 Toboggan , S l edd i ng and Tub i ng
ed across the s lopes but into channe l s ma l l y on a l ong st retch of f rozen r iver.
away f rom them in order to avo id the European-sty l e t racks are 400 m (437 yd) in Carefu l thought shou ld be g i ven to the
prob l ems of i c ing and me l t i ng snow. l ength and doub l e- l aned . Each lane is 5 m des ign of winter hi l ls . It is best to separate
(5-1/2 yd) w i de . Cur l ing is a spor t p l ayed s l edd ing runs for each of the above uses .
7 . I f steep s lopes separate the base f rom on an i ce-sur faced cour t (F igure 540-43) . Exposure is best fac ing Nor th to Nor th-
the more gent l e s lopes, a second base East. The shade f rom the hi l l wi l l protect the
or stag ing area may be des i red . Al so, 7 .5 Ice Boa t i ng snow later in the season . Slopes on the hi l l
mul t ipl e bases can reduce congest i on can fo l low the same s lope recommenda-
around the lodge and excess i ve wear Ice boat i ng takes pl ace on f rozen l akes or t ions as sk i ing (7 .3 : Downh i l l Sk ing) .
on the snow. r ivers . Race courses can be 19 km (12 mi )
or more long and shou ld mee t the requi re- Grad i ng of s l edd ing runs shou ld natura l -
8 . Roads shou ld be as nar row as possi - ment s for sai l ing both wi th and into the ly move the par t i c ipant away f rom steps,
bl e . They shou ld swi tch back on l y w i nd . rai l ings, t rees, wa t er concent rat ions and
where sk i ing wi l l not occur , and di ver t drop-of fs . Caut i on shou ld be used when
runof f wa ter to bur i ed culver ts rather over l app ing the run wi th other c i rculat ion
than di tches when cont rol is neces- cor r idors such as paths and seasona l roads .
sary . If feasible, al l roads for the f inal
deve l opment shou ld be p l anned and 7 .7 Bobs l ed and Luge
const ructed dur i ng the f i rst phase .
Bobs l ed and luge courses are highl y si te-
7 .4 Ice Ska t i ng spec i f ic and are genera l l y assoc i ated wi th
W i nter O l ymp i c si tes . A course is typical ly
Compe t i t i on hockey genera l l y takes pl ace 1000 m in l ength, and conta ins both sharp
on an indoor r ink (F igure 540-42) . Free and gent l e curves . The average gradi ent is
skat ing can be done indoors or outdoors ; it about 11 percent (a range of 8-1 /2 to 15
requi res a sol id ice sur face and a space rel - percent is common) . St ra ight -aways shou ld
at ive ly f ree f rom obst ruct ions . Natura l ice is be 2 m w i de and curves shou ld be 3 to 6 m
norma l l y swept regul ar ly to remove l eaves w i de ; when banked perpendi cul ar l y, curves
and other obst ruct ions . Low wa l l s or rai l - can be as much as 9 m w i de . Banked wa l l s
ings are opt iona l but do of fer suppor t for are pl astered wi th an i ce-snow mi xture and
the beg i nner and a conta iner for ice made may even be f ini shed wi th a temp l ate to
by f lood ing . The si ze of the area depends mee t prec i se eng i neer i ng spec i f i cat ions .
on the type of spor t to be p l ayed on the
sur face . Speed skat ing is done norma l l y on

S
e

s
Q

n
O
a
O
c

F i gure 520-43 . Cur l i ng. F i gure 520-44 . Typ i ca l go l f course F i gure 520-45 . Typ i ca l go l f ho l e .
ar rangemen t s .
N
 520 - 1 9

F i gur e 520 - 47 . Ou t wa rd l y f ocused

camp .

3 . N i ne -ho l e regu l a t i on w i t h mu l t i p l e
t ees (2 shot s t aken to each green for
a tota l of 18 shot s) .

4 . E i ght een-ho l e execut i ve , n i ne ho l e ,

p i t ch 'n' put t , par 3, or other shor t
F i gur e 520 - 46 . Schema t i c r i d i ng s t ab l e l ayou t
courses . These courses are genera l l y
2 740 to 3 660 m (3000 to 4000 yd)
chosen wi l l depend upon the charac t er o f in l ength w i th a par o f 56 to 60 . They
8 . 0 SPEC I AL COURSES AND
the si te, the des i gn progr am and ad j acen t requ i re areas of approx i ma t e l y 18 to
AREAS
l and use . F i gure 520-45 shows the l ayout 24 ha (45 to 60 acres) and use ful l -
o f a typ i ca l go l f ho l e w i thou t hazards. s i ze greens to d i st r i bute wea r .
8 .1 Go l f
Go l f course des i gn is t oo comp l ex to be The Var i a t i ons : 8 . 2 Eques t r i an Fac i l i t i es
fu l l y de t a i l ed in th i s sec t i on ; howeve r , some The re are nume rous var i a t i ons of 9 or 18 S i te Cr i t er i a :
of the ma j or cons i dera t i ons and var i a t i ons
ho l e go l f courses . A typ i ca l course of 9
are summa r i zed be l ow. Eques t r i an fac i l i t i es, wh i ch a l so can i nc l ude
ho l es wi l l cons i st of 2 par 3's, 2 par 5' s and
5 par 4' s . The 1 st and 9th ho l es are usua l l y l i vestock pav i l i ons , shou l d be l oca t ed whe r e
The S i te :
par 4' s a l l ow i ng wa rm up on the f i rst ho l e they wi l l be 150 m (500 f t ) downw i nd f rom
Gen t l y ro l l i ng ter ra i n prov i des for a course and the pot ent i a l for a good score on the o ther pub l i c ac t i v i ty cent ers . Dra i nage mus t
tha t is both be t t er for p l ay and mor e v i su- l ast ho l e . Th i s pr i nc i p l e can be i ncorpora t ed be pos i t i ve and cont ro l l ed bo t h on- and
a l l y i nt erest i ng . Pos i t i ve dra i nage is essen- i nto any of the fo l l ow i ng go l f course con- of f -s i te . Runo f f mus t be re t a i ned on-s i t e or
S
t ial , and there fore sandy soi l s are pre f er red . f i gura t i ons : proper l y t rea t ed be fore re l ease i nto s t orm
H i gh-qua l i t y wa t e r is requ i red for i r r i gat i on sewe rs or na tura l dra i nage . The spac i ng
1 . Th i r ty-s i x ho l es : any comb i na t i on o f be t ween bu i l d i ngs wi l l be regu l a t ed by l oca l
at ra tes o f approx i ma t e l y 50 mm (2 in) per
week for greens and t ees , and 25 to 38 mm the bas i c con f i gura t i on . f i re codes , but usua l l y a t l east a 4 .5 m (15 c
a
(1 to 1-1 / 2 in) per week for f a i rways , t he f t ) f i re l ane is requ i red . Board i ng and rent a l
2 . Twen t y - seven ho l es: three re turn i ng
l at ter depend i ng on the geograph i c reg i on .
V i sua l connec t i ons be t ween tees , l and i ng
9' s are pre f er red ; one con t i nuous 18
st ab l es shou l d be separa t ed by a t l east 30
m (100 f t ) . Horse t ra i ls shou l d be an aver -
c
and one re turn i ng 9 is perm i t t ed .
areas and greens are essent i a l . age of 900 to 1 800 mm (3 to 6 f t ) w i de , e
s
A l t hough s t reams , l akes and ponds are
des i rab l e in the deve l opmen t of a go l f 4-. A- Q
course , we t l ands i f present mus t be pro- 06
1 . Regu l a t i on 18-ho l e go l f courses requ i re areas rang i ng f rom 57 to 75 ha (140 to 175
t ec t ed and m i t i ga t ed i f mod i f i ed .
acres) (F i gure 520-44) .
The Course : 2 . Jogg i ng pa ths shou l d be a m i n i mum of 0 .62 km (1 mi ) in l ength and shou l d be n
O
ar ranged in some var i a t i on of a f i gure e i ght to a l l ow shor ter runs and a grea t er var i -
Regu l a t i on 18-ho l e courses have pars rang- e ty of rout es . Pa ths shou l d be a m i n i mum of 1 .2 m (4 f t ) in w i d th .
i ng f rom 68 to 72 . Par for a par t i cu l ar e
r
3 . Exerc i se t rai ls are j ogg i ng rout es w i th exerc i se sta t i ons l oca t ed 135 to 180 m (150 to
course is measur ed by the l ength , s l ope c
200 yd) apar t .
i ndex and ab i l i ty of a scra t ch go l f er to par
the course . Courses can be l a id ou t in one 4 . Na ture t ra i ls are pa ths a l ong wh i ch i nterpret i ve sta t i ons are of t en p l aced to exp l a i n
of f i ve bas i c conf i gura t i ons , the i r requ i red the sur round i ngs and shou l d have a m i n i mum w i dth of 2 100 mm (7 f t ) , a max i -
areas rang i ng f rom 57 to 75 ha (140 to 175
acres) (F i gure 520-44) . The conf i gura t i on
mum grade of 8 percent , and a f i rm sur f ace .
N
 520-20
3 000 mm (10 f t ) w i de for pass i ng , and 2 . S l a l om run : abou t 30 m (100 f t ) l ong , 385 yd) l ong and are genera l l y run on
shou l d be c l ear of ove rhang i ng l i mbs to a dropp i ng 3 to 4 .5 m (10 to 15 f t ) , ex i st i ng paved or d i r t roads .
he i ght of 3 600 mm (12 f t ) . Gr ades shou l d w i th s l i ght l y banked wa l l s.
not exceed 5 percent , a l though 10 percen t 8 . 6 Exe r c i se Cour ses
3 . Snake run : curved channe l , w i th wa l l s
for shor t d i s t ances is perm i ss i b l e . Wash i ng Exerc i se t ra i ls are j ogg i ng rout es w i th exer -
2 . 4 t o3 . 5m(8 t o12 f t )h i gh .
and groom i ng areas shou l d be eas i l y acces- c i se s t a t i ons l oca t ed per i od i ca l l y a l ong t he
s ibl e , we l l dra i ned and vent i l a t ed and away 4 . Bow l s and poo l s : dep t hs f rom 2 .1 to pa th . The st a t i ons can be as c l ose toge ther
f rom t he pub l i c . (See F i gure 520-46 .) 3 .5 m (7 to 12 f t ) . Poo l s shou l d as 46 m (50 yd) or as f ar apar t as 365 m
i nc l ude a s l i ght ove rhang i ng l ip (400 yd) , depend i ng on the tota l l ength of
Des i gn Cr i ter i a: a round t he edge . the t rack ; 135 to 180 m (150 to 200 yd)
1 . Pas ture : 0 .8 ha (2 acres) per horse 5 . Ha l f p i pe : l i tera l l y a ha l f p i pe w i th no apar t seems t o be a good ave rage .
( zon i ng ord i nances vary) f l at area ; var i ab l e l ength ; d i ame t e r Propr i e t ary t racks are ava i l ab l e f rom sever -
usua l l y a round 6 .7 m (22 f t ) . Some al compan i es comp l e t e w i th st a t i ons , s i gns ,
2 . St a f f of f i ce and apa r t men t : 21 m2
wa l l s r i se beyond ver t i ca l . and i nst a l l a t i on gu i de l i nes . Some of f er
(226 f t2 ) pe r staf f membe r
courses spec i f i ca l l y des i gned for ful l acces-
3 . Trea t men t sta l l s : 3 .5 m X 5 m (12 f t X 6 . Fu l l p i pe : l i tera l l y a ful l p i pe w i th no s ibi l i ty.
17 f t ) , 1 pe r 30 horses f l at spot .
8 . 7 Rock C l i mb i ng Wa l l s
4 . Qua ran t i ne sta l l s : 3 .5 m X 3 .5 m (12 8 . 5 Jogg i ng Pa t hs
f t X 12 f t ) , 1 pe r 30 horses Rock c l i mb i ng wa l l s are f ound e i ther in out -
Jogg i ng requ i res on l y a pa th , pre f erab l y of door se t t i ngs or in spec i a l i ndoor gym fac i l -
5 . Rent a l or boa rd i ng sta l l s : 3 .5 m X 3 .5 c rushed s tone or a s i mi l ar res i l i ent ma t er i a l , i t i es. The r e are no spec i f i c des i gn s t andards .
mX4m( 12 f t X12 f t X14 f t ) , 1 per tha t is we l l -dra i ned and has a m i n i mum Loca l c l i mb i ng c l ubs and i nst ruc tors shou l d
horse w i d t h o f 1 .2 m (4 f t ) . The s tone used wi l l be consu l t ed when a c l i mb i ng wa l l is be i ng
depend on l oca l ava i l ab i l i ty but shou l d be p l anned .
6 . Hay s torage ( for 40 horses) : 77 m2
sma l l er than 10 mm (1 / 2 in) in d i ame t e r
(825 f t2)
and angu l ar enough to pack to a f i rm sur - 8 . 8 Na t ur e Tra i l s
7 . Gra i n s torage ( for 40 horses) : 18 .5 m2 f ace . Pa ths shou l d be a m i n i mum o f 0 .62
Na t ure t ra i ls are pa ths a l ong wh i ch inter -
(200 f t2) km (1 m i ) in l ength and shou l d be a r ranged
pre t i ve st a t i ons are of t en p l aced to exp l a i n
in some var i a t i on of a f i gure e i ght to a l l ow
8 . Bedd i ng s torage ( for 40 horses) : 37 shor t er runs and a grea t er var i e ty of rout es .
the sur round i ngs . These pa ths can be made
m2 (400 f t 2) access i b l e t o t hose who are b l i nd by add i ng
Of f i c i a l ma ra t hons are 42 . 19 km (26 I ' m
Bra i l l e st r ips or ra i sed l et ters to the i nt erpre-
8 . 3 In- l i ne Ska t i ng

In l i ne ska t i ng , some t i mes re f er red to as

ro l l er b l ad i ng , has evo l ved f rom ro l l er ska t -
i ng and is popu l a r for bo t h ro l l er hockey
and f i tness . There are no spec i f i c des i gn 1 . Fo l k or square danc i ng done outdoors requ i res a f l at and unobs t ruc t ed area of abou t
s t andards for in l ine ska t i ng fac i l i t i es per se 15mX30m( 50 f t X100 f t ) .
s i nce many i n l i ners use conven t i ona l ro l l er
S 2 . A box i ng sur f ace shou l d be 5 m X 8 m (16 f t X 24 f t ) in s i ze .
e ska t i ng r i nks . The In l i ne Ska t epa rk
D i rec tory prov i des i n forma t i on on spec i a l
i n l i ne fac i l i t i es . The Int erna t i ona l In- l i ne 3 . For i nterna t i ona l wrest l i ng compe t i t i on , the ma t is 12 m X 12 m (39 f t 3 in X 39 f t 3
in) square w i th an i nner c i rc l e of 2 850 mm (9 f t 6 in) in d i ame t er (F i gure 520-59) .
Ska t i ng Assoc i a t i on ( I ISA) , headqua r t e red
in Kennes i ng ton , Ma ry l and was f ormed in
4 . A m i n i mum t ab l e s i ze for games l ike checkers , chess , and backgammon is 0 .6 m X
c 1991 t o advance i n- l i ne ska t i ng as a recre-
a t i ona l act i v i ty and compe t i t i ve spor t . The
0 .6 m (2 f t X 2 f t ) .
assoc i a t i on prov i des t echn i ca l i n forma t i on 5 . A regu l a t i on-s i ze tab l e t enn i s sur f ace is 1 500 mm X 2 700 mm (5 f t X 9 f t ) w i de
s for the in l ine ska t i ng commun i t y .
and 750 mm (30 in) h i gh .
Q 8 . 4 Ska t eboa rd Pa r ks
Park des i gns vary , a l t hough they usua l l y
range f rom 0 .1 to 2 ha (1/2 to 5 acres) in
n s i ze. Sur f aces shou l d be made of a smoo t h ,
O f luid, non j o i n t ed ma t er i a l such as shot cre t e
or f i berg l ass . Fea tures in a ska t eboard park 1 . A l though camps vary in s i ze and conf i gura t i on based on ter ra in, vege t a t i on , e t c ., a
camp for 75 to 100 campe rs averages approx i ma t e l y 14 to 16 .5 ha (35 to 40 acres)
e i nc l ude :
in s i ze .
cr 1 . Frees t y l e areas : abou t 24 m X 12 m
(80 f t X 40 f t ) , w i th s l i ght l y banked 2 . Fami l y-s i ze camp s i tes shou l d be 4 .2 m X 4 .9 m (14 f t X 16 f t ) .
wa l l s .
3 . Pi cn i c areas are genera l l y des i gned in c l usters of 10 to 100 un i ts w i th 10 .7 m (35 f t )
be t ween un i ts . 50 un i ts /ha (20 un i ts / acre) is des i red .
N
 520 - 2 1

F i gur e 520 - 48 . Samp l e mo t o r camp i ng l ayou t s .

t i ve p l aques , us i ng t ex tured sur f aces on the Des i gn :

ground p l ane to i dent i f y the i nt erpre t i ve
Campgrounds are c l ass i f i ed as pr i mi t i ve ,
sta t i ons , and prov i d i ng l ow curbs to he l p
sem i -pr i m i t i ve or mode rn depend i ng on t he
de f i ne the pa t hway. I f t he pa t h is to accom- fac i l i t i es prov i ded . Organ i zed camp des i gn
moda t e t hose w i th mob i l i t y hand i caps , i t
can be i nward l y focused t owa rd a camp f i re
shou l d have a m i n i mum w i d t h of 2 100
r i ng or some o ther f ea ture , such as a sw i m-
mm (7 f t ) , a max i mum grade of 8 percent , Rose t t e t ra i l er pa r k -
m i ng poo l , or ou t wa rd l y focused t owa rd a F i gur e 520 - 49 .
and a f i rm sur f ace . The ad j acen t vege t a t i on
l ake or r i ver. Mos t are l oca t ed in a fores t ed i ng l ayou t .
shou l d no t ove rhang the pa th at a he i gh t S
se t t i ng , w i th good breeze or i ent a t i on and
l ess t han 2 250 mm (71 /2 f t ) . The t ra i l may
read i l y ava i l ab l e pot ab l e wa t e r . Camp i ng is
a l so be de l i nea t ed w i th ropes runn i ng
f eas i b l e for hand i capped i nd i v i dua l s . The 2 . Un i ts : organ i zed in groups of six 4-
t hrough r i ngs on 900 mm (36 in) pos t s , and ma j or des i gn adap t a t i on requ i red for those bed t ents or cab i ns , p l us counse l or
kno t s can be used to ca l l a t t ent i on t o
who are hand i capped is the prov i s i on of accommoda t i ons , a ba t hroom , and a
upcom i ng i nt erpre t i ve s t a t i ons [U .S .
paved sur f aces be t ween camps i t es and cent ra l core . Un i t s o f th i s s i ze occupy
Depa r t men t o f Hous i ng and Urban
o ther f ea tures , such as wa t er , comf or t sta- rough l y 0 .8 ha (2 acres) . c
Deve l opmen t (HUD) ] . (Re f er to Sec t i ons
t i ons , and pa rk i ng . (See Sec t i on 240 :
240 : Ou t door Access i b i l i ty , for mor e i nfor - Ame r i can Camp i ng Assoc i a t i on (ACA)
Ou t door Access i b i l i ty for mor e i n forma -
ma t i on .) St anda rds: t
t i on .)
Q
9 . 0 CAMP I NG AND P I CN I CK I NG Spa t i a l St anda rds: The ACA has es t ab l i shed s t andards by
wh i ch t hey eva l ua t e camps seek i ng accred-
9 .1 Organ i zed Camp i ng A l t hough camps vary in s i ze and conf i gura- i tat i on . These s t anda rds address camp a
t i on based on ter ra in, vege t a t i on , e t c ., a adm i n i s t ra t i on , personne l programs , spec i f -
n
De f i n i t i ons: camp for 75 to 100 campe rs ave rages ic progr ams for users w i th spec i a l needs , O
Organ i zed camp i ng is de f i ned by the approx i ma t e l y 14 to 16 .5 ha (35 to 40 and s i te cond i t i ons (F i gure 520-47) .
acres) in s i ze . Con t ac t the ACA for comp l e t e s t andards .
Ame r i can Camp i ng Assoc i a t i on (ACA) as
r
" a sus t a i ned exper i ence wh i ch prov i des a c
9 .2 RV Camp i ng
crea t i ve recrea t i ona l and educa t i ona l 1 . Cent ra l core : serv i ce area garage , staf f
oppor tun i t y in group l i v i ng in the out -of - and he l p quar t ers , cent ra l washhouse , The cross sec t i on o f a RV pad shou l d be CC
doors . I t ut i l i zes t ra i ned l eadersh i p and i nf i rmary , d i n i ng l odge , adm i n i s t ra t i on l eve l across the w i d t h of the t ra i l er . A s l i ght
resources of the na tura l sur round i ngs to bu i l d i ng , and na ture s tudy cent er . s l ope a l ong i ts l eng th is permi ss i b l e , w i t h a
cont r i but e to each camper ' s ment a l , phys i - s l ope t owa rd t he rear pre f er red . RV N
ca l , soc i a l and sp i r i tua l grow t h . " campe rs l oad on the passenger s i de ; ut i l i ty
 520- 22

s
Q
06

c
fY
F i gure 520-51 . Comb i na t i on skee t F i gure 520-52 . Comb i na t i on skee t and t rap r ange .
N and t rap r ange l ayou t s.
 520 - 23
Range D i s t ances:
1 . Sma l l -bore r i f le : 50 f t , 50 yd , 50 m* ,
100 yd

2 . H i gh-powe r r i f le : 100 yd , 200 yd , 300

yd , * 300 m(**) , 500 to 600 yd , 800
to 900 yd , 1000 yd

3 . Me t a l l i c s i l houe t t e :

a . ma l l -bore r i f le : 40 m , 60 m, 77 m ,
100 m

b . H i gh-powe r r i f le : 200 m , 300 m ,

385 m , 500 m

c . Pi sto l : 50 m , 100 m, 150 m , 700 m

d . Pi sto l shoo t range : 25 m , 50 m , 75

m , 100m

4 . Ou t door p i sto l : 25 yd , 25 m(**) , 50

yd , 50 m(**)

5 . Pi sto l (po l i ce comba t course) : 7 yd , 15

yd , 25 yd , 50 yd
F i gur e 520 - 53 . Dr i v i ng r ange (go l f ) . F i gur e 520 - 54 . Counc i l r i ng . 6 . Int erna t i ona l runn i ng boa r : 50 m
* compe t i t i on d i s t ance .
** i nt erna t i ona l d i s t ance .
c l ear space 750 mm (30 in) h i gh and 600
mm (24 in) deep unde r the t ab l e to a l l ow a 10 .2 Ar che r y
whee l cha i r to s l i de unde r . Gr i l l s shou l d be 1 . The d i s t ance to the t arge t shou l d be
750 mm (30 in) tal l a t the i r top , rot a t e 360 91 m (300 f t ) for men and 55 m (180
degrees , and be prov i ded w i th a ut i l i ty she l f f t ) for women .
for cook i ng too l s . Gr i l l s on ad j us t ab l e sup-
por ts of f er f l ex ibi l i ty for many user groups . 2 . Targe t s shou l d be 4 .9 to 6 m (16 to 20
Keep p l ant ma t er i a l back 900 mm (3 f t ) and f t ) on-cent er , w i th t he bu l l s eye 1 .2 to
c l eared to a he i gh t of 2 250 mm (7 1 / 2 f t ) . 1 .4 m (4 to 4-1 / 2 f t ) of f the ground .

3 . The archer and the t arge t shou l d be at

10 . 0 RANGE SPORTS approx i ma t e l y the same e l eva t i on , the
r ange shou l d be f ree f rom ha rd
10 .1 R i f l e and P i s to l Range
obs t ruc t i ons , and t he s i te shou l d be
e
Gene ra l I n f orma t i on : she l t ered f rom w i nd .

1 . Targe t s can be p l aced at vary i ng d i s- 4 . For v i sua l reasons , the archer shou l d
.U
t ances f rom the f i r ing l ine (s t aggered f ace w i th i n 45 degrees of nor th in the a
nor thern hem i sphe re ; the pre f er red
but t range) or can be a l i gned on a s in-
g l e l ine w i t h f i r ing pos i t i ons s t aggered background for a t arge t is a na tura l or c
(but t - i n- l i ne range ) . bu i l t -up d i r t embankmen t or ta l l ,
dense vege t a t i on .
2 . Cons i de ra t i on shou l d be g i ven to t
prob l ems tha t may resu l t f rom the 5 . Ex i st i ng h i l l s ides or bu i l t -up be rms
shou l d be used bo t h beh i nd and to Q
no i se , par t i cu l ar l y downw i nd o f a
F i gure 520 - 55 . I n t e rpre t i ve Amph i - range . Re f er to Sec t i on 660 : Sound the s i des of the t arge t area for sa f e t y
t hea t r e . Cont ro l , for var i ous ways th i s prob l em resons .
a
may be t rea t ed . n
10 .3 Dr i v i ng Ranges
O
shou l d be w i th i n 30 m (100 f t ) of the un i ts . 3 . Ex i st i ng h i l l s ides or bu i l t -up be rms
Cent ra l i zed park i ng a t 1 space per 1 .5 Dr i v i ng range (go l f ) des i gn f ea tures shou l d
shou l d be used beh i nd and to the s i des
t ab l es is requ i red , w i t h severa l t ab l es w i th- i nc l ude mu l t i p l e tees , ma t and na tura l grass O
of the t arge t area for sa f e ty reasons >r
in 122 m (400 f t ) of the park i ng area . and t ee areas to h i t i nto and across the c
(F i gures 520-50 through 520-52) .
w i nd . F i gure 520-53 i l lust rates a typ i ca l dr i - O
Campe r s in whee l cha i rs can be eas i l y 4 . Targe t areas shou l d not be in l ine w i th v i ng range for go l f . 12
accommoda t ed by prov i d i ng paved access res i dent i a l or comme rc i a l areas to
to fac i l i t i es and by mak i ng m i nor mod i f i ca - avo i d any cont ac t w i th bu l l ets wh i ch 0
t i ons to s i te furn i sh i ngs . A l l ow 2 .4 m (8 f t ) may r i coche t . N
be t ween t ab l es used by whee l cha i rs and a
 520- 24
650 mm (26 in) is pre f er red . A t read w i d t h
of 750 mm (30 in) shou l d be used for
benches w i th backs and 800 mm (32 in)
used for cha i r - t ype sea t i ng .

Prov i s i on for t hose w i th mob i l i t y l i mi ta-

t i ons is i mpor t an t and requ i res spec i a l con-
s i dera t i on . Re f er to Sec t i on 240 : Ou t door
Access i b i l i ty , for mor e i n forma t i on . Some of
the ma j or cons i dera t i ons fo l l ow .

Spaces for whee l cha i rs shou l d be 1 200

mm (48 in) deep and 850 mm (34 in) w i de .
Sea t s for persons us i ng crut ches or braces
shou l d be 600 mm (24 in) w i de , w i th 700
F i gur e 520 - 56 . Schema t i c spor t s F i gur e 520 - 57 . S t ad i um sea t i ng. mm (28 in) of c l ear space in f ront . Spaces
s t ad i um . for whee l cha i rs and persons w i th crut ches
shou l d be access i b l e by a l eve l f l oor or
r amp (such as a t the f ront or rear o f the sta-
4 . Ang l e A (F i gure 520-55) var i es to as d i um) . The hand i capped- spec t a t or area
11 . 0 SPECTATOR FAC I L I T I ES
w i de as 120 degrees , bu t mor e of t en shou l d be recessed to a l l ow for f ree c i rcu l a-
ranges be t ween 60 and 90 degrees . t i on .
11 .1 Counc i l R i ngs
The re are severa l i mpor t an t var i ab l es
The d i ame t e r of counc i l r i ngs is norma l l y Ma j o r Ou t doo r Thea t e r s :
tha t have to be known to de t e rm i ne the
not very l arge in order to a l l ow eye cont ac t
Ma j or ou t door thea t ers are usua l l y charac - amoun t o f park i ng tha t is needed for a
be t ween par t i c i pants . A l l ow at l east 500
ter i zed by prof ess i ona l thea t er l i ght i ng, cur - spor t s s t ad i um . In t he Un i t ed St a t es the fo l -
mm (20 in) of bench space per pe rson . A
ta i ns , orches t ra fac i l i t i es, and e l abora t e l ow i ng s t andards are o f t en used , a l t hough
na tura l bow l des i gn a l l ows be t t er v i ew i ng
sound sys t ems . Some have wooden or each case may have some spec i a l f ea ture .
for mor e peop l e (F i gure 520-54) .
me t a l sea ts w i th backs . The sea t i ng area
For s t ad i ums nea r mass t ranspor t a t i on ,
A f i re r i ng is opt i ona l , but i f i nc l uded i t may be concre t e , w i th s t ep l i ghts . T i cke t
such as New York Ci ty ' s Yankee St ad i um , or
shou l d be a t l east 1 800 mm (6 f t ) in d i am- sa l es areas , res t rooms , backs t age areas ,
for s t ad i ums on un i vers i ty campuses whe r e
e t er and 1 500 mm (5 f t ) f rom the neares t concess i on areas , and adequa t e park i ng are
s tudent s , f acu l ty , and many gues t s are
sea t ed aud i ence . The l eader ' s spot shou l d al l necessary.
w i th i n wa l k i ng d i s t ance , there may be very
have a dark background and f ace t he d i rec-
These fac i l i t i es pose many mor e comp l ex l i t t le need for on-s i t e park i ng . As a ru l e of
t i on of t he se t t i ng sun .
des i gn , cons t ruc t i on , and opera t i ons i ssues t humb , i f peop l e do come by car they come
t han the bas i c i nt erpre t i ve or sma l l a t a ra t e of three passengers per car. For
11 . 2 Amph i t hea t e r s
amph i thea t e rs . Persons i nt erest ed in fac i l i - peak c rowds , such as a t footba l l games ,
Sma l l Amph i thea t ers : t i es of th i s magn i t ude shou l d consu l t t he many peop l e wi l l norma l l y come by char -
appropr i a t e ma j or re f erence books and v i s i t t ered or spec i a l buses . A s t ad i um w i th a
Sma l l amph i thea t ers , usua l l y des i gned for and s tudy success fu l pro j ec ts . In the Un i t ed sea t i ng capac i t y of 50 , 000 peop l e shou l d
S
campgrounds , cons i st o f seats , a sma l l St a t es the fo l l ow i ng are cons i dered good have spaces for abou t 100 buses .
s t age or pod i um , n i ght t i me l i ght i ng , and examp l es : Wo l f Trap Fa rm Pa rk
. some t i mes a pub l i c -address sys t em and The re wi l l be a need for spec i a l park i ng
Amph i t hea t e r (V i enna , Vi rg i n i a) , St ar l i ght
u prov i s i on for show i ng s l i des and f i l ms spaces for peop l e who are phys i ca l l y hand-
Thea t er (Kansas Ci ty , M i ssour i ) , Concord
(F i gure 520-55) . The r e shou l d a l so be Pav i l i on (Concord , Ca l i forn i a) , Ho l l ywood
i capped . The park i ng spaces shou l d be
c r amps and assoc i a t ed spec i a l des i gn fac i l i - Bow l (Ho l l ywood , Ca l i forn i a) , and Red 3 900 mm (13 f t ) w i de , and there shou l d be
t i es for those who are hand i capped . Whe r e abou t 1 space for every 50 s t andard park-
Rock Amph i t hea t e r (Denver , Co l orado) .
poss i b l e , the amph i t hea t e r shou l d be bu i l t i ng spaces ; th i s numbe r shou l d be de t er -
t i nto a na tura l l y ex i st i ng or graded bow l and 11 . 3 Spor t s S t ad i ums m i ned based upon loca l needs . A drop-o f f
shou l d f ace away f rom l ate a f t ernoon sun . zone shou l d be prov i ded w i th i n 15 m (50
Q In add i t i on , the fo l l ow i ng des i gn gu i de l i nes Genera l : f t ) o f an en t rance whe r e those who are
can be used : phys i ca l l y hand i capped can ga i n access to
Spec t a tor s i ght l i nes are t he pr i nc i pa l des i gn
the s t ad i um and v i ew i ng area .
1 . Ai s l es shou l d be a t l east 1 500 mm (5 cons i dera t i on in s t ad i um des i gn . The sea t -
n f t ) w i de , w i th a max i mum space of 9 i ng capac i t y can be i ncreased by mak i ng
O t he sea t i ng e i ther l onger or h i gher . In gen- 12 . 0 SPEC I AL AREAS
000 mm (30 f t ) be t ween a i s l es .
era l , l onger , l ower sea t i ng is l ess expens i ve
e 2 . The backs t age area can be enc l osed , but has f ewe r sea t s tha t are cons i dered The act i v i t i es l i sted be l ow are norma l l y
r and whe r e needed i t can be used to accommoda t ed by prov i d i ng enough open
c pr i me (F i gure 520-56) .
e se t up and store s l ide and f i l m equ i p- space to se t up t empor a ry fac i l i t i es dur i ng
men t for rear -pro j ec t i on screens . Spat i a l Standards: spec i a l event s .
3 . The p l a t form is usua l l y about 450 mm (18
Sea t s can be moun t ed to e i ther t he t read or
in) of f the ground and a m i n i mum of 11 .6
N m 2 (125 f t 2 ) in s i ze . the r i ser (F i gure 520-57) . Treads shou l d
never be l ess t han 550 mm (22 in) w i de ;
 520 - 2 5

12 .4 Tab l e Games 3 . Equ i pment Spac i ng - Pl ay st ructures

shou ld be spaced at least 3 600 mm
Checkers / Chess: (12 ft) apar t to a l low chi ldren space to
A m i n i mum tabl e si ze is 0.6 m X 0 .6 m (2 f t c i rculate or fal l w i thout st r iking anoth-
X 2 f t) . I t shou l d have seat ing for two , plus er st ructure . Mov i ng pi eces of equ ip-
enough gather ing space for spectators . ment shou ld be located in an area
away f rom other pl ay st ructures so
Tab l e Tenn i s (P i ng -Pong) : chi ldren have adequa t e room to pass
f rom one pl ay area to another wi th-
A regul at ion-s i ze tabl e top is 1 500 mm X out be i ng st ruck by a mov i ng sw i ng or
2 700 mm (5 f t X 9 ft) w i de and 750 mm by another chi ld j ump i ng f rom a sl ide .
(30 in) high, and a sma l l tabl e for chi ldren
(or when used as a pi cni c tabl e) is 1 .2 m X 4 . Ca t ch Po ints and Prot rud i ng
2 .4 m (4 f t X 8 f t ) w i de and 750 mm (30 in) Hardware - There shou ld be no dan-
h igh . A l l ow 1 800 mm (6 ft) of unobst ruct - gerous pi eces of hardware , such as
ed space be tween tabl es or ad j acent faci l i - prot rud ing bol t ends and nar row gaps
t i es/st ructures . Thi s d i mens i on a l so serves in me ta l connect i ons or open "S"
the needs for access by those who are hooks at the top and bot tom of
hand i capped . sw i ngs . Exposed hardware can cut
chi ldren, punc ture sk in, or catch
c loth ing drawst r ings , wh i ch cou l d
13 .0 TOT LOTS AND st rangl e a chi ld .
PLAYGROUNDS
5 . Open i ngs that can t rap - Open i ngs in
3 .1 Genera l guardra i ls, and spaces be tween plat -
forms and be tween l adder rungs ,
Many exper ts advoca te a pl ay env i ronment shou ld measure less than 87 .5 mm
for chi ldren that prov ides oppor tuni t i es for (3 .5 in) or more than 225 mm (9 in) .
deve l opment of motor ski l ls, make-be l i eve , Ch i ldren can ge t t rapped and st rangl e
F i gure 520-59 . Wres t l i ng l ayout . bui lding, compet i t ions , and quiet , sol i tary in open i ngs where they can f i t the i r
act ivi t ies . Act ivi t ies that are l inked together bod i es but not the i r heads through
so that many chi ldren can use them s imul - the space .
12 .1 Danc i ng taneous l y are genera l l y prefer red to isolat -
ed apparatus . Safety both wi th in and out - 6 . Pinch, Crush, Shear ing, and Sharp
When folk or square danc i ng is done out - side of the p l ayground is impor tant , but an Hazards - Equ i pment shou l d not have
doors , it requi res a f lat and unobst ructed overemphas i s on safety measures can sharp points or edges that could cut
area of about 15 m X 30 m (50 f t X 100 f t) . some t i mes l ower the qua l i ty of the pl ay sk in . Mov i ng p i eces of equ i pment ,
Hardwood is the prefer red sur face for env i ronment . such as suspens i on br idges, t rack
danc i ng, but smooth concrete or other r ides, mer ry-go- rounds , or seesaws ,
types of hard pav i ng can be used . In some Sa f e t y Measu r es : shou l d not have exposed mov i ng
si tuat ions, a covered pavi l ion wi th a band The Consumer Product Safety Comm i ss i on par ts that mi ght crush or p inch a
pl at form, spec ia l l ight ing, and ampl i f i cat ion chi ld's f inger.
(CPSC) has conduc t ed cons i derab l e
equ i pment is more des i rabl e . research on p l ayground des ign and safety . 7 . Tr ipping Hazards - There shou ld be no
A recent publ i cat ion Ten Steps Toward a exposed concrete foot ings, abrupt
12 .2 Box i ng Safer P l ayground Fact Sheet #327 prov ides changes in sur face e l evat ions, t ree
The box i ng sur face shou ld be no more than informat ion p l anners and des igners shou ld roots, t ree stumps , and rocks, wh i ch
1 200 mm (4 f t ) of f the ground and 5 m X cons ider before under tak i ng p l ayground can tr ip chi ldren or adul ts .
8 m (16 f t X 24 f t ) in si ze wi th in the ropes, des ign :
plus 600 mm (2 f t) around al l edges . The 8 . Guardra i l s - El evated sur faces such as
1 . Protect i ve Sur fac ing - The sur faces pl at forms, ramps , and br idge ways
sur face shou ld be padded wi th 25 mm (1 under and around pl ay equ i pment shou ld have guardra i l s to prevent
in) of a st i f f cush i on i ng mater i a l covered shou ld be sof t enough to cush i on fal ls .
wi th canvas and l aced outs ide the apron of fal ls . For most pl ay equ i pment , these
the r ing (F igure 520-58) . sur faces shou ld conta in a m i n i mum of 9 . Rout i ne Ma i nt enance - Prov ide for a
300 mm (12 in) of wood chips, mu l ch, des ignated of f icial who per iodi ca l ly
12 .3 Wres t l i ng inspects the pl ay equ i pment and is
sand or pea grave l .
For internat iona l compet i t ion, the ma t is 12 respons ibl e for prevent i ve ma i nte-
mX12m(39 f t 3 i nX39 f t 3 i n) squa r e 2 . Fal l Zones - To cush i on a fal l , shock nance . Th i s inc ludes : repl ac ing mi ss-
wi th an inner ci rcle of 2 850 mm (9 f t 6 in) absorb i ng mater i a l shou ld extend a ing, broken, or worn-out compo-
in d i ame ter (F igure 520-59) . m i n i mum of 1 800 mm (6 ft) in al l nents ; secur ing hardware ; check i ng
di rect ions f rom stat ionary p i eces of for deter iorat ion in the wood , meta l ,
The p l at form may be raised 1 .1 m of f p l ay equ i pment . In f ront of and or plast ic mater i a l s ; ma inta in ing the
the f loor in internat iona l compet i t ion, but beh i nd swings , the mater i a l shou ld proper 12- i nch depth of sur fac ing
under NCAA rules, it must not be ra ised . extend a di stance equa l to twi ce the mater i a l ; and c l ean ing up debr i s .
he ight of the suspend i ng bar .
 520 - 2 6

10 . Superv i s i on - The p l ay area shou l d be ch i l dren in the des i gn process and commu - Go l f
des i gned so tha t adu l t s can observe n i ty vo l unt eers in cons t ruc t i on . Crea t i ng Na t i ona l Go l f Founda t i on
ch i l dren at p l ay . the p l ay env i ronmen t is done accord i ng to 1150 S . U .S . H i ghway 1
prof ess i ona l p l ans and spec i f i ca t i ons . (The Jup i ter , F l or i da 33477
The Na t i ona l Recrea t i on and Park
Commun i t y Bu i l t Assoc i a t i on , 99 E . Lake
Assoc i a t i on (NRPA) sponsors the Na t i ona l Road , I thi ca , N . Y. 14850) . U .S . Go l f Assoc i a t i on
P l ayground Sa f e t y Inst i tute . The Inst i tute Far Hi l ls, NJ 07931
prov i des nume rous p l ayground sa f e t y
RECREAT I ON & SPORTS
resources and v i deos and the l atest regu l a- Handba l l
ORGAN I ZAT I ONS
t i ons and des i gn gu i de l i nes pub l i shed by U .S . Handba l l Assoc i a t i on
the Access Boa rd . The Access Boa rd is 4101 Demps t e r St ree t
cha rged w i th prov i d i ng ass i s t ance to the The re are many organ i za t i ons and compa - Skok i e , IL 60076
Depa r t men t of Just i ce and the Na t i ona l n i es in the Un i t ed St a t es and t hroughou t
Park Serv i ce to i mp l emen t the Ame r i cans the wor l d tha t prov i de gu i de l i nes for the Hockey
W i t h D i sab i l i t i es Ac t (ADA) as app l i cab l e to p l ann i ng , des i gn , cons t ruc t i on , opera t i on , Ama t eur Hockey Assoc i a t i on of the U .S .
parks and p l aygrounds o f al l t ypes . and ma i n t enance of bo t h compe t i t i on- and 2997 Broadmoor Va l l ey Road
non- compe t i t i on- l eve l a th l e t i c fac i l i t i es . Co l orado Spr i ngs , CO 80906
Inspec t i ons : The l ist shown be l ow i nc l udes on l y U .S . -
based organ i za t i ons . In o ther par ts of the USA Hockey
Inspec t i on of p l aygrounds requ i res care fu l wor l d these gu i de l i nes may not app l y ; they Co l orado Spr i ngs , Co l o .
exam i na t i on of the equ i pmen t , the sur f ace shou l d there fore be checked aga i ns t loca l
and any re t a i n i ng wa l l s or edges to the I n l i ne Ska t i ng
cus t oms and prac t i ces .
p l ayground equ i pmen t area . Depend i ng Int erna t i ona l In- l i ne Ska t i ng Assoc i a t i on
upon t he na ture and use o f the equ i pmen t Badm i n t on 3720 Far ragut Ave , Su i t e 400
the i nspec t i on schedu l e may have to be U .S . Badm i n t on Assoc i a t i on Kens i ng ton , MD 20895
da i l y or week l y . Damaged equ i pmen t P . O . Box 237 Phone : (301) 942-9770
wh i ch canno t be repa i red on-s i t e shou l d be Swar t z Creek , M I 48473 Fax : (301) 942-9771
r emoved or con t a i ned in such a way tha t i t
canno t be used . Baseba l l , Babe Ru t h League I ce Ska t i ng
Babe Ru t h League , Inc . I ce Ska t i ng Inst i tute of Ame r i ca
D i mens i ons : P . O . Box 5000 1000 Skok i e Bou l evard
Prov i de sea t i ng for p l ay superv i sors , and Trenton , NJ 08638 W i l me t t e , IL 60091
s torage for l oose appara tus , ma i n t enance
equ i pmen t , e t c . To t lots genera l l y ave rage Baseba l l , L i t t l e League P l a t f orm Tenn i s
abou t 225 to 465 mz (2400 to 5000 f t ' ) in Li t t l e League Baseba l l , Inc . Ame r i can P l a t form Tenn i s Assoc i a t i on , I r
s i ze . Mor e comp l ex p l aygrounds , i nc l ud i ng P . O . Box 3485 P . O . Box 901
areas for paved cour ts , she l ter , a wad i ng W i l l i amspor t , PA 17701 Uppe r Mont c l a i r , NJ 07043
poo l , e t c ., ave rage 1 to 4 ha (2-1 / 2 to 10
Bocc i e , Croque t , Deck Tenn i s , Padd l e Tenn i s
acres) in s i ze .
Hor seshoes U .S . Padd l e Tenn i s Assoc i a t i on , Inc .
13 .2 Adven t ur e P l aygrounds Genera l Spor t Cra f t Co . , Ltd . 189 See l ey St ree t
e 140 Woodb i ne St ree t Brook l yn , NY 11218
Crea t i ve , j unk , or adven t ure p l aygrounds Bergenf i e l d , N1 07621
are genera l l y f enced areas wh i ch of f er ch i l - P l aygrounds
.
c dren a var i e ty of j unk bu i l d i ng supp l i es w i th Camp i ng The Commun i t y Bu i l d Assoc i a t i on
wh i ch to assemb l e for ts , p l ay equ i pmen t , Ame r i can Camp i ng Assoc i a t i on 99 E . Lake Road
e t c . Conce rns abou t th i s k i nd of p l ay- Brad ford Woods I thi ca , N .Y. 14850
c ground revo l ve a round sa f e t y and v i sua l Mar t i nsv i l l e , IN 46151
Ame r i can Soc i e t y for Tes t i ng Ma t er i a l s

s i mpac t . Bounda ry screen i ng is i mpor t ant ,

and genera l l y the ch i l d wi l l have a sa fer and
mor e educa t i ona l exper i ence unde r the eye
Croque t
See Bocce
1916 Race St ree t Ph i l ade l ph i a , PA 1910 --
1187
Phone : (215) 299-5585
Q of a superv i sor / he l per who can wa t ch ,
FAX : (215) 977-9679 .
check ou t too l s , and of fer he l p to young Exe r c i se Cour ses
bu i l ders . The Game f i e l d Concep t Consume r Produc t s Sa f e t y Comm i ss i on
2088 Un i on St ree t , Su i t e One Wash i ng t on , D . C .
13 . 3 Commun i t y - Bu i l t P l aygrounds San Franc i sco , CA 94123
O
Racque t ba l l
Th i s t ype of p l ayground i nvo l ves the com- Parcourse , Ltd .
U .S . Racque tba l l Assoc i a t i on
mun i t y in the des i gn , organ i za t i on and con- 3701 Buchanan St ree t
r 4101 Demps t e r St ree t
s t ruc t i on of the p l ayground . Vo l un t eers are San Franc i sco , CA 94123
c Skok i e , IL 60076
O organ i zed by a prof ess i ona l assoc i a t i on to Footba l l , Jun i or League
R i f l e and Pi sto l Ranges
cons t ruc t the p l ayground accord i ng to
des i gn spec i f i ca t i ons . Pop Wa rne r Footba l l Na t i ona l R i f l e Assoc i a t i on of Ame r i ca
1315 Wa l nu t St ree t Bu i l d i ng , Su i t e 606 1600 Rhode Is l and Ave ., N . W.
N The ma i n emphas i s of th i s wood-s t ruc - Ph i l ade l ph i a , PA 19107
Wash i ng t on , DC 20036
ture t ype p l ayground is the par t i c i pa t i on of
 520 - 27

Vanda l i a , OH 45377 Gabr i e l sen , M. A l exande r ( ed. ) . Sw i mm i ng

Ro l l er Ska t i ng
U .S . Ama t eur Con f ede ra t i on of Ro l l er Poo l s -A Gu i de to The i r P l ann i ng , Des i gn
Rem i ng t on Arms Co ., Inc . and Opera t i on , 4t h ed., Human K i ne t i cs ,
Ska t i ng Br i dgepor t , CT 06602 Champa i gn , IL, 1987 .
P . O . Box 83067
L i nco l n , NE 68501 Ga rd i ne r , Fredr i c M. W i ngs on the Ice,
Gene r a l
Yach t i ng Pub l i sh i ng Corpora t i on , New
Roque Int erna t i ona l Ama t eur Ath l e t i c Federa t i on
York , 1938 .
( IAAF )
Ame r i can Roque League , Inc . Hunsake r , D . J. , Des i gn Compend i um for
4205 Br i ar Cr eek Lane 162 Uppe r R i chmond Road
Putney , London SW152SL , Eng l and Compe t i t i on Sw i mm i ng and D i v i ng Poo l s ,
Da l l as , TX 75214 4th ed. , Na t i ona l Sw i mm i ng Poo l
Na t i ona l Co l l eg i a t e Ath l e t i c Assoc i a t i on Founda t i on , San An ton i o , TX, 1990 .
Shu f f l eboa rd
(NCAA) Hurdzan , M i chae l l ., Go l f Course
Ame r i can Shu f f l eboard Leagues , Inc .
210 Pa t erson P l ank Road NCAA Pub l i sh i ng Depa r t men t Arch i t ec ture : Des i gn , Cons t ruc t i on and
P . O . Box 1906 Res tora t i on , S l eep i ng Bea r Press , Che l sea ,
Un i on C i t y NJ 07087
M i ss i on , KS 66226 M l , 1996.
Skee t Ma l e , John W Snowmob i l i ng -The Gu i de ,
Na t i ona l Skee t Shoo t ers Assoc i a t i on Na t i ona l Federa t i on of St a t e H i gh Schoo l Macm i l l an , New York , 1971 .
P . O . Box 28188 Ath l e t i c Assoc i a t i ons
Menke , F r ank G. , and Pe t er Pa l me r The
San An ton i o , TX 78228 11724 P l aza Ci rc l e
Encyc l oped i a of Spor ts , A . S. Ba rnes , New
P . O . Box 20626
York , 1978 .
W i nches t e r -Wes t e rn Recrea t i ona l Shoo t i ng Kansas Ci ty , MO 64195
&Ma r ksmansh i p Depa r t men t 275 Pa t t erson , George R . ( ed.) . AAU Box i ng
W i nches t e r Avenue Ama t eur Ath l e t i c Un i on of the U .S . Ru l es , Ama t eur Ath l e t i c Un i on o f the
3400 Wes t 86t h St ree t Un i t ed Sta tes , New York , 1969 .
New Haven , CT 06504
Ind i anapo l i s , IN 46268 Pu t nam , Ha ro l d ( ed. ) . The Da r t mou t h Book
Sk i i ng of W i n t e r Spor ts , A. S. Ba rnes , New York ,
U .S . Sk i Assoc i a t i on Ame r i can A l l i ance for Hea l th , Phys i ca l 1939 .
P . O . Box 100 Educa t i on and Dance
Ru t l edge , A l ber t J. Ana t omy of a Park , 2nd
Park Ci ty , UT 84060 D i v i s i on of Gi r l s' and Women ' s Spor t s
ed., McGr aw-H i l l , New York , 1986.
1900 Assoc i a t i on Dr i ve
Sof tba l l Res ton , VA 22091 Tourb i er , J., and R . Wes t maco t t . Lakes and
Ama t eur Sof tba l l Assoc i a t i on Ponds , 2nd ed. , Urban Land Inst i tute ,
2801 Nor t h Eas t 50t h REFERENCES Wash i ng t on , DC , 1992 .
Ok l ahoma Ci ty , OK 73111 U rban Resea r ch and Deve l opmen t
Ar l ot t , John (ed) . The Ox f ord Compan i on Corpora t i on . Recrea t i on Car ry i ng Capac i t y
Spec i a l O l ymp i cs to Spor t s and Games , Ox f ord Un i vers i t y Handbook - Me t hods and Techn i ques for
Spec i a l O l ymp i cs , Inc . P l ann i ng Des i gn and Managemen t , pre -
Press , New York , 1975.
1701 K St reet , N . W . pa r ed for t he Ch i e f Eng i nee rs , U .S . Army ,
Benne t t , George W Managemen t of Lakes
Su i t e 203 Wash i ng t on , DC , 1980 .
and Ponds , 3rd ed. , Van Nos t r and v7
Wash i ng t on , DC 20006
Re i nho l d , New York , 1983 . Webs t e r ' s Spor t s D i c t i onary , Me r r i am-
Webs t er , Spr i ng f i e l d , MA , 1976 .
Speed Ska t i ng Cuddon , 1 . A . The Int erna t i ona l D i c t i onary
Ama t eur Ska t i ng Un i on o f t he U .S . of Spor t s and Games , Schocken Books , . C~
4423 Wes t Dem i ng P l ace New York , 1979 .
Ch i cago , IL 60639 Dav i dson , Ben. The Ska t eboa rd Book ,
c
Grosse t and Dun l ap , New York , 1979 .

se
Tenn i s
U .S . Lawn Tenn i s Assoc i a t i on D i agr am Group . The Of f i c i a l Wor l d
51 East 42nd St ree t Encyc l oped i a of Spor t s and Games , Ru t h
M i dg l ey ( ed. ) , Padd i ng t on Press , New
New York , NY 10017 Q
York , 1979 .
U .S . Tenn i s Assoc i a t i on Doe l l , C . E ., and L. F. Twa rdz i k . E l emen t s of
Educa t i on & Research Cen t e r
Pa rk and Recrea t i on Adm i n i s t ra t i on ,
739 A l exande r Road Burgess , M i nneapo l i s , MN , 1979 . n
Pr i nce ton , NJ 08540 O
Farmer , Pe t er l ., Spor t Fac i l i ty P l ann i ng and
Int erna t i ona l Tenn i s Federa t i on Managemen t , F i tness I n f orma t i on
Pa l l i ster Road , Ba rons Cour t London Techno l ogy , Inc., Morgan , WV , 1996 . r
W149EN
Fogg , George , E. Park P l ann i ng Gu i de l i nes ,
c
Te l ephone 44 171 381 8060 e
3rd Ed i t i on , Na t i ona l Soc i e t y for Park Ci e
FAX 44 171 381 3989 Resources , Ar l i ng t on , VA, 1990 .

Trapshoo t i ng Frost , Reuben B . (vo l . 1 ed .) . Encyc l oped i a

Ama t eur Trapshoo t i ng Assoc i a t i on o f Phys i ca l Educa t i on , F i tness and Spor ts , N
Add i son -Wes l ey , Read i ng , MA , 1985.
601 W. Na t i ona l Road
 F

SECT I ON ,.-

Poo l s and Foun t a i ns

Con t r i bu t or:
R i cha rd Cha i x
CMS Co l l abora t i ve
Ca rme l , Ca l i forn i a

I l l ust ra t i ons :
R i ck Br i ggs
Pres i den t
SCS Int erac t i ve
Spr i ngf i e l d , I l l inoi s
Rev i ewe rs :
Ange l a Danad j i eva
Danad j i eva and Koen i g Assoc i a t es
T i buron , Ca l i forn i a

Edwa rd Jane l l i , Sen i or Landscape

Arch i t ec t
Depa r t men t o f Pub l i c Wo r ks
C i t y o f San Franc i sco , Ca l i forn i a

E. By ron McCu l l ey
Amph i on Env i ronmen t a l , Inc .
Oak l and , Ca l i forn i a

Kev i n Shan l ey
The SWA Group

CONTENTS
1 .0 H i s tory 4 .0 Wa t e r Ef f ec ts 5 .0 Con t a i ne rs and St ruc tures

2 .0 Purpose o f Wa t e r D i sp l ays 4 .1 C l ass i f i ca t i on and Descr i pt i on 5.1 Env i ronmen t S

St i l l Wa t e r Sca l e n
2.1 Aes the t i c Fac tors
Mov i ng Wa t e r Se t t i ng
V i sua l
4 .2 Charac t er i s t i cs of Var i ous Ef f ec t s Topogr aphy
Psycho l og i ca l n
4 .3 App l i ca t i ons C l i ma t e
Aud i t ory
4 . 4 Des i gn Suppor t Med i um O
Sensory Ef f ec ts
Des i gn Cr i ter i a for Va r i ous Ef f ec t s Sur round i ng Ma t er i a l s
2. 2 Func t i ona l Reasons
Accommoda t i ons of Mechan i ca l 5. 2 Cons t ruc t i on Budge t
Recrea t i on
Sys t em 5. 3 Ma t er i a l s n
C i rcu l a t i on Con t ro l
4 . 5 Max i m i za t i on o f Wa t e r Ef f ec t Na t i ve Soi l and C l ay
Ut i l i tar i an
Trans i t T i me Conc re t e _N
3 . 0 Wa t e r
A i r En t ra i nmen t St one
3 .1 Quant i f i ca t i on Br i ck
O
Readab i l i t y O
Capac i t y 4. 6 Op t i m i za t i on o f Wa t e r Ef f ec t Wood , Me t a l , and F i berg l ass
F l owra t e Gr aph i c and Mode l Stud i es 5 . 4 Cross-Sec t i ona l Con f i gura t i on
Pressure Obse rva t i on o f Preceden t Re l a t i onsh i p to P l aza Leve l
3 . 2 Wa t e r Qua l i t y Pro to t ype Tes t i ng Edge Cond i t i ons
Supp l y F i e l d Ad j us t men t Dep t h , Freeboard , and C l earance fn
Chem i ca l Trea t men t f rom D i sp l ays
B i o l og i ca l Ba l ance
 530- 2
5. 5 Wa t erproof i ng F l owra t e M i n i mi za t i on of Hardware
On-Grade Head Sh i e l d i ng the Source
On-St ruc ture Ne t Pos i t i ve Suct i on Head Se l ect i on Sa fety Requ i rement s
6 .0 Opera t i ng Sys t ems 7 .4 P i p i ng Ma t er i a l s 9 .0 Cont ro l s
6.1 Submers i b l e Sys t ems Po l yv iny l Ch l or i de 9 .1 Cont ro l Dev i ces
6. 2 Remo t e Sys t ems Copper Se l ector Sw i t ch
6 . 3 Equ i pmen t Space Red Brass
Pi lot Light
E l evat i on Stee l Mo t or Star ter , Contac tor , Re l ay
Loca t i on Duct i l e or Cas t I ron T i me De l ay Re l ay
Si ze and Conf i gura t i on 7. 5 P i pe S i z i ng T i me Sw i t ch
Accommoda t i ons 7. 6 F i t t ings, Va l ves , and St ra i ners
Pressure Sw i t ch
6 .4 Al terna t i ve Wa t er D i sp l ay Sys t em 7. 7 Poo l Hardware
F l ow Sw i t ch
6 .5 Suppor t Sys t ems Re turn F i t t ing Leve l Sensor
Fi l ter Sys t em Supp l y F i t t ing W i nd Sensor
F i l l /Makeup and F i l l /Makeup F i t t ing 9 .2 Pump Cont ro l
Over f l ow/ Dra i n Sys t ems Over f l ow F i t t ing
9. 3 Shu t down Cont ro l
7 .0 Equ i pmen t and P i p i ng Se l ec t i on Dra i n F i t t ings C l ogged Re turn
F in i shes
7.1 D i sp l ay Pump No F l ow
8.0 Fount a i n L i ght i ng 9. 4 L i ght i ng Cont ro l
F l owra t e
Head 8 .1 Day l i ght i ng 9. 5 W i nd Cont ro l
Ne t Pos i t i ve Suc t i on Head 8 .2 F l ood l i ght i ng 9. 6 Wa t er Leve l Cont ro l
Pump Se l ect i on 8 .3 Underwa t er L i ght i ng 9. 7 Sequenc i ng
7. 2 Fount a i n F i l ters 8 .4 Des i gn Pr inc ip l es Re f erences
7. 3 F i l ter Pump 8 .5 Insta l l at ion
Ci i hmp r c i nn

1 . 0 H I STORY and d i sp l ays , and the mood fur ther de f i ned secur i ty or s i mp l y to promo t e an order l y
or re i nforced by appropr i a t e l i ght i ng .

C
progress i on t hrough a space .
on t empor a r y wa t e r d i sp l ays re l y
heav i l y on h i stor i c preceden t , w i th Psycho l og i ca l : Ut i l i t ar i an :
e l emen t s usua l l y abs t rac t ed to sat i s- I t is an essent i a l aspec t o f human behav i or Prac t i ca l app l i ca t i ons for wa t e r d i sp l ays
fy broade r des i gn and env i ronmen t a l con-
to be dr awn t owa rd a r i verbank , l ake edge , i nc l ude the i r use as a f i re f i ght i ng or i r r iga-
st ra i nts . H i stor i ca l mode l s r ange f rom or seashore . We e i ther l i ve near wa t e r or t i on reservo i r , as a re t ent i on pond for s i te
anc i ent i r r i ga t i on sys t ems to orna t e d i sp l ays convey i t to whe r e we l ive, us i ng cana l s or dra i nage , or as a means for coo l i ng a i r
w i th i n fount a i ns . O f t en , mode rn d i sp l ays
p i pe l i nes . Our f ood supp l y l i kew i se and / or mechan i ca l equ i pmen t .
are mode l ed a f t er f ree f l ow i ng s t reams and depends upon wa t e r for growt h and sust e-
fa l l s w i th i n na tura l se t t i ngs .
nance . 3 . 0 WATER
2 . 0 WATER D I SPLAY PURPOSE Aud i t or y . 3 .1 Quan t i f i ca t i on
2 .1 Aes t he t i c Fac t ors The i nt ens i ty and f requency o f the sound Three un i ts of measur e are used to de f i ne
genera t ed by a wa t e r d i sp l ay can be used wa t e r used for a d i sp l ay .
A des i gner usua l l y i ncorpora t es wa t e r i nto a to convey a sense of ca l m or exc i t emen t ,
space as a v i sua l e l emen t . The aes the t i c and can a l so mask unp l easan t or d i st rac t i ng Capac i t y .
qua l i t i es of wa t er , howeve r , reach f ar amb i en t no i se .
beyond the v i sua l aspec t due to t he docu- The vo l ume of wa t e r in a sys t em is usu-
men t ed psycho l og i ca l e f f ec ts of wa t e r as a Sensor y E f f ec t s: a l l y expressed in l i ters (L) or ga l l ons (ga l ) .
me t aphor and as a phys i ca l f ac tor prov i d i ng When des i gn i ng a wa t e r d i sp l ay , i t is use fu l
A i rborne spray and evapora t i on f rom wa t e r to know tha t 1 m 3 of wa t e r is equa l to
sound , and c l i ma t i c mod i f i ca t i on . The
d i sp l ays cause a coo l i ng e f f ec t . Drop l e t s 304 . 63 L (1 f t ' is equa l to 7 . 48 ga l ) .
sound of wa t e r and the coo l ness assoc i a t ed
and sprays f rom act i ve , aera t ed d i sp l ays are
n w i th be i ng nea r or touch i ng wa t e r are
par t i cu l ar l y e f f ec t i ve . F l owr a t e :
Cd equa l l y a par t of our emo t i ona l response to
n
wa t e r in the env i ronmen t . 2 . 2 Func t i ona l Reasons The amoun t of wa t e r f l ow i ng t hrough or
c i rcu l a t i ng w i th i n a sys t em is expressed as a
O V i sua l : Poo l s a l so may be i n t roduced or used sec- vo l ume per un i t t i me , usua l l y cub i c me t ers
Wa t e r can func t i on as a foca l po i nt w i th i n a ondar i l y for the fo l l ow i ng func t i ona l rea- per second (m 3 / s ) or ga l l ons per m i nu t e
space or as a means of crea t i ng and ma i n- sons : (gpm) . F l owra t e is pe rhaps bes t under -
n s t ood by th i s compa r i son : a ga rden hose
a t a i n i ng a sense o f cont i nu i t y. A wa t e r d i s- Rec r ea t i on :
p l ay can s t rong l y t empe r the charac t er o f a d i scharges abou t 25 Lpm (7 gpm) , a f i re
space . A sense of ca l m and seren i t y is cre- Poo l s may be des i gned for wad i ng , sw i m- hose abou t 560 Lpm (150 gpm) , and a
O sheared-o f f f i re hydran t abou t 3 750 Lpm
O a t ed by a qu i e t s t ream or poo l , wh i l e m i ng , f i sh i ng , boa t i ng , or j us t wa t e r p l ay , as
a exc i t emen t and dr ama can be ach i eved by w i th par t i c i pa tory wa t e r d i sp l ays . (1000 gpm) .
sw i f t l y mov i ng , dense l y massed , or s t rong-
C i rcu l a t i on Con t ro l : Pr essur e :
ly ver t i ca l d i sp l ays . The l eve l of forma l i t y
3 wi l l be i nf l uenced by the f orms of the poo l s Poo l s may be used to d i rec t or i nt er rupt In U . S . un i ts , pressure is usua l l y
t raf f i c pa t t erns for reasons of sa f e t y or expressed in t e rms of pounds per squa re
 530 - 3

i nch (ps i ) or f ee t of wa t e r co l umn . Th i s is

mor e common l y ca l l ed f ee t o f head . The
re l a t i onsh i p , or the concept , is probab l y Tab l e 530-1 . WATER EFFECT CLASS I F I CAT I ON
bes t unde rs t ood as the we i gh t of a co l umn
of wa t e r ove r a un i t area . Cons i de r tha t 1
f t ' of wa t e r we i ghs (62 . 4 lb .) I f the we i gh t
of a co l umn of wa t e r 1 f t h i gh is d i s t r i but ed
over a base area of 1 f t ' , i t wi l l exer t a pres-
sure of 62 .4 pounds per square foot (psf ) ,
or 0 .43 ps i . Rec i proca l l y , 1 ps i is equa l to
2 .31 f ee t of head . These are conven i en t
numbe r s t o r emembe r when se l ec t i ng
va l ves , f i t t ings, and p i p i ng , some of wh i ch
are re l a ted in f ee t of head , others in psi .

3 . 2 Wa t e r Qua l i t y
The qua l i ty of the wa t e r in a poo l or f oun-
ta i n is de t e rm i ned by the na ture of the sup-
p l y and the ex t ent of f i l t rat ion, chem i ca l
t rea tment , and / or b i o l og i ca l ba l ance .

Supp l y:
The mos t common source of supp l y is the
p i ped domes t i c wa t e r sys t em . A l t erna t i ve
sources i nc l ude we l l s , spr i ngs , s t reams , and
o ther na tura l bod i es of wa t e r .
Domes t i c wa t e r is usua l l y f i l tered and
chem i ca l l y t rea t ed and is su i tab l e as de l i v-
ered . Wa t e r f rom a we l l , spr i ng, or s t ream can
i nc l ude excess i ve m i nera l s and organ i c nut r i -
ent s and may requ i re chem i ca l t rea tment . v i de some of the ca rbon d i ox i de for pho t o- ty, wh i l e spou t i ng wa t e r re fers to wa t e r d i s-
synthes i s . cha rged or d i sp l aced unde r pressure , coun-
Chem i ca l Trea t men t :
t er i ng or comp l emen t i ng grav i t a t i ona l
Ch l or i na t i on l eve l s in t he range of 1 to 2 4 . 0 WATER EFFECTS movemen t . Th i s l at ter ca t egory i nc l udes
par ts per mi l l i on (ppm) shou l d be ma i n- waves and spou t s ( j ets) of wa t e r . The wave
t a i ned as a m i n i mum . Occas i ona l super - 4 .1 C l ass i f i ca t i on and Desc r i p t i on e f fect , wh i l e a v i ab l e a l t erna t i ve v i sua l l y
ch l or i na t i on or shock t rea tmen t w i t h an and mechan i ca l l y , has no t been w i de l y
Tab l e 530-1 prov i des a f r amewor k for d i s-
a l gac i de may be requ i red for a l gae cont ro l . app l i ed because of the excess i ve ene rgy
cuss i on o f wa t e r e f f ec ts . These e f f ec ts are
O t he r chem i ca l s may have to be added to requ i remen t s and the cons i derab l e bu l k of
typ i ca l l y grouped i nto t wo bas i c ca t egor i es :
m i t i ga t e concent ra t i ons of m i nera l s , par t i c- the ac t i va t i ng mechan i sms . Fa l l i ng wa t e r
(1) st i l l wa t e r and (2) mov i ng wa t e r
u l ar l y ca l c i um and i ron . The need for any may be fur ther ca t egor i zed as f ree- fa l l i ng,
(F i gures 530-1 t hrough 530-5) .
t rea t men t beyond t he ma i n t enance of f l ow i ng , or cascad i ng .
ch l or i ne res i dua l is genera l l y emp i r i ca l l y St i l l Wa t e r : Free-Fa i l i ng Wa t e r : Free- f a l l i ng wa t e r
de t e rm i ned and shou l d be adm i n i s t ered
The cont a i ner de f i nes the f orm assumed by moes ver t i ca l l y w i t hou t con t ac t i ng any sur -
on l y a f t er consu l t a t i on w i th wa t e r t reat -
t he wa t e r . The f in i sh of the unde rwa t e r sur - f aces and is mos t o f t en expressed as a ful l
men t spec i a l i sts and a f ter cons i dera t i on of
f aces and the cond i t i on of the wa t e r at the shee t (F i gure 530-2) . Dec reas i ng t he n
i ts compa t i b i l i t y w i th poo l p i p i ng , hard-
sur f ace i nf l uence the u l t i ma t e e f f ec t . A dark f l owra t e produces a ra i n l i ke broken shee t . . . R3
ware , and f i n i shes and w i th gove rnmen t a l
poo l f i n i sh w i th an und i s turbed sur f ace wi l l O t he r var i a t i ons i nc l ude obs t ruc t i ng the G
s t andards regu l a t i ng over f l ow or e f f l uent s
func t i on as a ref l ector , wh i l e a d i s turbed we i r per i od i ca l l y to f orm an i nt er rupt ed
f rom the dra i n sys t ems .
sur f ace is a t ex ture . A l i ght -co l ored and / or shee t or supp l y i ng wa t e r beh i nd an or i f i ce O
B i o l og i ca l Ba l ance : pa t t erned poo l f i n i sh w i th an und i s turbed to f orm a grav i ty spou t .
sur f ace wi l l func t i on as a w i ndow , wh i l e a
Stat i c wa t e r may be kep t f resh by promo t - F l ow i ng wa t e r is, by cont rast , cons t ant l y n
d i s turbed sur f ace wi l l ac t as a mod i f i er , in cont ac t w i th the cont a i ner. A ver t i ca l l y or i -
i ng b i o l og i ca l ba l ance t hrough the use of i mpar t i ng a dynam i c qua l i ty to the sub-
f i sh and aqua t i c p l ant s . P l ant s need to pho- en t ed f l ow crea t es a wa t erwa l l (F i gure 530-
me rged sur f ace . A l ight , unpa t t e rned f i n i sh 3) . A smoo t h p l ane or the resu l t ant smoo t h
tosynthes i ze ca rbon d i ox i de in the presence O
wi l l emphas i ze wa t e r c l ar i ty . wa t erwa l l wi l l der i ve on l y subt l e h i gh l i ghts O
of l i ght in order to grow. Th i s re l eases oxy-
gen i nto the wa t e r and s t arves ou t l owe r Mov i ng Wa t e r : f rom the mov i ng wa t e r . A t ex tured p l ane wi l l

0
p l ant s such as a l gae by v i r tue of compe t i - ent ra i n a i r and genera t e an aera t ed wa t er -
The re are t wo subca t egor i es w i th i n th i s wa l l . A hor i zont a l l y or i ent ed f l ow crea t es a
3
t i on . The oxygen promo t es wa t e r c l ar i ty
and sus t a i ns the f i sh . The f i sh in turn fer t i l - c l ass i f i ca t i on . Fa l l i ng wa t e r re fers to wa t e r s t ream . A f l at cont a i ner of un i form w i d t h wi l l
i ze the p l ants , keep down pests , and pro- mov i ng so l e l y unde r t he i nf l uence o f grav i - crea t e a qu i e t s t ream s i mi l ar to a body of st i l l Lé ï
 530- 4
Charac t er i s t i cs are sub j ec t i ve l y ra t ed on
a sca l e of 1 to 4 : poor or nom i na l , fa i r or
l ow , good or modera t e , and exce l l ent or
subs t ant i a l .

A nom i na l sound l eve l is bare l y percept i -

b l e aga i ns t the amb i en t l eve l a t an urban
p l aza or shopp i ng ma l l . A mode r a t e sound
l eve l is one tha t ranges up to 75 dec i be l s
(dB) , or rough l y the l eve l o f sound w i th i n
the cab i n of a comme rc i a l j et p l ane . At the
ex t reme , l arge f ree- f a l l i ng d i sp l ays may
gene ra t e sound l eve l s as h i gh as 90 dB .
Obv i ous l y , such l eve l s are no t appropr i a t e
for i nter i or spaces or for areas whe r e peo-
p l e m i gh t wan t to converse .

A nom i na l sp l ash m i gh t a f fect a 600 mm

(2 f t ) rad i us , wh i l e the substant i a l c l ass i f i ca-
t i on ranges to a rad i us of 3 000 mm (10 f t ) .

An ene rgy budge t mus t be cons i dered ,

un l ess the sys t ems do no t requ i re mo t ors to
opera t e t hem . A sma l l , mode ra t e l y ac t i ve
sys t em may requ i re a pump of 4 .9 to 9 .8
horsepowe r (hp) (5 to 10 emp i r i ca l hp) . At
a l arge sca l e , w i th cons i derab l e act i v i ty , t he
pump i ng horsepowe r m i gh t range to 398
hp (400 emp i r i ca l hp) or mor e . A l arger sys-
t em may cos t 40 t i mes mor e annua l l y to
opera t e t han the sma l l sys t em .
Vi s ibi l i ty and w i nd stabi l i ty are sub j ec t to
even mor e var i ab l es ; accord i ng l y , the ra t i ngs
F i gur e 530 -1 . St i l l -wa t er e f f ec t s .
shou l d be cons i dered as re l at i ve , under -
wa t e r . A turbu l ent s t ream is der i ved by t i on . A c l ear -co l umn e f f ec t is a st ra i ght , s t and i ng tha t cons i derab l e over l ap may
i ncreas i ng the f l owra t e and / or man i pu l a t i ng c l ear , ver t i ca l j et comp l emen t ed by ve i l i ng accrue to comb i na t i ons of these var i ab l es .
the s i des of the cont a i ner . per i phera l f a l l back . An aera t ed mass is a
s t rong , turbu l ent , wh i t ewa t e r j et produced
4 .3 App l i ca t i ons
Cascad i ng wa t e r is a comb i na t i on of by comb i n i ng a i r and / or poo l wa t e r w i th St i l l wa t e r is a cons i dera t i on in v i r tua l l y any
f l ow i ng and fa l l i ng wa t e r . A cascad i ng t he pr i mary s t ream, us i ng a ventur i to
wa t erwa l l d i f fers f rom a smoo t h or aera t ed poo l or fount a i n des i gn , even in those tha t
accomp l i sh the i nduc t i on . Th i s e f f ec t com- are no t i n t ended pr i mar i l y as st i l l or re f l ec-
wa t erwa l l in the sense tha t wa t e r moves pr i ses three bas i c prof i l es and assumes one t i ve poo l s . Mos t des i gns us i ng mov i ng
ove r a t ex ture compr i sed o f pro j ec t i ng of three f orms : hem i spher i ca l , con i ca l , or wa t e r i ncorpora t e st i l l areas as a comp l e -
f orms of suf f i c i ent d i mens i on to d i ver t the
co l umna r . Sprays der i ve the i r f orm us i ng men t a ry e l emen t , and a t t ent i on shou l d be
f l ow l atera l l y or to cause i t to spr i ng f ree of drop l e t s ra ther than a s t ream or shee t . They g i ven to the appea r ance and func t i on o f al l
the ver t i ca l sur f ace , thereby resu l t i ng in a are ava i l ab l e in p l anar f orms s i mi l ar to i rr i - poo l s when the d i sp l ay sys t em is no t oper -
pa t t ern of f ree- f a l l i ng wa t er , f l ow i ng wa t er , ga t i on heads or in so l id f orm f rom near p l a- a t i ng . St i l l wa t e r as a pr i mary e l emen t may
and dry areas . A s t epped- f orm cascade nar descr i pt i on to so l i d cones of 120 be used in qu i e t , pass i ve areas to re i nforce
n d i rec ts wa t e r over an i r regu l ar l y s t epped degrees overa l l spread . Shee t e f f ec ts are a sense of t ranqu i l i ty , or in ac t i ve areas to
-a s t ruc ture wh i ch may vary f rom a r andom gene ra t ed by forc i ng the wa t e r t hrough a i mpar t a sense of forma l i t y.
ar ray of na tura l s t one to a prec i se , geome t - f ine , l i near or i f i ce to genera t e such f orms as
lC r ic, of t en scu l ptura l e l emen t . A s t epped- mushrooms , morn i ng g l or i es , fans , and Free- f a l l i ng d i sp l ays and s t eep cascades
O p l ane cascade , typ i f i ed by the wa t erst a i r , can prov i de a h i gh l eve l of act i v i ty, visibi l i -
dande l i ons (F i gure 530-5) .
prov i des a cont ro l l ed , mor e arch i t ec tura l ty, and sound in a l i mi ted area . For fa l l s of
d i sp l ay , vary i ng f rom h i gh l y aera t ed to pre- 4 .2 Charac t er i s t i cs o f Va r i ous Ef f ec t s 1 000 mm (3 f t ) or less, a f ree- f a l l i ng ful l
n dom i nan t l y c l ear as the d i mens i ons of the shee t , an i nt er rupt ed shee t , or spou t s are
t read i ncrease . St epped poo l s prov i de mor e Tab l e 530-2 l ists charac ter i st i cs for each genera l l y pre f erab l e . An i nt er rupt ed shee t ,
cont ro l and g i ve a mor e forma l appea rance t ype of d i sp l ay , or e f f ec t . I t shou l d be rea l - spouts , a wa t erwa l l , or a cascade wi l l pro-
O w i t h l ess aera t i on t han o ther cascad i ng d i s- i zed tha t these eva l ua t i ons are bo t h gener - v i de a d i sp l ay of equa l or grea t er v i s ibi l i ty
O p l ays (F i gure 530-4) . a l i zed and sub j ec t i ve and tha t a par t i cu l ar for grea t er he i ghts , wh i l e a f ford i ng cons i d-
a charac ter i st i c for any d i sp l ay can be re i n- erab l e ene rgy sav i ngs , l ess sp l ash , grea t er
Spou t i ng Wa t e r : Spou t i ng wa t e r re l i es forced . For examp l e , an i ncreased f l owra t e w i nd stabi l i ty, and a sound qua l i ty mor e
on ext erna l l y app l i ed force to d i rec t wa t e r wi l l i mprove the visibi l i ty, sound l eve l , and appropr i a t e to con f i ned or i nter i or spaces .
3 t hrough an or i f i ce or nozz l e and , wor k i ng w i nd stab i l i ty but adverse l y a f f ec t the sp l ash Free- fa l l s are appropr i a t e for i nsta l l at i ons a t
w i th grav i ty , f orms a j et of some con f i gura - na f t arn and ana ruv a f f i r i anrv of a d i tn l av .
 530- 5

F i gure 530-2 . Free- f a l l i ng wa t e r e f f ec t s . F i gure 530-3 . F l ow i ng wa t e r e f f ec t s .

s
n

n
O

n
a
_N
O
O

F i gure 530-4. Cascad i ng wa t e r e f f ec t s . F i gure 530-5. Spou t i ng wa t e r e f f ec t s . 3

 530 - 6

Tab l e 530-2 . WATER EFFECT CHARACTER I ST I CS

Ef f ec t Cont ro l l i ng Vi s i b i l i ty Sound Sp l ash W i nd Ene rgy

Var i ab l es Leve l s St ab i l i t y Ef f i c i ency

FOOL EFFECTS - CHARACTER I ST I CS

REFLECTOR Da rk cont a i ner or . Good None None Exce l l ent Exce l l ent
sha l l ow v i ew i ng ang l e
W I NDOW L i ght cont a i ner. Fa i r None None Exce l l ent Exce l l ent
St eep v i ew i ng ang l e

TEXTURE Da rk cont a i ner or Good Nom i na l None un l ess d i sturb- Exce l l ent Exce l l ent , un l ess
sha l l ow v i ew i ng ang l e . ance is ex t reme ance is ex t reme
Sur f ace d i s turbance .
( i .e . waves)

ACT I VATOR L i ght cont a i ner and Fa i r Nom i na l None un l ess d i sturb- Exce l l ent Exce l l ent
s t eep v i ew i ng ang l e . ance is ex t reme
Mode r a t e sur f ace
d i s turbance .
FALL EFFECTS - CHARACTER I ST I CS

FULL SHEET Con t i nuous we i r . Good Low to h i gh w i th Mode ra t e to sub- Good Poor
Mode ra t e to h i gh i ncreas i ng f l ow rate stant i a l w i th i ncreas i ng
un i t f l ow rate . and he i ght f l ow rate and he i ght

I NTERRUPTED Int ermi t t ent we i r . Good Mode ra t e Subst ant i a l Good Good
SHEET Mode ra t e to h i gh
un i t f l ow rate .

BROKEN SHEET Con t i nuous we i r . Fa i r Low Mode ra t e Fa i r Good

Low un i t f l ow rate .

SPOUT Ci rcu l ar d i scharge open i ng . Good Mode ra t e Subst ant i a l Good Good

FLOW EFFECTS - CHARACTER I ST I CS

SMOOTH Po l i shed wa l l sur f ace . Fa i r Low None Exce l l ent Exce l l ent
WATERWALL Low un i t f l ow rate .

AERATED Tex tured wa l l sur f ace . Exce l l ent Mode ra t e Mode ra t e Good Good
WATERWALL Mode ra t e to h i gh
un i t f l ow rate .
QU I ET STREAM Low s t ream ve l oc i ty. Fa i r Nom i na l None Exce l l ent Exce l l ent
Sha l l ow shape.
Gradua l changes in
d i rec t i on .
TURBULENT H i gh s t ream ve l oc i ty . Good Low Nom i na l Exce l l ent Exce l l ent
STREAM St eep s l ope .
Abrup t changes
in d i rec t i on
CASCADE EFFECTS - CHARACTER I ST I CS

CASCAD I NG Ver t i ca l or i enta t i on . Good Mode ra t e Subst ant i a l Good Good

WATERFALL Ex t reme t exture.

STEPPED FORMS Random l y s t epp i ng Exce l l ent Mode ra t e Mode ra t e Good Good
S f orms or i r regu l ar s t eps
s l op i ng mor e than 1 :1 .
n Mode ra t e to h i gh
un i t f l ow rate .
4-4
n WATER-STA I RS Regu l ar s t eps s l op i ng Exce l l ent Mode ra t e Mode ra t e Good Good
mor e than 1 :1 .
Mode ra t e uni t f l ow rate .

STEPPED POOLS Random or regu l ar l y Good Mode ra t e Mode ra t e Exce l l ent Good

c s t epped poo l s .
Mode ra t e to h i gh
un i t f l ow rate .
_N

3
Lr l
 530-T
Tab l e 530 - 2 . WATER EFFECTS CHARACTER I ST I CS ( con t i nued)

E f f ec t Con t ro l l i ng Visibi l i ty Sound Sp l ash W i nd Ene rgy

Va r i ab l es Leve l s St ab i l i t y E f f i c i ency
JET EFFECTS - CHARACTER I ST I CS
CLEAR COLUMN Ci rcul ar d i scharge Good Modera t e Substant i a l Fa i r to poor Fai r
open i ng . w i th increas ing
M i n i ma l turbu l ence he i ght
in st ream .
AERATED MASS Ai r i nt roduced Exce l l ent Modera t e Modera t e Fai r to good Good
into st ream . w i th increas ing
Mass broadens wi th he ight
increas ing turbu l ence
in st ream .
SPRAY D i scharge passage Good Low Nomi na l Genera l l y poor - Exce l l ent
breaks st ream into var i es w i th drop l et
drop l ets s i ze

SHEET Linear d i scharge Good Low Nomi na l Poor to fai r wi th Good

open i ng . increas ing shee t
M i n i mum turbu l ance th i ckness
in st ream .

S
n

F i gure 530-6 . St i l l -wa t er des i gn . F i gure 530-7 . Free- f a l l i ng or cascad i ng shee t des i gn .
M
 530 - 8
even grea t er he i ght s wh i ch are to be seen
t hrough or v i ewed f rom bo t h s i des , or in
s i tua t i ons requ i r i ng a h i gher l eve l o f sound .

Smoo t h wa t erwa l l s and broken shee t s

have l i mi ted app l i ca t i on . A broken shee t is
genera l l y a comp l emen t a ry or secondary
e l emen t . A smoo t h wa t erwa l l is l i mi ted to
c l ose v i ew i ng , excep t for very l arge area
app l i ca t i ons , and does not genera t e any s ig-
n i f i cant sound . In some insta l l at ions the
sound l eve l can be i ncreased by f ree- fa l l i ng a
shor t d i s t ance be l ow the smoo t h wa t erwa l l .

F l at ter cascades and s t reams are used to

prov i de a sense of cont i nu i t y to arch i t ec tur -
al and / or l andscape e l emen t s and to d i rec t
or i nt er rupt t raf f i c pa t t erns .

Spou t i ng wa t e r prov i des ver t i ca l i ty and

sound in a f l at poo l and a sense o f source
or beg i nn i ng to f ree- fa l l i ng, f l ow i ng , or cas-
cad i ng d i sp l ays . Group i ngs o f j ets can be
organ i zed to prov i de dynam i c , scu l ptura l
compos i t i ons . Je ts are a l so used func t i ona l -
ly in l akes and ponds to i mprove wa t e r
qua l i ty t hrough aera t i on .

4 . 4 Des i gn

St i l l wa t e r e f f ec ts are a func t i on of cont a i n-

er conf i gura t i on , co lor , ma t er i a l , the inf lu-
ence of w i nd or mechan i ca l l y genera t ed
act i v i ty a t the wa t e r sur f ace , and of the si t -
i ng of the poo l in re l a t i on to ver t i ca l e l e-
men t s in the i mmed i a t e env i ronmen t .

The cont a i ner may convey a sense of

forma l i t y by v i r tue of a regu l ar geome t r i c
conf i gura t i on or by the use of a cut , po l -
i shed s tone for edge ma t er i a l . Converse l y , a
f ree - f orm cont a i ner w i th an edge of p l ant
ma t er i a l or na tura l s tone appears qu i t e
i nforma l . I f the poo l is nonre f l ec t i ve , the
bo t t om ma t er i a l s may be ar t i cu l a t ed in a
scu l ptura l f ash i on or as a mura l w i th care-
fu l l y des i gned pa t t erns of t i le, pavers , or
cobb l es . A f i ner t ex ture (sma l l er un i ts) wi l l
make be t t er use of sur f ace r i pp l i ng and
re f l ec t ed sun l i ght .
n
. R3 Re f l ec t i v i ty is gene ra t ed by dark cont a i n-
n er sur f aces or opaque wa t er , wh i ch absorb
ra ther than re f l ect l i ght in con j unc t i on w i th
O an und i s turbed wa t e r sur f ace . The poo l
mus t be s i ted to ref l ect the des i red ver t i ca l
e l emen t s a t l og i ca l observer pos i t i ons , as
n i l l ust rated in F i gure 530-6 . Opaque wa t e r
n3
can be ach i eved by us i ng dyes or a l l ow i ng
the cont ro l l ed growt h of a l gae and p l ant s in
O
a b i o l og i ca l l y ba l anced sys t em . A d i s turbed
O sur f ace may be gene ra t ed by preva i l i ng
w i nds or can be i n t roduced mechan i ca l l y by
F i gur e 530 -8 . Wa t e rwa l l des i gn ( t ex t ured and smoo t h ) . emp l oy i ng sma l l , c l ose l y spaced j ets, a i med
0 hor i zonta l l y , nea r the sur f ace o f the wa t e r .
3
 530- 9
sp l ash shou l d be pro j ec t ed for the h i ghes t
f ree- fa l l .

St reams , l i ke st i l l wa t er , assume a f orm

de f i ned by the cont a i ner whe r eby the f orm
pr i mar i l y de t e rm i nes the l eve l of act i v i ty .
F i gure 530-10 shows f i ve ways to i ncrease
the l eve l of act i v i ty by i ncreas i ng t he ve l oc -
i ty and / or i nt roduc i ng turbu l ence wh i ch
i ncreases the v i s ibi l i ty and sound l eve l in a
s t ream .

The charac t er and f l ow requ i remen t of a

wa t erwa l l wi l l be de t e rm i ned by t he f in i sh
of t he ma t er i a l ove r wh i ch the wa t e r f l ows .
A very smoo t h sur f ace such as g l ass , shee t
me t a l , or po l i shed s tone ach i eves max i mum
visibi l i ty, us i ng the sur f ace t ens i on of the
ma t er i a l to crea t e a s t and i ng wave e f f ec t
w i th a very nom i na l f l ow . Too much f l ow
wi l l subst ant i a l l y reduce the v i s ibi l i ty. An
i nt ermed i a t e t ex ture such as t rowe l ed con-
cre t e or therma l - f i n i sh s tone a l so reduces
v i s ibi l i ty by mode ra t i ng t he e f f ec t of sur -
f ace t ens i on . The m i n i mum t extura l ar t i cu-
l at i on requ i red t o gene ra t e an aera t ed
wa t erwa l l is on the order of 5 to 10 mm
(1 / 4 to 3 / 8 in) , and the t rans i t i ons mus t be
suf f i c i ent l y abrup t to en t rap a i r. The mos t
common and pred i c t ab l e me t hod to
ach i eve th i s t extura l qua l i ty is exposed
aggrega t e concre t e , us i ng care fu l l y gr aded
aggrega t e w i th the ma t r i x re t arded 5 to 10
mm (1 / 4 to 3 / 8 in) . O t he r me t hods i nc l ude
bush-hamme r ed concre t e or s tone , cor -
be l l ed br i ck or t i le, and hor i zont a l saw cut s
w i th r andom areas broken ou t .
F i n i shes at j o i nts in we i rs and wa t erwa l l
sur f aces shou l d be as near l y f l ush as prac t i -
ca l to avo i d l oca l i zed s t reams break i ng f ree
F i gur e 530 -9 . Wa t e r s t a i r cascade des i gn ( s t epped p l anes ) . o f the wa l l and to avo i d a i r pocke t s
be t ween t he wa l l and the wa t e r .

Des i gn Cr i ter i a for Var i ous Ef fects: mode r a t es t he sudden i ncrease in ve l oc i t y The re are severa l cr i t i ca l cons i dera t i ons
tha t causes wa t e r to dr aw down sharp l y a t in t he des i gn of spou t i ng ( j et ) d i sp l ays . The
Free-Fa l l i ng Shee t and Wa t e rwa l l : F i gure the back edge of a f l at we i r , i nt er rupt i ng var i ab i l i ty in w i nd ve l oc i ty and d i rec t i on for
530-7 shows des i gn cr i ter i a for a f ree- ou t door i nsta l l a t i ons is mos t read i l y accom-
the cont i nu i t y of t he hor i zont a l p l ane . The
fa l l i ng shee t . Th i s deta i l is appropr i a t e for co l or of t he we i r and ver t i ca l sur f aces moda t ed by des i gn i ng the poo l / j e t comb i - s
al l f ree- f a l l i ng and cascad i ng e f f ec ts excep t na t i on to prov i de a c l ear rad i us equa l to the n
shou l d be as dark as poss i b l e to fac i l i tate
grav i ty spou t s and cascad i ng wa t erwa l l s . percep t i on of the wa t e r movemen t by the he i ght of the j et to any po i n t beyond the ra
F i gure 530-8 shows cr i ter i a for t ex tured poo l . A w i nd cont ro l sys t em shou l d be
cont ras t and re f l ec t i on f rom the shee t i tse l f .
and smoo t h wa t erwa l l s . The back -ba t t ered The kn i f e -edge we i r used for f ree- f a l l i ng emp l oyed i f the i mmed i a t e sur round i ngs
we i r is used for a numbe r of reasons . wa t e r causes the shee t to break f ree of the i nc l ude a bu i l d i ng or heavy pedes t r i an or O
Conc re t e can be f i n i shed to the f ront s t ruc ture and may eas i l y be roughened to veh i cu l ar t raf f i c . Sp l ash is usua l l y a sec-
(downs t r eam) form, wh i ch can be l eve l ed cause st r i a t i ons at t he back of t he shee t to onda ry cons i dera t i on w i t h ou t door d i s-
n
us i ng i ns t rument s , genera l l y resu l t i ng in an i ncrease v i s ibi l i ty. The rad i us used for the p l ays , s i nce the norma l pa t t ern is on l y a
accep t ab l e ± 3 mm (1 / 8 in) to l erance a l ong 1 000 to 1 500 mm (3 to 5 f t ) and is mor e
wa t erwa l l we i r wor ks in con j unc t i on w i th _tA
the ent i re we i r . H i gh spot s can read i l y be t he back ba t t er to d i rec t the wa t e r on t o the than adequa t e l y accommoda t ed by the
ground l eve l a l ong the r i dge crea t ed by the
O
wa t e rwa l I . c l earances requ i red for he i ght . The sp l ash O
s l oped con f i gura t i on i f to l erance canno t be pa t t ern is the pr i me de t e rm i nan t of t he j et a.
ma i n t a i ned . Wa t e r occup i es the ent i re hor - Wa t ers t a i r : F i gure 530-9 shows spec i f i c p l acemen t / c l ea rance requ i remen t for inte-
i zonta l p l ane when the fount a i n is of f , gen- cr i ter i a for a wa t ers t a i r . These cr i ter i a gen- r ior spaces and l ow j ets .
era l l y resu l t i ng in a mor e des i rab l e re l a t i on- era l l y app l y to al l s t epped- f orm or s t epped-
0
sh i p w i th the cont a i ner . The s l ope a l so p l ane cascades , excep t tha t the cr i ter i a for
3
 530- 1 0
Accommoda t i ons o f Mechan i ca l Sys t em :

Accommoda t i ons to be cons i dered in the

mechan i ca l sys t em i nc l ude the fo l l ow i ng .
Ad j us t ab i l i t y : Mos t j ets are or i ent ed ver -
t i ca l l y, bu t arch i ng and hor i zont a l var i a t i ons
are used . Ad j us t ab i l i t y is genera l l y des i rab l e
for e i ther app l i ca t i on . Ad j us t ab l e sw i ve l
j o i nts are ava i l ab l e w i th a range of 15 to 20
degrees abou t t he cent er t hrough a ful l
360-degr ee arc . These sw i ve l s are ava i l ab l e
for supp l y p i pe s i zes f rom 3 mm (1 / 8 in)
t hrough 100 mm (4 in) .
Mu l t i p l e -Je t D i sp l ay : Je ts are o f t en
emp l oyed in groups . A f ew l oose l y spaced
j ets are genera l l y p i ped i nd i v i dua l l y w i th a
ba l anc i ng va l ve for each to a l l ow for vary-
i ng he i ght s and / or d i f f erences in p i pe and
f i t t ing l osses . A p l enum a r rangemen t , o f t en
ca l l ed a pod or c luster , may be used for
s i ng l y massed d i sp l ays . A spray bar or spray
r i ng may be used for c l ose l y massed group-
i ngs , depend i ng upon t he conf i gura t i on .
The f l ow is suf f i c i ent l y ba l anced w i t h these
s i ng l y or c l ose l y massed groups , and ba l -
anc i ng va l ves are on l y requ i red i f vary i ng
he i ght s are des i red .
Debr i s : A j et d i sp l ay is mor e read i l y
a f f ec t ed by wa t e rborne par t i cu l a t es and
debr i s and var i ab l es in the pump i ng sys t em
than are o ther t ypes of d i sp l ays . They wi l l
requ i re mor e day - t o-day ma i n t enance and
F i gur e 530 - 10 . Turbu l en t s t r eam des i gn . mor e f requent repa i rs t han st i l l or fa l l i ng
wa t e r . I mpor t an t ini t ia l des i gn cr i ter i a are
the se l ec t i on (1) of a pump st ra i ner w i th
per fora t i ons sma l l er t han the sma l l es t j et
or i f i ce and (2) o f a pump w i th charac t er i s-
t i cs tha t wi l l a f ford a cons t ant d i sp l ay
t hroughou t the norma l range of st ra i ner
l oad i ng .

Surge Co l l ar : Subme rged j ets, such as a

cascade or bubb l er , of t en gene ra t e wave
pa t t erns tha t per i od i ca l l y cause f l ood i ng .
Th i s exposes the subme rged j et , thereby
gene ra t i ng mor e waves wh i ch cou l d
n exceed the con f i nes of the poo l , or at the
very l east caus i ng a ma j or change f rom the
i n t ended d i sp l ay. Th i s can be coun t e red by
n i nsta l l i ng a per fora t ed co l l ar ( i . e ., a surge
O co l l ar ) w i th a d i ame t e r at l east tw i ce tha t of
the j et , p l ac i ng i t concent r i ca l l y a round the
j et at or s l i ght l y be l ow wa t e r l eve l .
n
a St ra i ght en i ng Vanes : In s i tua t i ons whe r e a
s i ng l e j et requ i res f l owra t es in excess of 3 750
Lpm (1000 gpm) , or whe r e the insta l l at ion of
O
O
the j et prec l udes a c l ear ver t i ca l f eed equa l to
115- 5 t i mes or mor e the nom i na l d i ame t er of the
supp l y p i pe , s t ra i ght en i ng vanes may be
requ i red . I f the s i tua t i on is marg i na l , mere l y
3 prov i de for a ret rof i t .
 530 - 1 1
we l l as sound levels, spl ash pat terns, and
the overa l l fee l of the di spl ay.
Wa ter ef fects are typica l ly grouped into two bas i c categor i es: (1) st i l l wa ter and (2) Protot ype Test i ng:
mov i ng wa ter. Mov i ng wa ter inc ludes f ree- fal l ing, f lowing, cascading, and jet dis-
pl ays . Tabl e 530-2 l ists character ist ics for each type of ef fect. Des ign cons iderat ions Hydrau l i c test ing is used to de termi ne the
inc lude the fo l lowing: feasibi l i ty and des ign cr i ter ia for prototypi -
cal ef fects and/or to f ine tune such i tems as
1 . St i l l water ef fects are a funct ion of conta iner conf igurat ion, color , mater ial , the inf lu- we i r conf igurat ion, sp l ash conta i nment ,
ence of w i nd or mechani ca l l y generated act ivi ty at the wa ter sur face, and of place- and waterwa l l textures . Tests may be con-
ment . duc ted at the des igner 's of f ice, on the con-
st ruct ion si te, or at an establ i shed test ing
2 . The character of a waterwa l l wi l l be determined by the f inish of the mater ia l over faci l i ty, such as a manufacturer ' s test poo l
wh i ch the water f lows . Smooth sur faces achi eve max i mum visibi l i ty . Textura l ar t icu- or a universi ty hydraul i cs l aboratory . The
lat ion of 5 to 10 mm (1 /4 to 3/8 in) may be used for aerated waterwa l l s . test ing program shou ld be wi tnessed and
eva l uated by the des igner , consul tants, and
3 . The var iabi l i ty in w i nd ve loc i ty and di rect ion for jet displ ays is accommoda t ed by appropr i ate const ruct ion personne l .
des igning a pool wi th a radius equa l to the he ight of the jet .
Tests must genera l l y be conduc ted at ful l
4 . Jet displays are higher ma i ntenance than are other types of displays because they scale, s ince hydraul i c factors such as sur face
are more readi ly af fected by waterborne par t iculates, debr is and var iables in the tens ion are constant or vary in a non l inear
pump i ng system . fashion . For most test ing, a single spout , a
shor t l ength of we i r , or a sma l l area of water -
5 . Displ ays wi th longer t ransi t t ime for water , typical ly requi re less water vo l ume to wa l l sur face is adequa te for eva luat ion .
ma inta in desi rabl e f low rates .
The const ruct ion of the test assemb l y ,
the var i abl es to be eva luated, and the per -
4 .5 Max i m i za t i on of Wa t e r Ef fec t much greater component of natura l or art i - formance cr i ter ia shou ld be careful ly spec i -
f icial l ight. Thi s techn i que is emp l oyed for f ied pr ior to test ing in order that each i tem
The t ransi t t ime, vo l ume , and readabi l i ty mos t cascades and for aerat ing jets . such as we i r prof i les, sur face textures,
shou ld al l be max i mi zed to opt imi ze the
waterwa l l joints, dr ip notches, poo l depths ,
i mpac t of any g i ven f lowrate, to mi n i mi ze Readab i l i ty:
spl ash pat terns, and jet he ights can be eva l -
the cost , and to conserve energy, if a reci r-
Fur ther impact is ach i eved by max i mi z i ng the ua ted as ful ly as possibl e . Where appropr i -
cul at ing system is used .
sur face area, opt imi z ing the exposure to nat - ate, two or three var i at ions of each cr i t ical
Trans i t T i me : ura l or art i f icial l ight , and us ing dark, con- i tem shou ld be tested .
t rast ing mater i a ls in and around act ive wa ter.
Transi t t ime is probab l y the single most F i e l d Ad j us tmen t :
i mpor tant factor in des ign ing wi th wa ter . 4 .6 Op t i m i za t i on of Wa t e r Ef fect F ie ld ad justment , inc lud ing mod i f i cat ions
The longer the wa ter is kept in p l ay ( t ransi t
The ef fect of a wa ter di spl ay may be fur - where necessary, is ext reme l y impor tant ,
t ime) , the greater wi l l be the ef fect
ach i eved at any g i ven f lowrate . For exam- ther opt i mi zed by graph i c and mode l stud- s ince each instal lat ion is a prototype and
ple, wa ter is int roduced to one end of a ies, observat ion of simi lar ef fects, prototype must f inal ly be eva luated in pl ace . Th i s
test ing, and f ield ad j ustment of the com- ef for t shou ld inc lude consul tants and con-
cascade 90 000 mm (300 f t ) long and
pl eted system . st ruct ion personne l as we l l as the des igner.
4 500 mm (15 f t ) high, then rec i rcul ated
f rom the other end . I f an average st ream Graph i c and Mode l Stud i es:
ve loc i ty of 600 mm/ s (2 fps) is assumed , 5 .0 CONTA I NERS AND
the wa t er wi l l take 2-1/2 mi nutes to t ra- Graph i c and mode l studi es are an exce l l ent STRUCTURES
verse the system . I f 1 500 Lpm (400 gpm) way to study the sca l e and mass i ng appro-
is rec i rcul ated, there wi l l be 3 750 L (1000 pr i ate for the conta iner , the integrated The pool may evo l ve in a number of ways .
ga l ) of wa t er in mot i on . In cont rast , cons id- st ructures, and the i mmed i a te env i ron- I t can be a pr imary l andscape form work i ng n
er a sheet or spout of wa ter f ree- fa l l ing ment . These studi es can fur ther serve as a wi th space and/or st ructures, an enve l ope- ra
4 500 mm (15 f t) ; under the inf luence of basis for quant i fy ing the ef fects and for s i zed (or contor ted) to conta in a precon-
n
grav i ty this wa t er wi l l reach the lower pool commun i ca t i ng w i th c l ients and other ce i ved di spl ay e l ement , an amen i ty to
in approx i mate l y 1 second . At this ext reme , members of the des ign t eam . F igure 530- der i ve a dens i ty bonus for an expens i ve O
225 000 Lpm (60,000 gpm) wou l d have to 11 is a copy of an ear ly sketch prepared by Manha t t an parcel , or a f i l ler to make use of LiL
be pumped to ma i nta i n the same 3 750 L Ange l a Danad j i eva for I ra's Founta i n an odd area on a pl aza or ma l l or of the
space under an esca l ator . It can even be a n
(1000 ga l ) in mot i on . (Por t l and Aud i tor i um Forecour t Founta in,
Por t l and, Oregon) , wh i ch served as a basis nonpoo l , that is, a di spl ay integrated into
A i r Ent ra i nment : for the deve l opment of mode l s and for the pav i ng or wal ls, wi th no visible reservoi r .
ear l y st ructura l and hydraul i c studi es . O
Wh i t e wa ter is genera ted by creat ing suf f i - Each of these suggests a des ign di rect ion
c i ent turbu l ence in a sheet or st ream to Observa t i on of Precedent . in addi t ion to i mpos i ng const ra ints . Other aO
ent rap ai r, or by art i f icial ly int roduc ing ai r to factors af fect ing the des ign inc lude the
the di spl ay . The ent ra ined ai r prov ides addi - Observa t i on of simi lar ef fects to be used env i ronment , const ruct ion budge t , appro-
t iona l vo l ume for any g i ven f lowrate and wi l l serve to conf i rm visual character ist i cs as pr i ate mater i a ls, and govern i ng codes . 3
fur ther increases visibi l i ty by ref l ect ing a Lei
 530 - 1 2

w i th a sma l l fount a i n in a bosque o f t rees or

on a d i n i ng t er race . Once th i s re l a t i onsh i p is
est ab l i shed , sca l e and propor t i on among the
par ts of the fount a i n i tse l f are equa l l y i mpor -
t ant . D i sp l ays shou l d re l ate proper l y to the
poo l , and i f the d i sp l ay i nc l udes st ruc ture ,
the wa t e r mass i ng mus t be adequa t e and
comp l emen t a ry in charac t er .

Se t t i ng:

The conf i gura t i on , edge cond i t i on , ma t er i -

a l s, and d i sp l ay i tse l f wi l l be i n f l uenced by
the forma l i t y of the des i gned env i ronmen t .
A very forma l se t t i ng wi l l l ead to s t rong l y
geome t r i c shapes , hard edges , and mor e
re f i ned ma t er i a l s . Converse l y , a natura l i st i c
se t t i ng wi l l d i rect the des i gn t owa rd mor e
organ i c shapes , sof t edges , and nonex -
pressed cons t ruc t i on ma t er i a l s . Mos t of
these ma t t ers wi l l l i kew i se be i nf l uenced by
whe t he r the poo l is i ndoor or outdoor ,
urban or suburban , commerc i a l , res i dent i a l ,
or i nst i tut i ona l .

Topogr aphy:

I t is usua l l y d i f f i cu l t f rom a des i gn s t and-

po i nt , and expens i ve , to insta l l a l arge
re f l ec t i ng poo l on a s t eep l y s l op i ng s i te or a
ma j or fal l on a f l at s i te . A mor e v i ab l e so l u-
t ion, accept i ng t he goa l of ref l ect i v i ty on
the s t eep s i te and ver t i ca l i ty on the f l at si te,
m i gh t be a ser i es of i nt erconnec t ed ponds
or rect i l i near t rays for the former , and a
mass i ve compos i t i on of j ets for the l at ter.

C l i ma t e :

C l i ma t i c var i ab l es are qu i t e i mpor t an t con-

s i dera t i ons for an ou t door i nst a l l a t i on .
Preva i l i ng w i nds , sunsh i ne f requency and
or i ent a t i on , and t empe ra t ure ex t remes can
of f er d i rec t i on as we l l as cons t ra i nt . Long ,
ho t summe r s sugges t coo l i ng d i sp l ays , per -
haps even a par t i c i pa tory des i gn . Severe
w i nt ers d i c t a t e a 4- to 6-mon t h shu t down ,
necess i t a t i ng tha t conf i gura t i ons , ma ter i a l s ,
d i sp l ay st ruc tures , and par t i cu l ar l y hard-
u7 wa r e be care fu l l y cons i dered bo t h w i th and
n
w i t hou t wa t e r . In many i ns t ances a non-
ra
poo l , as men t i oned ear l i er , is an exce l l ent
n answe r to prot rac t ed w i n t er shu t down .
O t he r w i n t er t i me so l ut i ons i nc l ude a poo l
O
LJL tha t doub l es as a ska t i ng r ink , and i ce forma -
F i gur e 530 - 12 . Edge cond i t i ons. t i ons wh i ch comp l emen t d i sp l ay st ruc tures .
n
a Suppor t Med i um:
5 .1 Env i ronmen t Sca l e:
A numbe r o f pot ent i a l cons t ra i nt s mus t be
O A numbe r of con t ex tua l var i ab l es w i th i n Sca l e is pe rhaps the mos t i mpor t an t o f the i nves t i ga t ed for poo l s , whe t he r t hey are
O the des i gned and na tura l env i ronmen t d i c- cont ex tua l var i ab l es , and an aesthe t i ca l l y bu i l t above -s t ruc ture or on-gr ade . An
P
t a t es fur ther des i gn d i rec t i on . Among these v i ab l e wa t e r d i sp l ay mus t in some way re l ate above -s t ruc ture so l ut i on is genera l l y the

0 are sca l e , se t t i ng , c l i ma t e , l oca t i on , and sur - to the sca l e of i ts sur round i ngs . Th i s need mor e d i f f i cu l t to wor k w i th , as there are
not be the sca l e of the ent i re space , howev -
3
round i ng ma t er i a l s . usua l l y very de f i n i t i ve l imi ts to dep t h and
er . The wa t e r d i sp l ay of t en re l ates to a space we i ght , and wa t e rproo f i ng mus t be very
tha t is a componen t of the l arger space , as
 530 - 1 3
SLOPE 1 % M I N I MUM TOWARDS
Na t i ve Soi l and C l ay:
POOL FOR AT LEAST600 mm
(2 ' -0" ) BEYOND SPLASH PATTERN Genera l l y , these are used for l arge ponds ,
DEPTHA5 REQU I RED TO l akes , and reservo i rs , and as such are some -
EL I M I NATE OR M I N I M I ZE
V151131LITY OF WATER
wha t beyond t he scope of th i s d i scuss i on ,
-{ LEVEL 5TA I N(5) of f er i ng geot echn i ca l prob l ems tha t mus t
1
- HE I GHT 15 STRUCTURAL / be exper t l y addressed on a pro j ec t -by-pro-
V I SUAL CON51DERAT I ON
ONLY
j ect bas i s . F l ex i b l e l iners are s i mp l y wa t e r -
proo f i ng membr anes ( re f er t o 5 .5
25 mm (1" ) M I N I MUM
Wa t e rproo f i ng in th i s sec t i on and sec t i on
~ j ' - - - - STAT I C WATER LEVEL
880 : Geot ex t i l es for fur ther i nforma t i on) .
-, - OPERAT I NG WATER LEVEL
'/ (VAR I ES r 25 mm (1" ) I N Concre t e :
NORMAL OPERAT I ON )

/
Conc re t e is probab l y the mos t common l y
OPERAT I NG / STAT I C used ma t er i a l for urban i nsta l l a t i ons . I t is
APPROX
' D I FFERENT I AL 15 -
I MATED BY CALCULAT I ON durab l e , econom i ca l , reasonab l y wa t e r -
- F I NAL DETERM I NAT I ON
15 EMP I R I CAL
proof , and amenab l e t o a w i de range of
conf i gura t i ons , f i n i shes , and cons t ruc t i on
450 mm (18" ) MAX I MUM . IF
/" GREATER DEPTH 15 REQU I RED , t echn i ques , i nc l ud i ng cast - i n-p l ace , precast ,
A CODE VAR I ANCE SHOULD
6E REQUESTED
and sprayed (gun i t e) .
300 mm (12" ) M I N I MUM
IF NOT PRACT I CAL A
Cas t - i n-p l ace concre t e can be enhanced
SPEC I AL RETURN 5Y5TEM by t he add i t i on of i ntegra l co l or or f i n i shed
_ MAY BE REQU I RED
w i t h a var i e t y of t extures , i nc l ud i ng
exposed aggrega t e , bush hamme r i ng , or
r andom f ormboa rd . I t cou l d be coa t ed or
veneered , us i ng epoxy pa i nt , t i le, or s tone .
Precas t concre t e may be used for d i sp l ay
F i gure 530-13 . Poo l des i gn .
st ruc tures or for the poo l i tse l f whe r e pre-
c i se cont ro l o f the conf i gura t i on , d i men-
care fu l l y addressed . An on-grade i nsta l l a- The m i d -1990s cos t in the Un i t ed St a t es s i on , or sur f ace is requ i red . The on l y draw-
t i on requ i res cons i derab l y l ess a t t ent i on to for a s i mp l e rec i rcu l a t i ng fount a i n of 9 .3 m 2 back is tha t t he j o i nts be t ween sec t i ons
wa t erproo f i ng , as m i n i ma l l eakage does (100 f t2) or l ess, us i ng a submers i b l e sys t em mus t be wa t e rproo f ed in poo l s or bow l s .
not usua l l y present a prob l em . So i l stab i l i ty to gene ra t e a d i sp l ay of 375 Lpm (100 And in the case of a we i r or wa t erwa l l ,
mus t be care fu l l y i nves t i ga t ed , howeve r , as gpm) or less, wou l d be on the order o f whe r e a depressed or ra i sed j o i nt m i gh t
even nom i na l d i f ferent i a l se t t l emen t may $15 , 000 (1997 U .S .) . cause i r regu l ar f l ow, the j o i nt mus t be both
have a subs t ant i a l e f f ec t on the poo l , par - wa t e rproo f and f l ush .
The m i d-1990s cos t for a fount a i n o f
t i cu l ar l y i f i t i nvo l ves l ong we i rs and wa t e r - Sprayed concre t e , or gun i t e as i t is com-
abou t 93 m2 (1000 f t 2 ), w i th rec i rcu l a t ed
wa l l s . I f the soi l is expans i ve , an underdra i n mon l y ca l l ed, is genera l l y used whe r e a f ree
wa t e r and a d i sp l ay f l owra t e of 1125 to
sys t em shou l d be cons i dered . f orm or na tura l i st i c f orm is requ i red , or on
3750 Lpm (300 to 1000 gpm) , wou l d be
Sur round i ng Ma t er i a l s : on the order o f $250 , 000 to $300 , 000 st ruc tures whe r e the l ight we i gh t of f orms
(1997 U .S .) . crea t ed by spray i ng gun i t e ove r w i re mesh
I f t he wa t e r d i sp l ay is used as a pr i mary e l e- or expanded me t a l l a th are an asse t
men t ra ther than as a comp l emen t t o the At the ex t reme , a good numbe r of foun- because of marg i na l l oad-bear i ng capac i t y.
poo l , i t is of t en des i rab l e to m i n i m i ze the t a i ns we r e cons t ruc t ed in t he l a te 1960s ,
presence of the cont a i ner and any suppor t 1970s , and 1980s , at a cos t exceed i ng $1 Stone :
s t ruc ture for the d i sp l ay by i nt egra t i ng i t i nto mi l l i on each .
W i de l y used , s tone i mpar t s a r i chness and n
the i mmed i a t e sur round i ngs . Cont i nu i t y of
5 .3 Ma t e r i a l s pe rmanence d i f f i cu l t to ach i eve w i th con-
ma t er i a l is probab l y the s i ng l e mos t i mpor -
cre t e . Gran i t e is by f ar t he mos t common
t ant e l emen t in accomp l i sh i ng th i s end . The re are a var i e ty of ma t er i a l s appropr i a t e n
and appropr i a t e s tone for fount a i n use .
for the cons t ruc t i on of poo l s and d i sp l ays . Whe r e poss i b l e , the s tone shou l d be da rk
5 .2 Cons t ruc t i on Budge t O
Insta l l a t i ons seek i ng a na tura l appearance , to enhance t he read i ng of mov i ng wa t e r
Cons t ruc t i on budge t cons i dera t i ons may be may use a na t i ve soi l ma t er i a l , i f it is suf f i - and the re f l ect i v i ty of st i l l wa t e r .
beyond t he scope of th i s sec t i on howeve r , c i ent l y i mpe rmeab l e , or a c l ay or f l ex i b l e n
l iner w i th nom i na l edge t rea tmen t . The St one may be expressed as cut , f i n i shed a
i t shou l d be recogn i zed tha t a fount a i n is a
mor e forma l and pr i mar i l y urban insta l l a- ma t er i a l in e i ther mono l i th i c or venee red
very expens i ve e l emen t in the l andscape .
t i ons cou l d i ncorpora t e cho i ces of concre t e , form, or as na tura l l y occur r i ng bou l ders ,
To proceed w i th any des i gn w i thou t both O
s tone , br i ck , and in the case of sma l l er s l abs , or sma l l er s tones . W i t h cut ma t er i a l , O
the des i gner and the owne r recogn i z i ng t he
i nsta l l at i ons , wood , me t a l , or f i berg l ass po l i shed f i n i shes are genera l l y best , s i nce
pot ent i a l costs may be a was t e o f t i me . A
( re fer to D i v i s i on 800 : Ma t er i a l s , for t echn i - rough or honed f i n i shes , par t i cu l ar l y w i th
f ew examp l es are c i ted be l ow to he l p
ca l da t a abou t these ma t er i a l s) . dark s tone , t end to read d i f f erent l y we t and
broad l y bracke t these costs :
dry , magn i f y i ng the presence of overspray
3
 530 - 1 4
and other mi sd i rected wa t er -wh i ch is vi r-
tua l ly unreadab l e on a pol i shed sur face .
Br i ck :
Br ick genera l l y prov ides a f inish intermedi -
ate to concrete and stone in terms of both
cost and aesthet i cs . It integrates we l l wi th
br ick pav i ng and st ructures and can be ar t ic-
ul ated to generate wh i tewa ter waterwa l l s
or cascades . Br i ck genera l l y requi res sea l ing
unl ess gl azed, and, as wi th precast concrete ,
joints at we i rs and waterwa l l s must be care-
ful ly cont rol l ed, genera l l y f lush .
Wood , Meta l , and F iberg l ass:
Each of these mater i a l s of fers inherent
advantages for use in sma l l er insta l lat ions
and st ructures wi th in the poo l . Wood
absorbs water , sea l ing the joints as it
expands , and is inexpens i ve and s imp l e to
const ruct . Meta l , e i ther cast or fabr i cated
f rom sheets, is wa terproof and of fers a r ich-
ness and permanence equ i va l ent to that of
stone . Sui tabl e meta l s inc lude bronze ,
brass, copper , and sta inless steel . F ibergl ass
is wa terproof and may be integra l ly colored
or f i l led wi th ground or crushed stone for
s i tuat ions on a st ructure where , as w i th
F i gure 530-14 . Wa t erproo f i ng. guni te , the l ight we i ght is requi red to
accommoda t e a marg i na l l oad-bear i ng
capac i ty . F ibergl ass can a lso be used to
resur face or repa i r ex i st ing pool s .

5 .4 Cross-Sec t i ona l Conf i gura t i on

There are severa l aspects of cross-sect iona l
conf igurat ion that must be cons idered in
addi t ion to the shape of the wa ter feature
as seen in pl an .These inc lude the re l at ion-
ship to pl aza level and the edge condi t ions,
depth, and f reeboard .
Re l at ionsh ip to Pl aza Leve l :
Both the r im and wa ter level e l evat ions are
very i mpor tant cons iderat ions . For instance,
the more a r im is e l evated, the more it tends
S to break up the visual cont inui ty of the sur -
n round i ng space and focus the v i ewer ' s
"a at tent ion on the pool i tsel f. Thi s of ten
n reduces the visua l impact of the di spl ay
and/or ref l ected i mages . On the posi t ive
O side, the e l evated r im may be used for seat -
ing and for keep i ng out dust and debr i s
b l own in f rom the sur round i ng pl ane . I t can
n a lso serve as a barr ier to prevent acc identa l
wa l k i ng or fal l ing into the poo l .
O An e l evated wa t er level is of ten appro-
O pr iate to prov i de a des i red f ield of ref lec-
t ion . An at -grade wa t er level , par t icular ly
wi th a st i l l pool , wi l l integrate the pool into
0 F i gure 530-15 . Wa t erproo f i ng . the sur round i ng p l ane . A depressed wa t er
3 level wi l l st rengthen the i mpac t of the dis-
play, much l ike the nonpoo l wi l l .
 530 - 1 5

or nonexpressed source . A l gae grow t h is

enhanced by i ncreased hea t and u l t rav i o l e t
l i ght as the dep t h decreases in ou t door
i nsta l l a t i ons . Mos t j ur i sd i c t i ons wi l l accep t a
gradua l s l ope or s t eps to a deepened cen-
t ra l area in a l arge poo l or pond or l ake .
F reeboa rd : F reeboa rd requ i remen t s vary
as a func t i on o f the edge cond i t i on . W i t h a
cant i l evered or s t epped edge , the f ree-
boa rd need on l y be an i nch or so be l ow the
cant i l ever or t read to a l l ow for nom i na l
f l uc tua t i ons in wa t e r l eve l . Adequa t e f ree-
boa rd is i nherent to the wa l l edge ; the
t rough wa t e r l eve l at the rounded edge
shou l d a l l ow a t l east 150 mm (6 in) o f f ree-
board , the hard-p l an t ed edge shou l d have
m i n i mum f reeboard of 75 mm (3 in) , and
the sof t -p l ant ed edge made of l oose l y se t
cobb l es , and gun i t e edges shou l d ex t end to
a t l east 150 mm (6 in) above the h i ghes t
wa t e r l eve l .

When mu l t i p l e l eve l s are i nvo l ved , the

l ower poo l wi l l have t wo d i f f erent wa t e r
l eve l s- the stat i c , or nonopera t i ng , l eve l
and the opera t i ng l eve l , wh i ch wi l l be
l owe r. The d i f f erence is due to t he wa t e r
tha t is bu i l t up beh i nd the we i rs , e t c ., dur -
i ng opera t i on , wh i ch wi l l u l t i ma t e l y reach
t he l ower poo l when t he fount a i n is not
opera t i ng . I f the f l owra t e and we i r l engths
are known , th i s amoun t can be ca l cu l a t ed
by f i rst de t erm i n i ng the area of each poo l
F i gur e 530 - 16 . Subme r s i b l e f oun t a i n sys t em .
and t hen de t e rm i n i ng the dep t h ove r the
we i r (s) , us i ng Tab l e 530-3 .
Edge Cond i t i ons : hav i ng l oose l y se t cobb l es or sprayed con- C l earance f rom D i sp l ays : Whe r e poss i -
cre t e edges . I t is usua l l y emp l oyed in the
F i gure 530-12 shows a numbe r o f typ i ca l b l e , al l d i sp l ays ( fount a i ns , e t c .) shou l d be
cons t ruc t i on of na tura l i st i c s t reams , ponds ,
edge cond i t i ons . A cant i l evered i nner edge set back f rom the poo l edge to a d i s t ance
and l akes .
is probab l y the deta i l used mos t o f t en . I t equa l to or grea t er t han the sp l ash pa t t ern
serves to cont a i n the waves gene ra t ed by Dep t h , Freeboard , and C l ea rance f rom or j et c l earance , as descr i bed above in 4 .0
the w i nd or t he d i sp l ay and wi l l concea l any D i sp l ays : Wa t e r Ef f ec ts . Whe r e poo l edges are f l ush
sta i ns caused by norma l var i a t i ons in the w i th the pav i ng , an add i t i ona l ma rg i n of
wa t e r l eve l . Cr i t i ca l d i mens i ons are shown F i gure 530-13 shows the pr i mary cons i der - sa f e t y shou l d be ob t a i ned by s l op i ng the
in F i gure 530-13 . a t i ons for a poo l w i th a s i ng l e l eve l or for poo l r i m and / or ad j acent sur f aces f rom a
the l ower poo l of a mu l t i l eve l des i gn . The po i nt at l east 600 mm (2 f t ) beyond t he
The s t epped recess , the wa l l , and t he f reeboard for the uppe r poo l ' s fa l l i ng or necessary c l earance back t owa rd the poo l .
wa rped pav i ng t end to i nt egra t e the poo l cascad i ng wa t e r is d i scussed for var i ous d i s- n
w i th i ts i mmed i a t e env i ronmen t , m i n i m i z - p l ays in 4 .0 Wa t e r Ef f ec ts in th i s sec t i on . 5 .5 Wa t e rproo f i ng
i ng i ts i mpac t on the space and max i m i z i ng . cCt
Dep t h : The poo l dep t h genera l l y var i es Measur es needed for wa t e rproo f i ng
the i mpac t of t he d i sp l ay. The rounded n
edge and the t rough deta i l a l l ow the wa t e r be t ween 300 and 450 mm (12 and 18 in) . depend upon whe t he r the poo l is on-grade u
In the Un i t ed Sta tes , 450 mm (18 in) is the or on-s t ruc ture above a func t i ona l area in a O
l eve l to be at or above p l aza l eve l , express-
max i mum r ecommended dep t h because bu i l d i ng .
i ng t he ent i re body of wa t e r as a dynam i c
d i sp l ay e l emen t . i nt erpre t a t i on o f t he Un i f orm Bu i l d i ng
On -Gr ade : n
Code genera l l y l eads to the conc l us i on tha t
Hard-p l an t ed edges (F i gure 530-12) are any th i ng o f grea t er dep t h can be cons i d- Un l ess there is a cr i t i ca l area i mmed i a t e l y _N
accomp l i shed by back -ba t t er i ng t he poo l ered a sw i mm i ng poo l , as opposed to a ad j acent , or an unusua l so i l cond i t i on
edge in such a f ash i on tha t the p l an t ed O
wad i ng poo l . 300 mm (12 in) is genera l l y whe r e even nom i na l l eakage m i gh t present O
p l ane can be car r i ed up to t he po i nt of the m i n i mum dep t h requ i red to prov i de for a prob l em (such as in areas of expans i ve
i nt ersec t i on w i th t he p l ane of the poo l a sa t i s f ac tory re turn sys t em and to sub- soi l s) , wa t e rproo f i ng is usua l l y con f i ned to
wa l l . A sof t -p l ant ed edge ex t ends the me rse wa l l -moun t ed and f rees t and i ng poo l the proper m i x i ng and v i bra t i ng o f the con-
p l ant ma t er i a l to the wa t er l i ne and is o f t en
used in an ea r t h-bo t t omed poo l or in one
l i ghts proper l y . Source poo l s usua l l y need a
m i n i mum dep t h of 300 mm (12 in) for a j et
cre t e in con j unc t i on w i th wa t ers tops a t s l ab
j o i nts and p i pe pene t ra t i ons (F i gure 530-
M
 530 - 1 6

Fac tors a f f ec t i ng the des i gn of wa t er f ea tures i nc l ude i ts purpose , the env i ronment , cons t ruc t i on budge t , appropr i a t e ma ter i a l s , and
govern i ng codes .

1 . Ho t c l i ma t es sugges t coo l i ng d i sp l ays , wh i l e co l d and t empera t e c l i ma t es d i ctate a 4 to 6 mon t h w i nt er shu t down , wh i ch may sugges t
non-poo l des i gn or a l ternat i ve co l d-wea ther uses .

2 . On-s t ruc ture poo l and fount a i n des i gn may be l i mi ted by concerns for we i gh t and wa t erproo f i ng . On-grade des i gn may requ i re
underdra i ns i f soi l s are expans i ve , to avo i d d i f ferent i a l se t t l ement .

3 . Na t i ve soi l or c l ay ma t er i a l s may be used in poo l des i gn to ach i eve a "na tura l " appearance . Mor e forma l insta l l at ions may i ncorpora t e
concre t e , stone , br i ck , wood , me t a l , or f i berg l ass .

4. In the Un i t ed States , 450 mm (18 in) is the max i mum r ecommended poo l dep th in order to avo i d be i ng c l ass i f i ed as a sw i mm i ng
poo l . A dep th of 300 mm (12 in) is genera l l y the m i n i mum dep th to prov i de a sat i sfactory re turn sys t em, d i sp l ay jets, and submers i b l e
poo l l ights .

5 . Freeboard requ i rement s vary as a func t i on of the edge cond i t i on . Cant i l evered or s t epped edges requ i re on l y abou t 25 mm (1 in) ,
whereas sof t -p l ant ed edges or rounded edges w i th t roughs shou l d a l l ow at l east 150 mm (6 in) .

6. Whe r e poo l edges are f lush w i th the pav i ng , an add i t i ona l marg i n of sa f e ty shou l d be obt a i ned by s l op i ng the poo l r i m and / or ad j a-
cent sur f aces f rom a po i nt at l east 600 mm (2 f t ) beyond the necessary c l earance back toward the poo l .

14) . Add i t i ona l prot ec t i on may be prov i ded

by p l as t er i ng or t i l ing the sur f ace or by
coa t i ng the poo l w i th an epoxy pa i nt or
e l as tomer i c coa t i ng .

On-St ruc t ure:

Wa t e rproo f i ng is accomp l i shed by coa t i ng

the i ns i de of t he bas i c poo l s t ruc ture w i th a
wa t e rproo f membr ane , usua l l y the f l u i d-
app l i ed t ypes . Some t i mes a ho t -mopped
fe l t membr ane is used ; in rarer i nst ances ,
l ead , copper , or sta i n l ess-stee l l iners w i th
so l dered or we l ded j o i nts are used .
Wa t e rproo f i ng shou l d be prot ec t ed f rom
phys i ca l damage , t erm i na t ed above the
stat i c wa t e r l eve l , and run con t i nuous l y
beh i nd wa t erwa l l s and we i rs . F i gure 530-
15 shows typ i ca l poo l and p i pe pene t ra t i on
wa t e rproo f i ng .

6 .0 OPERAT I NG SYSTEMS

n The re are t wo bas i c ways to opera t e deco-

rat i ve poo l s and fount a i ns . The o l des t and
of t en the mos t cost -e f f ec t i ve and re l i ab l e
n me t hod is to use na tura l sources of wa t e r
O and l et the wa t e r f l ow t hrough ra ther t han
be rec i rcu l a t ed t hrough the sys t em . Th i s is
typ i ca l l y accomp l i shed by the use of wa t e r
n f rom f l ow i ng s t reams , spr i ngs , or ar t es i an
we l l s , f rom grav i t y-opera t ed i r r i gat i on sys-
_V1 t ems , or f rom e l eva t ed wa t e r t anks and
O i mpoundmen t s .
aO The second way is t hrough the use o f
mechan i ca l mo t ors and pumps and typ i ca l -
ly i nvo l ves rec i rcu l a t i on of the wa t e r . Th i s
3
F i gur e 530 - 17 . Schema t i c f oun t a i n d i agr am .
sec t i on covers on l y th i s second me t hod o f
nnara t i nn and nrnv i r i ac da t a nn t wn t vnac
 530 - 1 7
in the i r most bas i c form are qui te s imp l e
and understandab l e . These subsyst ems
inc lude di spl ay (F igure 530-18) , f i l t rat ion
(F igure 530-19) , f i l l /makeup and over -
f low/dra in (F igure 530-20) .
6 .3 Equ i pmen t Space
The system des ign and the equ i pment
se l ected wi l l depend in great measure on
the locat ion and conf igurat ion of the
equ i pment space . A number of inter re l ated
cons iderat ions are requi red in order to opt i -
mi ze an equ i pment space ; the most impor -
tant of these are e l evat ion, locat ion, si ze,
and conf igurat ion .
E l eva t i on :

El evat ion is the singl e mos t i mpor tant con-

s iderat ion wi th regard to the equ i pment
space . The f loor e l evat ion of the space
shou ld be at least 600 mm (2 f t ) be l ow the
lowest wa ter leve l in the poo l in order to
prov ide a f l ooded suct ion for the pump . I f
no vi abl e space can be found, a ver t ical
pump inser ted into a l arge p ipe or sump
be l ow the f loor shou ld be cons idered . If a
pump is star ted automat i ca l l y each day, any
locat ion above wa ter level (suct ion l i ft) wi l l
be an ongo i ng ma i nt enance headache ,
s ince the pump wi l l per iodi ca l ly a i r - lock and
must , at the very least , be protected w i th a
f low swi tch or simi lar dev i ce .
Loca t i on :

If at al l possibl e, the equ i pment space

F i gure 530-18 . D i sp l ay sys t em d i agram . shou ld be located wi th in a bui lding or a
st ructure that has hor i zonta l access for
ma i nt enance personne l and equ i pment
of mechan i ca l sys t ems- the submers i b l e and intercept l arger debr i s and l eaves ; (2) a remova l . The locat ion shou ld be as c lose as
pump ( located wi thin the poo l and be l ow submers ib l e pump wi th noncor ros i ve pip- poss ibl e to the poo l -or to the lowest pool
the water ) and the remot e pump ( located ing to the display, a l ong w i th appropr i ate in a mul t i l eve l si tuat ion . D i stances of 30 to
outs ide of the wa t er and pool ) . Each of elect r ical connect i ons ; (3) a dra in, wh i ch 45 m (100 to 150 ft) are acceptab l e for an
these two approaches is descr ibed be l ow. of ten has a standp ipe ext ended to the sur - instal lat ion wi th p ip ing of 150 to 200 mm
face to doub l e as an over f l ow ; and (4) a (6 to 8 in) or sma l ler , but anyth i ng over 15
6 .1 Submers i b l e Sys t ems submers ib l e junct ion box for the elect r ical to 30 m (50 to 100 ft) for l arge p ip ing
connect i on . The dra in can be omi t ted and becomes expens i ve . Adequa t e prov i s ion for s
The submers ib l e system is genera l l y l imi ted the pool s imp l y s iphon-dra ined in the s im- access, equ i pment remova l , waterproof ing, n
to instal lat ions of 9 m2 (100 f t2) or less in dra ining, and vent i l at ion must be prov i ded
areas that are dra ined, c l eaned, and f i l led plest of systems . A n i che-mount ed f loat . cCS
va l ve can be instal led, in a sl ight ly more if a subter ranean vaul t wi th a ver t ica l
every f ew days in l ieu of f i l ter ing . Other access hatch is used . n
potent i a l appl i cat ions inc lude larger , biolog- sophi st i cated system, e l iminat ing the need
to top up the poo l per iodi ca l ly . The same O
ical ly ba l anced pool s wi th mi n i ma l displ ays S i ze and Con f i gura t i on :
n i che assemb l y can be purchased wi th an
or temporary , por tabl e, or seasona l di spl ays . adjustabl e over f l ow standp i pe to stabi l i ze
The pr imary concerns wi th submers ib l e sys- The d i mens i ons of the equ i pment space n
the wa ter level fur ther. must be adequa te to prov i de access to al l
t ems are ma i ntenance and elect r ical safety . equ i pment and va l ves . They must a lso pro-
a
A remote system shou ld be used if the poo l _N
6 .2 Remo t e Sys t ems v ide for the code- requ i red c l earances
requi res f i l ter ing rather than per iodi c dra in- O
around elect r ical equ i pment , as establ i shed
ing, c l eaning, and ref i l l ing .
A typica l submers ib l e system is shown in
F igure 530-17 i l lust rates the essent i a l ele-
ments to cons ider in the des ign of a remot e by local bui lding codes . Genera l l y, a mini -
mum si ze is 2 200 mm2 (75 ft2), common l y
aO

founta in syst em . The system, as shown ,

F igure 530-16. Located in the f loor of the may appear comp l ex ; however , i t compr i s- rang i ng up to 1 200 m2 (400 f t2) for l arger
pool , it compr i ses (1) a sump wi th a grat ing
and l arge mesh screen to protect the pump
es severa l modu l es , or subsystems , wh i ch
are on l y margina l l y inter re l ated and wh i ch
insta l l at ions . The idea l conf igurat ion is
3
 530- 1 8
broad l y rec t angu l ar or square w i th no
d i mens i on l ess t han 2 400 mm (8 f t ) .

Accommoda t i ons:

A proper l y des i gned equ i pmen t space

shou l d have a f l oor dra i n and / or a sump
pump to hand l e wa t e r f rom st ra i ner c l ean-
ing, repa i rs , e t c . I t shou l d be vent i l a t ed to
ma i nt a i n a reasonab l e t empe ra t ure and to
cont ro l hum i d i t y . I t shou l d a l so have m i n i -
ma l hea t i ng ( i f needed to preven t f reez i ng) ,
powe r out l e ts for movab l e l ights and sma l l
too l s , and overa l l e l ect r i c l i ght i ng of 538 to
807 Ix (50 to 75 fc) to fac i l i tate rout i ne
ma i n t enance .

6 . 4 A l t e rna t i ve Wa t e r D i sp l ay
Sys t em

A l t erna t i ve wa t e r d i sp l ay sys t ems i nc l ude

non-poo l fount a i n schemes (F i gure 530-
21) , and poo l fount a i ns w i th per i me t er
ove r f l ow (F i gure 530-22) .

6 . 5 Suppor t Sys t ems

The group of suppor t sys t ems are subsys-
t ems used to he l p ma i n t a i n t he qua l i ty and
l eve l o f the wa t e r in the poo l and to fac i l i -
t a t e c l ean i ng .

F i l ter Sys t em :

The f i l ter and t rea tmen t sys t ems are shown

on F i gure 530-19 . The f i l ter sys t em uses a
c i rcu l a t i ng pump , a l ine st ra iner , and shut -
of f , check , and throt t l i ng va l ves , j ust as the
d i sp l ay sys t em does . One of t he mos t com-
mon sys t ems re turns the wa t e r to the poo l
F i gur e 530 - 19 . F i l t ra t i on / wa t e r t r ea t men t sys t em d i agr am .
t hrough a f i l ter med i um cons i s t i ng of f i ne
si l i ca sand suppor t ed on a base of heav i er
sand and grave l . Th i s med i um is con t a i ned
in a stee l or f i berg l ass t ank . I t is genera l l y
cons i de red a pe rmanen t i nst a l l a t i on .
Trapped par t i cu l a t es can be r emoved f rom
Submers i b l e pumps and l arger remo t e sys t ems are the t wo mechan i ca l me t hods for t he f i ner sand by revers i ng the f l ow
rec i rcu l a t i on of wa t er in poo l s and fount a i ns . Se l ec t i on of an appropr i a t e sys t em
t hrough the med i um (ca l l ed backwash i ng)
depends on the s i ze , app l i ca t i on , and budge t of the proposed d i sp l ay . and d i scharg i ng the e f f l uent to the san i t ary
S or s t ormwa t e r dra i n sys t em . The re turn
1 . Submers i b l e pumps are genera l l y l i mi ted to insta l l at ions of 9 m2 (100 f t2 ) or l ess in
G wa t e r f rom the poo l can be rout ed t hrough
areas tha t are dra i ned , c l eaned , and f i l led every f ew days in l i eu of f i l ter ing .
t he d i sp l ay re turn sys t em or t hrough a sep-
Ma i n t enance and e l ect r i ca l sa fety are the pr i mary concerns w i th these sys t ems.
n ara t e f i t t i ng.
u 2 . In remo t e sys t ems , the equ i pmen t space shou l d be as c l ose as poss i b l e to the poo l ,
O I t em 3 is t he f i l ter package , wh i ch
and the f l oor e l eva t i on shou l d be a t l east 600 mm (2 f t ) be l ow the l owes t wa t er i nc l udes the st ra iner , c i rcu l a t i ng pump , f i l ter
l eve l in the poo l in order to prov i de a f l ooded suc t i on for the pump .
t ank , and f i l ter med i a . I t em 6 is the supp l y
n (e f f l uent ) f i t t ing for the f i l ter sys t em and is
3 . F i l ter sys t ems are used to remove par t i cu l ates f rom the wa t er and return i t to the
o f t en used to add f i l l / makeup wa t e r. In a
poo l (F i gure 530-19) .
fount a i n w i th a nonexpressed source , th i s
O 4 . The f i l l /makeup sys t em estab l i shes the stat i c wa t er l eve l ( in con j unc t i on w i th the wa t e r may be re turned t hrough a d i sp l ay
O sys t em supp l y f i t t ing . I t em 7 is the f i l ter
over f l ow) and ma i nt a i ns the opera t i ng wa t e r l eve l (F i gure 530-20) .
backwash l ine .
5 . The over f l ow/dra i n sys t em estab l i shes the stat i c wa t er l eve l ( in con j unc t i on w i th the
0 f i l l sys t em) and prov i des for dra i n i ng of the poo l s , p i p i ng , and equ i pmen t (F i gure
3 530-20) .
LIM
 F i l l /Makeup and Over f low/Dra in
Systems:
F i l l / makeup and wa t e r supp l y /dra i n / l eve l
cont ro l sys t ems are shown on F i gure 530-20 .

The f i l l / makeup sys t em est ab l i shes the

stat i c wa t e r l eve l ( in con j unc t i on w i th the
over f l ow) and ma i n t a i ns t he opera t i ng
wa t e r l eve l . I t em 1 is the wa t e r supp l y , usu-
a l l y connec t ed to the domes t i c wa t e r sys-
t em . I t em 2 is a back f l ow prevent er ,
requ i red by code when t he supp l y is
der i ved f rom the domes t i c wa t e r supp l y ( in
the absence o f an a i r gap) to preven t back
s i phon i ng of pot ent i a l l y con t am i na t ed
fount a i n wa t e r back i nto the domes t i c
wa t e r supp l y. Genera l l y i nsta l l ed in the
equ i pmen t space , be l ow-gr ade and / or
be l ow the poo l ' s wa t e r l eve l , i t requ i res a
reduced-pressure - t ype dev i ce . I t em 3 is a
so l eno i d-ac tua t ed va l ve , used in con j unc -
t i on w i th the wa t e r l eve l cont ro l l er to
est ab l i sh or ma i n t a i n appropr i a t e wa t e r l ev-
e l s . I t em 10 is the wa t e r l eve l cont ro l l er ,
wh i ch is d i scussed in subsec t i on 9 .6 Wa t e r
Leve l Cont ro l .

The over f l ow / dra i n sys t em es t ab l i shes

the stat i c wa t e r l eve l ( in con j unc t i on w i t h
the f i l l sys t em) and prov i des for dra i n i ng of
the poo l s , p i p i ng , and equ i pmen t both for
c l ean i ng and for shut t i ng down the poo l
and fount a i n in c l i ma t es whe r e the wa t e r
cou l d f reeze and t hus cause prob l ems . I t em
4 is a dra i n f i t t ing, used to r emove wa t e r
f rom the var i ous poo l s to fac i l i tate c l ean i ng
and equ i pmen t ma i n t enance . Poo l s w i t h
re turn or supp l y f i t t ings may be dra i ned at
the equ i pmen t room v i a the p i p i ng to these
sys t ems ; they may be dra i ned e i ther a t the
pr i mary f i t t i ng or t hrough an aux i l i ary dra i n
f i t t ing i nsta l l ed a t the l ow po i nt in the poo l .
Each poo l l eve l in a mu l t i l eve l i nsta l l at i on
requ i res a dra i n f i t t ing . I t em 7 is t he ove r
" f l ow f i t t ing, used to r emove excess wa t e r
F i gur e 530 - 20 . Wa t e r supp l y / dra i n / l eve l con t ro l sys t em d i agr am . resu l t i ng f rom ra infa l l , i r r i ga t i on runof f , or a

Tab l e 530 -3 . VAR I OUS FLOWRATES

FLOWRATE FOR SOL I D STREAM J ETS GPM ) FLOW RATE FOR RECTANGULAR WE I RS n
H E I GHT CFT 8 75 1100 DEPTH
I /4 1 1 / 21 3Y4" 1 1/2 ' 2" 2 1/ 2" " 34 4" 5" GO O
OVER WE I R ILL
3 5 8 10 ! 14 - ~ -
20 21 41 G9 91 1160
GPM PER 29 36
2 28 3 .4 4
-41
5 ro
i --
L I NEAR FT
4.5 13 65 185 285 399 524
c
4 G 11 8 19 ~12 15 1 20 -
FLOWRATE FOR CASCADE TYPE AERATED STREAM JET
1 11 12 15 119 122 2ro 33 -
O
1G

31
21

4G
2rn

50
50

82
58

10160
14
121
1 93 _

1G1 199 238

S I ZE

'
HGTCFT ; Z
GPM - 18
4
21
G
20
8
30
10 12 15 20 25 30
aO
HEAD 30 43 G1 ~~ -
199 233 304 368 444 518 1 ~" GPM 28 32 40 4ro ; 50 5G
50351 410 52ro ro50 160 938 HEAO 15 21 31 - _GO 10 L83
GPM 11 110 142_151 111 186 210 24ro . 312~330
9G5 1220 112040 1150 1905 HEAD 9 1ro 2o 32 3G 44 5rv GG 1081154
 Head :

The head is the tota l pressure requ i red to

accommoda t e the d i f f erence in e l eva t i on
be t ween the h i ghes t and l owes t poo l s (sta-
t i c l eve l d i f ferent i a l ) , p l us d i scharge head
requ i remen t s for d i sp l ay j ets t aken f rom
Tab l e 530-3 or the manu f ac turer ' s da t a ,
p l us tota l ca l cu l a t ed head for ent rance , ex i t ,
ve l oc i ty head , p i pe , f i t t ing, va l ve , and
st ra i ner l osses can be t aken f rom Tab l es
530-3 , 530-4 , and 530-5 .

No t e : The requ i remen t s may be reduced

i f t he j ets are no t l oca t ed in the uppe r poo l .

Ne t Pos i t i ve Suc t i on Head :

The ne t pos i t i ve suc t i on head (NPSH) is the

resu l t ant pressure ava i l ab l e a t the pump
f rom a t mosphe r i c pressure a f t er add i ng or
deduc t i ng (1) the d i f ferent i a l be t ween the
opera t i ng wa t e r l eve l and t he pump e l eva-
t ion, (2) al l l osses accru i ng to en t rance con-
d i t i ons , (3) the f r i ct i on l osses t hrough p i pes ,
f i t t ings, va l ves , and st ra i ners on the suc t i on
s i de of the pump . At mosphe r i c pressure is
10 200 mm (34 f t ) a t sea l eve l , decreas i ng
approx i ma t e l y 3 650 mm (1 .2 f t ) w i th each
300 000 mm (1000 f t ) r i se in e l eva t i on . I f
the NPSH is marg i na l , mor e de f i n i t i ve ca l -
cu l a t i ons shou l d be made , us i ng expanded-
p i pe s i z i ng char t s based on t he par t i cu l ar
ma t er i a l s used and the manu f ac turer ' s da t a
for each componen t in t he re turn sys t em .

Pump Se l ec t i on :

Re f er to F i gure 530-23 . Af t er de t e rm i n i ng
the requ i red f l owra t e and head p l us the
F i gur e 530 -21 . Non - poo l f oun t a i n d i agr am . ava i l ab l e NPSH , se l ec t t he pump to sat i sfy
these parame t ers and t o max i m i ze e f f i c i en-
cy. In genera l , e f f i c i enc i es of 70 to 90 per -
ma l func t i on i ng f i l l / makeup sys t em . I t em 9 sys t em head l osses . These , in con j unc t i on cent ( i ncreas i ng w i th the f l owra t e) shou l d
is the sewe r or out l e t connec t i on . Mos t w i th o ther sys t em head da t a , wi l l enab l e be a t t a i nab l e . F ina l l y, de t e rm i ne the pump
loca l hea l th codes requ i re tha t the e f f l uent the des i gner to se l ec t and de t e rm i ne the manu f ac turer , the mode l , the suc t i on and
f rom a f i l ter shou l d be t rea t ed as any o ther s i ze of the pump . d i scharge s i zes , and the mo t or horsepowe r
san i t ary was t e . The over f l ow dra i nwa t er and speed ( rpm) .
can be t rea t ed as any o t he r on-s i t e 7 .1 D i sp l ay Pump
Vf s t ormwa t e r runof f . As a genera l rul e , pumps up to 3 750 to
The re are three cond i t i ons tha t mus t be
n 4 500 Lpm (1000 to 1200 gpm) are end-
op t i m i zed in se l ec t i ng a pump : (1) f l owra t e ,
7 . 0 EQU I PMENT AND P I P I NG suc t i on cent r i fuga l t ypes . Those rang i ng
(2) head , and (3) m i n i mum ne t pos i t i ve f rom 3 750 to 18 750 Lpm (1000 to 5000
n SELECT I ON suc t i on head . A typ i ca l pump se l ec t i on
gpm) are mor e l i ke l y to be doub l e -suc t i on
O Tab l es 530-3 t hrough 530-6 have been curve is shown in F i gure 530-23 . sp l i t -case t ypes . Beyond 18 750 Lpm (5000
i nc l uded to reduce mos t requ i red da t a to gpm) , the pumps used are e i ther the mu l t i -
F l owr a t e :
char t or nomogr aph f orm . Tab l e 530-3 p l e sp l i t -case or the m i xed- f l ow and pro-
shows f l owra t es for we i rs . Tab l e 530-3 a l so Us i ng Tab l e 530-3 or the manu f ac turer ' s pe l l er t ypes . These are the same as those
i nc l udes char t s show i ng f l owra t e and head da t a for d i sp l ay nozz l es , al l requ i remen t s used t o move l arge vo l umes of wa t e r in i rr i -
requ i remen t s for so l i d-s t ream j ets and for mus t be tota l l ed . The requ i red f l ow a t any ga t i on and was t ewa t e r app l i ca t i ons . Pumps
O j ets of the geyser , or cascade , t ype , wh i ch is we i r may be reduced by the amoun t tha t w i th l ow head requ i rement s , i . e ., 10 500 to
O
the mos t common l y app l i ed of the aera t ed j ets or other we i rs cont r i but e to t he source 15 000 mm (35 to 50 f t ) , wi l l genera l l y be
t ypes . Da t a for o ther aera t ed t ypes and for of tha t we i r . of a l ower speed , i .e . , 1150 rpm or l ess,

0 scu l pt ed j e ts may be der i ved f rom the man - and / or have the sma l l er i mpe l l er d i ame t ers .

M uf ac turer ' s da t a. Tab l es 530-4 , 530-5 , and

530-6 show da t a requ i red to de t e rm i ne
As a f ina l genera l cons i dera t i on , i f the
equ i pmen t - space f l oor e l eva t i on is near or
 530 - 21

Ne t Pos i t i ve Suc t i on Head Se l ec t i on :

The NPSH ca l cu l a t i ons and pump se l ec t i on
wi l l be the same as for the d i sp l ay pump .
(See 7 .1 D i sp l ay Pump in th i s sec t i on .)

7 . 4 P i p i ng Ma t e r i a l s

P i p i ng ma t er i a l s are genera l l y noncor ros i ve .

Each ma t er i a l has par t i cu l ar advan t ages
and l i mi tat i ons , par t i cu l ar l y in l ight of eco-
nom i c cons i dera t i ons .

Po l yv i ny l Ch l or i de:
Po l yv i ny l ch l or i de (PVC) is noncor ros i ve
and has l ow f r i ct i on l osses . I ts l i mi t a t i ons
i nc l ude i ts vu l nerab i l i ty to u l t rav i o l e t de ter i -
ora t i on in exposed ou t door s i tua t i ons and
i ts l i mi ted phys i ca l s t rength , l ead i ng t o a
var i e ty of fa i lures , par t i cu l ar l y at f i t t i ngs .
Fa i l ure may be i nduced by d i f ferent i a l set -
t l ement , phys i ca l damage , or v i bra t i on in
the pump i ng sys t em . V i bra t i on is a par t i cu-
l ar l y common prob l em for open fount a i n
sys t ems whe r e e i ther ent ra i ned a i r in the
re turn sys t em or opera t i on a t mor e or l ess
t han des i gn f l ow (and hence l owe r e f f i c i en-
cy) wi l l cause t he pump(s ) to v i bra t e . PVC
is appropr i a t e for l ow-budge t insta l l at ions ,
for unde rground p i p i ng in p l ant ed areas
whe r e repa i rs can eas i l y be made , or for
care fu l l y cont ro l l ed c i rcums t ances whe r e i t
may be embedded in concre t e .

Coppe r .
Copper , a l so noncor ros i ve , has much be t t er
phys i ca l s t rength t han PVC , par t i cu l ar l y a t
F i gur e 530 - 22 . Pe r i me t e r ove r f l ow f oun t a i n d i agr am .
f i t t ings . Cos t s genera l l y l imi t i ts app l i ca t i on
to s i zes 75 mm (3 in) and sma l l er . Coppe r
mus t be d i e l ect r i ca l l y i so l a t ed f rom ad j acent
above the re turn poo l ' s wa t e r l eve l , a ver t i - prep i ped un i t . For l arger un i ts , se l ect the stee l p i p i ng and equ i pmen t to preven t ga l -
ca l l y moun t ed pump of the turb i ne , m i xed- pumps as fo l l ows . van i c ac t i on , wh i ch causes de t er i ora t i on o f
f l ow, or prope l l er t ype wi l l grea t l y i mprove the stee l , par t i cu l ar l y ga l van i zed stee l .
the suc t i on cond i t i ons , a l l ow i ng opt i m i za - F l owra t e:
t i on o f NPSH and subme rgence . Re f er to Tab l e 530-7 . The 56 .2 Lpm (15 Red Brass:
gpm) ra te shou l d be used un l ess the ex t ra Red brass has many o f t he same charac t er -
7 .2 Foun t a i n F i l t ers f l ow assoc i a t ed w i th the 75 Lpm (20 gpm)
ist i cs as coppe r but has grea t er phys i ca l
Re f er to Tab l e 530-7 . Foun t a i n f i l ters are ra t e is requ i red for d i sp l ay purposes . s
s t rength , mak i ng i t par t i cu l ar l y use fu l for n
usua l l y a h i gh- ra t e sand- t ype un i t , s i zed on exposed p i p i ng in the poo l . In genera l , i ts
Head: a
the bas i s of poo l area . Use 900 to 1 200 h i gh cos t l imi ts i t to th i s app l i ca t i on .
mm 2 (3 to 4 f t2 ) of f i l ter area for each 300 The tota l head requ i red has to accommo - n
000 mm ' (1000 f t 2) of poo l area 900 mm ' da t e (a) stat i c l eve l d i f ferent i a l ; (b) the tota l Stee l :
O
(3 f t2) is adequa t e for i ndoor app l i ca t i ons ca l cu l a t ed for ent rance , ex i t , ve l oc i ty head ,
Stee l is probab l y t he bes t overa l l ma t er i a l
and 1 200 mm 2 (4 f t2 ) is appropr i a t e for p i pe , f i t t ing, va l ve , and st ra i ner (as t aken for any p i p i ng tha t is 75 to 100 mm (3 to 4
ou t door i nsta l l a t i ons in an urban area . f rom Tab l es 530-4 , 530-5 , and 530-6) ; and n
in) or l arger in d i ame t e r. Foun t a i n wa t e r has
D i a t omaceous ear th and car t r i dge- t ype f i l - a l l owance for l osses due to d i r t and o ther a h i gh oxygen con t en t and the sys t em is
ters are some t i mes used for fount a i n insta l - par t i cu l a t es bu i l d i ng up on t he sand bed
not on l y open but of t en dra i ned down for
l at i ons bu t are no t r ecommended , g i ven be t ween backwash i ngs . Th i s a l l owance O
c l ean i ng and w i nt er i za t i on . P i p i ng shou l d
the i r grea t er ma i n t enance requ i remen t s . shou l d be 10 500 mm (35 f t ) for un i ts w i t h O
be ga l van i zed or epoxy- l i ned to preven t
manua l backwash and 7 500 mm (25 f t ) for
7 . 3 F i l t er Pump rust f orma t i on and s t a i n i ng . No t e tha t ga l -
un i ts w i th au toma t i c backwash . van i za t i on may be i mprac t i ca l whe r e the
For un i ts 750 mm (30 in) or l ess in d i ame - p i p i ng is threaded or in c l ose prox i m i t y to
ter , i t is usua l l y i nc l uded as par t o f a 3
tri
 530 - 2 2
f i t t ings (or o ther hardware ) made of brass
or bronze .

Duc t i l e or Cas t I ron :

Duc t i l e or cas t i ron is used in al l s i zes for the

over f l ow / dra i n sys t em . Genera l l y , i t is an
econom i c a l t erna t i ve to stee l for l ong runs
a t d i ame t e r s i zes of 200 mm (8 in) or l arg-
er . I t shou l d be spec i f i ed to be cemen t -
l i ned, and for pressure sys t ems i t shou l d
have mechan i ca l j o i nts . Duc t i l e i ron may be
we l ded for wa t ers tops , shaped n i pp l es , and
o ther spec i a l f abr i ca t i ons , whe reas cas t i ron
canno t be .

7 . 5 P i pe S i z i ng

Tab l e 530-8 shows max i mum p i pe s i zes

and cor respond i ng ve l oc i t i es for any g i ven
func t i on . Re t urn p i p i ng s i ze mus t be
rev i ewed in l ight o f NPSH requ i remen t s .

S i z i ng for grav i ty re turn , dra i n , and over -

f l ow p i p i ng is cr i t i ca l and mus t be care fu l l y
ca l cu l a t ed , par t i cu l ar l y for l ong p i p i ng runs
and m i n i ma l s l opes . I mprope r s i z i ng may
resu l t in f l ood i ng and / or pump damage .
F i gur e 530 - 23 . Typ i ca l pump cur ve.
7 . 6 F i t t i ngs , Va l ves , and St ra i ne rs

Th i s ha rdwa re is genera l l y of the same

ma t er i a l and s i ze as the p i p i ng . Ga t e va l ves
are su i t ab l e for shutof f on l y , wh i l e but t er f l y
va l ves , g l obe va l ves , and ba l l va l ves and

Tab l e 530 -4 . Tab l e 530 -5 .

P I PE S I Z I NG AND HEAD LOSS CHART HEAD LOSS NOMOGRAPH FOR F I TT I NGS AND VALVES
(Expr essed i n f ee t o f wa t e r pe r 100 f ee t l eng t h o f p i pe ) (Expr essed in equ i va l en t f ee t o f p i pe )

VELOCI TY 2 RPS. 5 FPS. 7 F.P. S. 10 FAS .

" GRAV I TY WRETURN d-3" " RETURN > 3" " PRESSURE
-PRESSURE SUPPLY OR
FUNCT I ON RETURN " GRAY TY
DRA I N SUPPLY OR DRA I N > 3 "
DRA I N L 3"
51ZE GPM ND .L GPM ND . LOSS GPM HD . LOSS GPM HD.
Vz " 2 1 .4 5 38.9 , , 0 .6 1o 134 . 8
M4 ' 3 5 .9 8 28 . 4 12 50.2 1 95 .1
1' 5 3. 8 13 20 . 4 19 35 . 0 21 131
1k " 10 29 23 14 . 4 32 21 .1 4re 53.1
S 19 2 .2 __f 2_ -
12 44 23 .3 r~3 44 . 0
n 2" 19 1 .8 49 9. 5 (08 11 .1 34. 5
91 ,
ra 2'h" ~~ 1 .3 ' I ra 1 .3 103_ 13 . 5 151 2G.S
3" ! 1 .1 110 r" . 0 152 11 . 0 220 21 .5
n
4" 0 . 18 195 4. 0 213 8. 0 399 15 , 0
O 5" O. GO 308 3,3 428 6.1 412 11 . 8
LL
G"
8"
01
315
0. 48
0: 34
440
180
2 .6
1 .8
GIG
1090
4,9
3 .5
B81
1540
9.1
G1
n
10u 490 0 .21 1240 1 .4 1(.51 2 .1 2450 5. 2
12 " 125 0 . 23 1160 1 .2 24GG 2. 2 3550 4. 2
14" 950 0 .18 2400 0. 99 3354 1 . 8 41A1 3 .6
O 1G " 12SO 0.15 3121 0. 98 4381 1 . G 4255 3. 0
O
a 20 " 1960 0 .12 4900 0. 45 (0910 1 . 2 9850 2 .3
24 " 2830 0 . 09 1100 0. 55 9910 0 .91 14400 1 .9
30 " 4400 0 . 08 11022 C440 15400 0 . 95 21500 1 . 4
ITY 0 , 0r , 1 . 55
3 Nub 0. 39 0
. 1G
 530 - 2 3

Tab l e 530 - 6 .
HEAD LOSS CHART FOR STRA I NERS AND VALVES
( Exp r essed i n f ee t o f wa t e r ) Tab l e 530 - 7 . H I GH RATE SAND F I LTER DATA

BUTTERFLY VALVE
V(Fp5) 3" 4" G' 80 -M I 12" ' 4" 1G ' 20 ' M~_ F I L-ER TANK SAND BED POOL 51ZE FLOW RATE
5 - - - - - - - - - . 18 1 DAMETER AREA 3 / 1000 4 / 1000 0015GPM 20GPM
- 53 34 .51 5 - t - - 35 31 1-4 1 1 . 4 SQ . FEET 465 550 21 28
10 ' .31 . OG ' . 38 '8 G9 I 4G t 5~ . ro * 5 'S ~O
2. 2 SQ , FEET 750 550 33 44
BASKET STRA I NER - "
2-O ' 1 3.1 SQ . FEET 1030 715 41 62
fps) 2_ 2'h' 5 ' 4" G" _ - 12' 14" tG" 20 "
5 2.35 1.13 , .5 1 .1 . 50 44 3G . 25 23 . 23 -
-1 11 5 .11 4.15 ! 3.0 2 .01 1 .51 1 . 03 . G4 . 55 . 44 ara . 4G 2-6" 4. 9SQ . FEET 1ro30 1225 14 98
10 11 . 55 G .43 G. 44 4 . G2 2 .11 3,01 1 .38 1 .16 80 . 92 . 81
01 - 1 .1 SQ FEET 25GG 1115 101 142

51LENT CHECK VALVE _ B ' -6 ' 9 . GSQ . FEET 3200 2400 144 192
V( fps) 11 2" 2h ' 3 ' 4" (o" 8" 10" 12" 14 ' 142" 120 ' 1249
5 438 4.15 4.15 4 .5 4. 62 4.85 4.96 3 .9 4. 85 3.9 1 .13 1Ai1 4 - 09 12 . GSQ. FEET 4200 3150 159 252
(0 . 00 G23 G r. 9 G. G9 1 . IG ~ . 85 ~ . 39 5.31 6 .0 G.O G.O W I -
10 111 . 08 081
..05111
31 11 . 31 12 , 01 13AG 13 . I G 924 10 . 39 I LSS 12 .1 23 . 1 ' 4-6 ' 1 15 .9 So , FEET 5300 3975 239 316

5 ' -O " 19 . 65Q . FEET 6530 4900 294 392

D I APHRAM VALVE - GLOBE
V( f ps ) 1° 1h ' 2" 2'A' 3" 4' G" 8" 10, 12 ' 14 ' 1G' 356 414
23 . 15Q FEET 1900 5925
G .2 G.4 4.1 5 .1 4. 6 L( , 14 4 .15 2 .0 4 .G 5 .1 5,1
10 : 11 5 3. a I 4. 0 1, 10.4 ~ .8 4. 4 11 . 0 9 .4 11 .5 11 . 5 6_ p'1 SGG
5. 0 28 . 3 S0 . FEET 9430 1015 425
12 n20 - 1203 . 2 . 1 t 85 ,5 .1 11,8 12 . 0 13.1 159 138 Jr. I 16 .1
6 ' -G " 3325Q . FEET 11 , 0G5 8500 495 GG4
D I APHRAM VALVE - ANGLE -
1 - 0-
1 1 110
V( f pS 1~2' 2' 212 ' 3 " 4" G~ 10, 12° 14 0 I G4 38 .5 SQ . FEET 12 , 530 9G25 518
&
lo t5.5 3 .2 3.2 23 2.3 - 2 .8 - 2 .3 2 .8 2 .3
5.8 55 4G 1 .8 4.9 48 44 . 25Q FEET 14 , 130 11 , 050 GG3 884
G 4G 4. G 4 .1 __
12 IG . .8 . 35t 9 , 5 - 4 o7 f 12 8 G5 G .2 t - 2 1 L0
B ' -O " 5035Q. FEET 1GS36512 , 515 16S 100ro

cocks may be used f or shu t o f f or thro t t l i ng. t i l e inf i l l t o ma t ch t he poo l bo t t om . F i gure I f j e ts a re used , t hen a sepa r a t e f i t t i ng
D i aph r agm va l ves a re used f or sequenc i ng , 530 - 25 shows a f o rmed conc r e t e sump in shou l d be used ( F i gur e 530 -27) .
f l ow regu l a t i on , and o t he r f orms o f au t oma t - t he poo l f l oor. Th i s t ype o f sump is gene r -
F i l t er Sys t ems F i t t i ngs:
i c modu l a t i on . Al l s t ra i ners shou l d be f i t t ed a l l y emp l oyed f or f l owr a t es i n excess o f 3
w i t h brass or s t a i n l ess-s t ee l baske t s . St ra i ners 750 Lpm (1000 gpm) whe r e t he f oun t a i n is Ma i n -dr a i n ( f i l ter re turn) , sk i mme r , eyeba l l
ove r 200 mm (8 i n) in d i ame t e r shou l d be on -gr ade . In a r ec t angu l a r con f i gura t i on , a supp l y , and vacuum f i t t i ngs a r e a l l ca r ry -
prov i ded w i t h e i ther an i nt egra l cove r l i f t or sump can s i mp l y have mo r e re t urn e l bows ; ove r s f rom sw i mm i ng poo l des i gn and
an aux i l i ary means t o l i f t t he cove r. f or i ns t ance , 750 mm x 1 500 mm (2-1 / 2- shou l d be avo i ded if poss i b l e , as t hey w i l l
f t x 5- f t ) sump wou l d have t wo 200 mm (8 c l u t t er t he poo l w i t h ha rdwa r e t ha t is o f
7 . 7 Poo l Ha r dwa r e i n) re t urn e l l s en t e r i ng t he l ong wa l l on ques t i onab l e va l ue and nea r l y i mposs i b l e t o
qua r t e r po i n t s . The sump may assume any concea l . The f i l ter re t urn may be v i a t he
As i de f rom unde rwa t e r l i ght i ng , seve ra l
i r regu l ar shape , wh i ch can be accommo - ma i n re t urn sump in l i eu o f t he ma i n dr a i n
bas i c i t ems o f ha rdwa r e a r e requ i red f or n
da t ed s i mp l y by d i scoun t i ng a l l sump a r ea and sk i mme r s . Supp l y t o t he poo l may be
poo l ope ra t i on , and seve ra l mo r e a r e ava i l - .a
beyond t he bas i c con f i gur a t i on . v i a t he f i l l / makeup f i t t i ng ra t he r t han eye -
ab l e t o f ac i l i t a t e ma i n t enance .
ba l l supp l y f i t t i ngs i f e f f ec t i ve c i rcu l a t i on n
Supp l y F i t t i ng
Re t urn F i t t i ng: can be p romo t ed v i a t he d i sp l ay sys t em .
O
E i ther a nozz l e (as d i scussed above i n 4 . 0 U-
A f abr i ca t ed f i berg l ass or me t a l sump is usu- Ove r f l ow F i t t i ng
Wa t e r Ef f ec t s) or a nonexpr essed sour ce
a l l y emp l oyed , w i t h an an t i vor t ex cove r
emp l oy i ng one or mo r e f abr i ca t ed sumps Re f e r t o F i gure 530-27 . Whe r e poss i b l e , a n
p l a t e to pr even t any en t r a i nmen t o f a i r. For a
(as shown in F i gur e 530 -24) i s necessa r y. subme rged ove r f l ow s t ra i ner may be used i n
l arge i nst a l l a t i ons , t he re turn f i t t i ng may be a
For l arger nonexpr essed sources , one or con j unc t i on w i t h an i nve r t ed t rap . I f t he poo l
conc r e t e sump f ormed i n t he poo l f l oor , w i t h
mo r e f ormed conc r e t e sumps may be used , is e l eva t ed , a conven t i ona l s i dewa l l f i t t i ng O
a cove r gra t e and l ea f sc r een ; a cove r p l a t e O
as shown in F i gur e 530 - 26 . may be used un l ess t he f r eeboa rd i s i nade -
is no t necessary , as t he i nc reased dep t h pre -
qua t e , in wh i ch case a s t andp i pe or a spec i a l -
ven t s vor t ex i ng or a i r en t r a i nmen t . F i l l / Makeup F i t t i ng:
l y f abr i ca t ed s l o t - t ype ove r f l ow may be used .
F i gure 530 - 24 shows a f abr i ca t ed sump I f t he supp l y i s nonexpr essed , f i l l / makeup
w i t h an i nf i l l - t ype an t i vor t ex cove r p l a t e . 3
f i t t i ngs may be rou t ed v i a t he supp l y f i t t i ng .
The p l a t e is des i gned t o r ece i ve conc r e t e or Leb
 530 - 2 4
8 .2 F l ood l i ght i ng
Tab l e 530 - 8 . S I Z I NG OF GRAV I TY FLOW P I P I NG
The ef fects of f loodl ight ing are very simi lar
TYPE OF P I P I NG S I Z I NG S I ZED FOR MAX I MUM to those of day l ight ing, but f loodl ight ing
VELOC I TY OF : must be used very judic iously, as the dis-
GRAV I TY Si z ing is cr i t i ca l & mus t be t ract ion of visible sources of ten of fsets the
RETURN PI PI NG care fu l l y ca l cu l a t ed for l ong va lue of the l ight ing . If sources can be min-
p i p i ng runs & m i n i ma l s l opes 600 mm / sec . (2 fps) imi zed, this can be a very ef fect ive and eco-
RETURN PI PI NG 75 mm (3" ) & sma l l er 1 .5 m/ sec (5 fps) nomi ca l means of l ight ing . F loodl ight ing
100 mm (4" ) & l arger 2 .1 m/ sec (7 fps) may a l so be used in comb i na t i on wi th
SUPPLY PIPING 75 mm (3" ) & sma l l er 2 .1 m/ sec . (7 fps) underwa t er l ight ing, af ford ing a broader
100 mm (4" ) & l arger 3 .04 m/ sec. (10 fps) spec t rum of ef fects wi th wh i ch to ach i eve
GRAV I TY DRAWN the overa l l compos i t i on .
AND 1 .5 m/ sec . (5 fps)
OVERFLOW PI PI NG 8 .3 Unde rwa t e r L i ght i ng
PUMPED DRA I N 75 mm (3" ) & sma l l er 2 .1 m/ sec . (7 fps)
Underwa t er l ight ing is potent i a l l y the most
PI PI NG 100 mm (4" ) & l arger 3 . 04 m/ sec. (10 fps)
dramat i c , as it renders a se l f - i l luminated
F I LL / MAKE-UP 3 . 04 m/ sec . (10 fps) qua l i ty to di spl ay ef fects, par t icular ly wi th
PI PI NG
regard to f ree- fa l l ing sheets and jets . The
wa t er acts l ike a lens, ref ract ing and di f fus-
ing the l ight . Underwa t er l ight ing must ,
Dr a i n F i t t i ngs : 8 .1 Day l i ght i ng however , be used judic iously, as each f ix-
ture in pl ace costs 3 to 5 t imes as much as
Refer to F igure 530-27 . In genera l , each Day l ight ing is a very i mpor tant aspect of a f loodl ight or typica l open-a i r l andscape
pool shou ld have a dra in at i ts lowest e le- si t ing and di spl ay or i entat ion, par t icular ly f ixture because of the requ i rements for
vat ion . In the case of return or source wi th di rect iona l di spl ays . Sun l ight is espe- submers ibi l i ty, cor ros ion resistance, and
pools, this may be vi a the return or sump , cial ly ef fect ive on f ree- fa l l ing or formed code- requ i red safety prov i s ions .
ut i l i z ing the f i t t ings or dra ins shown in jets, as it at t ract ive ly ref lects of f the sheet Fur thermore , the ma i nt enance for under -
F igures 530-24, 530-25, or 530-26 . For sur face, i l luminat ing sur face highl ights . It wa t er uni ts is cons iderab l y more cost ly than
intermed i ate pools, a separate va l ved dra in a lso works we l l wi th wh i tewa ter displ ays for l andscape uni ts .
or sol id- top dra in may be used . such as textured waterwa l l s, watersta i rs,
cascad i ng fal ls, and aerated jets . In the Underwa t er l ight ing may be used in two
F i n i shes :
nor thern hemi sphere , a souther l y exposure bas i c ways : upl ight ing, as used for a sheet
Impor tant compat i b l e f inishes shou ld be is opt i ma l . An easter ly or wester l y or i enta- or jet , and pool l ight ing, where the poo l
se l ected, s ince the poo l f i t t ings may be pro- t ion af fords morn i ng or a f ternoon l ight . i tsel f is l ighted to de l ineate sur round i ng
v ided by severa l suppl i ers and/or fabr i ca- Nor ther l y exposures genera l l y of fer l i t t le sur faces or to feature mater i a l s and/or tex-
tors . Ei ther a brass/bronze or sta inless- enhancement to the bas i c readabi l i ty of the tures . Up l ight ing is genera l l y the more dra-
stee l /ni cke l pl ate vernacu l ar genera l l y is di spl ay ; moreover , w i ndborne spray and mat i c and pract i ca l of the two .
used . Thi s shou l d inc lude grat ings and spl ash do not dry quick ly, and so the cool - Pool l ight ing genera l l y requi res many
f rames for the return/supp l y pumps , jets, ing potent i a l is mi n i mi zed . more f ixtures than upl ight ing, and because
and f i l l /makeup, over f low, and dra in f i t-
L I GHT I NG
t ings, as we l l as for the l ight ing f ixtures . Tab l e 530 - 9 .

8 . 0 FOUNTA I N L I GHT I NG
M I N I MUM BEAM CANDLEPOWER REGJ I REMENTS

WATER EFFECT 5
Founta in l ight ing is typica l ly thought of on l y HE I GHT ( I N FEET)
10 15 20 25 30 55 40 45 50
in terms of underwa ter l ight ing ; however ,
the use of day l ight ing (i .e ., opt imi z ing or i - CANDLEPOWER REQ ' O 4 11 21 34 S0 G9 ~91 115 144 170
( I N THOUSANDS)
entat ion relat ive to sunl ight ) as we l l as
f loodl ight ing has great potent i a l and is con-
s iderabl y less cost ly than underwa ter l ight - BEAM CANDLEPOWE R AVA I LABLE FOR VAR I OUS LAMPS
ing . Ef fect ive use of each of these a l terna-
LL t ives is both an ar t and a sc i ence . Al though WATTAGE
ENVELOPE
I SO
PAR
I SO 250
PAR PAR
2501 300
PAR , PAR
5001300 ' 500 500
PAR PAR PAR PAR
50010001000100
PAR PAR PAR PAR
a thorough di scuss ion is beyond the scope BEAM (1) SP FL SP FL NSP
(4) (3)
MFL WFL NSP MFL
(5) (3) (4) (4)
WFL NSP MFL WFL
C4) (4) (4) (4)
(3) (3) Î (4)
of this sect ion, a br ief overv i ew of the appl i -
cat ions of each is appropr i ate . Informat ion CANDLEPOWER
34 ro 70 22 10 90 49 15 1GO GO 27
AVA I LABLE C2) 10.5 3 .5
on co lored l ight ing is not inc luded here, as (~N THOUSANDS)
O amp l e reference mater i a l is ava i l abl e f rom
O manufacturers and the appl i cat ions are l im- C1) NSP - NAQ$OW SPOT , SP=SPOT , ' L- FLOOD , MFL=MED I JM FLOOD , WFL - W I DE FLOOD ,
i ted . (Refer to Sect ion 540 : Outdoor C2) CANDLEPOWER SHOWN i S IN ITIAL AVERAGE IN CENTRAL S* CONE FOR SPOTS ,

0
CENTRAL 10° CONE FOR FLOODS .
Light ing, for more informat ion .)
3
(3) I NCANDESCENT LAMPS , 2000 HOUR AVERAGE L I FE .
C4) TUNGSTEN HALOGEN AMPS , 4000 HOUR AVERAGE LI FE .
 530 - 2 5

F i gure 530-24 . Re t urn / supp l y sump . F i gure 530-25 . Re t urn sump .

11111- l u i

FORMED CONCRETE
SUMP

SUPPLY A55EMBLY - - POOL FLOOR

COMPR I S I NG 2 - SHORT
L " Li i .
LL I uxu . RAD I US ELLS AND1-TEE
F I LL / MAKE -UP F I TT I NG

- GRAT I NG VENT
PLAN
I I Ih~' I
- - POOL FLOOR . SLOPE - WATER LEVEL
TO SUMP r P I P I NG TO DRA I N
pi l l " `ifi
- - SUPPLY ASSEMBLY - POOLFLOOR

- - DRA I N F I TT I NG
OVERFLOW F I TT I NG
- WATER5TOPS
POOL FLOOR.
SLOPE TO DRA I N .
- SUPPLYP I P I NG
ELEVAT I ON
- P I P I NG TO DRA I N.

MAX I MUM G. F. M . M I I N I MUM SUMP 51ZE SUPPLY PI PE 51ZE

DRA I N F I TT I NG
150 2 ' -0" x1 ' -0" x 1 ' -3" DEEP

400 2 ' -6 " x 1 ' -3" x 1 ' -6" DEEP 4"

NOTES
900 3 ' -6 " x 1 ' -6" x 2 ' -0" DEEP 6" m 1. IF POSS I BLE. ALL STRA I NERS SHOULD BE THE SAME
6" CONF I GURAT I ON , D I MENS I ON AND SHAPE .
1600 4 ' -6 " x 2 ' -0" x 2 ' -6 " DEEP

2500 6 ' -O " x 2 ' -6" x 3 ' -0 " DEEP 10 " ~ 2. FOR CONCRETE F I N I SH POOLS , A ROUNDSTRA I NER W I LL
EL I M I NATE THE P0551B I L I TY OF AN OUT - OF - SQUARE F I TT I NG .
3500 T-0 " x 3 ' -0 " x 3 ' -6 " DEEP 12 "
3. FORTI LE F I N I SH POOLS , AN B" 50UAPE STRA I NER CAN
4750 5 ' -0 " x 3 ' -6 " x 4 ' -0 " DEEP 14 " V I SUALLY BE I NTEGRATED I NTO THE TI LE MODULE .

6250 9 ' -0 " x 4 ' -0 " x 4 ' -6 " DEEP 16 " 4 4. FOR STONE F I N I SH POOLS. A7 " ROUND STRA I NER CAN
BE F I TTED IN A 6 " CORE DR I LL HOLE.

F i gure 530-26 . Re t urn sump . F i gure 530-27 . Poo l f i t t i ngs . 3

 530- 26
the i ns i de sur f aces of the poo l need to be
l i ght -co l ored to re f l ect the l ight , th i s of t en
comprom i ses t he poo l ' s re f l ect i ve capab i l i -
t i es dur i ng the day ; i t shou l d be men t i oned ,
too , tha t pa i nt i ng a poo l a l i ght co l or wi l l
g i ve i t an appea rance mor e l i ke a comme r -
c i a l sw i mm i ng poo l t han an ornamen t a l
poo l or fount a i n . Poo l l i ght i ng a l so makes
si l t and debr i s cons i derab l y mor e v i s ibl e ,
necess i t a t i ng mor e f requen t ma i n t enance .
Last l y , bu t pe rhaps of grea t es t i mpor t ance ,
the l i ght i ng mus t be very we l l ma i nt a i ned ,
because the e f f ec t of hav i ng on l y one or
t wo l amps burned out may be much worse
than hav i ng no l i ght at al l .

8 . 4 Des i gn Pr i nc i p l es

A l t hough n i gh t t i me l i ght i ng , whe t he r

f l ood l i ght i ng or unde rwa t e r l i ght i ng , is
genera l l y used to accen tua t e on l y a par t of
the tota l fount a i n compos i t i on , i t typ i ca l l y
i ntens i f i es t he n i ght t i me presence of the
i l l um i na t ed poo l s or d i sp l ay e l emen t s (as
compa r ed to the day l i ght i mpac t ) . W i t h
l arger , mor e comp l ex fount a i ns , an i nter -
F i gur e 530 - 28 . Subme r s i b l e l i gh t i ng . med i a t e l i ght i ng l eve l is of t en i nt roduced ,
subord i na t e to the foca l e l emen t s wh i l e st i l l
s t rong l y cont ras t i ng w i t h the i mmed i a t e
sur round i ngs . Th i s typ i ca l l y requ i res the use
of unde rwa t e r l i ght i ng in l i eu of , or in add i -
t i on to, any f l ood l i ght i ng tha t may be used .

Once the bas i c compos i t i on is de t er -

m i ned , t he des i gn cr i ter i a are fa i r l y ob j ec -
t i ve . L i ght i ng i ntens i ty is based on l um i -
nance , i .e ., sur f ace br i ghtness , measured in
foo t l amber t s ra ther t han foo t cand l es .

Human percept i on of l ight i ntens i ty is

genera l l y l ogar i thm i c in na ture , requ i r i ng 10
t i mes the br i ghtness to doub l e the i ntens i ty
perceptua l l y . Accord i ng l y , the br i ghtness of
a pr i mary d i sp l ay shou l d average a t l east 10
t i mes the sur round i ng amb i en t l i ght l eve l
and 3 t i mes the subord i na t ed d i sp l ays . The
un i form i t y ra t i o- t he max i mum to m i n i -
mum br i ghtness for any d i sp l ay e l emen t -
idea l l y shou l d no t exceed 3 :1 .
n
S i nce wa t e r d i sp l ays are genera l l y h i gh l y
ra
re f l ect i ve and l oca l i zed , t he use of re l a t i ve-
n ly l ow- l eve l l ight wi l l ach i eve the des i red
O br i ghtness . Care fu l se l ec t i on o f t he t ype o f
l amp is the key to proper l i ght i ng and , as
such , shou l d precede t he se l ec t i on o f the
n l i ght i ng f i xture i tse l f . For examp l e , when
l i ght i ng a nar row , ver t i ca l jet , a very na r row
_N l ow-vo l t age 240 - W spot l amp a f fords mor e
O l ight in the cr i t i ca l 5-degree cent ra l cone
O t han does a 1000 - W spot l i ght . In genera l ,
P F i gur e 530 - 29 . Subme r s i b l e l i gh t i ng .
na r row-beam spot l i ghts are used for l ight -
i ng j ets and w i de -beam f l ood l i ght s for
fa l l i ng wa t e r . In the i nterest of un i form i t y , a
3 m i n i mum of t wo f i xtures shou l d be used for
 530-2 7
j et d i sp l ays and max i mum spac i ng of 1 000
mm (3 f t ) on cent er used for wa t er f a l l
up l i ght s . F i xtures shou l d be se l ec t ed to
accommoda t e (1) the t ype and or i ent a t i on
of the l amps , (2) the poo l con f i gura t i on
and f in i sh, (3) app l i cab l e codes , and (4)
regu l ar ma i n t enance .

I t shou l d be no t ed tha t fount a i ns are

rare l y over l i ght ed , but the l i ght i ng for a s in-
g l e j et or wa t er f a l l need not be as comp l ex
as descr i bed above . Mos t supp l i ers of com-
ponen t s of f er re l at i ve l y s i mp l e t abu l ar da t a ,
such as tha t shown in Tab l e 530-9 .

8 . 5 I ns t a l l a t i on

The r e are severa l cr i t i ca l cons i dera t i ons

regard i ng the phys i ca l i nsta l l at i on of under -
wa t e r f i xtures , i nc l ud i ng proper subme r -
s i on , m i n i m i za t i on of hardware , sh i e l d i ng
the source f rom v i ew , and accommoda t i ng
code -manda t ed sa f e t y requ i remen t s .

Submers i on :
Mos t unde rwa t e r f i xtures re l y on subme r -
s i on for coo l i ng to preven t l amp and l ens
breakage . M i n i mum subme rs i on is abou t
25 mm (1 in) , w i th 50 mm (2 in) subme r -
s i on common l y spec i f i ed to accommoda t e
wave ac t i on and wa t e r l eve l var i ab i l i ty . Any
F i gur e 530 - 30 . Subme r s i b l e l i gh t i ng . dep t h beyond th i s d i mens i on shou l d be
m i n i m i zed , as the l i ght ou t pu t is reduced by
10 percent for every 2 in of subme rgence .

M i n i m i za t i on of Ha rdwa re:
Unde rwa t e r f i xtures are i nherent l y bu l ky ,
and the need for cords , j unc t i on boxes , and
L i ght i ng for poo l s and fount a i ns i nc l udes underwa t er l i ght i ng, day l i ght i ng and f l ood- o ther re l a t ed ha rdwa re compounds the
l i ght i ng . prob l em . F i gures 530-28 , 530-29 , and
530-30 show c l ear , typ i ca l de ta i l s for the
1 . In the nor thern hem i sphere , a souther l y exposure is opt i ma l for day l i ght i ng wa t er i nsta l l at i on of unde rwa t e r f i xtures for the
d i sp l ays . Nor ther l y exposures genera l l y of f er l i t t le enhancemen t to the readab i l i ty of de l i nea t i on and up l i ght i ng o f shee t s and
the d i sp l ay ; moreover , w i ndborne spray and sp l ash do not dry qu i ck l y , so the coo l i ng j ets ; a l though these are on l y represent a t i ve ,
pot ent i a l is m i n i m i zed . t hey do show me t hods for concea l i ng
cords , condu i t s , and j unc t i on boxes and for
2 . The e f fects of f l ood l i ght i ng are s imi l ar to those of day l i ght i ng , but f l ood l i ght i ng mus t m i n i m i z i ng the presence of the f i xture
be used very j ud i c i ous l y , as the d i st ract i on of v i s ibl e sources of t en of fsets the va l ue i tse l f . Among the severa l var i a t i ons on t yp-
of the l i ght i ng. i ca l f i xture cons t ruc t i on and i nsta l l at i on n
de t a i l ed in these f i gures , the mor e i mpor -
3 . Wh i l e underwa t er l i ght i ng can be drama t i c , each f i xture costs 3 to 5 t i mes as much as t ant i nc l ude the fo l l ow i ng.
f l ood l i ghts or typ i ca l open-a i r l andscape f i xtures because of the requ i rement s for sub-
mers ibi l i ty, cor ros i on res i stance , code- requ i red sa f e ty prov i s i ons , and ma i n t enance . Yoke Locks : Yoke l ocks shou l d be spec i - O
f i ed for f i xtures used to i l l umi na te fa l l ing
4 . Genera l l y , the br i ghtness of a pr i mary l i ght i ng d i sp l ay shou l d average at l east 10 wa t e r f rom j ets or water fa l l s , par t i cu l ar l y
t i mes the sur round i ng amb i en t l ight l eve l and 3 t i mes the subord i na t ed d i sp l ays . when ver t i ca l d i mens i ons exceed 6 000 mm n
(20 f t ) . F i xtures pos i t i oned by f r i ct i on
_N
5 . In the i nterest of un i formi ty , a m i n i mum of t wo f i xtures shou l d typ i ca l l y be used for dev i ces are i nadequa t e for heavy fa l ls or j ets.
j et d i sp l ays and max i mum spac i ng of 1 000 mm (3 f t ) on cent er used for wa ter fa l l O
up l i ghts . Bases : Bases shou l d be secured to the poo l O
f l oor to prevent any movemen t due to fa l l ing P
6 . F i xtures shou l d be se l ec t ed to accommoda t e (1) the t ype and or i enta t i on of the wa t er or any d i s l oca t i on tha t m i gh t occur in
l amps , (2) the poo l conf i gura t i on and f ini sh, (3) app l i cab l e codes , and (4) regu l ar the course of norma l poo l ma i n t enance .
ma i n t enance . 3
 530- 2 8
s i ons , i nc l ud i ng cor ros i on- res i s t ant con-
du i ts , pos i t i ve ground i ng , and ground- f au l t
cur rent - i nt er rupt i ng c i rcu i t breakers , wh i ch
t r ip i ns t ant aneous l y i f cur rent l eakage to
ground exceeds 5 mA (a f rac t i on of the
cur rent l eve l tha t m i gh t pose a l etha l shock
hazard) . These prov i s i ons mus t be care fu l l y
s tud i ed and app l i ed . Because of the some -
wha t sub j ec t i ve na ture of the word i ng con-
t a i ned in the codes , i t is of t en w i se to
rev i ew the prov i s i ons w i th the author i t y
who wi l l be respons i b l e for i nspec t i on and
approva l of a par t i cu l ar i nsta l l at i on .

9 . 0 CONTROLS

The fount a i n cont ro l sys t em may be as s i m-

p l e as a s i ng l e manua l sw i t ch used to turn
on or of f a submers i b l e pump , or as com-
p l ex as a fu l l y au t oma t i c sys t em w i th hun-
F i gur e 530 -31 . Con t ro l s ( pump con t ro l , shu t down con t ro l ) . dreds of e l ec t romechan i ca l dev i ces
respond i ng to a cont ro l l i ng compu t e r . The
pr i mary func t i ons o f an au t oma t i c cont ro l
sys t em are : (1) au t oma t i ng o therw i se man -
ua l chores wh i ch may be aes the t i c or prac-
t i ca l in na ture and (2) prot ec t i ng equ i pmen t
aga i ns t damage or de t er i ora t i on due to
i nopera t i ve aux i l i ary equ i pmen t , i nade -
qua t e ma i n t enance , or var i ab l e ext erna l c i r -
cums t ances . Interest i ng l y , as comp l ex as
these sys t ems can become , var i ant s and
comb i na t i ons of on l y a hand fu l o f cont ro l
dev i ces and a ha l f -dozen or so bas i c sub-
sys t ems are used to mode ra t e , prot ec t , and
ma i nt a i n t he subsys t ems d i scussed in 6.0
Ope ra t i ng Sys t ems .

9 .1 Con t ro l Dev i ces

Se l ec tor Sw i t ch :

F i gur e 530 -32 . Con t ro l s ( l i ght i ng con t ro l , w i nd con t ro l ) . Se l ec tor sw i t ches are used to se l ect , vary ,
bypass , or deenerg i ze the au toma t i c cont ro l
dev i ces in each subsys t em .
Rock Gua rds : Rock gua rds are requ i red l amp , wh i ch a f fords an 8000-hour ave rage
l amp l i fe ra ther t han the 750-hour l i fe o f P i l ot L i gh t :
by code for f i xtures f ac i ng upwa rd . A cast -
bronze gr i d i nt egra t ed w i th the l ens door is the househo l d vers i on . P i l ot l i ghts are used , whe r e appropr i a t e , to
common l y used , but a prot ec t i ve gra t i ng show the s t a tus of each subsys t em .
n Sh i e l d i ng the Source :
(as shown in F i gure 530-29) wi l l serve the
a purpose j ust as we l l . Mo t or Star ter , Cont ac tor , Re l ay:
F i gure 530-28 shows a f i xture tha t can be
n f i t ted w i t h an opt i ona l cas t -bronze l ouver i f These are magne t i ca l l y opera t ed or ac tua t -
F l ush-Moun t ed F i x tures : A f l ush-
moun t ed f i xture (as shown in F i gure 520- the f i xture fa l ls w i th i n the l ine of s i ght f rom ed sw i t ches . A mo t or star ter , in add i t i on ,
O norma l v i ew i ng pos i t i ons . F i gure 530-29
28) canno t be embedded d i rect l y in con- i nt egra t es a therma l l y opera t ed sw i t ch i ng
cre t e , but mus t be i nsta l l ed in a n i che w i th shows a f i xture be l ow a l i near bar gra t e dev i ce t o prot ec t the mo t or aga i ns t a var i -
tha t , in i tse l f , func t i ons as a l ouver . In e t y of pot ent i a l ma l func t i ons . When con-
n suf f i c i ent l ength of cord to a l l ow t he f i xture
a to be e l eva t ed to a t l east 600 mm (2 f t ) F i gure 530-30 , the moun t i ng cy l i nder i tse l f t ro l powe r is app l i ed to the coi l of the ac tu-
wi l l a f ford some sh i e l d i ng . O t he r unde rwa - a t i ng e l ec t romagne t , one or mor e con t ac t
above wa t e r l eve l for re l amp i ng . S i nce the
t er f i xtures have opt i ona l l ouvers tha t are pa i rs are s i mu l t aneous l y opened or c l osed .
O n i che is a we t area , a cord sea l , l i ke tha t
O used at the f i xture for the cord connec t i on , i ntegra l w i th the l ens door and doub l e as Remov i ng the cont ro l powe r wi l l reverse
the code - requ i red rock gua rd . the cont ac t s . A re l ay may have up to 12
shou l d be used at t he condu i t en t ry to the
n i che to keep wa t e r out o f the condu i t sys- se ts of cont ac t s , and each of these may be
Sa f e t y Requ i r emen t s :
0 t em . Th i s f i xture , wh i ch emp l oys the s t an- spec i f i ed as c l osed or open in t he norma l
3 da rd A- t ype l amp , shou l d a l ways be pro- Ar t i c l e 680 of the U .S . Na t i ona l El ect r i c (deenerg i zed coi l ) mode . Each cont ac t pa i r
v i ded w i th the t raf f i c s i gna l vers i on of th i s Code (NEC) manda t es severa l sa f e t y prov i - is then norma l l y open or norma l l y c l osed .
 530-Z9
No F l ow:

Thi s cond i t ion is caused by a loss of pr i me

(ai r in the pump) , a ma l funct i on i ng pump ,
or a c losed va l ve or other obst ruct ion in the
supp l y piping . A t ime re lay is incorporated
in con junct ion wi th the f low swi tch to a l low
the f low to become establ i shed on star t -up .
The cont rol re lay is actuated on signa l
f rom the pressure / vacuum or f l ow swi tch,
inter rupt ing power to the pump cont rol ci r-
cui t . Once the pump is stopped, the system
must be reset manua l l y ; otherwi se , the sys-
t em wou l d t ry to restar t as the f low d imin-
ishes and a ful l stat ic head is reestabl i shed .

9 .4 L i ght i ng Cont ro l

F i gure 530-33 . Cont ro l s (wa t er l eve l cont ro l ) . Refer to F igure 530-32 . Th i s system is vi r-
tua l ly ident ica l to the pump cont rol system,
ut i l i z ing a l ight ing contactor , or heavy duty
T i me De l ay Re l ay: W i nd Sensor : type of relay, in l ieu of the motor star ter.
Power is routed through a l ight ing contac-
A t i me de l ay re l ay is simi lar to the re lay An anemome t er (wind-dr i ven generator ) is tor , wh i ch is actuated by an ast ronomi c dial
descr ibed above , except that actuat ion is used to sense w i nd ve loc i ty and to cause a t i me swi tch vi a an auxi l i ary contact in the
de l ayed by an auxi l i ary t iming dev i ce . The remot e re lay to swi tch on or of f as the di spl ay motor star ter , ensur i ng that the
de l ay may occur upon energ i zat ion or ve loc i ty exceeds or fal ls be l ow a preset l ights wi l l not operate if the di spl ay is of f for
deenerg i zat ion, the l ength of de l ay may be ve loc i ty. any reason .
adjusted, and instantaneous (nonde l ayed)
contacts may be actuated by the same coi l . 9 .2 Pump Cont ro l 9 .5 W i nd Cont ro l
T i me Sw i tch : Refer to F igure 530-31 . Power for the Th i s syst em swi tches cont ro l power
pump is routed through a motor star ter. through a re lay actuated by a wi nd-dr i ven
A t ime swi tch is a c lock-operated swi tch The coi l is actuated by a t i me swi tch, set to generator . An integra l t ime de l ay ensures
that may be preset to swi tch on and of f at swi tch the pump motor on and of f at the that the system is not t r iggered by momen-
any des i red t ime of day. If requi red, the des i red t imes of day. Add i t iona l cont rol s in tary gusts . Of ten two re l ays are used, each
dev i ce may be spec i f i ed to swi tch severa l the cont rol ci rcui t wi l l prevent the motor wi th a di f ferent set point . When the lower
t imes dur ing each day . T i me swi tches used f rom runn i ng if the shutdown system is ve loc i ty set point is reached, the f i rst -stage
for l ight ing may be spec i f i ed wi th an ast ro- energ i zed or if the wa t er level in the poo l is cont rol re l ay is actuated, throt t l ing an auto-
nom i c dial wh i ch cor rects the on t ime for too l ow. An auxi l iary contact ( inter lock) in mat i c va l ve to reduce jet he ights . When the
the t i me of year and the spec i f ic l at i tude . the motor star ter is used to keep the make- h igher ve loc i ty is reached, the second-stage
up system f rom operat ing if the pool is cont rol re lay inter rupts power to the pump
Pressure Sw i tch : dra ined or a l ow-wa ter cond i t ion exists . and l ights . A restar t t i me de l ay is used to
A pressure swi tch opens or c loses upon ensure that the pump does not exceed an
change of pressure . It can be spec i f i ed to 9 .3 Shu t down Cont ro l a l lowab l e number of star ts per hour or day,
operate on e i ther increas ing or decreas ing Refer to F igure 530-31 . Thi s system is wh i ch cou ld cause damage to the motor.
pressure . If the des i red actuat ion is at less des i gned to keep the pump(s) f rom runn ing
than a tmospher i c pressure, a comb i na t i on if the return system is c l ogged or if the wa ter 9 .6 Wa t e r Leve l Cont ro l S
pressure-vacuum or vacuum swi tch must is not f l owi ng . A thi rd shutdown ci rcui t is Refer to F igures 530-20 ( I tem 10) and 530-33 . n
be spec i f i ed . inc luded in the wa ter level cont rol . (See 9 .6 Th i s syst em swi tches cont rol power ru
F l ow Sw i tch : Wa t er Leve l Cont ro l in this sect ion .) through re l ays actuated by wa ter level sen- n
sors, e i ther probes or f loats, wh i ch mon i tor
A f l ow swi tch opens or c loses when wa ter C l ogged Re turn : the wa ter level at the poo l . The probe sys- O
is f l owi ng in a pipe, and it reverses mode C l ogged returns are usua l ly caused by a t em is most common l y used, each funct ion
when the f l ow ceases . poor l y ma i nta i ned leaf screen or st ra iner. As compr i s i ng two probes and a probe re l ay-
n
the pump works harder to draw water , a a l though, wi th proper des ign, the fi l l and çqj
Leve l Sensor : l ow-wa ter funct ions can be comb i ned . The
l ow pressure or vacuum deve l ops be tween
A leve l sensor is a f loat - or probe-actuated the st ra iner and the pump . A proper l y fill and makeup systems ut i l i ze a common
O
dev i ce used to sense l iquid level in a con- insta l l ed pressure or pressure / vacuum wa ter level cont rol re lay wh i ch is used to
ta iner and to cause a remot e low-vo l tage swi tch on the return l ine wi l l signal this actuate the so l eno i d-operated va l ve . The n.O
re l ay to swi tch on and of f as the level fal ls cond i t ion . l ow-wa ter shutdown system has a separate
and r ises . The m i n i mum pract ica l di f ference cont rol re lay wh i ch is used to inter rupt
power to the pumps and l ights shou ld the
0
be tween the on and of f levels is on the 3
order of 25 mm (1 in) .
 530- 30
wa t e r in the poo l fal l be l ow a prese t m i n i - REFERENCES
mum l eve l .
A l pern , Andr ew (ed.) . Handbook of Spec i a l ty
9 . 7 Sequenc i ng E l emen t s in Landscape Arch i t ec ture , chap . 8 :
The mechan i cs o f cont ro l l i ng a sequenced " Decora t i ve Poo l s and Fount a i ns , " M . Pau l
fount a i n are suf f i c i ent l y var i ed and com- Fr i edberg and Cyn th i a R i ce , McGraw-H i l l ,
New York , 1982.
p l ex , and the app l i ca t i ons i n f requen t
enough , tha t a de t a i l ed d i scuss i on here is Campbe l l , Cra i g 5 . Wa t e r in Landscape
probab l y not j ust i f i ed . I t is appropr i a t e to Arch i t ec ture , Van Nos t rand Re i nho l d , New
not e , howeve r , tha t there are four com- York , 1978.
mon l y used me t hods of cont ro l l i ng Carpent er , Jot (ed .) . Handbook of Landscape
sequenced fount a i ns . They are , in order o f Arch i t ec tura l Cons t ruc t i on , chap . 13 :
comp l ex i t y : " Wa t e r -Poo l s and Fount a i ns , " E . Byron
1 . A s i mp l e cam t i mer , of the t ype used to McCu l l y , The Landscape Arch i t ec ture
cont ro l t raf f i c s i gna l s Founda t i on , Wash i ng ton , D . C. , 1976 .
2 . A ser i es of s t ep sw i t ches and t i m i ng
Wedd l e , A. E., Landscape Techn i ques , chap.
re l ays 8 : " Wa t er , " G . A . Je l l i coe , Van Nos t rand
3 . Progr ammab l e so l i d-st a t e l og i c modu l es Re i nho l d , New York , 1979 .
4 . Compu t e rs of vary i ng capac i t i es
Each of these has a par t i cu l ar use fu l
range . The cam t i mer , for i ns t ance , m i gh t
cont ro l a re l at i ve l y s t ra i ght forward group of
three or four j ets . Int ermed i a t e sys t ems
cou l d range to t he l at ter me t hods , wh i ch
m i gh t be used to de l i ver comp l ex i nst ruc-
t i ons to hundreds of j ets and l i gh t s-wh i l e
a t the same t i me respond i ng to env i ron-
men t a l var i ab l es , such as w i nd , ra in, and
t empe r a t ur e -or used to prov i de a con-
st ant l y modu l a t ed , or f lu id, e f f ec t ra ther
t han a s t epped e f f ec t .

ra
n
u
O

n
a

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C.

M
 SECT I ON ~ I

Ou t door L i gh t i ng

. .

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
N i cho l as T. D i nes
Con t r i bu t or :
Robe r t Prouse
HM Br ands t on and Par tners Inc.
New York , New Yor k
M i chae l Sa rd i na
The SWA Group , Inc .
Bos t on , Massachuse t t s
A l an Fu j i mor i
Hono l u l u , Hawa i i
Techn i ca l Wr i t er :
Ky l e D. Brown
Rev i ewe rs :
Pe t e r Coxe
W i l l i am Lam Assoc i a t es
Cambr i dge , Massachuse t t s
Kenne t h E . Basse t t
Sasak i Assoc i a t es , Inc .

CONTENTS

1 . 0 Int roduc t i on 3 . 5 At mosphe r e and Cha rac t e r Bas i c L i ght D i st r i but i on Pa t t erns
Background Un i f orm i t y
1 .1 Gene ra l
1 . 2 Ob j ec t i ves o f Ou t door L i ght i ng Foreground Cu to f f
I l l umi na t i on of Ob j ec t s (Shape 4 .3 Ca t egor i es of L i ght F i x tures
2 . 0 Te rm i no l ogy Low-Leve l Landscape L i ghts
Accen tua t i on)
3 . 0 Gene ra l Des i gn Pr i nc i p l es Co l or Percep t i on I n t e rmed i a t e -He i gh t Landscape L i ghts n
s
3 .1 Or i en t a t i on Park i ng Lot and Roadway L i ghts
4 .0 Lamp Charac t er i s t i cs and L i ght
L i ght i ng H i erarchy D i s t r i but i on H i gh-Mas t L i ghts
J
C l ear L i ght i ng Pa t t erns 4 . 4 Landscape L i ght i ng Ef f ec t s
4 .1 Lamp Charac t er i s t i cs
3 . 2 Ident i f i ca t i on Up l i ght i ng
I ncandescen t Lamps
Int ersec t i on Ar t i cu l a t i on Moon l i gh t i ng
F l uorescent Lamps
P l acemen t of Lum i na i res S i l houe t t e L i ght i ng
Me r cury Vapor Lamps (De l uxe Wh i t e )
Dec i d i ng Wha t to L i ght Spot l i ght i ng r
Induc t i on Lamps
3. 3 Sa f e t y Spread l i ght i ng
Me t a l Ha l i de Lamps
G l a re Pa th l i ght i ng
H i gh-Pressure Sod i um Lamps
Under l i gh t i ng ' Wh i t e ' H i gh-Pressure Sod i um Lamps 5 .0 Low Vo l t age Sys t ems
3. 4 Secur i t y Low-Pressure Sod i um Lamps 6 .0 Recommended Leve l s o f I l l um i na t i on 0
Wa l kway L i ghts 4 .2 L i ght D i s t r i but i on
Surve i l l ance Re f erences
Hor i zont a l and Ver t i ca l D i st r i but i on
Vanda l i sm

T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 540 -2
1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON

1 .1 Genera l
Thi s sect ion inc ludes informat ion useful for
sol v ing si te l ight ing prob l ems . Inc luded are
def ini t ions of terms assoc i ated wi th l ight -
ing, genera l des ign pr inc iples, character i s-
t ics of var ious l amps , and recommended
levels of i l luminat ion ( indust ry standards)
for var ious l andscape uses . The informat ion
inc luded here wi l l aid in the process of
spec i fy ing f ixtures for par t i cul ar l ight ing
proj ects .

1 .2 Ob j ec t i ves of Ou t door L i ght i ng

The purposes of outdoor l ight ing inc lude :
(1) i mprov i ng the legibi l i ty of cr i t ical nodes ,
l andmarks , and c i rcul at ion and act ivi ty
zones in the l andscape ; (2) faci l i tat ing the
safe movemen t of pedest r i ans and vehi c l es,
promot i ng a more secure env i ronment , and F i gure 540-1 . Lux and foot cand l e
mi n i mi z i ng the potent i a l for persona l harm measuremen t s .
and damage to proper ty ; and (3) he lp ing to
revea l the sa l ient features of a si te at a
des i red intensi ty of l ight in order to encour - ef fect i veness of i ts i l luminat ion . I t shou ld
age n ight t ime use . not be assumed that a l amp wh i ch has h igh
ef f i cacy wi l l gi ve bet ter i l luminat ion than a
2 .0 TERM I NOLOGY less ef f ic ient l amp (F igure 540-3) .
Lumen : A quant i tat i ve uni t of measure- Light deprec i at i on : Lamp output
ment refer r ing to the total amount of l ight ( l umens) wi l l deprec i ate over i ts ef fect i ve
energy emi t ted by a l ight source , wi thout l i fe . I l luminat ion wi l l be reduced fur ther due
regard to the di rect ion of i ts dist r ibut ion . to an accumu l at i on of di r t and gr i me on the
l amp and f ixture . Ad j ustments shou ld be
Footcand l e ( fc) : A U .S . uni t of measure- made to compensa t e for this deprec i at ion
ment refer r ing to inc ident l ight . when determi n i ng the average va lues of
Footcand l es can be der i ved f rom l umens (1 i l luminat ion ma i nta i ned over t ime . A ma i n-
fc = 1 l umen/ sq . f t .) or cande l as ( fc = tenance factor of 50 to 70 percent is com-
cande l as/d i stance 2 ) . mon for outdoor appl i cat ions . New instal la-
Lux ( Ix) : The Internat iona l Standard (SI ) t ions are rout ine l y des i gned to de l i ver 1-
measure of inc ident l ight. I t is equa l to one 1/2 to 2 t imes as much i l luminat ion as
l umen un i forml y di st r ibuted over an area of needed , to susta in this ma i nta i ned output
one square me t er (10 .7 Ix = 1 fc) (F igure over the ant i c ipated l i fe of the l amp .
540-1) . Co l or : Two measures used to descr ibe
Cand l epower : The uni t of intensi ty of a the color character ist i cs of l amps are (1) the
l ight source in a spec i f ic di rect ion, of ten apparent color and (2) the color render ing
refer red to as Cande l a . One cande l a di rect - index .
ed g perpend i cu l ar l y to a sur face one foot The apparent color of a l ight source is
n away generates one footcand l e of l ight . g i ven by the color tempera ture . F igure
s I l luminance: Inc ident l ight , or l ight st r ik- 540-4 shows var ious index numbers used
to rank sources on a sca l e that range f rom ranges f rom 0 to 100 and is a reasonab l e
ing a sur face (F igure 540-2) . approx i ma t i on of color render ing accuracy.
J wa rm to cool in appearance . Preference for
r Lum i nance : Light l eav i ng a sur face , one or another is a mat ter of taste and usu- CRI is comp l ete l y i ndependent of whe ther
O whe ther due to the sur face's ref l ectance, or al ly var i es wi th the context of the appl i ca- a l ight source casts the ob j ect in a wa rm or
O because it is the sur face of a l ight -emi t t ing cool tone . The CRI graph shows the rank-
t ion and w i th the i l luminat ion leve l . Wa rm
ob j ect ( l ike a l ight bulb) . Lum i nance is the tones tend to be favored when i l luminat ion ing of the ma j or outdoor l ight sources
measurab l e form of br ightness, wh i ch is a is l ow and coo l er tones are prefer red under (F igure 540-4) . As a genera l guide l ine, a
subj ect i ve sensat ion . h igh l ight ing levels . m i n i mum CRI of 50 is suggested to at ta in a
reasonab l y fai thful or natura l color rendi -
Ef f i cacy : A measure of how ef f icient ly a The color render i ng index (CRI ) is a t ion . Lamps ranked signi f icant ly be l ow this
0 l amp conver ts elect r ic power (wat ts) into measurement of the degree to wh i ch ob j ect are j udged to cause visible distor t ions to
l ight energy ( lumens) wi thout regard to the colors are fa i thful ly rendered . Thi s sca le appearance .

Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 F i gur e 540 -6 . L i gh t i ng pa t t e rns.

of road and pa t hway l i ghts t ends to

obscure ra ther t han re i nforce the d i rec t i on
of c i rcu l a t i on and the l oca t i on o f i ntersec-
F i gur e 540 -4 . Co l or r ende r i ng t i ons (F i gure 540-6) .
MAJOR AND M I NOR ROADS ARE D I ST I NCT , AND PEDESTR I AN
i ndex . ROUTES DEF I NED.
3 . 2 I den t i f i ca t i on
F i gur e 540 - 5 . L i gh t i ng h i e r a r chy . Int ersec t i on Ar t i cu l a t i on :
G l a re: A po i nt or sur f ace of l um i nance
tha t is above one ' s cur rent st a t e of adap t a - Int ersec t i ons , dec i s i on po i nts , cross i ngs ,
t i on . The human v i sua l sys t em can com- bus stops , steps , ar r i va l po i nts , e t c ., shou l d
for t ab l y see in l ight l eve l s rang i ng f rom 3 . 0 GENERAL DES I GN PR I NC I PLES
be ar t i cu l a t ed in a manne r tha t s i gna l s the i r
star l i ght to noonday sun , bu t canno t do so 3 .1 Or i en t a t i on presence , shape , and na ture . The i l l um i na-
ove r th i s ent i re range at the same t i me . We t i on pa t t ern shou l d serve as a v i sua l cue to
adap t to one l i mi ted range or another , and L i gh t i ng H i erarchy: wha t cond i t i ons may l ie ahead .
perce i ve g l are as any br i ghtness above our
Dr i ver and pedes t r i an or i ent a t i on can be P l acemen t o f Lum i na i res :
cur rent st a t e of adap t a t i on . D i sab i l i ty g l are
i mpa i rs v i s ibi l i ty and is pr i mar i l y a phys i o- a i ded by prov i d i ng a h i erarchy of l i ght i ng
e f f ec ts tha t cor respond to the d i f f erent Spac i ng , he i ght , and d i st r i but i on of l um i -
l og i ca l phenomenon ; e . g ., the n i ght t i me
zones and uses of a s i te . For i ns t ance , sub- na i res shou l d avo i d fo l i age shadows , pro-
g l are f rom an oncom i ng veh i c l e ' s head-
t l e but recogn i zab l e d i st i nc t i ons can be v i de un i form i t y , and ver t i ca l sur f ace i l lumi -
l ights can momen t a r i l y b l i nd a dr i ver ' s per -
made be t ween ma j or and m i nor roads , na t i on . H i gh moun t i ng and w i de spac i ng o f
cept i on of the road ahead . D i scomf or t g l are
pa ths , and use areas by vary i ng the d i st r i b- f i xtures may resu l t in d i srupt i ons to the i l lu-
does not i mpa i r v i s ibi l i ty but is pr i mar i l y a
ut i on and br i ghtness of t he l ight and by m i na t i on pa t t ern due to t ree shadows
psycho l og i ca l phenomenon or an annoy -
vary i ng the he i ght , spac i ng , and co l or of [F i gure 540-7 ( top) ] . Lowe r moun t i ng g IA
ance wh i ch may produce f a t i gue i f i t con-
l amps (F i gure 540-5) . he i ght s and c l oser spac i ng be t ween f i xtures n
t i nues over an ex t ended per i od of t i me .
may crea t e a mor e un i form d i st r i but i on of h
Cu to f f l i ght d i s t r i but i on : A t e rm used in At t a i n i ng h i gh l eve l s of i l l um i na t i on l ight promo t i ng t he pedes t r i an ' s sense of
a l ong c i rcu l a t i on rout es does not have to be g
re f erence to the opt i ca l des i gn of some f ix- secur i ty. [F i gure 540-7 (bot tom) ] .
a pr i me cons i dera t i on in ou t door l i ght i ng. I f J
ture t ypes . Proper p l acemen t of l amps and
a c l ear and cons i s t ent sys t em is prov i ded , Dec i d i ng Wha t to L i gh t : r
the use of care fu l l y a l i gned re f l ectors , can O
e f f ec t i ve l y e l i m i na t e i nt ense h i gh- ang l e l ow l eve l s may be adequa t e for sa f e c i rcu- O
In some c i rcums t ances , i t may be equa l l y as
l ight . Mos t cutof f des i gns severe l y rest r i ct l a t i on .
i mpor t an t to de t e rm i ne wha t not to l ight as
f i xture i ntens i t i es above 75 degrees f rom to de t e rm i ne wha t to l ight (F i gure 540-8) .
C l ea r L i gh t i ng Pa t t erns :
nad i r , tha t is, w i th i n 15 degrees of hor i zon- u
ta l (F i gure 540-16) . C l ear opt i ca l gu i dance can be prov i ded 3 . 3 Sa f e t y
w i t h the a l i gnmen t of l ight f i xtures pos i -
t i oned in cons i s t ent , recogn i zab l e , and in add i t i on t o poor l i ght i ng l ayout and 0
unamb i guous pa t t erns . A s t agge red l ayout des i gn , g l are and under l i ght i ng can crea t e
 5 40 - 4
haza rdous cond i t i ons for pedes t r i ans and
veh i c l es .

G l are:

G l are is a ma j or i nh i b i tor of good v i s ibi l i ty

and can be produced by any sca l e of l ight
f i xture , i nc l ud i ng sma l l l ens- t ype s t ep l ights
(F i gure 540-9) .

G l a re is mor e o f a prob l em when

exposed l ight sources , such as l amps or
l enses , can be seen d i rect l y . Lum i na i re l oca-
t i on and moun t i ng he i ght , f i xture t ype , and
l amp i nt ens i ty mus t be care fu l l y se l ec t ed to
op t i m i ze l i ght d i st r i but i on and m i n i m i ze
g l are .
Lowe r moun t i ng l ant erns may or may
not have sharp cutof f opt i cs . I f h i gh-ang l e
i l l umi na t i on is appropr i a t e in order to i l lu-
m i na t e f acades , t rees , and o ther
s t ree t scape e l ement s , t hen care mus t be
t aken to preven t g l are . An ou t door mock -
up a t n i ght is an exce l l ent t echn i que to use
when dec i d i ng wha t l i ght d i st r i but i on pa t -
t ern and i ntens i ty to use and whe t he r or
not there wi l l be any l i ke l i hood of g l are .

H i gh- ang l ed cobra -head t ypes o f l enses

are a ma j or source of g l are when used
a l ong roadways . Lum i na i res w i th sharp cut -
of fs e f f ec t i ve l y d i rec t the l ight i nto a v i sua l -
ly use fu l and comf or t ab l e pa t t ern .

Unde r l i gh t i ng:

Under l i ght i ng is pot ent i a l l y haza rdous i f

i nsuf f i c i ent l ight is prov i ded to prot ec t
pedes t r i ans and / or veh i c l es f rom pot ent i a l
i n j ury and damage . Suf f i c i ent l i ght is espe -
c i a l l y i mpor t an t in areas whe r e heavy
pedes t r i an t raf f i c is expec t ed , such as near
parks , ba l l f i e lds , and o ther p l aces tha t
a t t rac t c rowds of peop l e , or whe r e ch i l dren
cross st ree ts . Park i ng areas , access and
egress po i nts , l oad i ng areas , e t c ., shou l d
have adequa t e l i ght i ng to he l p prot ec t dr i -
vers , pedes t r i ans , and veh i c l es . F i gur e 540 - 8 . Wha t t o l i ght and wha t no t t o l i ght .
No t e tha t over l i ght i ng an area can gen-
era t e h i gh amoun t s of g l are , wh i ch can a l so
n crea t e haza rdous cond i t i ons . A care fu l ba l -
ance o f l i ght i ntens i t i es mus t be ach i eved . 1 . Subt l e but recogn i zab l e d i st i nct i ons can be made be t ween ma j or and m i nor roads ,
h Tab l e 540-3 l ists r ecommended l eve l s of pa ths , and use areas by vary i ng the d i st r i but i on and br i ghtness of the l ight and by
i l l umi na t i on as s t a t ed in the I l l um i na t i ng vary i ng the he i ght , spac i ng , and co l or of l amps (F i gure 540-5) .
J Eng i nee r i ng Soc i e t y ' s IES L i ght i ng 2 . C l ear l i ght i ng pa t t erns re i nforce the d i rect i on of c i rcu l at i on, de l i nea t e i ntersect i ons ,
r Handbook . Leve l s o f l i ght i ng are re l a ted to and prov i de a v i sua l cue to wha t cond i t i ons may l ie ahead .
O t ypes of use and o ther charac t er i st i cs w i th- 3 . G l are f rom exposed l ight sources and under l i ght i ng are ma j or sa f e ty concerns (F i gure
O in use areas. 540-9) . Lum i na i re l oca t i on and moun t i ng he i ght , f i xture type , and l amp i ntens i ty
mus t be care fu l l y se l ec t ed to opt i m i ze l ight d i st r i but i on and m i n i m i ze g l are .
u 3 .4 Secur i ty 4 . Secur i ty is not necessar i l y enhanced by i ncreas i ng i l l um i nance l eve l s on the ground ;
cons i der per i phera l l ight ing, ver t i ca l i l l um i nance l eve l s, and good co l or - render i ng
Darkness , toge ther w i th unf am i l i ar sur - sources as we l l .
round i ngs , can inc i te s t rong f ee l i ngs of 5 . Co l or d i f ferent i at ion, unobt rus i ve i l l umi na t i on of background spaces , and br i ght i l lu-
i nsecur i ty. To prov i de a sense of secur i ty , m i na t i on of ob j ec ts of i nterest are common approaches for ar t i cu l at i ng l andscape
poss i b l e h i d i ng p l aces and dense shadows charac t er .
 540 - 5
shou l d be m i n i m i zed by the p l acemen t of
appropr i a t e l ight f i xtures .

Wa l kway L i ght s:
Wa l kway l i ghts shou l d have enough
per i phera l d i st r i but i on to i l l um i na t e the
i mmed i a t e sur round i ngs . Ver t i ca l l ight d i s-
t r i but i on ove r wa l kway areas shou l d cover
or over l ap a t a he i ght of 2 100 mm (7 f t ) so
tha t v i sua l recogn i t i on of other pedes t r i ans
is ma i n t a i ned (F i gure 540-10) . When the
pedes t r i an ' s sense of secur i ty is a pr i mary
cons i dera t i on , l ow moun t i ng he i ght w i th
c l ose spac i ng and a ver t i ca l i l l um i na t i on
pa t t ern may be the mos t e f f ec t i ve
approach .

Surve i l l ance :

For surve i l l ance needs , l i ght i ng requ i re-

men t s shou l d perm i t the de t ec t i on of susp i -
c i ous movemen t ra ther than prov i de for the
recogn i t i on of de f i n i t i ve deta i l s . For the
same expend i ture of l ight energy , i t is o f t en
mor e e f f ec t i ve to l i ght backgrounds , there -
by genera t i ng s i l houe t t es , t han to l i ght the
f oreground (e .g ., l i ght i ng the ver t i ca l f ace
of a bu i l d i ng i ns t ead of i ts hor i zont a l fore-
ground (F i gure 540-11) . I t is a l so des i rab l e
to h i gh l i ght ent rances and to d i rect l i ght i ng
away f rom po i nt s of surve i l l ance .

Vanda l i sm :
The bes t way to reduce the vanda l i sm of
l ight f i xtures is to use f i xtures tha t are
durab l e enough to w i ths t and abuse , or to
p l ace t hem ou t of reach . An a l t erna t i ve
so l ut i on may be to use ha rdwa re tha t is l ess
expens i ve to rep l ace .

3 .5 Atmosphere and Charac t er

A cons i s t ency of des i gn express i on can be
ach i eved by i dent i f y i ng the common e l e-
men t s in a l andscape tha t g i ve i t charac t er ,
and t hen us i ng s i mi l ar approaches to the i r
l i ght i ng . The c l ar i ty w i t h wh i ch an ob j ec t is
perce i ved is i n f l uenced by i ts con t ex t .

Background: g
n
Ext er i or spaces shou l d have a we l l -de f i ned
sense of background . Background spaces h
shou l d be i l l um i na t ed as unobt rus i ve l y as g
poss i b l e to mee t the func t i ona l needs o f J
sa f e c i rcu l a t i on and prot ec t i ng peop l e and r
proper t y. Wheneve r poss i b l e , these needs O
shou l d be accommoda t ed w i th per i phera l
O d
l i ght i ng f rom t he wa l kways , s i gnage ,
ent rances , and o ther e l emen t s re l evant to
the de f i n i t i on of the space .

For eground :
Foreground spaces or ob j ec t s may be ma j or
e l emen t s and shou l d be t rea t ed accord i ng-

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec tu

 540- 6
ly . Foreground spaces shou l d ut i l i ze loca l 4 . 0 LAMP CHARACTER I ST I CS
l i ght i ng wh i ch produces max i mum focus ,
AND L I GHT D I STR I BUT I ON
m i n i mum d i s t rac t i ons , and no g l are .
Ob j ec t s of i nterest and act i v i t i es can be 4 .1 Lamp Cha rac t e r i s t i cs
br i ght l y i l l um i na t ed wh i l e t he background
produces on l y m i n i ma l d i st rac t i on . Se l ec t i on of a l amp i nvo l ves t rade-of f s
be t ween l amp s i ze , opt i ca l cont ro l , e f f i cacy ,
i l l um i na t i on o f Ob j ec t s (Shape appea rance , co l or t empera ture , co l or rend i -
Accen t ua t i on) : t i on , l amp l i fe, costs , and ma i n t enance
(Tab l e 540-1) .
The d i rec t i on of the l i ght source is i mpor -
t ant for percept i on of three -d i mens i ona l I ncandescen t Lamps:
ob j ec t s . The ab i l i ty to perce i ve vo l ume t r i c
f orm is i n f l uenced by the grad i ent o f l ight I ncandescen t l amps have super i or co l or
and shadow f a l l i ng on the ob j ec t . rend i t i on and a wa rm wh i t e appea r ance .
Un i f orm l y d i st r i but ed , d i f fused l ight resu l ts The d i sadvan t age of a shor t l amp l i fe can
in poor l y rende red shadows (F i gure 540- be ove r come by the use of a rugged t raf f i c
12) ; one mus t t hen re l y upon out l i ne and s i gna l l amp ra t ed a t 8000 hours nom i na l
co l or in order to perce i ve the shape and l i fe or by unde rvo l t ag i ng t he c i rcu i ts to
f orm of t he ob j ec t . Converse l y , a s i ng l e ex t end the l i fe . I ncandescen t l amps have
po i nt source wi l l produce max i mum shad- t he l owes t e f f i cacy of al l the l amps .
ows but may a l so m i n i m i ze the percept i on Howeve r , t hey are i nexpens i ve and the
of de ta i l s . sma l l f i l ament perm i t s good opt i ca l cont ro l .

Usua l l y , t he bes t way to i l l um i na t e F l uorescen t Lamps:

s t and i ng ob j ec t s is w i th a comb i na t i on of
A l t hough compac t shapes are becom i ng
bo t h t ypes of l i ght i ng . One source shou l d
mor e w i de l y used , mos t f l uorescent l amps
accen tua t e shape and f orm by cont ras t i ng
are l ong and l inear , mak i ng opt i ca l cont ro l
the sur f ace w i th sharp shadows wh i l e t he
very d i f f i cu l t . They t end to produce g l are
o t he r source prov i des f i l l - l i ght i ng for
deta i l s . un l ess t hey are we l l ba f f l ed . They have a
good co l or rend i t i on , wh i t i sh appea rance ,
Co l or Percep t i on : and super i or l i fe . A l t hough t hey have good
e f f i cacy , the i r l i ght ou t pu t may be severe l y
D i f f erences in l amp l i ght co l or are of t en d i m i n i shed by very co l d wea t he r .
used w i th grea t e f f ec t in pub l i c l i ght i ng to
co l or code roadways or to c l ear l y de l i nea t e I nduc t i on Lamps:
one area f rom ano t he r . As the genera l i l lu-
Induc t i on l amps are re l a t i ve l y new , h i gh-
m i na t i on l eve l r i ses in a g i ven s i tua t i on ,
f requency sources tha t have no f i l ament s or
pre f erence usua l l y sh i f ts away f rom a wa rm
e l ec t rodes , bu t ra ther use the e l ec t romag-
appea rance t owa rd the coo l range .
ne t i c spec t rum to d i rec t l y energ i ze a phos -
Accura t e co l or rend i t i on wi l l a i d recogn i - phor coa t i ng on t he bu l b . These l amps
t i on and i mprove the percept i on of ou t door have a l i ght qua l i ty s i mi l ar to f l uorescent in
env i ronmen t s . Th i s is espec i a l l y i mpor t an t a 90-115 mm (3 1 / 2-4 1 / 2 in) spher i ca l
at the pedes t r i an sca l e , whe r e the co l or l amp enve l ope , bu t w i th a s i gn i f i cant l y
cont ras t of pav i ng and l andscape ma t er i a l s l onger ave rage ra t ed l i fe (up to 100 , 000
is of t en subt l e . hours) , and w i th a l mos t no sens i t i v i ty to
amb i en t t empe ra t ure

Tab l e 540 -1 . SUMMARY OF LAMP CHARACTER I ST I CS

C
Wa t t age range , Ef f i cacy , Ini t i a l cost
s Lamp M (ft) l umen / wa t t* Average l i fe, hrs Apparen t co l or Co l or render i ng of equ i pmen t
g Incandescent 3-300 (10-1000) 10-25 750-2000 Wa rm wh i t e Best overa l l Low
J
F l uorescent 4 . 5-64 .5 (15-215) 40-80 7500-15 , 000 Wa rm to coo l wh i t e Good Med i um
r
Induc t i on 16 . 5-25. 5 (55-85) 63-70 100 , 000 Wh i t e Very Good H i gh

Mercury vapor (de l uxe wh i te) 12-300 (40-1000) 25-60 24 , 000 Coo l wh i t e Good Med i um

Me t a l ha l ide 52 . 5-450 (175-1500) 65-105 7500-20 , 000 Coo l wh i t e Very good Med to H i gh

H i gh-pressure sod i um (STP) 10 . 5-300 (35-1000) 60-120 - Orange -ye l l ow Poor H i gh

' Wh i t e ' h i gh-pressure sod i um 45-75 (150-250) 75-80 - Wa rm wh i t e Very good H i gh

0 Low-pressure sod i um 5 . 4-54 (18-180) 70-150- - Int ense ye l l ow Very poor H i gh

*Inc l udes ba l l ast losses

 S40 -7

F i gur e 540 - 13 . Typ i ca l pho t ome t r i c cha r t f or roadway , wa l kway or a r ea l i gh t i ng . Lux ( foot cand l e) l eve l s d i sp l ayed are for
a moun t i ng he i gh t o f 3 m (10 f t ) . O t he r moun t i ng he i ght s mus t f ac tor in the mu l t i p l i er l i st ed in t he t ab l e. Once m i n i mum i l l um i na-
t i on l eve l s are i dent i f i ed , f i xture spac i ng is de t e rm i ned by mu l t i p l y i ng the numbe r o f cor respond i ng moun t i ng he i ght s by t wo .

F i gur e 540 - 14 . Typ i ca l pho t ome t r i c cha r t f or d i rec t i ona l l i gh t i ng : D i sp l ayed in l ux ( foot cand l es) . I l l umi na t i on l eve l s l i sted are
based on a typ i ca l ha l f 42° a i m i ng ang l e .
n
Me r cur y Vapor Lamps (De l uxe Wh i t e ) : Me t a l Ha l i de Lamps : H i gh-Pressure Sod i um Lamps:
h
Me r cury vapor (MV) l amps have good ef f i - Me t a l ha l i de (MH) l amps of f er super i or H i gh-pressure sod i um (HPS) l amps have
cacy , exce l l ent l i fe, and a good coo l wh i t e opt i ca l cont ro l and co l or rend i t i on . The i r exce l l ent e f f i cacy , super i or opt i ca l cont ro l , J
super i or l i fe, and very l ow ma i n t enance , r
co l or. St rong in the b l ue -green end of the e f f i cacy is subst ant i a l l y be t t er t han me rcury
wh i ch accoun t s for the i r popu l ar i t y. The
O
co l or spec t rum , the l amp is popu l ar for vapor l amps but s l i ght l y poore r t han h i gh- O
fo l i age l i ght i ng . The cos t o f the l amp and pressure sod i um l amps . The l i ght appears l i ght t ends to have an orange - ye l l ow
f i xture is the l owes t of the h i gh- i nt ens i t y coo l wh i t e and has a shor t er l i fe t han the appea rance and a med i oc re co l or rend i t i on
d i scharge (H ID) l amps . In genera l , i t has a o ther H I Ds . The cos t fa l l s be t ween tha t for of ob j ec ts . I t rare l y enhances fo l i age co l ors
good comb i na t i on of charac t er i st i cs when me rcury vapor and h i gh-pressure sod i um because o f de f i c i enc i es at the b l ue -green
no ex t remes are requ i red . l amps . end of the co l or spec t rum . I f co l or is no t an
i mpor t an t cons i dera t i on , th i s l amp can 0
have broad app l i ca t i on . The ini t ia l cos t for
the l amp and f i xture may be h i gher than
 540 - 8

F i gur e 540 - 15 . Typ i ca l pho t ome t r i c cha r t f or d i rec t i ona l l i gh t i ng : D i sp l ayed i n cande l a . Max i mum cande l a i n th i s examp l e
is a t 0° (2 , 200 cand l epowe r ) . Conve rs i on to l ux ( foot cand l e) can be ca l cu l a t ed by the above formu l a .

for me t a l ha l i de . HPS l amps and f i xtures are 4 . 2 L i gh t D i s t r i bu t i on Pho t ome t r i c da t a for d i rec t i ona l l i ght i ng ,
ava i l ab l e in a w i de range of s i zes . typ i ca l l y used for wa l l or s i gnage app l i ca-
Hor i zon t a l and Ver t i ca l D i s t r i bu t i on : t i ons , are i l l ust rated by F i gure 540 - 14 . The
' wh i t e ' H i gh -Pr essur e Sod i um Lamps: a i m i ng ang l e is common l y spec i f i ed , and
Hor i zont a l i l l umi na t i on is espec i a l l y i mpor -
These l amps prov i de exce l l ent co l or rend i - the f i xture t ype is se l ec t ed based on d i s-
t ant a l ong t he ground p l ane whe r e
t i on in a wa rm t one s i mi l ar to i ncandescen t . changes in grade occur . Howeve r , a cons i d- t ance and i l l umi na t i on requ i remen t s .
Ef f i cacy is sacr i f i ced to obt a i n i mproved erab l e por t i on of t he n i ght env i ronmen t is A th i rd t ype of pho tome t r i c char t shows
co l or. The resu l t i ng charac t er i st i cs are a perce i ved t hrough d i rect and s i l houe t t e the d i st r i but i on of cand l epower , or i ntens i -
cross be t ween me t a l ha l i de and i ncandes- l i ght i ng of ver t i ca l ob j ec t s and sur f aces . ty, in var i ous d i rec t i ons , i ndependen t o f
cent l amps . Bo t h pa t t erns shou l d be care fu l l y coord i - any spec i f i c sur f ace (F i gure 540 -15) . The
na t ed in deve l op i ng a success fu l l i ght i ng max i mum va l ue w i th i n any g i ven po i nt on
Low-Pr essur e Sod i um Lamps:
scheme . the d i st r i but i on curve can be conver t ed
Low-pressure sod i um (LPS) l amps have the i nto l ux ( foot cand l es) w i th the f ormu l a
I l l umi na t i on da t a for ou t door l i ght i ng
h i ghes t opera t i ng e f f i cacy but deprec i a t e shown in F i gure 540 - 15 . Th i s char t is occa -
f i xtures are i l l ust rated by the manu f ac t ur -
cons i derab l y ove r the i r l i f e t i me . A l arge arc ers ' pho tome t r i c char t s . These char t s i l lus- s i ona l l y used when de t erm i n i ng l i ght i nt en-
t ube resu l ts in poor opt i ca l cont ro l , but the t ra te the ac tua l l ight pa t t erns and i nt ens i ty s i ty and the ang l e of d i st r i but i on for accen t
l amp does have super i or l i fe . The l ight i tse l f l eve l s on hor i zont a l and ver t i ca l p l anes . l i ght i ng (up l i ght i ng of t rees , f l ood l i ght i ng ,
appea rs an i nt ense ye l l ow and has very F i gure 540 - 13 i l lust rates bas i c pho tome t r i c e t c .) .
poor co l or rend i t i on proper t i es . Co l ors in da t a for wa l kway , road or area l i ght i ng . Lux Bas i c L i gh t D i s t r i bu t i on Pa t t e rns :
the l andscape appea r as shades of gray.
( foot cand l e) measur emen t s are g i ven for
The cos t s are compa r ab l e to t hose of h i gh- hor i zont a l d i s t ances based on moun t i ng Spread and Pa th L i ght s: These f i xtures
pressure sod i um l amps . he i gh t and t ype of f i xture . Spac i ng is de t er - produce c i rcu l ar pa t t erns o f l ight tha t are
m i ned by i dent i f y i ng m i n i mum des i rab l e symme t r i ca l a round t he l i ght cen t er .
NO l ux ( foot cand l e) l eve l s , and doub l i ng the Wheneve r f i xtures produce a l ight pa t t ern
n numbe r of moun t i ng he i ght un i ts .

h Tab l e 540 - 2 . UN I FORM I TY RAT I OS

J
Un i form i t y rat io
r
Average , l ux ( fc) M i n i mum , l ux ( fc) V i sua l descr i pt i on of i l l um i na t ed f i e ld

21 . 4(2) 10 . 70) Just a v i s ibl e d i f ference in l ight intens i t i es

32 .3 (3)* 10 .7 (1)* The h i gh va l ues of the f i e ld are tw i ce as br i ght

as the l ow va l ues

43 .0 (4) f 10 .7( l ) '

107 .6 (10) 10 . 7( l ) Very di st inct foca l h igh l ights , spot ty

* Ave rage and m i n i mum un i formi ty rat ios usua l l y r ecommended for roads.
i Ave rage and m i n i mum un i formi ty rat ios usua l l y r ecommended for wa l kways .
 540- 9
tha t is symme t r i ca l , on l y one ha l f is shown , Cu t o f f : capab i l i t i es .
perm i t t i ng max i mum s i ze and accuracy (see 6. L i ght sources are usua l l y be l ow eye
Many k i nds of l ight f i xtures grea t l y reduce l eve l , so g l are mus t be cont ro l l ed .
F i gure 540-13) .
g l are by rest r i ct i ng h i gh-ang l e l i ght to not 7. Low ma i n t enance requ i remen t s bu t
Wa l l or S i gn L i ght s : These f i xtures are mor e than 75 degrees above nad i r (F i gure h i gh suscept i b i l i ty to vanda l i sm .
near l y a l ways used t o l i ght ver t i ca l sur f aces . 540-16) . The fo l l ow i ng cr i ter i a are t he gen-
There fore , pho tome t r i cs are presen t ed on a era l i ndus t ry c l ass i f i ca t i ons of degrees of I n t e rmed i a t e -He i gh t Landscape L i gh t s :
ver t i ca l p l ane w i t h the f i xture se t at an opt i - h i gh- ang l e cutof f :
mum d i s t ance (wh i ch var i es per f i xture) Typ i ca l charac t er i st i cs i nc l ude :
and back l i t f rom t he p l ane (see F i gure 540- 1. Ave rage he i ght s of 3 000 t o 45 000
1. Noncu t o f f : unres t r i c t ed h i gh- ang l e mm (10 to 15 f t ) .
14) . For a l ong wa l l or s i gn , the spac i ng
i l l um i na t i on . 2. Lamps can be i ncandescent , compac t
f rom f i xture to f i xture can be de t e rm i ned
2. Sem i cu to f f : not mor e than 5 percent f l uorescent , i nduc t i on , me rcury vapor ,
by over l app i ng curves unt i l the m i n i mum
o f peak i ntens i ty rad i a t i ng above 90 me t a l ha l i de , or h i gh-pressure sod i um .
accep t ab l e l i ght l eve l be t ween f i xtures is
degrees and 20 percent o f peak i nt en- 3. Subs t ant i a l var i e t y of f i xtures and
es t ab l i shed .
s i ty above 80 degrees . respec t i ve l i ght i ng pa t t erns .
Accen t L i ght s : Photome t r i c for ad j us t ab l e 3. Cu t o f f : no t mor e t han 2-1 / 2 percent 4. Genera l l y used in or a round pedes t r i an
accent l ights, whe r e the a i m i ng ang l e and o f peak i nt ens i ty rad i a t i ng above 90 pavemen t s , and cons i dered pedes t r i an
d i s t ance to l i ghted ob j ec ts can vary , mus t be degrees and 10 percen t o f peak i nt en- in sca l e .
expressed in t e rms of the l ight ou t pu t f rom s i ty above 80 degrees . 5. Lowe r f i xture moun t i ng he i ght s are
the source ra ther t han of the l i ght fa l l i ng suscept i b l e to vanda l i sm .
upon t he ob j ec t . Cand l epowe r is measur ed 4 . 3 Ca t egor i es o f L i gh t F i x t ures
on a typ i ca l p l ane t hrough the f i xture and is Pa r k i ng Lo t and Roadway L i gh t s :
Var i ous ca t egor i es of l ight f i xtures com-
char t ed in curve f orm (see F i gure 540-15) . mon l y used in ou t door l i ght i ng s i tua t i ons Typ i ca l charac ter i st i cs i nc l ude :
Conve rs i on to l ux ( foot cand l es) can be are descr i bed be l ow (F i gure 540-17) . 1. Ave rage he i ght s of 6 000 to 15 000
accomp l i shed by f ormu l a .
mm (20 to 50 f t ) .
Low- Leve l Landscape L i gh t s : 2. Lamps can be me rcury vapor , me t a l
Un i f orm i t y :
Typ i ca l charac t er i st i cs i nc l ude : ha l i de , or h i gh-pressure sod i um .
The un i form i t y of an i l l um i na t ed f i e ld can 3. Used to l i ght st reets , park i ng lots, and
be descr i bed w i th a ra t i o of l ight i nt ens i ty 1 . He i gh t s usua l l y l ess t han 1 800 mm (6
recrea t i ona l , commerc i a l , and i ndust r i -
va l ues in l ux ( foot cand l es) . The un i form i t y f t ) bu t some t i mes up to 3 000 mm (10 al areas .
rat io typ i ca l l y compa r es the ave rage i l l umi - ft) .
na t i on w i th the m i n i mum foo t cand l e va l ue 2. Lamps may be i ncandescent , compac t H i gh - Mas t L i gh t s :
of a par t i cu l ar f i e ld . A l ow rat io appea rs f l uorescent , i nduc t i on , me rcury vapor ,
me t a l ha l i de , or h i gh-pressure sod i um . Typ i ca l charac t er i st i cs i nc l ude :
mor e even l y l i t and very un i form . The 1. Ave r age he i ght s of 18 000 to 30 000
oppos i t e is t rue for a h i gh ra t i o whe r e the 3. Low-wa t t age capab i l i t i es , w i th l i mi ted
i ntens i t i es . mm (60 to 100 f t ) .
t wo va l ues are w i de apar t , resu l t i ng in a 2. Lamps can be me t a l ha l i de or h i gh-
f i e ld tha t has d i st i nct and cont ras t i ng va l - 4. Subs t ant i a l var i ety , w i th some s i zes
pressure sod i um .
ues . Re f er to Tab l e 540-2 for a genera l and shapes f i t t ing w i th i n modu l es of
3. Used for l arge park i ng lots, h i ghway
descr i pt i on of d i f f erent un i form i t y rat i os . f in i sh ma t er i a l s (br i ck , e t c .) .
F i n i te l ight pa t t erns , w i th d i rec t i ng i nt erchanges , and recrea t i ona l areas .
5.

g
n

J
r
O
0
 540 - 10

g
c
s
J
r
O
O

0
 540 - 1 1

4. F i xtures mus t be l owe red to be ma i n- P l ac i ng f i xtures m i dway be t ween t rees is Spo t l i gh t i ng :

t a i ned . rare l y sa t i s f ac tory . The l i ght typ i ca l l y m i sses
Spec i a l ob j ec ts such as st a tues , scu l pture , or
the t runk and mos t fo l i age . I t is par t i cu l ar l y
spec i men shrubs can be l i ght ed w i th we l l -
4 . 4 Landscape L i gh t i ng Ef f ec t s unsuccess fu l i f t rees are dec i duous , espe -
sh i e l ded f i xtures us i ng spot l amps (F i gure
c i a l l y dur i ng the w i n t er s t age .
Si x l i ght i ng e f f ec ts mos t f requent l y used in 540-22) . By moun t i ng l ights ove rhead in
ou t door l i ght i ng s i tua t i ons are descr i bed Moon l i gh t i ng. t rees or nea rby st ruc tures , g l are and f i xture
be l ow (F i gures 540-18 t hrough 540-25) . d i st rac t i on can be e l i m i na t ed . I f ground-
The e f f ec t of moon l i gh t f i l ter i ng t hrough moun t ed f i xtures are used , t hey shou l d be
Up l i gh t i ng : t he t rees is ano t he r p l eas i ng ou t door l ight - concea l ed w i th shrubbery .
i ng t echn i que . Up - and -down l i ght i ng is
Up l i gh t i ng for D i rec t i ona l V i ew i ng : Spread l i gh t i ng:
used to crea t e th i s ef fect , wh i ch requ i res
When a l i ght ed ob j ec t can be seen f rom
tha t f i xtures be care fu l l y p l aced in t rees
one d i rec t i on on l y , above -gr ade accen t Spread l i ghts produce c i rcu l ar pa t t erns of
(F i gure 540-20) . Ground l i ght i ng is accent -
l ights can be used . To preven t g l are , f i x- i l l um i na t i on for genera l a rea l i ght i ng
ed by shadows f rom l eaves and branches .
tures shou l d be a i med away f rom observers (F i gure 540-23) . They are e f f ec t i ve for
and , i f poss i b l e , concea l ed to keep the S i l houe t t e L i gh t i ng: groundcove rs , l ow shrubs , wa l ks , and
l andscape unc l ut t ered (F i gure 540-18) . s t eps . Howeve r , to t ake ful l advan t age of
Trees and shrubs w i th i nt erest i ng branch i ng the l ight throw , f i xtures shou l d be kept to
Up l i gh t i ng for A l l -Around V i ew i ng : I f s t ruc ture can be drama t i ca l l y expressed open areas so tha t shrubbery does not
the l i ghted ob j ec t can be seen f rom any when s i l houe t t ed aga i ns t a wa l l or bu i l d i ng rest r i ct l i ght d i st r i but i on . The ove rhead
d i rec t i on , then we l l l i ghts w i th l ouvers f acade . Such l i ght i ng a l so prov i des add i - spread l ight prov i des add i t i ona l he i gh t and
shou l d be cons i dered (F i gure 540-19) . W i t h t i ona l secur i ty nea r the bu i l d i ng (F i gure t hrow . When used in ea t i ng or recrea t i ona l
new l y p l ant ed t rees , p l ace up l i ght s as c l ose 540-21) . areas , severa l f i xtures shou l d be used to
as poss i b l e to the out s i de of the root ba l l .
sof t en shadows wh i l e crea t i ng a un i f orm
l i ght i ng e f f ec t .

Pa th l f i ght i ng:
Pa th l i ghts are essent i a l l y spread l i ghts a t a
l owe r he i ght (F i gures 540-24 and 540-25) .
In areas whe r e o ther l andscape l i ght i ng is g
A var i ety of l amp t ypes are commerc i a l l y ava i l ab l e . Se l ec t i on of a l amp i nvo l ves n
used , a h i gh degree of l ight sh i e l d i ng is
t rade-of fs be t ween l amp si ze, opt i ca l cont ro l , ef f i cacy, appearance , co l or t empera - necessary for pa th l ights . Th i s prevent s t he h
ture , co l or rend i t i on , l amp l i fe, costs , and ma i n t enance (Tab l e 540-1) . g l are wh i ch i nh i b i ts a ful l v i ew of the sur -
2. I l l umi na t i on da t a for l i ght i ng f i xtures are i l lust rated by photome t r i c char ts prov i ded
round i ng l andscape . J
by the manu f ac turer . These char ts i l lust rate l ight pa t t erns on hor i zont a l and ver t i ca l r
p l anes (F i gures 540-13 through 540-15) . I f no o ther ou t door l i ght i ng is used in the O
3. Un i form i t y of i l l umi nat i on is descr i bed by a rat io of l ight i ntens i ty va l ues in lux ( foot - i mmed i a t e area , l ess-sh i e l ded pa th l i ghts O
cand l es) . A l ow rat io appears mor e even l y l it and un i form, wh i l e a h i gh rat io d i sp l ays may be accep t ab l e . These f i xtures i l lumi -
d i st inct and cont rast i ng va l ues (Tab l e 540-2) . na t e the pa th and some of t he sur round i ng
4. L i ght f i xtures can be broad l y ca t egor i zed into four ma i n t ypes based on s i ze and l andscape as we l l , bu t there rema i ns the
des i gn purpose : Low- l eve l l andscape l ights, i nt ermed i a t e-he i ght l andscape l ights, poss i b i l i ty tha t t he g l are wi l l be d i srupt i ve .

5.
park i ng lot and roadway l ights, and h i gh-mas t l ights (F i gure 540-17) .
Leve l s of l i ght i ng are re l a ted to t ypes of use and other character i st i cs w i th i n use
areas . Tab l e 540-3 l ists r ecommended l eve l s of i l l umi na t i on .
0
LIM
 540 - 12
Tab l e 540 -3 . RECOMMENDED LEVELS OF I LLUM I NAT I ON

Area / ac t i v i ty Ou t door fac i l i t i es Lux Foot cand l es Area / ac t i v i t y Ou t door fac i l i t i es Lux Foot cand l es
( Ix) ( fc) ( Ix) ( fc)
Bu i l d i ng exter i or Loca l Roads
Ent ry Commerc i a l areas* 9 0 .9
Act i ve use 50 5 .0 Intermed i ate areas* 7 0 .6
Locked or inf requent use 10 1 .0 Res ident i a l areas* 4 0 .4
Vi ta l locat ions or st ructures 50 50
Wa l kwa ys
Bui lding sur rounds 10 10 -
A l ong roads ide
Bu i l d i ng and monumen t s ( f l ood l i ght ed) Commerc i a l areas* 10 0 .9
Br ight Sur round i ngs Intermed i ate areas* 5 0 .5
Light sur faces 150 15 .0 Res ident i a l areas* 2 0 .2
Med i um l ight sur faces 200 20 .0 Di stant f rom roads ide 5 0 .5
Med i um dark sur faces 300 30 .0 Park wa l kways 5 0 .5
Dark sur faces 500 50 .0 Pedest r i an tunne l s 20 2 .0
Dark sur round i ngs Pedest r i an overpasses 2 0 .2
Light sur faces 50 5 .0 Pedest r i an sta i rways
Med i um l ight sur faces 100 10.0 Light sur faces 200 20.0
Med i um dark sur faces 150 150 Dark sur faces 500 50.0
Dark sur faces 200 200
Ga rdens
B i keways Genera l l ight ing 5 0.5
A l ong roads ide Path, steps away f rom home 10 1 .0
Commerc i a l areas* 10 0.9 Backgrounds , fences, wal ls, t rees, shrubbery 20 2 .0
Intermed i ate areas* 5 0 .5 F l ower beds, rock gardens 50 5 .0
Res ident i a l areas* 2 0 .2 Trees, shrubs (when emphas i zed) 50 5 .0
Di stant f rom roads ide 5 0 .5 Foca l points ( large) 100 10 .0

Bu l l e t i n and pos t erboards , s i gns Foca l points (sma l l ) 200 20 .0

Br ight sur round i ngs Load i ng and un l oad i n g p l a t forms 200 20 . 0

Light sur faces 5 05
Park i ng areas
Dark sur faces 1000 1000
Sel f park i ng 10 1 .0
Dark sur round i ngs
At tendant park i ng 20 2 .0
Light sur faces 200 20 .0
Dark sur faces 500 50 .0 P i ers
Fre ight 200 2 .0
Roadways
Passenger 200 2 .0
Expressways
Act i ve sh ipp ing area sur round i ng 50 5 .0
Commerc i a l areas* 14 1 .4
P l ayground 50 5 .0
s Intermed i ate areas* 12 12
g Res ident i a l areas* 9 9 Badm i n t on (outdoor )
J Ma j or Roads
r Recreat iona l 100 10
Commerc i a l areas* 17 1 .7 C l ub 200 20
Intermed i ate areas* 13 1 .3
Baseba l l
Res ident i a l areas* 9 9
Recreat iona l
Col l ector roads
Inf ield 105 15
Commerc i a l areas* 12 1 .2
Out f i e ld 100 10
Intermed i ate areas* 9 0 .9
Junior League (Cl ass I and 11)
Res ident i a l areas* 6 06
 540 - 13

Tab l e 540 - 3. RECOMMENDED LEVELS OF I LLUM I NAT I ON ( con t i nued )

Area / ac t i v i t y Ou t door f ac i l i t i es Lux Foo t cand l es Area / ac t i v i t y Ou t door f ac i l i t i es Lux Foo t cand l es
( Ix) ( fc) ( Ix) ( fc)

Inf i e ld 300 30 Out f i e l d 70 7

Out f i e l d 200 20 S l ow pi tch, tournament

Inf i e ld 200 20
Sem i pro a n d mu n i c i pa l l eague
Out f i e l d 150 15
Inf i e ld 200 20
Recrea t i ona l (6-po l e)
Out f i e l d 150 15
Inf i e ld 100 10
On sea ts dur i ng game 20 2
Out f i e l d 70 7
On sea ts be fore and af ter game 50 5
Indust r i a l League
Baske tba l l (o u t door ) recrea t i on a l 100 10
Inf i e ld 200 20

Foo t ba l I Out f i e l d 150 15

D i st ance f rom nearest s ide l ine to the Semi prof ess i ona l
far thest rows of spec ta tors : 300 30
Inf i e ld
Cl ass I
Ou t f i e l d 200 20
(over 30 , 000 spectators)
over 100 f t (30 m) 1000 100
Prof ess i ona l and champ i onsh i p
C l ass I I Inf i e l d 500 50
(10 to 15,000 spec ta tors)
15 to 30 m (50 to 100 f t) 500 50 Ou t f i e l d 300 30

C l ass III
(5 to 10,000 spec ta tors) Sw i mm i n g ( ou t doo r ) -
9 to 15 m (30 t o 50 f t) 300 30
Recrea t i ona l 100 10
C l ass I V 600 (60)
(under 5 , 000 spectators) Unde rwa t e r
under 9 m (30 f t ) 200 20 Exh i b i t i ons 200 20

C l ass V
(no f i xed sea t i ng faci l i t ies) 100 10 Tenn i s ( ou t doo r )

Recrea t i ona l 100 10

Handba l l a n d r acque t ba l l ( ou t doo r ) -
C l ub 200 20
Recrea t i ona l ( t wo- cour t ) 100 10
Tournamen t 300 30
C l ub ( two-cour t ) 200 20

Vo l l eyba l l -
Hockey (ou t d oor )
Recrea t i ona l 100 10
Recrea t i ona l 100 10
Tournamen t 200 20
Ama t eur 200 20

Ho r se shows Sour ce: I l l um i na t i ng Eng i nee r i ng Soc i e t y o f Nor t h Ame r i ca , Ma r k Rea , (ed .) .
Recrea t i ona l 50 5 IES L i gh t i ng Handbook , Re f e r ence Vo l ume and App l i ca t i on Vo l ume , IES, New
York , 1993 .
Tournamen t 100 10

Shu f f l eboa rd *Ar eas are de f i ned as f o l l ows :

Recrea t i ona l 50 5 Comme r c i a l a reas : Dense bus i ness d i st r i c ts w i t h heavy veh i cu l a r and pedes t r i - n
an t raf f i c t hroughou t t he day and n i gh t .
S ka t i ng h
_ I n t e rmed i a t e a reas : Mode r a t e l y heavy pedes t r i an t ra f f i c dur i ng n i ght s
100 10 ( l i brar i es , recrea t i on cent ers , l arge apa r t men t comp l ex , ne i ghborhood reta i l
Ro l l er r i nk
s tores) . J
I ce r ink (ou t door ) 50 5 r
Res i den t i a l a r eas: Pr edom i nan t l y a res i dent i a l a rea w i t h l i ght pedes t r i an t ra f f i c
Lagoon , pond , or f l ooded a rea 10 1 a t n i ght (s i ng l e f am i l y , mu l t i f am i l y apa r t men t s ) .
u

Sk i s l ope 10 1
d
Socce r ( see Foo t ba l l )
0
So f t ba l l

S l ow p i t ch , recrea t i ona l (6 po l e)

Inf i e l d 100 10
 540 - 14
ab l e on l y for sma l l -sca l e res i dent i a l app l i ca-
t i ons due to re l i abi l i ty conce rns .
Sys t ems typ i ca l l y use 12 gauge l ow vo l t -
age cab l e f eeds w i th 18 gauge f i xture w i re ,
un l ess o therw i se spec i f i ed by the manu f ac -
turer. Pl ast i c connec tors are used to j o i n
each f i xture to t he cab l e f eed .
A w i de var i e ty of l ow vo l t age f i xtures are
ava i l ab l e to ach i eve var i ous l i ght i ng e f f ec ts .
Re f er to 4 .4 Landscape L i ght i ng Ef f ec ts in
th i s sec t i on for i n forma t i on on d i f f erent
l i ght i ng st ra teg i es .

6 . 0 RECOMMENDED LEVELS
OF I LLUM I NAT I ON

The l eve l s of i l l umi na t i on l i sted in Tab l e

540-3 represent cur rent s t andards in the
l i ght i ng i ndus t ry.

REFERENCES
I l um i na t i ng Eng i neer i ng Soc i e t y o f Nor t h
Low vo l t age sys t ems i nc l ude a t rans- Ame r i ca , Recommended L i ght i ng for
5 .0 LOW VOLTAGE SYSTEMS Wa l kways and C l ass 1 B i keways , DG-5 ,
former , cab l e , connec tors , and the f i xtures.
F i gure 540-26 i l lust rates t he componen t s 1993 .
Low vo l t age l i ght i ng sys t ems of f er an a l ter -
of a typ i ca l sys t em . Moye r , Jan Lennox , The Landscape
na t i ve to mor e ene rgy - consump t i ve 120
L i ght i ng Book , John W i l ey & Sons , New
vo l t sys t ems . These sys t ems wor k par t i cu- Trans f ormers are requ i red to conver t York , 1992 .
l ar l y we l l in i nforma l , sma l l -sca l e , res i dent i a l s t andard 120 vo l t ou t pu t to the proper
se t t i ngs . In add i t i on to reduced ene rgy Rea , Ma r k ( ed. ) . L i ght i ng Handbook :
opera t i ng vo l t age . They mus t prov i de ade -
usage , l ow vo l t age sys t ems of f er sa f e and Re f e rence & App l i ca t i on , I l l um i na t i ng
qua t e powe r to accommoda t e al l f i xtures
easy insta l l at ion, l onger l amp l i fe (up to proposed , i nc l ud i ng ant i c i pa t ed expans i on . Eng i neer i ng Soc i e t y o f Nor t h Ame r i ca ,
tw i ce as l ong as 120 vo l t l amps) , sma l l f i x- 1993 .
The t rans former ' s wa t t age ra t i ng mus t be
tures tha t can be h i dden in the l andscape , equa l to or grea t er t han the wa t t age of al l
and very l ow l ight l eve l s to ach i eve a var i - f i xtures comb i ned . Large or d i verse l i ght i ng
e ty of l i ght i ng e f f ec ts . Low vo l t age sys t ems schemes may requ i re mu l t i p l e t rans formers.
are not typ i ca l l y appropr i a t e for l arger pro- Trans f ormers may use manua l , au t oma t i c
j ec ts requ i r i ng s i gn i f i cant l eve l s of i l l umi na- t i mer , or photoce l l sys t ems tha t de t ec t l ight
t ion, or pub l i c s i tes whe r e durab i l i ty is a l eve l s to turn powe r on and of f for the sys-
concern . t em . Cur ren t photoce l l t echno l ogy is su i t -

h
L
r
t
 SECT I ON

P l an t s and P l an t i ng
CREDIT
Sec t i on Ed i tor :
N i cho l as T. D i nes
Techn i ca l Wr i t e rs :
Dav i d Kv i nge
Sa r ah Gronqu i s t
Je f f rey D . B l ankensh i p
Rev i ewe rs:
Dr . Dav i d B l on i ar z
Urban Fores t er
Depa r t men t o f Fores t ry
and W i l d l i f e Managemen t
Un i vers i t y o f Massachuse t t s
Amhe rs t , MA

Dr . Denn i s Ryan
Depa r t men t o f Fores t ry
and W i l d l i f e Managemen t
Un i vers i t y o f Massachuse t t s
Amhe rs t , MA

The or ig ina l f i rst ed i t i on i l lust rat ions

for thi s sec t i on we re supp l i ed by
M i chae l Van Va l kenburgh Assoc i a t es ,
Cambr i dge , Massachuse t t s .

CONTENTS

1 .0 Int roduc t i on and Purpose Prox i m i t y to Mechan i ca l Ac t i v i ty No t es

2 .0 Des i gn Cr i ter i a P l acemen t of P l ant i ngs P l ant i ng De t a i l s
2 .1 Ma j or Func t i ons o f P l ant Ma t er i a l s D i vers i t y of P l ant Commun i t i es 4 .4 Con t rac t Spec i f i ca t i ons
Aes the t i cs D i sease and Insec t Res i s t ance 4 .5 St anda rds for Nurse ry St ock
Env i ronmen t a l Mod i f i ca t i on Prox i m i t y of P l ant s 5 . 0 Managmen t St ra t eg i es
Sc reen i ng Long-Te rm Ma i n t enance Cos t s 6. 0 Spec i a l i zed P l ant i ng St ra t eg i es
C i rcu l a t i on Con t ro l 3 .0 Assess i ng Ex i s t i ng Vege t a t i on
6 .1 Us i ng Na t i ve P l ant s n
Produc t i on 3 .1 Prot ec t i ng Ex i st i ng P l ant Ma t er i a l s 6 .2 Xer i scap i ng and Wa t er -Ef f i c i ent
B i oeng i neer i ng and O t he r Forms of Dur i ng Cons t ruc t i on Landscapes n
St ruc tura l M i t i ga t i on Long-Te rm Prot ec t i on P l ann i ng and Des i gn
la
2 .2 Cos t 3 .2 Invas i ve Spec i es Soi l Ana l ys i s and I mprovemen t s
Spec i men P l ant i ngs 4 .0 P l an t i ng P l ans , De t a i l s , and Prac t i ca l Tur f Areas P
P l ant i ngs vs . Ha rdscape Cos t s Spec i f i ca t i ons Charac t er i s t i cs o f Appropr i a t e n
2 .3 Ha rd i ness 4 .1 Proper Techn i ques for P l ant i ng Drough t -To l e ran t P l ant s CIS
2 .4 Sa f e t y Cons i dera t i ons Cond i t i on o f P l ants Upon Insta l l at i on Ef f i c i ent I r r i ga t i on
Po i sonous P l ants P l ant i ng Ho l es Mu l ch i ng
n
L i t t er -produc i ng P l ants Mu l ches and Fer t i l i za t i on Appropr i a t e Ma i n t enance
Weak -br anched P l ants Back f i l l s 6 .3 Urban Fores t ry
P l ant s w i t h Droop i ng Branches Trunk Wr app i ng and Sunburn 6 .4 P l ant i ng on D i s t urbed S i t es
P l ant s w i th Sha l l ow Roo t s St ak i ng and Guy i ng 6 .5 P l ant i ng for B i oeng i neer i ng
Thorned P l ants 0
Prun i ng a t P l ant i ng T i me Re f e rences
P l ant s tha t At t rac t Insec t s 4 .2 Gene r a l No t es on P l ant i ng P l ans
2 .5 Ma i n t enance Cons i dera t i ons 4 .3 No t es and De t a i l s
 550 - 2
I NTRODUCT I ON AND Ou t door Access i b i l i ty , for a l i st ing of some can be des i gned to suppor t reg i ona l
1 .0
p l ant s tha t bear unp l easan t odors) . ecosys t ems .
PURPOSE
Ef for ts shou l d a l so be made to suppor t B i oeng i nee r i ng and O t he r Forms o f

T
he me t hods by wh i ch p l ant s are cho-
the ex i st i ng v i sua l charac t er and eco l og i ca l St ruc tura l M i t i ga t i on :
sen and the func t i ons tha t they are
func t i on of the s i te w i th i n i ts reg i ona l con-
i n t ended to serve in des i gned l and- The na tura l regenera t i ve t endency of p l ant
t ext whe reve r poss i b l e . The use of na t i ve
scapes have been expand i ng . Wh i l e serv i ng ma t er i a l can be used to stabi l i ze e roded
p l ant s m i xed w i th a sma l l propor t i on of
as sources of aes the t i c p l easure , p l ant s a l so banks , rev i ta l i ze damaged soi ls, or st reng-
compa t i b l e exot i cs is genera l l y encour aged
re i nforce the ex i st i ng na t i ve ecosys t em and then wi ld l i fe hab i t a ts . Some of these mi t i ga-
in order to add i nterest and var i e ty wh i l e
wor k as b i oeng i neer i ng agen t s for soi l t i on t echn i ques are d i scussed in 6 .0,
re f l ec t i ng a reg i ona l con t ex t .
re t ent i on and restora t i on . Spec i a l i zed P l ant i ng St rateg i es , of th i s sec t i on
Env i ronmen t a l Mod i f i ca t i on : and in Sec t i on 640 : D i s turbed Landscapes .
Th i s sec t i on prov i des i n forma t i on on
p l ant i ng des i gn and p l ant - re l a t ed t echno l o- Ou t door spaces tha t do not fal l w i th i n the 2 . 2 Cos t
gy. I t is assumed tha t the reader has a phys i ca l range of human comf or t wi l l not
wor k i ng know l edge o f p l ant ma t er i a l s and be used . The m i croc l i ma t e of an ou t door Ini t i a l nursery and p l ant i ng costs mus t
the i r uses or has sough t such i n forma t i on space can be changed t hrough the care fu l a l ways be ba l anced aga i ns t the cos t of
e l sewhe re . p l acemen t of t rees and shrubs to b l ock l ong- t erm ma i n t enance . Some s l ow-grow-
excess i ve sun or w i nd . P l ant i ngs can a l so i ng t rees are expens i ve as nursery s tock but
2 . 0 DES I GN CR I TER I A reduce snow dr i f t i ng across roads and o ther requ i re l i t t le care once es t ab l i shed and can
passageways . For mor e i n forma t i on on c l i - grace the l andscape for hundreds of years .
Cer t a i n procedures are common to many ma t e cont ro l , re fer to Sec t i on 220 : Ene rgy The ini t ia l l abor expense of care fu l p l ant i ng
p l ant i ng des i gn processes . A ba l ance mus t and Resource Conserva t i on . may a l so be ba l anced in the l ong t e rm by
be s t ruck be t ween cons i dera t i ons of p l ant the s turd i ness of a v i gorous , hea l thy p l ant
func t i on , cost , hard i ness , sa f e ty , and ma i n- Sc reen i ng. tha t has been hand l ed gent l y , p l ant ed
t enance . proper l y , and p l aced su i t ab l y for i ts requ i re-
L i v i ng bar r i ers can range f rom sem i t rans-
men t s .
paren t v i sua l screens to f orm i dab l e t horned
2 . 1 Ma j o r Func t i ons o f P l an t
hedges . P l ant screens can prov i de pr i vacy , P l ant ma t er i a l s are ava i l ab l e a t nurser i es
Ma t e r i a l s
ma r k boundar i es , d i scourage i nt ruders , or in d i f f erent forms , depend i ng on the cu l tur -
Aes the t i cs : b l ock unp l easan t v i ews . al prac t i ces of each nursery and on ma r ke t
demands . Some o f the mos t common
V i sua l pr i nc i p l es of co l or , t exture , sca l e , and C i rcu l a t i on Con t ro l :
f orms are d i scussed in Tab l e 550-2 ,
rhy t hm can be used to crea t e an aes the t i -
P l ant i ngs can cont ro l and d i rec t the move - grouped by p l ant t ype .
ca l l y p l eas i ng human env i ronmen t . Spec i a l
men t s o f peop l e , an i ma l s , or veh i c l es .
p l ant i ngs of h i gh v i sua l i nterest or qua l i ty , Spec i men P l an t i ngs:
Whe r e es t ab l i shed pedes t r i an shor t cut s are
l i ke spec i men t rees or perenn i a l borders ,
to be d i scouraged , thorned , dense -grow i ng A " spec i men " p l ant is chosen for the h i gh
can be used to drama t i ze cer t a i n v i ews or
p l ant s may be necessary to change user v i sua l qua l i ty of t exture , co lor , or f orm i t
a l ter a user ' s percept i on o f sca l e.
hab i t s . can prov i de at a cruc i a l foca l po i nt in the
Tab l e 550-1 is a c rown dens i t y ma t r i x l andscape . A spec i men p l ant is genera l l y
wh i ch i l lust rates t he shade charac t er i st i cs of Produc t i on : i nsta l l ed as a ma t ur e p l ant , when i ts t rue
a var i e ty o f t rees . P l ant s have l ong been harves t ed for food , f orm and un i que , i nd i v i dua l charac t er has
f l owers and r aw bu i l d i ng ma t er i a l s . They begun to eme rge ; thus , i t wi l l be mor e
Fragrant p l ant s a l so cont r i but e to the
a l so prov i de f ood and she l t er for wi l d l i fe . expens i ve than p l ant ma t er i a l s used for
qua l i ty of human exper i ence in the l and-
P l ant i ng can encourage the presence of mass i ng .
scape . Converse l y , the unp l easan t odor o f
some p l ant s may make some peop l e nau- b i rds , but ter f l i es or o ther f orms of wi l d l i fe
for human en j oymen t . In some cases , a s i te
seous (Re f er to Tab l e 240-2 in Sec t i on 240 ,

n
Tab l e 550-1 . CROWN DENS I TY OF VAR I OUS TREES
n

Leas t Dense Less Dense Mode r a t e l y Dense Somewha t Dense Mos t Dense
s Pa l o Verde Larch Tree of Heaven Tu l i p Tree Japanese Pagoda Tree
Horseta i l Casuar i na Ken tucky Cof f ee Tree Ba l d Cypress Swee t Gum Li t t l e l eaf L i nden
Thorn l ess Honey l ocus t G i nkgo Camphor Tree Dawn Redwood Norway Map l e
Jacaranda Amur Cork London P l ane Pin Oak W i l l ow Oak
n Deser t W i l l ow Ye l l owwood Red Map l e Modes t o Ash Li ve Oak
Ca l i forn i a Pepper Tree Sugar Map l e Ch i nese E l m
p
Red Oak Ster i l e Mu l ber ry
Ind i an Laure l
Amer i can Ho l l y
Southern Magno l i a
 550 - 3
P l ant i ngs vs. Ha rdscape Cos t s: Weak -br anched P l an t s : P l an t s tha t At t rac t Insec t s :

P l ants can be used in many o f the same Large branches may be suscept i b l e to Some peop l e have severe reac t i ons to
ways tha t " hard " bu i l d i ng ma t er i a l s are break i ng f rom w i nd and i ce and can cause i nsec t b i tes and st i ngs . P l ant s tha t a t t rac t
used - to f orm ou t door wa l l s , ce i l i ngs , damage and / or pose obs t ac l es i f they fal l . s t i ng i ng po l l i na tors or o ther i nsec t pes t s
f ences , e t c . A l t hough they requ i re mor e Weak forks in t rees may a l so present ser i - shou l d be p l aced away f rom s i t t i ng areas
space on a si te, p l ant s are typ i ca l l y l ess ous sa f e t y i mp l i ca t i ons . and wa l ks .
expens i ve to buy and insta l l t han ha rdscape
ma ter i a l s , and can requ i re l ess ma i n t enance P l ant s w i t h Droop i ng Br anches: 2 . 5 Ma i n t enance Cons i de r a t i ons
if proper l y chosen . Branches tha t hang i nto wa l kways or I mpor t an t cons i dera t i ons for m i n i m i z i ng
st ree ts can i n j ure pedes t r i ans and cyc l i sts l ong- t e rm ma i n t enance prob l ems i nc l ude
2 . 3 Ha rd i ness and may cause damage to l arger veh i c l es . phys i ca l separa t i on of i ncompa t i b l e e l e-
W i t h i n the Un i t ed Sta tes , the hard i ness rat - men t s and des i gn i ng w i th i nt egra t ed pes t
P l ant s w i t h Sha l l ow Roo t s:
i ng of a g i ven cu l t i var can eas i l y be checked managemen t in m i nd . These ma i n t enance
aga i ns t the zones for hard i ness es t ab l i shed Roo t s nea r the sur f ace can cause s i dewa l k prob l ems can be grouped in the fo l l ow i ng
by the USDA (F i gure 550-1) . Howeve r , the heav i ng , crea t i ng uneven pa ths tha t are ca t egor i es :
hard i ness of i nd i v i dua l spec i mens of a g i ven i mpassab l e for sma l l -whee l ed veh i c l es and
Prox i m i t y to Mechan i ca l Ac t i v i t y :
var i e ty wi l l vary grea t l y depend i ng upon are dange rous for pedes t r i ans .
the c l i ma t e in wh i ch they have been ra i sed . The v i gor of a t ree or shrub can be grea t l y
There fore , l oca l l y grown p l ant ma t er i a l s Thorned P l ant s :
reduced t hrough repea t ed wound i ng by
tha t are fu l l y adap t ed to t he reg i on shou l d Thorned p l ant s can be dange rous to brush l awnmowe r s and st r i ng t r i mmers tha t g i rd l e
be used wheneve r poss i b l e . Use re l i ab l e , t he t runk , or pass i ng veh i c l es tha t may
i nto or fal l aga i ns t . Thorned l eaves , tw i gs
loca l nurser i es tha t know the or i g i ns o f and branches tha t l i t ter the ground can a l so break branches . So i l compac t i on caused by
the i r p l ant ma t er i a l s . be dange rous for peop l e wea r i ng l ight pedes t r i an or veh i cu l ar t raf f i c can a l so dam-
Favorab l e m i croc l i ma t es on-s i t e can a l so shoes or go i ng bare foot . age p l ant i ngs .
be exp l o i t ed to a l l ow the use of p l ant s tha t
m i gh t not norma l l y surv i ve t he cond i t i ons
of a reg i on .

2 . 4 Sa f e t y Cons i de r a t i ons
Des i gn i ng sa f e env i ronmen t s depends on
P l ant i ng des i gn mus t st r i ke a ba l ance be t ween cons i dera t i ons of p l ant func t i on , cost ,
ma t ch i ng the proper p l ant to the prope r
hard i ness , sa fety , and ma i n t enance.
p l ace . Some p l an t charac t er i s t i cs tha t
shou l d be cons i dered i nc l ude whe t he r par ts 1 . Ef for ts shou l d be made to suppor t the ex i st i ng v i sua l charac t er and eco l og i ca l func-
of the p l ant are po i sonous , how much l i t ter t i on of the si te w i th i n i ts reg i ona l cont ext , through the use of na t i ve p l ant ma ter i a l s
the p l ant produces , the weakness of l i mbs , wherever poss i b l e .
whe t he r droop i ng branches wi l l obs t ruc t
pa t hways , whe t he r roots wi l l break pave - 2 . P l ant ma ter i a l can be used to crea t e comfor t ab l e mi croc l i ma t es , prov i de screen i ng ,
men t , the ex i s t ence of thorns , and whe t he r c i rcu l at ion cont ro l , wi ldl i fe hab i tat , and mi t i ga t e eros i ve s l opes or con t am i na t ed s i tes .
the p l ant a t t rac ts s t i ng i ng i nsec ts or o ther I
pes t s . See Tab l e 240-2 in Sec t i on 240 3 . Ini t ial nursery and p l ant i ng costs mus t a l ways be ba l anced aga i nst the cost of l ong-
Ou t door Access i b i l i ty , for l i st ings of spec i f i c t erm ma i n t enance . P l ants are typ i ca l l y l ess expens i ve to buy and insta l l than hard-
p l ant s in these ca t egor i es . scape ma ter i a l s , and can requ i re l ess ma i n t enance if proper l y chosen .

Po i sonous P l ant s: 4 . In the Un i t ed States , the hard i ness rat i ng of a g i ven cu l t i var can be checked aga i nst
the zones for hard i ness estab l i shed by the USDA (F i gure 550-1 ) . loca l l y grown p l ant
P l ant s w i t h br i ght l y co l ored po i sonous
ma t er i a l s tha t are ful l y adap t ed to the reg i on shou l d be used wheneve r poss i b l e to
ber r i es or l eaves shou l d no t be used whe r e ensure hard i ness . g
ch i l dren may be t emp t ed to ea t t hem .
Some p l ants can cause an a l l erg i c reac t i on 5 . Many p l ant ma t er i a l s are po i sonous , thorny , produce excess i ve l i t ter , are suscept i b l e n
when t ouched . These shou l d be l oca t ed ou t to broken or droop i ng branches , have sha l l ow roots , or at t ract undes i rab l e i nsects .
of reach . Tab l e 550-3 l ists some common Care mus t be t aken in se l ec t i ng p l ants wh i ch are sa f e for users and su i tab l e for a p
po i sonous and a l l ergy- i nduc i ng p l ant s . g i ven purpose .
L i t t er -produc i ng P l ant s : n
6 . Var i e ty is encouraged to promo t e a d i verse p l ant commun i t y tha t has a hea l thy
P l ants tha t produce messy f ru i t or nuts , res i l i ency to a t t ack by i nsects or d i sease , espec i a l l y in urban st reet t ree app l i ca t i ons .
cones , seed pods or excess i ve l eaf l i t ter are No s ing l e genus shou l d be represent ed in an area by mor e than t en percent of the
n
overa l l p l ant i ng scheme .
haza rdous to pedes t r i ans and h i nder pas-
sage of many whee l ed veh i c l es l i ke st ro l l ers
and whee l cha i rs . In add i t i on , some may
7 . Trees and shrubs shou l d be prot ec t ed f rom l awnmowe rs and st r i ng t r i mmers tha t
a
g i rd l e the t runk . Pass i ng veh i c l es may break branches and compac t the soi l wh i ch
sta in c l oth i ng or pavemen t sur f aces . can a l so damage p l ant i ngs .
 550 - 4

P l acemen t o f P l ant i ngs : same gene r a are h i gh l y vu l nerab l e to Prox i m i t y o f P l an t s :

a t t ack . As Du t ch E l m D i sease has demon -
P l ant sap l i ngs tha t wi l l become l arge t rees The root sys t ems of l arge t rees can ex t end
st ra ted , re l i ance on a s i ng l e p l ant is a l so
unde r e l ect r i c ut i l i ty r i ght -o f -ways necess i - r i sky when tha t p l ant prov i des the back - ou t hor i zont a l l y severa l t i mes the he i ght of
t a t es ma j or t r i mm i ng o f l i mbs tha t o f t en the t ree . Many t rees suf f er d i sease due to
bone of a des i gn . I f the p l ant is w i ped ou t
resu l ts in m i sshapen t rees w i th weakened prox i m i t y to heav i l y i r r i ga ted l awns . P l ant s
by d i sease , the l andscape wi l l t ake many
de f enses . C l ose s tudy of cu l tura l requ i re- shou l d be grouped accord i ng to the i r
years to repa i r . For these reasons , no s i ng l e
men t s and ma t ur e s i ze wi l l e l i m i na t e many requ i remen t s for sun , wa t er , and soi l chem-
genus shou l d be represen t ed in an area by
s i mi l ar prob l ems . F i t t i ng the r i ght p l ant to mor e t han t en percent o f t he overa l l p l ant -
i st ry.
g t he r i ght p l ace i nc l udes us i ng p l ant ma t er i - i ng scheme . Var i e t y w i th i n these gene ra is Some i nsec ts and d i seases have deve l -
n a ls whose requ i remen t s for wa t er , l ight and fur ther encour aged to promo t e a d i verse oped a l i fe cyc l e tha t re l i es on severa l
soi l ma t ch the s i te cond i t i ons ; p l ac i ng p l an t commun i t y tha t has a hea l thy
n p l ants . The Ceda r - app l e Rus t tha t a t t acks
p l ant s tha t wi l l be l arge when ma t ur e away
res i l i ency to a t t ack by i nsec ts or d i sease ,
a
a crabapp l es f rom j un i pers is one examp l e .
f rom e l ect r i c l i nes and o ther s t ruc tures ; and
espec i a l l y in urban st ree t t ree app l i ca t i ons . These p l ant s shou l d be kept separa t e to
us i ng ha rdy p l ant ma t er i a l s as d i scussed in
avo i d ou tbreaks .
Subsec t i on 2 .3, Hard i ness , o f th i s sec t i on . D i sease and Insec t Res i s t ance :
n
Long-Te rm Ma i n t enance Cos t s:
D i vers i t y o f P l an t Commun i t i es: In con j unc t i on w i th the r ecommenda t i ons
above , i t is i mpor t an t to s tudy the cond i - De t e rm i n i ng how much a c l i ent is w i l l i ng to
As chem i ca l measures for f i ght i ng a t t acks
n t i ons of the s i te and to se l ect a cu l t i var spend on l ong- t erm ma i n t enance is very
of i nsec ts and d i sease become l ess e f f ec-
a
a res i st ant to pot ent i a l d i sease or i nsec t prob- i mpor t an t for ensur i ng a good f i t be t ween
t i ve , des i gn i ng to res i st t hese a t t acks
l ems . For t rees , use o f re f erence ma t er i a l s s i te and des i gn . No des i gn is ma i n t enance -
becomes cruc i a l . Monocu l t ur es can prov i de
such as t hose f ound a t the end of th i s sec- f ree , but t he p l ant s used can be ta i l ored to
a fer t i l e breed i ng ground for these prob-
0 t i on or consu l t a t i on w i th a re l i ab l e arbor i st f i t the budge t tha t wi l l prov i de for the i r
l ems. Des i gns tha t group l arge numbe r s o f wi l l a i d in se l ec t i on .
t rees of the same cu l t i var or even f rom the
weed i ng , prun i ng , and o ther necessary 3 .1 Pro t ec t i ng Ex i s t i ng P l an t Dur i ng Cons t ruc t i on :
ma i n t enance . Ma t e r i a l s n
A common me t hod for prot ec t i ng ex i st i ng
Ex i st i ng p l ant s and new p l ant i ngs need to p l ant s dur i ng cons t ruc t i on is to erec t a bar - n
3 . 0 ASSESS I NG EX I ST I NG
VEGETAT I ON
be prot ec t ed f rom phys i ca l i n j ury and root
zone compac t i on dur i ng per i ods of con-
r i er a round t he p l ant , enc l os i ng an area as
l arge as the root zone of the p l ant or p l ant s a
a

st ruc t i on . When the root sys t em is dam- to be prot ec t ed . Th i s prevent s compac t i on

One o f the f i rst st eps in assess i ng a l and- of soi l and o ther f orms of damage to the n
aged or i mpa i red , the l oss of mo i s ture
scape is exam i n i ng the ex i st i ng vege t a t i on t hrough l eaves can qu i ck l y ou t pace the ex i st i ng root s and a l so preven t s mechan i ca l
on t he s i te . The age and hea l th of ex i st i ng damage to t he p l ant . F i gures 550-2 and
amoun t t aken up by roots . Young f i brous
p l ants genera l l y de t e rm i ne the i r va l ue as a grow i ng root t ips mus t be prot ec t ed as they 550-3 i l lust rate ways to prot ec t p l ant ma t e -

a
con t i nu i ng e l emen t o f the l andscape . r i a l s dur i ng cons t ruc t i on .
are the pr i mary absorpt i ve par ts of the sys- n
Appropr i a t eness of ex i st i ng ma t er i a l s to the t em .
si te, aesthe t i ca l l y and func t i ona l l y , shou l d Long-Te rm Prot ec t i on :
a l so be t aken i nto accoun t .
Roo t s requ i re a cont i nua l supp l y of ai r ,
wh i ch is norma l l y present in t i ny a i r spaces
 550 - 6

(pores) be tween the soi l par t ic les sur round- invas i ve pl ants inc lude a l ter ing wa ter tabl e work of instal l ing pl ant mater i a l s . Pl ant ing
ing the roots . Because of this need for air, levels, chang i ng the levels of nut r i ents and pl ans, together w i th const ruct ion detai ls for
as we l l as the need for water , the ma jor i ty the chemi st ry of soi ls, harbor ing insect the i r instal lat ion, typica l ly compr i se par t of
of a plant 's root system l ies wi thin the top pests, and inter rupt ing the proper succes- a comp l e te set of work i ng draw i ngs for
450 mm (18 in) of soi l , regardl ess of the s ion of nat i ve pl ant commun i t i es . proj ect const ruct ion .
type or si ze of pl ant . Measures must be
Frequent l y the qua l i t ies that make a Pl ant ing pl ans shou ld inc lude common
taken to ensure that the root zone of a
pl ant ( the area wi th in the dr ipl ine of the pl ant va luab l e in the cul t i vated l andscape and botani ca l names of al l pl ant mater i a ls,
pl ant ) is ne i ther compac t ed nor covered (v igorous growth , to l erance of poor grow- the i r proposed locat ions (as we l l as loca-
wi th a mater i a l that wou l d rest r ict the ing condi t ions, res i stance to loca l di seases t ions of exist ing pl ant mater i a l ) , the i r sizes,
and insect pests, etc .) are those qua l i t ies and quant i t i es . Mos t of this informat ion
amount of ai r or mo i sture reach ing the root
zone . Thi s type of protect ion is par t icular ly that a l low it to out -compe t e nat i ves in the typica l ly is shown in a pl ant l ist somewhere
wi ld . Thus many of the pl ants that appear on the drawing(s) . Pl ant si ze des ignat ions,
i mpor tant in st ressful si tuat ions such as
urban env i ronments , wh i ch is d i scussed in on "prob l em-so l v i ng" l ists are a l so invas i ve inc luding he ight , cal iper , bal l or pot size,
pl ants . etc ., are refer red to in the Un i ted States by
g 6 .3 : Urban Forest ry, of this sect ion . Division nat iona l vo luntary standards set up by the
900 i l lust rates techn iques for rest r ict ing Tabl e 550-4 l ists invas i ve spec i es by Amer i can Assoc i at ion of Nurserymen in
compac t i on of the root zone in heav i l y t raf - botani ca l name , common name , and the
C f i cked areas such as pedest r i an wa l kways . the i r publ i cat ion Amer i can Standard for
reg ions in wh i ch they are mos t dest ruct i ve . Nursery Stock . F igure 550-4 i l lust rates a
It is di f f icul t to predi ct the behav i or of a
3 .2 Invas i ve Spec i es samp l e pl ant ing p l an and schedu l e .
new spec i es when f i rst int roduced to a
The w i despread avai labi l i ty and use of cer - reg ion . Respons ib l e pl ant ing pl ans avo id 4 .1 Proper Techn i ques for P l ant i ng
n untested exot i cs as we l l as those known to
a ta in non-nat i ve pl ant spec i es in commerc i a l
pl ant ing has prov i ded a base for these be aggress i ve invaders . Poor instal lat ion ki l ls many pl ants before
int roduced pl ants to invade nat i ve wi ld they reach matur i ty. Research has demon-
n 4 .0 PLANT I NG PLANS , DETAILS , st rated that many t radi t iona l pl ant ing prac-
P areas . Pl ants int roduced to a reg ion where
they do not natura l l y occur can have ser i - AND SPECI F I CAT I ONS t ices are det r imenta l to the l ong- term
ous impacts upon the ecosystems of that hea l th of pl ants . The fo l lowing techn iques
are necessary to insure the surviva l and
region, chok i ng out nat i ve growth and Mos t proposa l s for si te deve l opment
e l iminat ing the food and forage the nat i ve l ong- term hea l th of insta l led pl ant mater i a l
requ i re preparat ion of p l ant ing pl ans,
(Refer to Tab l e 550-5 as a genera l gu ide to
pl ant prov i ded . Other consequences of detai ls, and spec i f i cat ions that di rect the
 550 - 7

Tab l e 550 -2 . COMMON FORMS OF PLANT MATER I ALS

PLANT ADVANTAGES D I SADVANTAGES

Trees
Con t a i ne r t rees a re young t rees in p l ast i c " younge r t rees es t ab l i sh t hemse l ves f as t er and " do no t prov i de " ma t ur e " appea r ance
or me t a l cans . Con t a i ne rs t yp i ca l l y come in have mor e f l ex i b i l i ty t o adap t t o t he cond i t i ons f or many yea rs
s i zes o f 1, 3, 5, and 7 ga l l ons , of the i r new homes " may deve l op c i rc l i ng roo t s i f l ef t i n
" con t a i ne r t rees can be hea l th i er in t he l ong run con t a i ne r t oo l ong
t han o l de r s t ock

Ba l l ed and budapped t rees a re t he mos t " no c i rc l i ng roo t s " some root s may have been damaged
common med i um s i zed spec i mens. They " can be mor e ha rdy t han o t he r f orms or seve r ed in t he process o f d i gg i ng
a re f i e l d-grown and dug f or t he p l an t i ng and wr app i ng t he roo t ba l l
season , w i t h a ba l l of f i e l d soi l re t a i ned " mor e ca re mus t be t aken a l p l an t i ng
a round t he roo t s. The ba l l is t hen wr apped t i me to ensure tha t t he wr app i ng
w i t h bur l ap , or l ess f requen t l y w i t h p l as t i c ma t er i a l s a re adequa t e l y r emoved to
c l oth or w i re cages. avo i d future roo t and t runk g i rd l i ng

Boxed t rees a re common l y o l der , l arger t rees " prov i des i ns t ant e f f ec t " can be s l owe r t o recove r f rom
tha t have been moved t o l a rge wooden t ransp l an t
con t a i ners . " mor e expens i ve t o pur chase and insta l l
" ha rde r t o hand l e i n t he f i e ld

Shrubs and Perenn i a l s

Ba r e - roo f p l an t s a re so l d in a dorman t s t age . " cheape r t han con t a i ne r p l ant s " mus t be bough t and p l an t ed i n t he
Tops and root s a re pruned back , and mos t of " o f t en es t ab l i sh t hemse l ves f as t er t han con t a i ne r prope r season
t he soi l is washed away f rom t he root s , p l ant s and can be hea l th i er in t he l ong- run *charac t er i s t i cs l i ke f l owe r and l ea f
co l or a re no t v i s i b l e a t t i me o f pur chase
Con t a i ne r p l an t s a re so l d w i t h uppe r br anches - f l owe r and l ea f co l or a re easy to ver i f y " can be roo t -bound , l ead i ng t o poor roo t
and roo t sys t ems i nt ac t and a re ava i l ab l e " a w i de r var i e t y o f p l an t ma t er i a l is ava i l ab l e in deve l opmen t l a t er
yea r - round . con t a i ne r f orm " mor e expens i ve t han ba r e - roo t
- can be p l an t ed yea r - round

Sma l l e r pe r enn i a l s can be f ound in f our - i nch " pea t po t s can be se t d i rec t l y i n t he so i l and l e f t i n " pea t po t s can s l ow t he in i t i a l roo t
po t s , e i ther p l ast i c or pea t - P l as t i c po t s a re p l ace , whe r e t hey wi l l b i odegrade , m i n i m i z i ng grow t h as roo t s a t t emp t t o push
hand l ed as con t a i ne r p l ant s and sha r e t he same roo t d i s t urbance t hrough pea t wa l l s
advan t ages and d i sadvan t ages - Pea t po t s a re
no t as common bu t have some advan t ages
ove r p l ast i c pot s-

Groundcov ers _
Con t a i ne rs a re used f or l arge pros t ra t e shrubs " be t t e r f or l arge a reas o f groundcove r " p l an t i ng gr i d mus t be wor ked ou t
tha t func t i on as groundcove r s . " s turd i er a t ou t se t care fu l l y t o avo i d ba re pa t ches
" t ake l onge r t o f i l l in t han mor e c l ose l y
p l an t ed f l a ts

F l a t s a re t rays of sma l l , qu i ck - spread i ng " econom i ca l , can be p l an t ed qu i ck l y and eas i l y " sma l l e r root ba l l s a re mor e suscep t i b l e
p l ant s t ha t have been s t ar t ed f rom cu t t i ngs or t o dry i ng ou t dur i ng and i mmed i a t e l y
seed- P l ant s a re g rown t o f orm a ma t o f s t em a f t er p l an t i ng
and root grow t h t ha t mus t be cu t i nto p l ugs
or sepa r a t ed by hand f or p l an t i ng

Seeds a re no t common l y used i n comme r c i a l - seed is t he cheapes t way to p l an t " pa t t e rn i ng o f p l ant s is ha rde r to con t ro l
l andscap i ng , a l t hough t hey a re popu l a r f or " p l ant s g rown f rom l oca l seed a re we l l - adap t ed " l ong grow i ng pe r i od be f ore p l ant s
home ga rdene rs . Excep t i ons t o th i s i nc l ude t o t he s i t e , a necess i t y f or res tora t i on beg i n to b l oom , usua l l y much l a t er
hydroseed i ng , d i scussed be l ow; regene ra t i ve - i t is eas i er to ach i eve a r andom pa t t e rn t han gr eenhouse g rown annua l s
p l an t i ng t echn i ques , d i scussed i n Sec t i on 640; " I f " w i l d f l owe r m i x t ures " or " na t i ve
and popu l a r m i x t ur es o f w i l d f l owe r seed tha t m i x t ur es " a re t o be used , t he
can be sca t t ered t o f orm a " na tura l " l ook i ng compos i t i on o f t he m i x mus t be
meadow w i th i n a season , checked care fu l l y

Hydroseed i ng is used for vege t a t i ve " l a rge a reas can be p l an t ed qu i ck l y and cheap l y " ini t i a l appea r ance is una t t rac t i ve ( the
s t ab i l i za t i on o f s l opes t ha t a re d i f f i cu l t t o - a r eas can be p l an t ed wh i ch a re o t he rw i se d i f f i cu l t so l u t i on is dyed t o a i d i n t he
access by o t he r means. A chosen seed m i x t ur e or i mposs i b l e app l i ca t i on process)
is spr ayed d i rec t l y on t o t he s l ope i n a so l u t i on - cho i ce of seed may be l i m i t ed
o f fer t i l i zer and wa t e r .

Annua l s
Mu l t i -pack annua l s a re so l d w i t h each p l an t i n " econom i ca l " t ake l onge r t o f i l l i n t han l arger p l ant s
a separa t e p l ug o f soi l . - w i de r ange o f p l ant s ava i l ab l e in th i s f orm

Con t a i ne r annua l s a re l arger . " ma t ur e and f i l l i n f as t er " mor e expens i ve t han mu l t i -pack

Seeds a re no t common l y used i n comme r c i a l

or res i dent i a l app l i ca t i ons . See t he sec t i on for
seeds unde r Groundcove r s above f or a d i scuss i on
o f advan t ages and d i sadvan t ages . a
Tur f
Sod is g rown i n a f i e ld . Upon order i ng , t he " i ns t ant e f f ec t " no t appropr i a t e f or s t eep s l opes or va r y n
sod is pee l ed up . ro l l ed or s t acked , and " good , even cove r age ve ry l arge a reas
de l i ve red t o t he s i te . Sod is t he mos t " has t o be i ns t a l l ed ve ry soon a f t e r
common way to i nsta l l l awn tur f . de l i very s
Seed is sown d i rec t l y i nto a pr epa r ed p l ot . " econom i ca l " s l owe r to grow to f i n i shed appea r ance

Spr i gged l awns a re s t ar t ed f rom p l ugs o f

" w i de var i e t y ava i l ab l e v i a ma i l orde r

" econom i ca l
" can requ i re t ouch-up seed i ng i f ini t i a l
app l i ca t i on was uneven

" t ake severa l weeks to f i l l in

a
grass p l an t ed a t se t i nt erva l s . " f as t er t o es t ab l i sh t han seed - r equ i r es care t o keep weeds f rom
grow i ng be t ween p l ugs o f grass

Adap t ed f rom Trees and Urban Des i gn , by Henry F . Arno l d . 1980.

 550 -8

KEY BOTAN I CAL NAME COMMON NAME OUANT. S I ZE ROOT SPAC I NG

TREES
AG Ame l anch i e r x grand i f l ora (mu l t i - s t em) App l e Se rv i cebe r ry 1 10 ' -12 ' HT , B&B As Shown
MS Magno l i a x sou l ang i ono Sauce r Magno l i a 3 8 ' -10 ' HT . B&B As Shown

SHRUBS
CS Cy t i ssus scopor i us Sco t ch Broom 3 3 ' -4 ' B&B As Shown
IC I l ex c r eno t a ' convexa ' Japanese Ho l l y 12 2 ' -2 .5' B&B As Shown
IG I l ex g l abro ' compoc t o ' Inkber ry 10 2 ' -2 .5' B&B As Shown
MP Myr i ca pennsy l van i ca Nor t he rn Baybe r ry 22 5 ' -6 ' B&B 3' o. c.

PERENN I ALS
AM Ach i l l eo " Moonsh i ne " Ya r row 95 1 GAL. CONT . 18 " o .c .
n AF As t e r x f r i kar t i i As t e r 10 1 GAL. CONT . 18 " o .c .
CR Comps i s rad i cons Trumpe t Cr eepe r 4 1 GAL . CONT . As Shown
CM Conva l l a r i a ma j a l i s L i l y -o f - t he -Vo l l ey 102 1 GAL. CONT . 12 " o. c .

a CZ
EP
GM
Ch r ysan t hemum zowadsk i i
Ep i med i um p i nna t um
Ge r an i um mac rorh i zum
' C l ara Cur t i s ' Ch r ysan t hemum
Pe rs i an Ep i med i um
Ha rdy Ge r an i um
12
967
39
1
1
1
GAL.
GAL.
GAL.
CONT .
CONT .
CONT .
24 " o. c .
12 " o. c .
24 " o. c .
IP I r i s pum i l a Dwa r f Bea rded I r is 15 1 GAL. CONT . 12 " o. c .
n IL I r i s l aev i ga t o ' Vor i ega to ' Va r i ega t ed Rabb i t ea r I r is 15 1 GAL. CONT . 12 " o. c .
HO He l l eborus or i ento l i s Len t en Rose 20 1 GAL. CONT . 24 " o. c .
s PA Pu l mona r i a angus t i fo l i a B l ue Lungwor t 40 1 GAL. CONT . 12 " a . c .
PL Poeon i a l oc t i f l ora Ch i nese Peony 12 1 GAL. CONT . 30 " o. c .
n VC V i o l a conodens i s Canada V i o l e t 89 1 GAL. CONT . 18 " o. c .

NOTE : The P l an t Schedu l e sha l l have pr ecedence ove r t he P l an t i ng P l an l abe l s in t he even t of any
quan t i t y d i sc r epanc i es .

0
F i gure 550-4. Samp l e p l ant i ng p l an and schedu l e . (Cour t esy o f Den i g Des i gn Assoc i a t es , I nc. , No r t hamp t on MA . )
 550 - 9

p l ant spac i ng when p l ac i ng p l ant s in rows

Tab l e 550 -3 . PO I SONOUS AND ALLERGY - I NDUC I NG PLANTS
or l arge masses) .

Po i sonous Po i sonous
Cond i t i on of P l ants Upon Insta l l at ion :
Bo t an i ca l / Common name be r r i es o r l eaves Sk i n i r r i t an t O t he r i n f o rma t i on
seeds_
The hea l th o f p l ant s upon i nsta l l at i on is t he
Ab rus pr eca t or i us / Rosa r y pea Sh i ny r ed H i gh l y t ox i c ; i nges t i on o f one seed
seeds can be f a t a l mos t i mpor t an t f ac tor for the i r l ong- t e rm
Acon i t um sp. / Monkshood x Para l ys i s , can be f a t a l hea l th . Inspec t p l ant s care fu l l y upon the i r
Aescu l us sp . / B uckeye , hor seches t nu t x x Vom i t i ng & d i a r rhea , can be f a t a l
ar r i va l a t t he s i te . Damage to l eaves and
Agave ame r i cana _ Sp i nes Some peop l e a r e a l l erg i c t o sp i nes
A i l an t hus a l t i ss i ma Leaves / M i l d sk i n i r r i t a t i on i n some peop l e
s t ems can occur dur i ng t ranspor t and han-
f l owe r s
d l i ng . The r e shou l d be no unhea l ed
Ar eca ca t echu / Be t e l nu t x Na r co t i c e f f ec t , convu l s i ons ; can be
fa ta l
wounds in t he bark or s t em of the p l ant
Buxus sempe r v i r ens / Boxwood x x Vom i t i ng & d i a r rhea , convu l s i ons and no ma j or broken branches . Con t a i ne r
Ca r yo t a sp / F i sht a i l Pa l m Fru i t , sap Seve r e i t ch i ng and sk i n i r r i t a t i on
p l ant s tha t are ex t reme l y roo t -bound
Ce l as t rus scandr ens / Or i en t a l b i t t e r swee t Ye l l ow / o r ange Vom i t i ng , nausea
be r r i es shou l d be re j ec t ed . Roo t -bound p l ant s can
Ces t rum sp / Jessam i ne x x Ha l l uc i na t i ons , f ever , pa ra l ys i s; can be be spo t t ed by c l umps o f root tendr i l s push-
_ fata l
Co l ocas i a escu l en t a / E l ephan t ea r Leaves M i l d sk i n i r r i t a t i on
i ng t hrough dra i nage ho l es or by tops tha t
Conva l l a r i a ma j a l i s / L i l y o f t he va l l ey r i gh t red x are excess i ve l y l arge for the cont a i ner in
be r r i es
wh i ch t hey are grow i ng . I f there are many
Cycads

Daphne sp . R d ber r i es ,
no t o f t en
x

x
I nausea , _vom i t i ng & d i a r rhea

H i gh l y tox i c , a f ew be r r i es swa l l owed

usua l l y f a t a l
root s c i rc l i ng the out s i de o f the ba l l , t he
p l ant has been l ef t in the cont a i ner t oo
seen 1
Da t ur a sp . x x Ha l l uc i na t i ons , rap i d hea r t bea t , l ong . G i rd l i ng root s eventua l l y s t rang l e
pa r a l ys i s
themse l ves i f no t red i rec t ed .
D i cen t r a sp . / B l eed i ng hea r t Convu l s i ons , t r emb l i ng
D i g i t a l i s purpur ea / Foxg l ove x

Dur an t a r epens_ / _Go l den dewd r op Ye l l ow f ru i Drows i ness , f ever , can be f a t a l

P l ant i ng Ho l es:
Eupho r i a sp. Sap Sk i n i r r i t a t i on , b l i s t er i ng

Ge l sem i um sempe r v i r ens / Ca ro l i na j essam i ne x

P l ant s requ i re soi l w i t h mor e a i r for ini t ia l
x Weakness , r esp i r a t ory f a i l ure , can be
fata l roo t i ng t han t hey wi l l for l ong- t e rm
Gymnoc l audus d i o i ca / Ken t ucky co f f ee t ree Vom i t i ng & d i a r rhea
growth , a l t hough even ma t ur e t rees wi l l
Hedem he l i x / Eng l i sh i vy B l ack be r r i es x D i f f i cu l t br ea t h i ng and coma : can be
fata l have the ma j or par t of the i r root sys t ems
He l l eborus n i ge r / Chr i s t mas rose x Sk i n i r r i t a t i on , _vom i t i ng & d i a r rhea w i th i n the t op f ew f ee t o f so i l whe r e t he
Hum c r ep i t ans / Sandbox t ree_ x _ _ x _ Vom i t i ng & d i a r rhea , sk i n i r r i t a t i on
mos t a i r is present . P l ant i ng ho l es shou l d be
Hyd r angea sp . x M i l d nausea

I r i s sp. x - Vom i t i ng & d i a r rhea w i de and sha l l ow , not na r row and deep .
l a t rupha gossyp i f o l i a / Be l l yache bush Nausea , vom i t i ng The ho l e shou l d be a t l east t wo t i mes w i de r
Ka l m i a l ad f o l i a / Moun t a i n l aure l x x H i gh l y t ox i c i n l a rge quan t i t i es , bu t
than the root ba l l , bu t no deepe r . I f proper -
b i t t e r t as t i ng , no t dange rous

Labu rnum anagy ro l des I Go l dencha l n t ree Seed pods Vom i t i ng & d i a r rhea , l oss o f musc l e ly dug , the ho l e wi l l suppor t the root ba l l on
f i rm subso i l , w i th t he root f l are se t at the
coord i na t i on

Lan t ana sp. B l ack be r r i es x Seve r e vom i t i ng & d i a r rhea , l e t ha rgy ,

d i f f i cu l t y br ea t h i ng , can be f a t a l same l eve l i t has grown . A ho l e tha t is
L i gu s t rum vu l ga r e / Pr i ve t B l ue be r r i es ___x _S eve r e vom i t i ng , nausea , & d i a r rhea_
s l ight l y sha l l ow is be t t er t han a ho l e tha t is
Me l i a azedamch / Ch i nabe r r y t ree Sma l l o r ange x Nausea , vom i t i ng , shor t ness o f
be r r i es br ea t h , para l ys i s , can be f a t a l too deep .
M i rab i l i s j a l apa / Fou r o ' c l ocks x Nausea , vom i t i ng , & d i a r rhea

Ne r i um o l eande r I O l eande r x Al l pa r t s , esp. Nausea , vom i t i ng , & d i a r rhea ,

Non-b i odegradab l e nursery wrapp i ngs
l eaves i r regu l a r hea r t bea t , can be f a t a l
(i .e . p l ast i c or w i re) a round the roots mus t
N i co t i ana sp . x Nausea , vom i t i ng & d i a r rhea , s l ow
_ ' pu l se , d i zz i ness be care fu l l y r emoved or t hey wi l l cons t r i c t
Opun t i a sp . / Pr i ck l y pea r and cho l l a
Sp i nes /
wo r k i n t o sk i n , Pr i ck l y pea r and the root s . Bur l ap can be l ef t in p l ace i f the
dro l l , caus i ng i r r i t a t i on and
br i s t l es
sor eness top th i rd of the root ba l l is unwr apped .
Pa r t henoc i ssus qu i nque f o l i a / V i rg i n i a c r eepe r ' B l ue be rnes May be po i sonous , f ew po i son i ngs
Con t a i ne r p l ant s shou l d be p l ant ed as
r epor t ed
Po i nc i ana g i l l i es i i / B i rd o f pa r ad i se Seed pods Nausea , _vom i t i ng
qu i ck l y as poss i b l e upon remova l f rom the
Rhododend ron sp. / Rhododend ron , aza l ea x x Po i son i ng i s ve r y a re , bu t when cont a i ner . The wh i t e , grow i ng root t ips are
r epor t ed , symp t oms i nc l ude
vom i t i ng , s l owed pu l se , l oss o f cruc i a l to the qu i ck es t ab l i shment of a
musc l e coord i na t i on
hea l thy root sys t em and are damaged by
R i c i nus commun i s / Cas t or bean x x H i gh l y t ox i c i nges t i on o f on l y f our
seeds can he f a t a l even br i e f exposure to a i r.
Rob i n i a pseudoacac i a / B l ack l ocus t Nausea , vom i t i ng , depr ess i on

a
Sambucus sp. / E l de rbe r r y Be r r i es x Nausea , vom i t i ng & d i a r rhea P l ant s i nsta l l ed in t he fal l bene f i t f rom
po i sonous
unt i l r i pe
wa rm soi ls, s tored energy , and a l ong dor -
Sch i nus t e r eb i n t h i o f o l i us / Braz i l i an peppe r t ree x Some peop l e a r e m i l d l y a l l erg i c t o man t per i od for good root es t ab l i shmen t
be r r i es and l eaves
be fore t he st resses of summe r hea t and n
Sesban i a pun i cea / Sca r l e t w i s t e r i a t ree F l owe r s and ? D i a r rhea , rap i d pu l se , d i f f i cu l t
seeds br ea t h i ng ; can be fa ta l drough t . Favor i ng one season ove r the oth-
So l andr a sp . Leaves and Vom i t i ng & d i a r rhea , drows i ness , ers is not a l ways f eas i b l e for comme rc i a l
f l owe r s para l ys i s , can be f a t a l __

So l a r i um sp . / Po t a t o v i ne , be l l adonna , Nausea , vom i t i ng , drows i ness

app l i ca t i ons , bu t a broad range of spec i es

a
n i gh t shade - paralysis, can be f a t a l -
bene f i t f rom fal l p l ant i ng . A f ew spec i es are
Sopho r a secund i f l or a / Mesca l bean Seeds Nausea , vom i t i ng , & d i a r rhea ,
ha l l uc i na t i ons ; one seed can be f a t a l not r ecommended for fal l p l ant i ng and are
Taxus sp . Br i gh t r ed x Nausea , vom i t i ng , d i f f i cu l t br ea t h i ng; re f er red to as " fa l l hazards . " Consu l t a
be r r i es can be f a t a l _

Theve t i a sp . / Ye l l ow o l eande r s x x Vom i t i ng , i r regu l a r hea r t bea t ; can be

nursery or arbor i st for a comp l e t e l ist of
_ . fata l these p l ant s .
W i s t e r i a sp . l Seed pods Nausea , vom i t i ng & d i a r rhea
LIM
 550 - 10

Mu l ches and Fer t i l i zat ion : pea r . Ae ra t ed soi l is cruc i a l to root es t ab- Prun i ng at P l ant i ng T i me :
l i shmen t . Wa t e r i ng be rms he l p co l l ec t
Mu l ches mode r a t e soi l t empera tures , reta i n Remove on l y dead or damaged branches ,
wa t e r and de l i ver i t to the root ba l l . In
mo i s ture and a i r a round roots , and sup- or those tha t threa t en the appea rance and
heavy soi l s w i th poor dra i nage , or dur i ng
press weed growt h tha t compe t es w i th branch i ng s t ruc ture of the t ree . Trad i t i ona l
excess i ve l y we t seasons , be rms may need
p l ant root s for wa t e r and nut r i ent s . prun i ng back o f a th i rd of the uppe r
to be broken unt i l dry wea t he r makes t hem
Spread i ng 75 to 100 mm (3 to 4 in) of branches does no t a i d p l ant es t ab l i shmen t
necessary aga i n .
mu l ch 1 .5 to 2 .1 m (5 to 7 f t ) a round t rees in mos t ba l l and bur l ap stock , howeve r for -
and a me t e r a round o t he r p l ant i ngs is mos t Trunk Wrapp i ng and Sunburn : es t -co l l ec t ed s tock may bene f i t f rom such
e f f ec t i ve . Bare soi l shou l d be l ef t a t the base prun i ng pr i or to p l ant i ng .
of the p l ant to avo i d t runk suf foca t i on or Trunk wr aps on nursery t rees make a thor -
rot . Pe rmeab l e weed bar r i er f abr i cs may be ough i nspec t i on of bark and t runk hea l th 4 . 2 Gene r a l No t es on P l an t i ng P l ans
i mposs i b l e , she l t er i nsec t i nfesta t i ons , and
used unde r mu l ches , bu t i mpe rmeab l e Shown be l ow is a l ist of no t es tha t are t yp-
weed ma t er i a l s such as b l ack p l ast i c rest r i ct ho l d mo i s ture a round the bark whe r e fun-
gus or d i sease may cause prob l ems . To pre- i ca l l y shown on p l ant i ng p l ans and / or con-
oxygen reach i ng the root zone and shou l d t a i ned in re l a t ed deta i l s and documen t s .
no t be used . Fer t i l i ze on t he sur f ace a t ven t ' sunburn ' a f ter p l ant i ng , not e wh i ch
s i de of the t runk was exposed to d i rect sun- O t he r no t es needed for spec i a l c i rcum-
spr i ng or fa l l , or use s l ow- re l ease t ab l e ts in s t ances are of t en added .
l ight at t he nursery and se t the p l ant s i mi -
t ree p l ant i ng ho l es . P l ant s need ex t ra n i t ro-
l ar l y when i t is i nsta l l ed . 1. The cont rac tor sha l l l oca t e and ver i -
gen r i ght a f t er p l ant i ng and espec i a l l y in
NO the fal l when the i r root s are mos t ac t i ve . St ak i ng and Guy i ng:
fy the ex i s t ence of al l ut i l i t i es pr i or to
n star t i ng wor k .
Back f i l l s: Trees shou l d be s t aked on l y when neces-
n 2. The cont rac tor sha l l supp l y al l p l ant
P l ant i ng ho l es shou l d be back f i l l ed w i th the sary. Trees wi l l be hea l th i er i f a l l owed to
ma t er i a l s in quant i t i es suf f i c i ent to
same so i l tha t was r emoved , w i th no adap t to the w i nds of t he s i te na tura l l y , and
comp l e t e the p l ant i ng shown on a l l
amendmen t s . Amendmen t s such as com- wi l l deve l op sturdy , f l ex i b l e t runks and
draw i ngs .
n post , pea t and sand may ac tua l l y i nh i b i t the branches . Whe r e s i tes are unusua l l y w i ndy
root pene t ra t i on of sur round i ng soi l and or spec i mens are t oo l arge to be s t ab l e ini - 3. Al l ma t er i a l sha l l con f orm to the
s l ow overa l l grow t h due to poor cap i l l ar i ty. t ial ly, s t ak i ng may be requ i red unt i l the gu i de l i nes es t ab l i shed by t he cur rent
n p l ant can suppor t i tse l f . Two to three s t akes Ame r i can St anda rd for Nurse ry
Fi l l ma t er i a l shou l d be thorough l y wa t e red
as i t is back f i l l ed i nto t he ho l e to r emove shou l d be p l aced a round the p l ant and Stock , pub l i shed by the Ame r i can
any a i r pocke t s . So i l shou l d be f i rm enough a t t ached to the t runk w i th var i ous t ypes of Assoc i a t i on of Nurse rymen .
to suppor t the root ba l l , but not packed to f abr i c s t rapp i ng sys t ems . St akes shou l d be
r emoved a f ter the second grow i ng season . 4. No p l ant sha l l be pu t i nto the
t he po i nt tha t the t i ny pores tha t ho l d ground be fore rough grad i ng has
wa t e r and a i r be t ween soi l par t i c l es d i sap-
 550- 11

Tab l e 550 - 4. I NVAS I VE PLANTS BY REG I ON

Bo t an i ca l Name Common Name Whe r e Tr oub l esome Bo t an i ca l Name - Common Name Whe r e Tr oub l esome
Eurasi
Acac i a me l anaoxy l on and Sou t hwes t e rn U 5. Lon i ce r a maack j i An - honeysuck l e
any o t he r Acac i a spec i es - Lon i ce r a t a t anca Ta t a r i an honeysuck
_ le
Ace r g i nna l a Am . , map l e E . As i a Lysimachia vulgar is Ga rden l ooses t r i f e _
Ace r p l a t ano l des No rway map l e Europe Purp l elosetrif Nor t heas t e rn ,
Ly t hrum sa l i car i a
A i l an t hus a l t i ss i ma Tree o f heaven Eas t e rn U .S. M i dwes t e rn U . S .

A l b i z i a j uhbr i ss i n M i mosa _ _ M. of f i c i na l i s Ye l l ow swee t c l ove r

A l i en , pe t i o l a t a Gar l i c mus t a rd Europe Mac l ur a pom i f e r a Osage or ange

Ammoph i l a a r ena r i a European beach grass Europe Me l a l euca qu i nquene r v i a Punk t ree , Ca j epu t t ree Gu l f s t a t es ( U . S. )
l
Bamboo Many pa r t s o f t he U.S . Me l i a azeda r ach _ Chinabery As i a
i
Be l l i s pe r enn i s I En g l i sh da i sy Nor t hwes t e rn U .S. Me l i l o t us a l bs Wh i t e swee t c l ove r M i dwes t e rn U .S .

Be rba r i s t hunbe rg i i Japanese ba rbe r ry Nor t heas t e rn ar i d Me l i l o t us of f i c i na l i s Ye l l ow swe et c l ove_r

M i dwes t e rn U S . Af r i ca -
Mesemb r yan t hemum ssp. I ce p l an t
Br omus in Smoo t h hmme , M i dwes t e rn U .S.
My r i ophy l l umbr as i l i ense wa t e r - f ea t he r -
Ca rduus nu t ns
l Musk th i st l e Al l o f U . S . Nas t ur t i um o f f l c i na l e Wa t e r c r ess Many par t s o f t he U .S.
Casua r i na equ i se t l fo l l a She -oak , i ro wood , Gu l f s t a t es ( U.S .) P. pra t ens i s Ken t ucky b l uegr ass
Aus t ra l i an p i ne
P. sy l ves t r i s Sco t ch p i ne
Ce l as t rus orb i cu l a t us Lea f y spurge , Or i en t a l Nor t heas t e rn ar i d
M i dwes t e rn U5. P. t hunbe rg i i Japanese b l ack p i ne
Pas t i naca sa t i va W i l d pa rsn i p
Ch r ysan t hemum Oxeye da i sy Nor t hwes t e rn U .S.
l eucan t hemum Paulowni a t omen t osa Pr i ncess t ree
C i chor i um i n t ybus Ch i cory Many pa r t s o f t he U.S . Penn i se t um se t aceum Foun t a i n grass Sou t hwes t e rn U .S,
Pha l ar i sarundinacea
C i rs i um a r vense Canada th i st l e Al l o f U . S . Reed cana r y grass M i dwes t e rn U .S .

Coron i l l a vana C rown ve t ch M i dwes t e rn U .S Phr agm i t es commun i s Reed -

Cor t ader i a Juba t a Pampas grass Sou t hw es t e rn U .S- P i nus n i gra Aus t r i an p i ne -

Cynodon dac t y l on Common Be rmudagr ass Sou t hwes t e rn U .S. . Gu l f P i nus sy l ves t r i s Sco t ch p i ne Europe
s t a t es P i ous t hunbe rg i i Japanese b l ack p i ne Eas t As i a
Cy t i sus scopa r i us ` Sco t ch b room Nor t hwes t e rn U .S. , mos t Canada b l uegrass
Pea omp r essa
s p e c i e s i nv a s i v e in
Poa pra t ens i s Ken t ucky b l uegrass Euras i a
Sou t h wes t e rn U. S .
Po l ygnum cusp i da t um Japanese kno t weed Many par t s o f t he U .S .
Daucus t a ro t Queen Anne ' s l ace
Popu l us a l ba Wh i t e pop l a r , -
D i g i t a l i s purpur ea f oxg l ove _ Nor t hwes t e rn U .S.
Por tulaca oleracea Purs l ane Many par t s o f t he U .S .
D i psacus l ac i n i a tus Cu t - l eaved t ease l Europe
D i psacus sy l ves t r i s W i l d t ease l Po t amoge t on c r i spus Pondweed
- Br acken f em Nor t hwes t e rn U .S .
E . t or t ure r W i n t e r c r eepe r Pt e r l d l um aqu i l l num
Pue ra r l a l oba t a Kudzu v i ne _ Sou t heas t e rn U . S.
E . umbe l l a t a Au t umn o l i ve M i dwes t_
e rn U S
R.trangula A l de r buck t horn
E i chhorn i a crass i pes Wa t e r hyac i n t h S . Ame r i ca
Rhamnus ca t ha r t i ca _ Common buck t horn M i dwes t e rn U .S .
E l aeagnus angus t i f o l i a Russ i an o l i ve M i dwes t e rn U .S .
D a h u r i an b u c k t h o r n E . As i a
E l aeagnus umbe l l a t a Au t umn . l i ve Eas t As i a Rhamnus davur i ca
Rhodomy r t us t omen t osus Downy myr t l e E . As i a -
E l ymus a rena r i us European l yme : , l ass Euras i an
Rob i n i a pseudoacac i a B l ack
_ l ocus t _ M i dwes t e rn U .S . -
Equ i se t um hyema l e Horse t a i l Many pa r t s o f t he U . S.
Rosa mul t i f lora ~, Mu l t i f l ora rose Nor t heas t e rn ,
Euca l yp t us spp . (many ) Gum Sou t hwes t e rn U .S .
M i dwes t e rn U .S-
Euonymus a l a i W i nged wahoo , w i nged
Rubus proce rus Huna l ayan b l ackbe r ry Sou t hwes t e rn ,
onymu - _ _Nor t hwes t e rn U .S .
Euphorb i a es u l a Lea f y spurge
Sch i nus t ereb i n th i fo l i u peppe r t ree Ca l f s t a t es (U .S .)
Fes t uca e l a t i or Ta l l f an ,
So l i dagu canadens i s . Go l denrod - Nor t hwes t e rn U .S .
Fes t uca pra t ens i s Ta l l f escue Europe
beds t r aw
So rghum ha l epense g r as n so h Jo
Ga l i um ve rum Ye l l ow
M i dwes t e rn D .S . Tama r x spp. (many ) Tama r i sk We t e rn U .S. _

Typha angus t l f o l i a c.atil wa-levd N -

I
G G l echoma
ed r a c d iv Nor t hwes t e rn U
U . pum i l a Dwa r f e l m
Hede he l i x Eng l i sh i vy Hunga r i an i S t h es t e rn
b N t hwes t e rn US U l mus p r o - - ~E g l i sh e l
Hype r i cum ca l yc i num ea rd St John ' s Nor t hwes t e rn U .S V. m i nor Common pe r i w i nk l e Eas t e rn U.S .
Aa ron ' s
Verbascum t hapsus Common mu l l e i n
l mpe r a t a cy l i ndr i a gras Cogn Pan t rop i ca l V i bu rnum l an t ana W yf r i ng t ree Euro pe
l pomoea spp (mos t ) M i ng g l ory - Many pa r t s o f t he U .S . r os e Gu e l d r
V i bu rnum opu l us
Jun i perus v i rg i man , Eastern red cedar .. . . V i nca ma j or La rge pe r i w i nk l e Eas t ern , Nor t hwes t e rn
L. maack j i Amur honeysuckle D 5.
P e nw i k l [ . , , t ern . Nor t hwes t e rn
L. t a t r i ca Tatarian honeysuckle Eas t , . U . S . Vi nca minor common
US
Lan t ana hybr i ds Gu l f s t a t es ( U5 )
Lespedeza cunea t a ", Se r i cea l espedeza
L i gus t rum ob t us i t o l i um B l un t - l eaved pr i ve t Japan
L i gus t rum vu l gare Pr i ve t - Eas t e rn U .S .
Lon i ce r a Japon i ca Japanese honeysuck l e Nor t heas t e rn ,
M i dwes t e rn U .S .

a
O
 550- 1 2
15 . The l andscape cont rac tor sha l l re fer
Tab l e 550 - 5 . PLANT SPAC I NG CHART to t he cont rac t spec i f i ca t i ons for
add i t i ona l requ i remen t s .

16 . The l andscape cont rac tor sha l l re fer

R
1 LVA , R - PLANT ROW to the p l ant l ist for seasona l requ i re-
NT SPAC I NG
men t s re l a t ed to the t i me of p l ant i ng .

4 . 3 No t es and De t a i l s
AREA PER PLAN?

No t es:
AREA
NO . PLANTS =
No t es are usua l l y added to i nsure tha t p l ant
AREA PER PLANT
ma t er i a l is i nsta l l ed proper l y. They of t en
re i tera te spec i a l i nst ruc t i ons and spec i f i ca-
P l ant Spac i ng (On Cent er ) Area pe r P l ant t i ons con t a i ned in cont rac t documen t s .

P (m) P (ft) R (m) R ( f t) m2 W P l an t i ng De t a i l s :

. 15 . 13 . 43 . 0195 .2150
50
. 20 . 67 . 18 58 . 0360 . 3886
F i gures 550-5 t hrough 550-14 i l lust rate
25 . 83 . 22 72 . 0550 . 5976 typ i ca l p l ant i ng deta i l s for d i f f erent s i tua-
, 30 1 . 00 26 87 0780 8700
38 t i ons and t ypes of p l ant s . Loca l prac t i ce
1 . 25 33 108 1254 13500
. 46 1 . 50 . 40 130 . 1840 1 . 9500 may requ i re m i nor var i a t i ons of t hese
. 61 2 . 00 . 53 1 . 73 . 3233 3 , 4600 deta i l s .
76 2 . 50 . 66 2 . 17 . 5016 5 . 4250
91 3 . 00 . 79 2 . 60 . 7189 7 . 8000
100 .28 3 87 284 8700 93152 4 . 4 Con t r ac t Spec i f i ca t i ons
1 . 22 4 . 00 .05 3 1 . 46 1 . 2900 13 . 8400
1 . 25 4 . 10 1 , 08 3 . 55 1 . 3500 14 . 5550 Wheneve r poss i b l e , al l cont rac t spec i f i ca-
1 . 50 4 . 92 1 , 30 4 . 27 1 . 9500 21 . 0084
1 . 52 5 . 00 .32 4 1 . 33 2 . 0064 21 . 6500 t i ons re l a t ed to p l ant s and p l ant i ng shou l d
1 . 75 5 . 74 1 . 52 4 . 97 2 . 660 28 . 5278 con f orm to cur rent s t andard i zed prac t i ces
.83 6 .1 00 1 . 58 5 . 20 2 . 6914 31 . 2000
2 . 00 6 . 56 1 . 73 5 . 68 3 . 4600 37 . 2608
used in bu i l d i ng and s i te cons t ruc t i on . In
2 . 44 8 . 00 2 11 692 5 . 1484 55 - 3600 the Un i t ed St a t es , the Cons t ruc t i on
2 . 50 8 . 20 2 . 17 7 . 10 5 . 4250 58 . 2200 Spec i f i ca t i on Inst i tute (CSI ) has produced a
3 . 00 9 . 84 2 . 60 847 7 . 8000 86 . 3448
3 . 05 10 . 00 2 . 64 8 . 66 8 . 0520 86 . 6000 w i de l y accep t ed and used f orma t . The CSI
1 .37 .840 1149
3
4 . 00 13 . 12 3 . 46
12 .99
. 1744 Forma t is a cons i s t ent , na t i ona l l y un i f i ed
4 . 57 15 . 00 3 . 96 18 . 0972 194. 8500
5 . 00 16 . 41 4. 33 14 . 21 21 . 6500 233 . 1861 sys t em wh i ch cons i s t s o f 16 D i v i s i ons rang-
6 . 00 .1969 5 . 20 17 . 05 31 . 2000 335 . 7145 i ng f rom Gene ra l Requ i r emen t s to
6 . 10 2000 5 . 28 17 . 32 32 . 2080 346 . 4000
.625 596 E l ect r i ca l . D i v i s i on 2 is ass i gned to S i te
8 . 00 26 . 25 5 . 93 22 . 73 55 . 4400
32 . 81 8 . 66 .0 28.41 86 . 6000 10 932 1321 Wor k . Sec t i ons w i th i n D i v i s i on 2 per t a i n to
1500 49 . 22 12 . 99 42 . 62 194 . 8500 2097 . 7564
t echn i ca l sec t i ons or bas i c un i ts of work ,
such as Landscap i ng (02800) . Re f er to
'Th i s char t is used when p l ants are to he spaced equ i d i stant
f rom each other as shown . Tab l e 110-2 in Sec t i on 110 for the com-
p l e t e CSI D i v i s i on 2 S i te Wor k l i st ing .
been f i n i shed and approved by t he 9. Al l p l ant ma t er i a l sha l l be se l ec t ed a t
pro j ec t arch i t ec t or equa l . the nurser i es by the pro j ec t l and- 4 . 5 S t anda rds f or Nur se r y S t ock
scape arch i t ec t or equa l .
5. Al l p l ant s sha l l bea r the same re l a- P l ant s shou l d be c l ose l y exam i ned on-s i t e
t i onsh i p to f i n i shed grade as t he 10 . Al l p l ant s sha l l be sprayed w i th an be fore p l ant i ng to i nsure the i r hea l th and
p l ant ' s or i g i na l grade be fore d i gg i ng. ant i dess i cant w i th i n 24 hours a f t er con t i nu i ng v i gor. A accep t ed se t of s t an-
p l ant i ng . In t empe ra t e zones , al l dards has been deve l oped by the Ame r i can
6. Al l p l ant s sha l l be ba l l ed and p l ant s sha l l be sprayed w i th an ant i - Assoc i a t i on of Nurse rymen (AAN) to guar -
g wr apped or con t a i ner grown as dess i cant a t the beg i nn i ng of the i r an t ee qua l i ty and to fac i l i tate comme r ce in
n spec i f i ed . No cont a i ner grown s tock nursery s tock . These are vo l unt ary na t i ona l
f i rst w i n t er .
wi l l be accep t ed i f i t is root bound . s t andards sub j ec t to ru l es and approva l by
n
Al l root wr app i ng ma t er i a l made of 11 . Al l p l ants sha l l be insta l l ed as per the Ame r i can Na t i ona l St andards Inst i tute
P synthe t i cs or p l ast i cs sha l l be deta i l s and the cont rac t spec i f i ca t i ons . (ANSI ) . S i mi l ar s t andards for o ther coun-
d r emoved a t t i me of p l ant i ng . t r i es may be ava i l ab l e and may d i f fer in
12 . Al l p l ant s and s t akes sha l l be se t
n 7. W i t h con t a i ner grown stock , the p l umb un l ess o therw i se spec i f i ed . some ways f rom those deve l oped by the
cont a i ner sha l l be r emoved and the AAN . Tab l e 550-6 was prepared for the
s 13 . The l andscape cont rac tor sha l l prov i de AAN pub l i ca t i on in coopera t i on w i th the
cont a i ner ba l l sha l l be cut t hrough
n f i l l as per the cont rac t spec i f i ca t i ons . Canad i an Nursery Trades Assoc i a t i on to
the sur f ace in t wo ver t i ca l l oca t i ons .
la fac i l i tate nursery t rade be t ween the Un i t ed
14 . Al l p l ant s sha l l be wa t e red thor -
p 8. The day pr i or t o p l ant i ng , the l oca-
ough l y tw i ce dur i ng t he f i rst 24- St a t es and Canada as we l l as w i th o ther
t i on o f al l t rees and shrubs sha l l be count r i es tha t use the i nt erna t i ona l me t r i c
hour per i od a f ter p l ant i ng . Al l p l ant s
0 s t aked for approva l by the pro j ec t
sha l l then be wa t e red week l y , i f nec-
sys t em o f measur emen t . I t l ists rounded
l andscape arch i t ec t or equa l . me t r i c equ i va l ent s as r ecommended for use
essary , dur i ng the f i rst grow i ng season .
in s i z i ng nurse ry -grown p l ant s .
 550 - 1 3

t er of na t i ve p l ant commun i t i es is a pr i me g i ng up rare spec i mens f rom the w i l d is i l le-

MANGET .0 5
r equ i r emen t for des i gn i ng w i th na t i ve ga l , bu t the prac t i ce pers i sts . Do not use
STRATEG I ES
p l ant s . p l ant ma t er i a l whose source you canno t
The re are t wo se ts of s t andards for l and- t race . Na t i ve p l ant i ngs can be l abor - i nt en-
Na t i ves can be p l ant ed in dr i f ts, bu t s i ve to estab l i sh , bu t once t hey are st ab l e
scape managemen t . The Na t i ona l Arbor i s t
those tha t spread by seed wi l l no t necessar - and ma t ur e they wi l l requ i re l i t t le to no
Assoc i a t i on (NAA) has prov i ded s t andards
i ly s t ay whe r e they are p l aced . I t is be t t er to ma i n t enance .
for t ree care in the pas t . A se t of new st an-
orches t ra t e overa l l b l oom t i mes and he i ght s
dards is be i ng prepa red by the Ame r i can
of a m i x ture , so tha t the newes t b l ooms wi l l 6 . 2 Xe r i scap i ng and Wa t e r -E f f i c i en t
Na t i ona l St anda rds Inst i tut e (ANSI ) to
be v i s i b l e . Some spr i ng w i l df l owers b l oom Landscapes
rep l ace the o l der NAA s t andards w i th i n the
ear l y and then en t er summe r dormancy .
nex t th i r ty years . As new ANS I gu i de l i nes Xer i scap i ng is a p l ant i ng prac t i ce tha t re l i es
Take advan t age of the i r ear l y co l or and
are comp l e t ed , the cor respond i ng NAA on m i n i ma l or no i r r i gat i on, eschew i ng
t hen cove r the same area w i th mor e pers i s-
gu i de l i nes wi l l be phased ou t . Cur rent l y , heav i l y wa t e red l andscapes in f avor o f
t ent p l ants tha t eme rge and b l oom l ater.
ANS I s t andards for prun i ng (ANSI A300) t hose tha t comb i ne l ow wa t e r requ i remen t s
and sa f e t y requ i remen t s for t ree care oper - F i nd i ng na t i ve seed or nursery s tock in w i th the un i que beau t y of p l ant s adap t ed
a t i ons (ANSI Z133) are comp l e t e . O t he r suf f i c i ent quant i t y can be a prob l em . Many to the reg i on . In ar i d c l i ma t es , the i mpor -
areas o f ma i n t enance are st i l l gove rned by ma i l -order compan i es ex i st tha t dea l in t ance of p l ant s tha t are adap t ed to loca l
NAA s t andards . na t i ve seeds , but the bes t seed s tock is cond i t i ons is we l l - recogn i zed , but a l mos t al l
f rom a loca l source . Use reput ab l e nurser i es reg i ons of the Un i t ed St a t es suf f er f rom
6 . 0 SPEC I AL I ZED PLANT I NG tha t propaga t e na t i ves respons i b l y and can some annua l drought , requ i r i ng supp l e -
STRATEG I ES documen t the i r sources . In mos t states , d i g- men t a l wa t e r i ng o f l awns and p l ant i ng

6 .1 Us i ng Na t i ve P l an t s

Na t i ve p l ant s are becom i ng mor e popu l ar

in des i gned l andscapes for the advan t ages
they ho l d over i n t roduced exot i c p l ants . Research has demons t ra t ed tha t many t rad i t i ona l p l ant i ng prac t i ces are de t r i ment a l to
Na t i ves are adap t ed to seasona l ex t remes the l ong- t erm hea l th of p l ant s . The fo l l ow i ng t echn i ques are necessary to i nsure the
of t empe ra t ure and mo i s ture and thus are surv i va l and l ong- t erm hea l th of i nsta l l ed p l ant ma t er i a l .
of t en ab l e to surv i ve f rosts and drough t s
tha t ha rdy exot i cs canno t . They requ i re l ess 1 . Inspec t p l ants care fu l l y upon the i r ar r i va l at the s i te . There shou l d be no unhea l ed
i r r i ga t i on ou t of season . They re i nforce wounds in the bark or s t em of the p l ant and no ma j or broken branches . Cont a i ner
l oca l ecosys t ems , br i ng i ng but ter f l i es , b i rds p l ants tha t are ex t reme l y roo t -bound shou l d be re j ec ted .
and o ther an i ma l s i nto con t ac t w i th peop l e .
Na t i ves requ i re ve ry l i t t le ma i n t enance 2 . The p l ant i ng ho l e shou l d be at l east t wo t i mes w i der than the root ba l l , but no
once proper l y es t ab l i shed and he l p to pre- deeper , and the p l ant shou l d be set on f i rm subso i l . The root f l are shou l d be set at
serve the un i que charac t er o f a reg i on . the same l eve l it has grown .
i
The f i rst s t ep t owa rds des i gn i ng w i t h 3 . Non-b i odegradab l e nursery wrapp i ngs (i . e . p l ast i c or w i re) around the roots mus t be
na t i ve p l ants is unde rs t and i ng the p l ant care fu l l y removed . Bur l ap can be lef t in p l ace i f the top th i rd of the root ba l l is
commun i t i es tha t ex i st in und i s turbed con- unwr apped .
d i t i ons in the reg i on . The Kuch l er map
d i v i des Nor t h Ame r i ca i nto ecoreg i ons 4 . Abou t 75 to 100 mm (3 to 4 in) of mu l ch shou l d be spread 1 .5 to 2 .1 m (5 to 7 f t )
based on p l ant assoc i a t i ons , wa t ersheds , around t rees and a me t e r around other p l ant i ngs . Bare soi l shou l d be lef t a t the base
and genera l c l i ma t e . Na t i ve p l ant commu - of the p l ant to avo i d t runk suf foca t i on or rot .
n i t i es d i f fer f rom t rad i t i ona l ga rden p l ant i -
ngs in severa l i mpor t an t ways . Trad i t i ona l 5 . P l ants need ext ra n i t rogen r i ght a f ter p l ant i ng , espec i a l l y in the fal l when the i r roots
p l ant i ng p l ans o f t en seek to mode r a t e are mos t act i ve . Fer t i l i ze on the sur f ace at spr i ng or fal l , or use s l ow- re l ease tab l ets
change and to organ i ze space t hrough in t ree p l ant i ng ho l es .
g
group i ng p l ant s by the i r co l or and t ex ture .
6 . P l ant i ng ho l es shou l d be back f i l l ed w i th the same soi l tha t was removed .
These ob j ec t i ves are suppor t ed by t hou-
Amendmen t s such as compos t , pea t and sand shou l d not be used , as they may n
sands o f years o f p l ant hybr i d i za t i on tha t
has produced cu l t i vars w i th l arge , br i ght l y
co l ored f l owers and l ong b l oom per i ods . By
ac tua l l y inhibi t the root pene t ra t i on of sur round i ng soi l and s l ow overa l l growt h .

7 . Trunk wrapp i ng shou l d not be used , as they may she l ter i nsect infestat ions , and ho l d
a
cont ras t , na t i ve commun i t i es re l y on mo i s ture a round the bark caus i ng fungus or d i sease . n
change and d i vers i f i ca t i on to buf f er t hem
f rom st ress . Many spec i es are i n t erm i xed 8 . St ak i ng shou l d be avo i ded . Whe r e s i tes are unusua l l y w i ndy or spec i mens are too s
and produce over l app i ng waves of shor t l arge to be stab l e ini t ial ly, st ak i ng may be requ i red unt i l the p l ant can suppor t i tsel f ,
n
b l oom per i ods . Na t i ve f l owers t end t o be but shou l d be removed af ter the second grow i ng season .
sma l l er and mor e subt l y co l ored . In add i -
t ion, the compos i t i on of na t i ve p l ant com- 9 . Prun i ng a f ter p l ant i ng shou l d be l i mi ted to dead or damaged branches , or those tha t
mun i t i es can change rad i ca l l y f rom one threa t en the appearance and branch i ng st ruc ture of the t ree . Trad i t i ona l prun i ng
0
year to the next , in response to seasona l cl i - back of a th i rd of the uppe r branches does not a id p l ant es t ab l i shment in mos t ba l l
ma t e and st ress . Unde rs t and i ng the charac - and bur l ap stock .
 550- 1 4
p l ant s pre f er poor soi l . Howeve r , amend i ng
w i th i n p l ant i ng ho l es is ac tua l l y de t r i ment a l
to the l ong t erm hea l th of p l an t s - com-
p l e te rep l acemen t of soi l or no amend i ng is
be t t er in th i s case .
Chem i s t ry : So i l pH is l arge l y de t e rm i ned
by under l y i ng ma t er i a l and t he amoun t and
pH o f ava i l ab l e wa t e r . These na tura l f ac tors
have a mor e pro f ound , l ong l ast i ng inf lu-
ence upon the soi l 's chem i s t ry than amend -
men t s or mu l ches . Choose p l ant s adap t ed
to s i te cond i t i ons ra ther t han t ry i ng t o a l ter
the pH of the soi l . Many ar i d reg i ons in the
Ame r i can Wes t have so i l s w i th h i gh con-
cent ra t i ons of sa l t due to agr i cu l tura l prac-
t i ces or na tura l cond i t i ons . Tab l e 550-7
shows some p l ant s tha t are to l erant of
sa l i ne so i l s .

The re is no 'per fec t ' soi l . Des i gners mus t

deve l op a good unde rs t and i ng of the soi l
s t ruc ture and chem i s t ry on s i te , and t hen
a i m for a good ma t ch be t ween soi l charac -
ter i st i cs and p l ant requ i remen t s .

Prac t i ca l Tur f Ar eas :

Whe r e l awn is necessary , fo l l ow these

gu i de l i nes :

In ar i d c l i ma t es (whe re tur f has to be i rr i -

ga t ed to surv i ve) :

1 . Use tur f on l y whe r e i t is c l ear l y serv-

i ng a purpose such as p l ay areas ,
spor t s f i e lds, e t c .

2 . Shape tur f areas to a l l ow max i mum

i r r i gat i on e f f i c i ency. The rat io o f area
to per i me t er shou l d be h i gh . Do not
use l awn in areas t oo sma l l or na r row
to be i r r i ga t ed e f f i c i ent l y.

3 . Avo i d us i ng tur f on s l opes whe r e i rr i -

ga t i on canno t be e f f i c i en t -use a l ter -
na t e groundcove rs or l ow-wa t e r use
grass .
In we t t er c l i ma t es (whe re tur f can sur -
v i ve w i t hou t heavy i r r i gat i on) :
g 1 . Even w i t hou t heavy i r r i ga t i on costs ,
n
beds . Dur i ng even shor t per i ods of c l i ma t es are requ i red , adap t to the dry env i - l awns are st i l l h i gh-ma i n t enance e l e-
n drought , w i desca l e res i dent i a l i r r i gat i on can ronmen t . Xer i scape ga rdens do no t have to men t s of the l andscape . Eva l ua t e tur f
threa t en supp l i es o f dr i nk i ng wa t e r . be spare and bare ; drough t - to l eran t p l ants areas aga i ns t ma i n t enance budge t s
and func t i ona l needs .
can l ook l ush w i t hou t heavy i r r i gat i on .
The seven areas of conce rn in xer i scape
2 . Cons i der us i ng a var i e ty of tur f tha t
n des i gns as de f i ned by the Na t i ona l So i l Ana l ys i s and I mprovemen t s :
a can surv i ve in tha t c l i ma t e w i t hou t
Xer i scape Counc i l , Inc . (NXCI ) are :
s So i l qua l i ty is the ma j or de t erm i n i ng f ac tor any supp l emen t a l i r r i gat i on .
P l ann i ng and Des i gn: in a we l l -p l anned xer i scape garden , d i rec t l y
n I mprov i ng the e f f i c i ency of i r r i gat i on for
a f f ec t i ng t he v i gor and wa t e r e f f i c i ency of
A r i ch pa l e t t e of drough t - to l eran t p l ant tur f , in bo t h cases :
p l ant s .
ma t er i a l s ex i sts wor l dw i de , a l t hough
1 . Some grasses deve l op root sys t ems
na t i ves are bes t adap t ed and shou l d f orm St ruc ture : Soi l tha t has been heav i l y
tha t pene t ra t e the soi l to a dep t h of
the overa l l f r amewor k for a dry ga rden . amended w i t h organ i c ma t er i a l he l ps p l ant s
1 .5 m (5 f t ) or mor e in the w i l d . Wa i t
Whe r e t rad i t i ona l ga rden sty l es f rom other surv i ve per i ods of drough t , a l though some
as l ong as poss i b l e into the spr i ng to
 n i t i es na t i ve to a par t i cu l ar reg i on have
evo l ved . P l ants adap t ed to dry c l i ma t es can
be e i ther deep or sha l l ow roo t ed depend i ng
on the above -ground adap t a t i ons t hey
have evo l ved . Mos t na tura l p l ant commu -
n i t i es are se l f - re i nforc i ng ; assoc i a t ed
spec i es suppor t each o ther when grown
toge ther .
Many p l ant s can surv i ve drough t , but
some do so by ent er i ng dormancy unt i l
mo i s ture is present aga i n . O t he rs have
adap t i ve st ra t eg i es tha t a l l ow t hem to l ook
hea l thy and a t t rac t i ve dur i ng drough t per i -
ods . Cons i der the behav i or of pot ent i a l
p l ant s when they are sub j ec t ed to drough t
st ress when p l ac i ng t hem in the l andscape .
I r r i ga t i on is cruc i a l dur i ng t he f i rst severa l
years to es t ab l i sh new p l ant i ngs , bu t wi l l
become unnecessary and even de t r i ment a l
to the con t i nu i ng hea l th of p l ant s when
ma t ur e i f they have been we l l -chosen for
the i r new l oca t i ons .

Ef f i c i ent I r r i ga t i on:

Harves t ra i nwa t er f rom i mperv i ous sur -

f aces such as roof s and pavemen t s ; run
downspou t s i nto p l ant i ng beds ; grade
pavemen t to run of f i nto l awns or beds ;
t er race s t eep s l opes to co l l ec t ra i nwa t er ;
use co l l ec t i on swa l es at the foot of s l opes
t o co l l ect runof f .

Al l p l ant s requ i re i r r i ga t i on for the f i rst

f ew years a f t er p l ant i ng . I f the des i gn a i ms
for eventua l i ndependence f rom i r r i gat i on,
hand-wa t e r i ng or use of a m i n i ma l , i nex-
pens i ve sys t em may be enough .

For pe rmanen t l y i r r i ga ted l andscapes ,

use dr i p i r r i gat i on whe r eve r poss i b l e . Dr i p
sys t ems was t e very l i t t le wa t er , as they
de l i ver wa t e r d i rect l y to t he roots . Th i s a l so
promo t es deepe r root sys t ems and l eads to
f ewe r prob l ems w i th i nsec ts and d i seases
tha t are fos t ered by we t l eaves and s t ems .

Spr i nk l ers are the on l y opt i on for l awns

and some o ther s i tua t i ons . Spr i nk l ers tha t
spray wa t e r h i gh i nto the a i r l ose mor e g
beg i n i r r i gat i on (when the soi l is dry to the spec i f i c seasona l pa t t ern of the cl i - n
wa t e r to evapora t i on than l owe r spray i ng .
to a dep t h of severa l cen t i me t e rs) - ma t e in wh i ch i t is p l ant ed , wh i ch may
I r r igate w i th spr i nk l ers in the ear l y morn i ng n
th i s promo t es deep , drought - res i s t ant i nc l ude shor t per i ods of i nt ense drough t or
(be fore sunr i se) whe reve r poss i b l e .
root sys t ems .
2 . Dur i ng per i ods whe r e i r r igat ion is nec -
ra in . Indeed , when these p l ant s are es t ab-
l i shed, supp l emen t a l mo i s ture dur i ng the i r The fo l l ow i ng r ecommenda t i ons app l y a
"dry " cyc l e can l ead to root rot and d i s- to al l f orms of i r r igat ion, whe t he r in ar i d or
essary , i r r igate deep l y and i nf requent l y. ease . P l ant s na t i ve to a reg i on wi l l be the C
we t c l i ma t es (Re f er to Sec t i on 750 ,
Both of these prac t i ces wi l l a l so d i scour - bes t adap t ed and wi l l be ab l e to surv i ve I r r igat ion, for mor e de t a i l ed i nforma t i on) :
s
age weed grow t h . seasona l ex t remes of drough t and t empe r -
1 . I r r i gate deep l y and i nf requent l y to n
a ture , but many exot i cs f rom s i mi l ar cl i -
Charac t er i s t i cs o f Appropr i a t e Drough t - promo t e res i l i ent , deep root sys t ems . la
ma t es are a l so appropr i a t e . When us i ng
To l erant P l an t s : non-na t i ves , avo i d des t ruc t i ve i nvas i ve 2 . Ca l i bra t e ra te and dura t i on o f wa t e r
spec i es . de l i very t o m i n i m i ze runof f .
Appropr i a t e p l ant s are not necessar i l y con-
s t ant l ow-wa t e r users . An appropr i a t e p l ant Deve l op a wor k i ng know l edge of the
is one whose growt h cyc l e is we l l adap t ed adapt a t i ons tha t p l ant s and p l ant commu -
 550 - 16

d
c
a

c
a

0
550 - 17

g
c
c
a

pl
c
a

pl
O
 550 - 18

g
c
c
c
ppl
dc
c
ppl
c

O
 550 - 19
d i es . F i gure 550-15 i l lust rates a deta i l for
urban t ree p l ant i ng .

6 .4 P l an t i ng on D i s t urbed S i t es

Res tora t i on of d i s turbed l andscapes

i nvo l ves wor k on many d i f f erent l eve l s .
P l ant spec i es mus t be we l l - adap t ed to the
s i te in order to grow i nto se l f -sust a i n i ng
popu l a t i ons . Th i s i mp l i es pr i mary re l i ance
upon na t i ve spec i es tha t have been ra i sed
in cond i t i ons tha t approx i ma t e those of the
s i te . P l ant s are f requent l y t ransp l ant ed or
d i rec t -seeded f rom ma t er i a l ga t he red near -
by. Some t i mes nurse crops or p i oneer
p l ant i ngs are i n t roduced as a way to ar r i ve
at the t arge t p l ant commun i t y.

Grasses can be used for f ast stab i l i za t i on

of s l opes and soi l i mprovemen t . For a l ist of
su i t ab l e grasses and mor e i n f orma t i on
abou t t echn i ques for p l ant i ng used in
res tor i ng d i s turbed l andscapes re f er to
Sec t i on 640 .

6 . 5 P l an t i ng for B i oeng i nee r i ng

B i oeng i neer i ng re l i es on p l ant ma t er i a l s to
stab i l i ze e roded s t ream banks and other
areas suf f er i ng damage f rom excess i ve
runof f . I t genera l l y i nvo l ves rep l ac i ng hard ,
i nf l ex i b l e suppor t st ruc tures tha t degrade
over t i me w i th sof t , f l ex i b l e sys t ems of
p l ants tha t grow and i mprove ove r t i me
and i ncrease the wi l d l i fe hab i t a t va l ues of
3 . Mon i t or i r r i gat i on consump t i on and back at l east 150 mm (6 in) f rom the base
t he area . P l ants tha t are we l l -su i t ed to
ad j us t mon t h l y to mee t chang i ng of p l ant i ngs tha t are unde r a t t ack or con-
these t echn i ques share cer t a i n charac t er i s-
cond i t i ons . s i der us i ng a d i f f erent t ype o f mu l ch .
t i cs . They are genera l l y na t i ve success i ona l
4 . A l l ow for regu l ar ma i n t enance of i rr i - Appropr i a t e Ma i n t enance : p l ants tha t can to l era t e mo i s t cond i t i ons ,
ga t i on sys t ems . Leaks and p l ugs in have the abi l i ty to root qu i ck l y f rom s t em
i r r i gat i on l ines no t on l y was t e wa t e r ; Mon i t or cond i t i ons on a regu l ar bas i s to nodes , can spread vege t a t i ve l y , and f orm
head of f prob l ems o f i nsec t a t tack , i r r iga- s t rong root sys t ems when es t ab l i shed . For
t hey can ki l l p l ant s and damage st ruc-
tures . t ion, d i sease , or soi l prob l ems . Fer t i l i zer mor e i n forma t i on abou t reg i ona l app l i ca-
may be necessary to coun t erac t n i t rogen t i ons of b i oeng i neer i ng t echn i ques , consu l t
Mu l ch i ng: dra i n of f resh , decompos i ng mu l ch . the re f erences at the end of th i s sec t i on .
Mon i t or p l ant cond i t i ons and app l y s l ow
Mu l ch is a cruc i a l componen t of a wa t er -
re l ease n i t rogen fer t i l i zer i f necessary. Mow
e f f i c i ent l andscape . Mu l ch conserves soi l
tur f a t a h i gh se t t i ng . Th i s i mproves
mo i s ture , mode ra t es soi l t empera tures , l i m-
drough t res i st ance by shad i ng the soi l and
i ts re f l ec t ed hea t tha t damages p l ants , a l l ow i ng deepe r root s to f orm .
ho l ds and bu i l ds the soi l , preven t s weeds , g
and he l ps cont ro l eros i on f rom w i nd and n
6.3 Urban Fores t ry
ra in . n
The cond i t i ons wh i ch mus t be endured by
The r e are severa l caut i ons tha t app l y to t rees in urban areas cause t he ma j or i t y of
a
d
mu l ches . Some mu l ches , such as shredded st ree t t ree p l ant i ngs to d i e w i th i n t en years
bark or p i ne need l es , are f l ammab l e when of the i r i nsta l l at i on . Ex t reme hea t , soi l tha t
dry . Use cau t i on when mu l ch i ng nea r n
has been compac t ed or con t am i na t ed w i t h
sources of hea t or sparks . Fresh mu l ches , bu i l d i ng f i l l or o ther urban con t am i nan t s ,
such as new wood ch i ps or sawdus t , dr aw and damage f rom vanda l s are on l y a f ew of
n i t rogen f rom the soi l when they beg i n to the f ac tors tha t urban t rees mus t con t end n
la
decompose . Use a s l ow- re l ease n i t rogen w i th . Trad i t i ona l p l ant i ng t echn i ques con-
fer t i l i zer w i th these mu l ches . Any organ i c t r i bute to th i s h i gh mor t a l i t y ra te because
mu l ch can prov i de cove r for such pes t s as they do no t prov i de suf f i c i ent root space
s l ugs , sowbugs , earw i gs , and rodent s . I f and dra i nage . Tab l e 550-8 l ists common
these pes t s become a prob l em , pu l l mu l ch causes of urban t ree mor t a l i t y and r eme -
 550 - 20

REFERENCES
Tab l e 550-7 . SALT TOLERANT PLANTS
P l ant Ma t er i a l
Ame r i can Assoc i a t i on o f Nu r se r ymen .
Bot an i ca l Name / Common Name
Tr ees Shrubs
Ame r i can Standard f or Nur se r y St ock ,
Mode r a t e Ace r negundo / Box e l der Ca r agana arborescens / S i ber i an pea Wash i ng t on , DC .
To l e rance Be tu l a popu l i fo l i a / Gray b i rch shrub Ba i l er , L i be r t y Hyde , and E t he l Zoe. Hor t us
Ce l t i s occ i dent a l i s / Hackbe r ry E l aeagnus commu t a t a / S i l verber y
Th i rd , Macm i l l an : New York , 1976 .
Frax i nus exce l s i or / European ash E . mu l t i f l ora / Che r ry e l aeagnus
Jun i perus ch i nens i s / ' Pf i t zerana ' Di rr , M i chae l . Manua l of Woody
F . quadrangu l a t a / B l ue ash
J . conf er t a / Japanese shore j un i per Landscape P l an t s , 4th ed. , St i pes
Jun i perus scopu l orum / Jun i per
J . v i rg i n i ana / East ern red ceda r Lon i cera t a t ar i ca / Ta t ar i an honeysuck l e Pub l i sh i ng : Champa i gn , IL, 1990 .
Koe l reut er i a pan i cu l a t a / Go l denra i n t ree Rhamnus f rangu l a / G l ossy buck t horn Kour i k , Robe r t . Prun i ng . Wo r kman Pub.
Mac l ur a pom i f e ra / Osage or ange Sp i raea vanhou t t e i / Vanhou t t e sp i rea Co. New York , 1997 .
Rob i n i a pseudoacac i a / B l ack l ocus t
Ouden , P. den. Manua l of Cu l t i va t ed
Sophor a j apon i ca / Japanese pagoda t ree ,
Ch i nese scho l ar t ree
Con i fers Ha rdy i n Co l d and Wa r m
U l mus pum i l a / S i ber i an e l m Tempera ture Zones , Ma r t i nus N i j o f f : The
Hague , 1982.
H i gh A i l an thus a l t i ss i ma / Tree -o f -heaven At r i p l ex canescens / Four -w i ng sa l tbush P i rone , P. O. Tr ee Ma i ntenance , 6 t h ed. ,
To l e rance Ame l anch i e r canadens i s / Shadb l ow Bacchar i s ha l i mi fo l i a / Groundse l Ox f ord Un i ve rs i t y Press , New York , 1988 .
serv i ceber ry Cy t i sus scopar i us / Scot ch broom
Cra t aegus crus-ga l l i / Cockspur haw t horn Ha l i modendron / Sa l t t ree ha l odendron
Sp i m , Anne Wh i s t on . The Gr an i t e Ga rden :
E l aeagnus angus t i fo l i a / Russ i an o l i ve H i ppophae rhamno i des / Sea buck t horn
Urban Na t ur e and Human Des i gn , Bas i c
P i nus thunberg i i / Japanese b l ack p i ne Myr i ca pensy l van i ca / Baybe r ry Books: New York , 1984 .
Pt e l ea t r i fo l i ata / Wa f e r ash Rhamnus ca thar t i ca / Common Dange rous P l an t s .
Tamp i on , John .
Thu j a occ i dent a l i s / Ame r i can arborv i t ae buck t horn
Un i ve r se Books: New York , 1977.
Rosa rugosa / Rugosa rose
Shephe rd i a canadens i s / Bu f f a l ober ry Wh i t comb , Ca r l . Estab l i shment and
Tama r i x ga l l i ca / Tama r i sk Ma i n t enance of Landscape P l an t s .
T . parv i f l ora Laceba r k Pub l i ca t i ons : Ok l ahoma , 1987.
Woodwa r d , Luc i a . Po i sonous P l an t s : A
Grasses ( ranked l owes t to h i ghes t ) Dav i d & Cha r l es ,
Co l our F i e l d Gu i de ,
Agros t i s pa l ust r i s / Cr eep i ng ben tgrass
Devon , 1985 .
Agropy ron Smi th i i / Wes t e rn whea t grass
A. e l onga t um / Ta l l whea t grass Wyman , Dona l d. Wyman ' s Ga rden i ng
E l ymus canadens i s / Canada w i l drye Encyc l oped i a , 2nd ed. , Macm i l l an : New
Cynodon dac t y l on / Be rmudagr ass York , 1986 .
Pucc i ne l l i a a i ro i des / A l ka l i grass
D i st i ch l i s st r i c ta / Sa l tgrass Des i gn Re f erences
Sporobo l us a i ro i des / Al ka l i saca t on
Arno l d , Hen r y F. Tr ees in Urban Des ign,
2nd ed. , Van Nos t r and Re i nho l d , New
So ruce Dr . l ames Feucht and Jack But ler , Landscape Management (New York. Van Nost rand Re inhold Company . 1988)
York , 1992 .
C l ous t on , Br i an ( ed. ) . Landscape Des i gn
w i t h P l an t s , 2nd ed. , CRC Press , Boca
Tab l e 550-5 . CAUSES OF URBAN TREE MORTAL I TY AND REMED I ES
Ra t on , 1990 .
E l l e f son , Conn i e , Thomas S t ephens and
Causes Remed i es Doug We l sh . Xe r i scape Ga rden i ng .
soi l compac t i on Prov i de l arge areas of root ing space wherever poss ib l e , through t ree st r ip t renches rather than
pi ts Macm i l l an , New York , 1992 .
g ster i l e or tox i c so i l s Test soi ls f requent l y. Urban soi ls are by def in i t ion h i gh l y d i sturbed, and cond i t i ons can vary Wa l ke r , Theodor e D. P l an t i ng Des i gn , 2nd
w i de l y wi th i n a sma l l area . Opt i ons for dea l i ng w i th this prob l em range f rom rep l ac ing sods
ent i re l y (i .e . on a l arge enough sca l e to prov i de enough root space hor i zonta l l y) to p l ant i ng ed. , Van Nos t r and Re i nho l d , New York ,
t rees that wi l l tol erate the t rue cond i t i ons of the si te. Th i s may mean us i ng " weed " t rees . 1991 .
over - i r r i gat i on T i mer i r r igat ion syst ems f requent l y do not respond to the rea l cond i t i ons at the roots of a t ree.
Many t rees drown in the i r pi ts due to excess wa t er comb i ned wi th poor dra i nage . Use t i mer
syst ems on l y where abso l ute l y necessary and prov i de as much dra i nage as poss ib l e .
repea t ed wound i ng f rom There is no good so lut ion to this type of prob l em, but damage can be reduced by
n t rees, ma i nt enance veh i c l es , underst and i ng the zones in wh i ch regu l ar act ivi ty is l ikely to occur . Low-branch i ng t r ees shou l d
vanda l s not be p l anted r ight next to the curb or st reet edge . A l l st reet t r ees need to be l oca ted to
avo i d be i ng whacked by car doors or prov i d i ng an obstac l e to passengers t ry i ng to d i sembark .
Study i ng the needs of the commun i t y and i nvo l v i ng them in the des i gn process is a l ways a good
' pract i ce , and can f requent l y reduce the amoun t of vanda l i sm t rees mus t endure .
insuf f i c i ent ai r space around A s ide ef fect of compac t i on . See F i gure 550-21 for a samp l e deta i l that prov i des for ai r end
roots dra i nage around upper l eve l roots . Protec t i ng root space w i th t ree grates or deck i ng is a l so
CIS benef i c i a l .
neg l ect , fa i lure to remove l ines The best so lut ion to this prob l em is to avo i d us i ng t echn i ques that wi l l requ i re a s ingl e visi t or
or wraps caus i ng g i rd l i ng of un i que ma i nt enance af ter the cont rac tor has lef t the si te . Stak ing, guy i ng and t runk wrapp i ng
bark or roots shou l d be avo i ded wheneve r poss ib l e . Cons i der the ma i nt enance budge t when des ign ing, or f ind
some way to make l ong- t erm ma i nt enance par t of the cont ract
H- , F . Arno l d. adapt ed f rom
Henry Tr ees I ' l l Urban De rgo 1580
 0
0
Z
0
N

Spec i a l
Cond i t i ons
 SECT I ON I

Roo f and Deck

Landscapes

Con t r i bu tor :
Theodor e Osmundson & Assoc i a t es
Theodor e Osmundson , wr i t er
Go rdon Osmundson , ed i tor
San Franc i sco , Ca l i forn i a
Graph i cs :
Theodor e Osmundson , FASLA
Apr i l Po t t er
Techn i ca l Wr i t er :
Ky l e D. Brown
Resea rch Adv i sor :
Ra l ph E . W i l coxen
Berke l ey , Ca l i forn i a
Rev i ewe rs :
Thomas W i r t h , ASLA
She rborn , Massachuse t t s

W i l l i am L . C l a rke
EDAW
San Franc i sco , Ca l i forn i a

F red H. Pe t e rson
So i l & P l ant Lab , Inc .
San t a C l ara , Ca l i forn i a
V
s
CONTENTS
n
1 . 0 Int roduc t i on 3. 3 Adap t a t i on to C l i ma t e 5 .2 Wa t e rproo f i ng and Anchor i ng Poo l
L
2 . 0 Prot ec t i on o f t he Roo f and St ruc ture C l i ma t e Wa l l s
2 .1 Load Bea r i ng Capac i t y W i nd 6. 0 Prov i s i on for Ut i l i t i es Y
V
2 . 2 Wa t e rproo f i ng Sun and Shade 6 .1 E l ec t r i ca l
3 . 0 Spec i a l Prov i s i ons 3 . 4 I r r i ga t i on 6 .2 Wa t e r
3 .1 Dra i nage 4 .0 Se l ec t i on of Ma t er i a l s and Me t hods of 7 . 0 Sa f e t y and Secur i t y
3 .2 L i gh t we i gh t P l ant i ng Med i um Anchor i ng 8 .0 Ma i n t enance
F i ne Sand 4 .1 St ruc tura l Ma t er i a l s 8. 1 Pav i ng , F i xtures , and Furn i sh i ngs n
Soi l Amendmen t s 4 . 2 Pav i ng 8. 2 P l an t Ma i n t enance
Dep t hs and We i gh t s of P l ant i ng 4 .3 Me t hods o f Anchor i ng Re f erences
0
Med i um and P l ants 5. 0 Poo l s and Foun t a i ns
Ways to Reduce We i gh t 5 .1 Gene r a l Cons i dera t i ons

0
 610- 2
s t ruc ture benea t h the ga rden . For th i s rea- 2 . 2 Wa t e rproo f i ng
1 . 0 I NTRODUCT I ON
son , there mus t be wa t e rproo f i ng of excep-
Wa t e rproo f i ng is ano ther i mpor t an t f ac tor

T
he h i gh cos t of l and in urban areas t i ona l secur i ty and l ongev i t y to preven t
has caused a reappra i sa l of the usab l e damage . The roo f s t ruc ture and wa t er - in the des i gn of a roof ga rden . A typ i ca l
space on t he roof s of bu i l d i ngs . F l at sec t i on t hrough a roof cons i sts of the st ruc-
proo f i ng is an i nt egra l par t of the bu i l d i ng ,
tura l f ram i ng or re i nforced concre t e s l ab,
space , whe t he r above unde rground st ruc- consequent l y , i t is the bu i l d i ng arch i tec t ' s
some t i mes s l op i ng to prov i de dra i nage to
tures or on l eve l s above the st reet , is respons i b i l i ty to : (1) wa t e rproo f the roof ,
roo f dra i ns , a l ayer of wa t e rproo f i ng ma t e -
expens i ve to ob t a i n . Consequen t l y , the (2) prot ec t t he wa t e rproo f i ng f rom
deve l opmen t and use of roof areas is rap i d- mechan i ca l damage , and (3) i nsu l a te t he r ial , a l ayer of i nsu l a t i on , and a l ayer of
l i ghtwe i ght concre t e to prot ec t the i nsu l a-
ly becom i ng an econom i c necess i t y. roof for ene rgy conserva t i on . The l and-
scape arch i t ec t or roo f top des i gner has no t i on and the wa t e rproo f membr ane (F i gure
A l t hough aes the t i c and soc i a l needs f ina l respons i b i l i ty for t he des i gn and con- 610-1) . Al t erna t i ve l y , the i nsu l a t i on may be
regard i ng roof and deck spaces have pre- i nsta l l ed i ns i de the ce i l i ng of the s t ruc ture .
s t ruc t i on of these i t ems , she or he can on l y
va i l ed for centur i es , mos t s t ruc tures depend The f ina l l ayer of l i ghtwe i ght concre t e is
spec i f y t he roof ' s phys i ca l requ i remen t s .
on econom i c j ust i f i cat i on to be bu i l t and s l oped to dra i n .
Howeve r , i t is t he roo f t op des i gner ' s
ma i n t a i ned . Aes the t i c j ust i f i cat i on is obv i -
respons i b i l i ty to prot ec t the roof f rom dam- The re are an i ncreas i ng var i e ty of wa t er -
ous f rom a super f i c i a l downwa rd g l ance a t
age dur i ng ga rden cons t ruc t i on . As a gen- proo f membr anes , emp l oy i ng d i f f erent
the roo f scape of our c i t i es . The soc i a l just i -
era l rul e , th i s respons i b i l i ty beg i ns w i th the ma t er i a l s and me t hods . E l as tomer i c ma t er i -
f i ca t i on is a l mos t as obv i ous when compa r -
bo t t om of the dra i nage l ayer tha t is added als of f er t he grea t es t pro t ec t i on .
i son is made be t ween undeve l oped roo f
to t he f i n i shed roof . B i t um i nous wa t e rproo f i ng shou l d be
t er races and the pub l i c and commerc i a l l y
avo i ded . Areas whe r e the wa t e rproo f i ng is
deve l oped areas t hroughou t the wor l d . 2 .1 Load Bea r i ng Capac i t y exposed shou l d be f l ashed and prot ec t ed
Roo f and deck l andscapes prov i de ou t door
The max i mum l oad bear i ng capac i t y of a f rom pot ent i a l l y harmfu l sun rays .
areas for soc i a l i n t erchange tha t are other -
w i se a l mos t i mposs i b l e to obt a i n in mos t roof is es t ab l i shed by t he st ruc tura l eng i - A comp l e t e and l ong- l as t i ng sea l mus t
dense l y deve l oped c i t i es . neer and mus t neve r be exceeded . In new be ach i eved be fore any add i t i ona l ma t er i a l s
cons t ruc t i on , the roof s t ruc ture can usua l l y
The re are i mpor t an t des i gn and st ruc tur - can be p l aced on t op of the membr ane.
be s t reng thened to accommoda t e heav i er Qua l i t y cont ro l and t es t i ng by t he bu i l d i ng
al d i f f erences be t ween ground l eve l l and- l oads . Typ i ca l l y , a m i n i mum add i t i ona l dead
arch i t ec t is cruc i a l a t th i s s t age , to ensure
scape deve l opmen t and roo f top deve l op- l oad l imi t o f 7 . 18 kPa (150 psf ) be t ween the i ntegr i ty of the roof , and thereby to
men t s . Th i s sec t i on dea l s w i th the fo l l ow i ng co l umns is needed to accommoda t e the preven t cos t l y repa i rs i f l eaks occur unde r
spec i a l cons t ruc t i on requ i remen t s : cons t ruc t i on of a roo f garden , a l though the the f i n i shed roof or deck l andscape . A
1 . Prot ec t i on of the i ntegr i ty of the roof l oads above co l umns and a t the bear i ng proper l y i nsta l l ed wa t e rproo f membr ane
and s t ruc ture . edges of a roo f can be cons i derab l y grea t er . can l ast for the l i fe o f a bu i l d i ng , howeve r ,
A st ruc tura l eng i nee r shou l d a l ways be con-
a s i ng l e l eak may requ i re the remova l of the
2 . Pos i t i ve dra i nage . su l t ed be fore beg i nn i ng any t ype of roof or ent i re ga rden in order to f i nd the l eak .
deck l andscape des i gn and cons t ruc t i on .
3 . A l ong- t erm , l i gh twe i gh t p l ant i ng
med i um .

4 . Adap t a t i on to c l i ma t e .
5 . Op t i mum i r r i gat i on .
The s i ng l e mos t i mpor t ant cons i dera t i on concern i ng roof and deck l andscape con-
6 . Se l ec t i on of pav i ng , st ruc tura l ma t er i -
s st ruc t i on is prot ec t i ng the roof and st ruc ture f rom damage due to excess i ve l oad i ng
a l s, s i te furn i sh i ngs , and wa t e r as a
N or l eaks .
des i gn e l emen t .
fl. I
a
7 . Prov i s i on of ut i l i t i es . 1 . The bu i l d i ng arch i tec t and / or st ructura l eng i neer shou l d a l ways be consu l t ed pr ior to
u
s roof or deck l andscape des i gn and const ruc t i on .
8 . Pub l i c sa f e t y and secur i ty .
n 2 . Roo f tops mus t typ i ca l l y be ab l e to suppor t a dead l oad l imi t of 7 .18 kPa (150 psf ) to
9 . Ease of ma i n t enance .
L accommoda t e the const ruc t i on of a garden . The l oads above suppor t co l umns and
Th i s sec t i on covers on l y new cons t ruc - at the edges of a roof can be cons i derab l y grea ter .
u t i on . Cons t ruc t i on me t hods needed for
3 . The roof shou l d be comp l e t e l y covered by a wa t erproo f membr ane . E l as tomer i c
0 ex i st i ng or h i stor i c bu i l d i ngs are too com-
p l ex and un i que to each s i tua t i on to be ma t er i a l s of fer the grea t est wa t erproo f prot ec t i on cur rent l y ava i l ab l e . B i tum i nous
i nc l uded , a l though the above- l i s t ed con- wa t erproo f i ng shou l d be avo i ded .
n s t ruc t i on requ i remen t s may be i nvo l ved .
4 . The bes t dra i nage sys t em for the roof garden is usua l l y through the same sys t em
used by the bu i l d i ng . A typ i ca l des i gn i ncorpora t es a dra i nage ma t p l aced on the
O 2 . 0 PROTECT I ON OF THE ROOF prot ec t i on board/ s l ab , tha t d i rects al l f i l t rat ion wa t er into the roof dra i ns .
O AND STRUCTURE
DC
5 . Anchor i ng st ruc tures to the roof top s l ab and pene t ra t i ng the wa t erproo f membr ane
The s i ng l e mos t i mpor t an t cons i dera t i on shou l d be avo i ded wheneve r poss i b l e . F i gures 610-22 through 610-24 i l lust rate
conce rn i ng roo f top l andscape cons t ruc t i on I a l ternat i ve me t hods of anchor i ng .
r is prot ec t i ng the i ntegr i ty of the roof and i
 610 - 3
Even sma l l l eaks in the membr ane may p l ant i ng soi l med i um f rom ent er i ng and fo l l ow i ng the g i ven f ormu l a pe r cub i c
crea t e wa t er - f i l l ed open i ngs i nto wh i ch t ree c l ogg i ng t he dra i nage sys t em . I t is cruc i a l me t e r (cub i c yard) :
root s may pene t ra t e . Ove r t i me , these tha t the p l ant i ng med i um cont a i n no f i ne
root s can en l arge the open i ngs , caus i ng si l ts wh i ch wi l l c l og the f i l ter b l anke t and X m ' ( i4 yd ' ) f i ne to med i um sand (No .
add i t i ona l h i dden damage to the wa t er - b l ock dra i nage . Th i s cross sec t i on a l l ows 18 to No . 60 s i eve s i ze , w i th no si l t )
proo f membr ane and eventua l l y to t he roof wa t e r to pene t ra t e the soi l l ayer , pass Y2 m ' (' /~ yd ' ) 2 - 5mm (1 / 8-1 / 4 in)
and bu i l d i ng be l ow. t hrough the f i l ter b l anke t i nto the dra i nage expanded sha l e
ma t , and f l ow across the prot ec t i ve con-
3 . 0 SPEC I AL PROV I S I ONS cre t e s l ab i nto open i ngs in t he s i des of the add to the above :
roo f dra i n , and ou t t hrough the s t ormwa t e r 10% 2 - 5mm (A-X in) n i t ro l i zed p i ne
3 .1 Dr a i nage sys t em . Any excess wa t e r wi l l f l ow across bark
the sur f ace of the soi l to the per fora t ed
Dra i nage for roof gardens mus t be as e f f ec-
uppe r sur f ace of the roo f dra i ns . Th i s sys- 1 kg (2 lb) UF -38 N i t ro f orm s l ow re l ease
t i ve as the bu i l d i ng roof . The bes t way to
t em has proved to be very e f f ec t i ve even in fer t i l i zer or equa l
hand l e the dra i nage for t he roof ga rden is
areas o f ex t reme l y heavy ra infa l l .
t hrough the same sys t em used by the 0 .75 kg (1 .5 lb) 6-20-20 fer t i l i zer
bu i l d i ng . The re is no need to dup l i ca t e or F i gures 610-2 t hrough 610-15 i l lust rate
1 kg (2 lb) 0-25-0 s i ng l e super phos -
add a l arger sys t em un l ess requ i red by the a numbe r of dra i nage deta i l s tha t can be
roof ga rden des i gn . Ex t ra sur f ace dra i ns pha t e
i ncorpora t ed i nto typ i ca l roo f top l and-
may be i nsta l l ed by connec t i ng t hem to scapes . Any of these can be adap t ed or 0 .5 kg (1 Ib) i ron su l f a te
add i t i ona l p i pes l a id on the roo f sur f ace , comb i ned to f i t spec i a l c i rcums t ances .
wh i ch in turn are connec t ed to the roof ' s Expanded sha l e is common l y used in
dra i nage sys t em . Roo f dra i ns shou l d be Al l concea l ed p i pes and dra i ns shou l d be p l ace of grave l in l i ghtwe i ght concre t e and
des i gned to co l l ec t bo t h sur f ace and l atera l care fu l l y recorded on an as-bu i l t p l an of the is genera l l y ava i l ab l e f rom supp l i ers of con-
subsur f ace dra i nage wa t e r wheneve r poss i - roof ga rden . Th i s is i mpor t an t not on l y to cre t e ma t er i a l s .
ble . preven t poss i b l e damage due to l ater d i g-
g i ng bu t a l so to prov i de easy access for F i ne Sand:
The p l ant i ng med i um used on roof s c l ean i ng and / or repa i r i ng these e l emen t s . The f i ne sand used in soi l m i xes is of cr i t i ca l
a l l ows a l mos t i mmed i a t e downwa rd perco-
Prov i s i ons shou l d be made for the per i - i mpor t ance to the soi l 's dra i nage charac t er -
l at i on of wa t e r . Pos i t i ve l atera l dra i nage
od i c c l ean i ng of t rapped sed i men t and the ist i cs . Sand w i th the phys i ca l proper t i es l ist -
shou l d be prov i ded t hrough the subsur f ace
remova l of root s grow i ng into the dra i nage ed in Tab l e 610-1 and the chem i ca l proper -
of the soi l t owa rd the dra i ns .
sys t em, wheneve r poss i b l e . t i es l i sted in Tab l e 610-2 has proven e f f ec-
F i gure 610-1 i l lust rates a typ i ca l sec t i on t i ve for roo f ga rden soi l m i xes .
t hrough a roo f p l ant i ng . The st ruc tura l s l ab 3 . 2 L i gh t we i gh t P l an t i ng Med i um
is cove red w i th a wa t e rproo f membr ane , a So i l Amendmen t s :
The cr i t i ca l cr i ter i a in the formu l a t i on o f a
rot - res i stant prot ec t i on board , an i nsu l a t i on Any soi l amendmen t s to be used in t he m i x
su i t ab l e p l ant i ng med i um for roof ga rdens
boa rd (un l ess i nsu l a t i on is i nsta l l ed w i th i n shou l d be t es t ed by an approved l abora to-
are l ight we i gh t , the ab i l i ty to ho l d nut r i -
the st ruc ture) , and a l i ghtwe i ght concre t e ry for the m i n i ma l proper t i es l i sted in Tab l e
ent s and adequa t e mo i s t ure for p l an t
prot ec t i ve s l ab s l oped to dra i n . A l ight - 610-3 .
growth , and the capab i l i ty of deve l op i ng a
we i gh t dra i nage ma t p l aced on top of the
concre t e . A rot - res i stant f i l ter l ayer of non- f i rm bu t eas i l y dra i ned so i l s t ruc ture . Organ i c ma t er i a l s such as fer t i l i zers, par -
woven po l ypropy l ene f abr i c ( f i l ter b l anke t ) Ready -m i xed so i l s are ava i l ab l e comme r - t i cu l ar l y n i t rogen and o ther m i nera l s tha t
c ia l ly, bu t a su i t ab l e soi l m i x ture can be pre- d i sso l ve , wi l l gradua l l y be l eached away by
is p l aced ove r the dra i n ma t , to preven t the
pared for each pro j ec t
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 610 - 4

F i gure 610-3 . Roo f dra i ns f or f l at p l an t ed sur f aces . On f l at F i gure 610-4. Dra i ns for l ow a reas. When l ow p l aces occur
p l an t ed sur f aces , bo t h sur f ace and subsur f ace dra i nage is accom- on the sur f ace no t nea r a ma j or subsur f ace dra i n, a l a tera l p i pe and
p l i shed w i th per f ora t ed roo f dra i n f l ush w i t h p l ant i ng med i um . dra i n can car ry wa t e r qu i ck l y to the ma i n dra i n .
F i l ter b l anke t preven t s seepage o f p l an t i ng med i um i nto the dra i n-
i ng l ayer.

F i gure 610-5. Dra i ns f or paved a reas nea r p l ant i ng beds . F i gure 610-6 . Ma i n roo f dra i n unde r p l ant i ng . Ma i n roo f
For dra i ns in pav i ng nea r an area of p l ant i ng med i um , t opp i ng s l ab dra i n can be l oca t ed unde r a t h i ckened sec t i on of the dra i nage
is i ns t a l l ed d i rec t l y on t he dra i nage med i um a f t er f i l ter b l anke t is med i um , wh i ch is pro t ec t ed by a f i l ter b l anke t . A second f i l ter
f i rst p l aced to preven t l oss of we t concre t e i nto the dra i nage med i - b l anke t ove r the dra i n st ra i ner and the ends of the l a tera l dra i n
um . p i pes preven t s p l ugg i ng o f dra i n open i ngs by p l ant i ng med i um .

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F i gure 610-7. Ha l f - round dra i nage channe l unde r p l ant - F i gure 610-8 . L i gh t we i gh t dra i nage t echn i ques. In sma l l
O i ng. A s l op i ng dra i nage channe l f ormed in the concre t e prot ec t i ve areas whe r e a l i ghtwe i ght dra i nage med i um is needed , s l ope the
s l ab i s cove red w i t h ha l f - round per f ora t ed p i pe in 600-900 mm (2 prot ec t i ve s l ab to the roo f dra i n , and cove r w i th 1 200 x 1 200 x
to 3 f t ) l engths and a f i l ter b l anke t . 50 mm (4 f t x 4 f t x 2 in) St yro f oam shee t s. Shee t s mus t be square
w i t h 50 mm (2 in) spaces be t ween for adequa t e dra i nage . Cove r
w i t h f i l ter b l anke t .
 610 - 5

F i gure 610-9. Subsur f ace dra i nage unde r pav i ng . Paved F i gure 610-10. Subsur f ace dra i nage f or pav i ng on
area is p l aced d i rec t l y on sur f ace o f the dra i nage med i um to a l l ow pedes t a l s . Pedes t a l -moun t ed , removab l e , open- j o i n t pav i ng pro-
a con t i nuous subsur f ace dra i nage l ayer s l oped t owa rd the roo f v i des pos i t i ve dra i nage , ad j us t ab l e he i ghts , and easy access to the
dra i ns . F i l ter b l anke t preven t s we t concre t e f rom pene t ra t i ng roo f sur f ace for c l ean i ng or repa i r . Insu l a t i on is f i t ted be t ween the
dra i nage ma t er i a l . Dra i np i pe unde r the pav i ng a t i nt erva l s pedes t a l s.
i mproves dra i nage .

F i gure 610-11 . Subsur f ace dra i nage unde r pav i ng on F i gure 610-12 . Weep ho l es and gu t t er to roo f dra i n .
gr ade. In open- j o i n t pav i ng w i t hou t pedes t a l s , whe r e no i nsu l a- Whe r e a wa t e rproo f roo f is no t necessary , pav i ng s l ab is pour ed
t i on is needed , f i l ter b l anke t is he l d to the prot ec t i on boa rd by d i rec t l y on t o the s t ruc tura l s l ab . P l ant i ng med i um beh i nd wa l l i s
mas t i c or ho t t ar a t i ts ou t er edges to preven t seepage o f s i l t i nto dra i ned t hrough weep ho l es to an open gut t er .
the dra i n , and the grave l dra i nage l ayer is compac t ed w i t h a 980
kg (400- Ib) ro l l er.

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F i gure 610-13 . Roo f dra i n t hrough t opp i ng s l ab . Bas i c F i gure 610-14. Squa r e sur f ace dra i n . A typ i ca l round dra i n d
me t hod used to dra i n a roo f wh i ch has a topp i ng s l ab prot ec t i ng is i ns t a l l ed w i t h i ts gra t i ng be l ow the top o f the bas i c f i n i sh s l ab , n
the wa t e rproo f membr ane. Insu l a t i on is opt i ona l . Common when to a l l ow i nst a l l a t i on of a squa re gr i l l on a squa re -pa t t e rned sur f ace .
roo f p l ant i ngs are he l d in po t s or tubs on l y , or when the deck The f i n i sh s l ab is f ormed w i t h an i nden t a t i on for the grou t . O
i nc l udes no p l ant i ngs a t a l l . O

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 610 - 6

wa t e r i ng . Loca l pub l i c wa t e r supp l i es may

a l so l ack ca l c i um, i ron, magnes i um , and
su l fur . Thus , per i od i c rep l acemen t of these
and o ther ma t er i a l s by sur f ace app l i ca t i on
may be needed . Annua l soi l tests shou l d be
made by a soi l s l abora tory to de t e rm i ne
de f i c i enc i es and r ecommend add i t i ves .

Dep t hs and We i gh t s o f P l an t i ng Med i um

and P l ant s :

Tab l e 610-4 shows the m i n i mum soi l

dep t hs needed for d i f f erent t ypes o f
roo f top p l ant i ngs , Tab l e 610-5 shows typ i -
ca l dry and damp we i gh t s of var i ous p l ant -
i ng med i a , and Tab l e 610-6 shows the
we i gh t of cont a i ner and f i e l d-grown p l ant s .
F i gur e 610 - 15 . Dr a i nage t hrough ra i sed p l an t i ng bed . Ra i sed p l an t i ng areas can
be separa t ed f rom a porous bu i l d i ng wa l l to prot ec t i t f rom so i l dampness . A l l ow c l ear -
Ways to Reduce We i gh t :
ance for repa i rs . Downspou t s are brough t through the p l ant i ng bed to a wa l kway gut t er .
The back space is dra i ned by weep ho l es t hrough the dra i nage med i um to the f ront gut - L i ght -we i ght soi l m i xes are an a l t erna t i ve if
ter and / or by s l ope to e i ther end o f the back space . op t i mum soi l dep ths resu l t in excess i ve
we i gh t on the s t ruc ture . Howeve r , i f the
subsur f ace dra i nage sys t em fa i ls and t he soi l
becomes sa tura t ed , even l i ght -we i ght
p l ant i ng m i x can we i gh as much as 585
kg / m 3 (120 pounds per cub i c foot [pc f ] ) .
Vo i ds mus t be crea t ed benea t h the soi l
med i um i f the roof canno t w i ths t and a l oad-
i ng of th i s magn i t ude (F i gures 610-16
t hrough 610-18) . The mos t common me t h-
ods of crea t i ng these vo i ds i nc l ude cas t i ng a
fa l se bo t t om or us i ng l arge b l ocks of h i gh-
dens i t y St yro f oam , typ i ca l l y 1 200 mm x
2 400 mm x250 mm (4 f t x8 f t x10 in)
th i ck .

F i gure 610-19 shows how a roof st ruc-

ture can be des i gned to prov i de a recessed
p l ant i ng a rea ove r a co l umn for a l arge t ree .
F i gur e 610 - 16 . L i gh t we i gh t a l t e rna t i ve f or ra i s i ng p l an t i ng bed . A l t erna t i ve F i gure 610-20 i l l ust rates a me t hod to
me t hod for ra i s i ng a p l an t i ng bed ad j acen t to a bu i l d i ng wa l l . A concre t e wa l l is car r i ed change grades be t ween an on-grade s i de-
150 mm (6 i n) above the f i n i shed grade o f the p l an t i ng l eve l and wa t e rproo f ed. The wa l k and roo f deck w i t hou t us i ng excess i ve
p l ant i ng med i um can i nc l ude l i ghtwe i ght St yro f oam b l ocks for we i gh t reduc t i on . dep t hs of p l ant i ng med i a . F i gure 610-21
s shows one way to reduce we i gh t s for

a p l ant s in cont a i ners .

U 3 .3 Adap t a t i on to C l i ma t e
s
C l i ma t e:
n
a W i nd , sun , shade , and ex t remes of t empe r -
L
ature , as we l l as l ong dry or we t per i ods ,
u snow l oads and f rost , are much grea t er
prob l ems for roof or deck ga rdens t han for
o ther l andscapes . The grea t es t prob l ems
are f ound in c l i ma t es whe r e there are
n ex t remes o f both hea t and co l d . In such
a areas , al l p i p i ng mus t be dra i ned comp l e t e -
ly or i nsu l a t ed aga i ns t f reez i ng pr i or to the
O
onse t o f w i n t er. The we i gh t of accumu l a t ed
O
i ce and snow mus t no t exceed the we i gh t
l imi ts of the roof ' s st ruc tura l sys t em . In
areas of heavy ra ins , there mus t be qu i ck

r F i gur e 610 - 17 . Conc r e t e boxes used t o ra i se beds . conc re t e boxes , i ns t ead o f

so i l or St yro f oam , are used for l i ghtwe i ght st ruc tura l s t rength .
and pos i t i ve sur f ace and subsur f ace
dra i nage to preven t f l ood i ng . Even in
 610- 7

Tab l e 610-1 . Tab l e 610-3 . M I N I MAL PROPERT I ES OF SO I L AMENDMENTS

S I EVE ANALYS I S FOR SAND '
Phys i ca l proper t i es: Percent pass i ng S i eve des i gna t i on
S i eve Si ze We i gh t (% pass i ng) 95-100 6.35 mm , 114 in mesh
No . 4 100 75 .100 2 .38 mm , No . 8, 8 mesh
No . 10 95-100 0 .30 500, No 35, 32 mesh
No . 18 90-100 N i t rogen content ,
No . 35 65-100 dry we i ght bas i s , Dry bu l k dens i ty ,
Source : i f n i t rogen stab i l i zed kg / m ' ( Ib/y' )
No . 60 0-50 159-218 (270-370)
Redwood sawdust 0 .40-0 .60%
No . 140 0-20 147-206 (250-350)
Redwood bark f iber 0 .35-0 .50%
No . 270 0-7 159-218 (270-370)
Fi r or cedar sawdust 0 .56-0 .84%
Fi r or pine bark 0 .80-1 .20% 265-341 (450-580)
Tab l e 610-2 .
Hardwood bark 0 .80-1 .20% 265-294 (450-500)
SU I TABLE CHEM I CAL PROPERT I ES
I ron content M i n i mum 0 .08% di lute acid soluble i ron based on dry we ight if speci f ied
as, or c l a imed to be, i ron t reated .
Permi ss i b l e
Chem i ca l Proper t y range Solubl e sal ts Max i mum 3 .0 ms / cm at 25° C as determined in saturat ion ext ract .
Sal ini ty (mi l l isiemens per cm of Organ i c content M i n i mum 92% based on dry we ight and determined by ash me thod .
saturat ion ext ract at 25( °C 0-3 .0
Minera l i zed Other minera l fert i l izers or chemi ca l amendment s may be speci f ied for
Saturat ion ext ract concent rat ion incorporat ion .
of boron 0-1 .0
Wet tabi l i ty The ai r-dry product shal l , when appl i ed to a cup or sma l l beaker of water at
Adsorpt ion rat io of sod i um (SAR) 0-6 .0 70° F in the amount of 1 tsp, become compl ete l y we t in a per iod not
exceeding 2 minutes . Any wet t ing agent added to accompl i sh this shal l be
guaranteed to be nonphytotox i c at rate used .

reg i ons whe re these ext remes of c l i ma te ma t w i nd f l ow can cause excess i ve dry i ng be tween sunny and shady areas , and this
are d i mi n i shed , there can be t emporary of p l ant ma ter i a l s and soi ls and even h i gh d i st inct ion shou l d there fore be t aken into
ext remes caused by storms or unusua l evapora t i on of wa t er. account in the l ocat i on and l ayout of any
wea ther pa t terns . roof or deck l andscape .
Sun and Shade:
W i nd: 3 .4 I r r i gat i on
The p l ant i ng mus t be se l ected in accor -
Trees , ver t i ca l st ructures (such as fences , dance w i th i ts adaptab i l i ty to e i ther sun or The re l at i ve l y thin, we l l -dra i ned soi l mi x-
wa l l s, and l ight standards) , and other s imi - shade cond i t i ons . In sunny areas the wa t er tures typ i ca l l y used in roof gardens cannot
l ar e l ement s mus t be des i gned or se l ected requ i rements may be grea t er because of prov i de p l ants w i th the subsur f ace wa t er
to resist w i nd damage due to over turn i ng more rap i d dra i nage and evapora t i on . The norma l l y ava i l ab l e to ground l eve l pl ant i -
or break i ng . Pl ants are a l so sub j ec t to f l ag- crea t i on of natura l or ar t i f icial shade can ngs . Care mus t be exerc i sed to prevent the s
g i ng, or l ops i ded growth , due to st rong, O
reduce wa t er loss . Human use and en j oy- p l ant i ng med i um f rom dry i ng out and caus- Q
pers i stent w i nds. More typi ca l ly, even nor - men t of gardens var i es cons i derab l y i ng damage to p l ant mater i a l s . Dry i ng and
u
overhea t i ng of soi l can of ten be cont ro l l ed s
by the app l i cat i on of a 25 mm (1 in) top-
p i ng of pine , redwood or f i r bark in 5-20
mm (1/4-3/4 in) s i zes . L
Pl ant i ng med i um for roof and deck l andscapes mus t be l ight -we ight , prov i de the Hand wa t er i ng is usua l l y too l abor - i nten-
proper ba l ance of nut r i ents, and prov i de pos i t i ve dra i nage . Ready-m i xed soi l s are
u
s i ve and unre l i ab l e for l arge roof or deck
commerc i a l l y ava i l abl e , or can be produced on-s i te. l andscapes . An underground spr i nk l er or
i i r r igat ion sys t em w i th automa t i c cont ro l s is
1 . The p l ant ing med i um mus t a l l ow for downwa rd perco l at ion of water , and be f ree of the mos t re l i abl e and cost -e f fect i ve me t hod n
f ine si l ts that wi l l c log the f i l ter b l anke t and b l ock dra i nage of wa t er i ng p l ants and l awns on roofs .
These sys t ems can be made of pl ast i c p i pe
2. Per iodi c rep l en i shment of fer t i l i zers, di ssol v ing minera l s and other mater i a l s in the and f i t t ings, wh i ch are durab l e , l i ghtwe i ght , O
soi l may be requ i red . O
easy to instal l , and of t en the l east expen- DC
s i ve to opera t e .
3. If op t i mum soi l depth resul ts in excess i ve we i ght on the st ructure, var i ous techn i ques
may be used to mi n i mi ze soi l depths and reduce l oad i ng (F igures 610-16 through Pi p i ng shou l d be insta l l ed di rect l y on top 0
610-21) . of the f i l ter b l anke t . The r i ser heads shou l d r
be t emporar i l y capped and tested under
 610- 8

F i gure 610-18 . A l t erna t i ve way t o

reduce we i gh t o f p l ant i ng med i um .
St yro f oam b l ocks p l aced a t su i t ab l e dep t hs
reduce the we i gh t and mass of the p l ant i -
ng med i um .

F i gure 610-19. Recessed a rea f or

l arge p l ant s . Roo f s t ruc ture is des i gned to
prov i de a recessed p l ant i ng area ove r a co l -
umn for a l arge t ree .

n
U
s
n
L

U
0
n

y-
O
O F i gure 610-20 . L i gh t we i gh t me t hod
for chang i ng grades . Me t hod to change
grades be t ween s i dewa l k and roo f deck .
 610- 9
Tab l e 610 - 4 .
M I N I MUM SO I L DEPTHS

P l an t i ng M i n i mum so i l dep t hs*

Lawns 200 - 300 mm (8-12 i n)

F l owe rs and
ground cove rs 250 - 300 mm (10-12 i n)

Shrubs 600 - 750 mm (24-30 i n) t

Sma l l t rees 750-1 050 mm (30-42 i n)

La rge t rees 1 500-1 800 mm (5-6 f t )

' on f i l ter b l anke t and dra i nage med i um .

t Depend i ng on u l t i ma t e shrub si ze .

F i gur e 610 -21 . L i gh t we i gh t p l an t con t a i ne r s .

Me t hod for s t r i ngent we i gh t rest r i c t i ons . P l ast i c con t a i ners
are subs t i tut ed for c l ay , and l i ghtwe i ght dra i nage med i um
is subs t i tut ed for so i l . For p l ant i ng d i rec t l y i n soi l , 200 to Tab l e 610 - 5 . WE I GHT OF PLANT I NG MED I UM
250 mm (8 to 10 in) o f l i gh twe i gh t so i l is p l aced on
dra i nage med i um cove red w i th a f i l ter b l anke t . Dry Damp
_
Ma t e r i a l kg l m ' I l l kg / m ' I l l

F i ne sand 1440 90 1920 120

Ceda r shav i ngs w i t h fer t i l i zer 148 9 208 13

Pea t moss 154 10 165 10

Red l ava 8 mm (5 / 16 in) max i mum 800 50 859 54

Redwood compos t and shav i ngs 237 15 355 22

F i r and p i ne ba r k humus 355 22 533 33

Per l i t e 104 7 518* 32*

Ve rm i cu l i t e
Coa r se 100 6
Med i um 92 6
F i ne 120 8

Topso i l 1216 76 1248 78

' App l i es to we t , not damp , per l i te

F i gur e 610 - 22 . Anchor i ng l i ght s t anda rds t o pro-

t ec t i ve s l abs . The base f l ange o f l ow- l eve l [750 to
1 200 mm (30 to 48 in) ] l i ght s t andards can be anchor ed TABLE 610 - 6 . We i gh t o f Con t a i ne r and F i e l d -Grown P l an t s
to the concre t e prot ec t i ve s l ab by bo l t s e i ther sc r ewed i nto s
expans i on sh i e l ds se t in dr i l l ed ho l es or f i red i nto the s l ab Con t a i ne r g r own i n
by exp l os i ve car t r i dges. Con t a i ne r s i ze mush r oom compos t , kg ( l b) F i e l d - g rown , kg ( l b) !1
cd
55-L (15-ga l ) can 35 (80) - V
s
500 - mm (20- i n) box 90(200) 180 (400)

600 - mm (24- i n) box 180 (400) 325 (725)

L
750 - mm (30- i n) box 360 (800) 675 l

900 - mm (36- i n) box 590 (1 , 300) 1 125 (2 , 500) V

1 200 - mm (48- i n) box 1 575 (3 , 500) 2 700 (6 , 000)
0
1 350 - mm (54- i n) box 1 800 (4 , 000) 3 150 (7 , 000)

1 500 - mm (60- i n) box 2 250 (5 , 000) 3 600 (8 , 000)

CIS
1 800 - mm (72- i n) box 3 150 (7 , 000) 5 400 (12 , 000)
0
2 100 - mm (84- i n) box 4 050 (9 , 000) 7 200 (16 , 000) 0
2 400 - mm (96- i n) box 5 400 (12 , 000) 9 000 (20 , 000)

3 000 - mm (120- i n) box 6 300 (14 , 000) 10 800(24 , 000)

F i gur e 610 -23 . Use o f deadmen as anchor s . Not e : Al l the above are sh i pp i ng we i ghts , i nc l ud i ng the box .
Deadman foot i ngs can anchor l i ght s t andards .
 610- 1 0
pressure for l eaks before the pl ant ing med i - mater i a l s can some t i mes be greater than There are severa l factors to cons ider , how-
um is added . Spr ink l er cont rol l ers may be ordinar i ly found in a typica l ground level ever , regard ing the we i ght of the wa ter and
p l aced in a locked outdoor cab inet or l andscape . For instance, the color and tex- i ts conta iner , as we l l as the dangers of pos-
p l aced in an ad j acent ins ide room . ture of concrete or br i ck as seen f rom sible l eaks into the st ructure be l ow. If i t is
Comp l e t e dra i nage of al l the l ines and f ix- above can cont rast wi th the pl ant ing and known pr ior to the roof 's st ructura l des ign
tures shou ld be prov i ded in regions where wa ter sur faces, thereby creat ing st rong that a poo l or founta in is to be used, then
f reez ing can occur. Access to a source of visual impress ions . Mater i a l s shou ld a l so be it can of ten be easi ly accommoda t ed ,
elect r ical power of 110 - 120 V ac is se l ected for the i r l ight we i ght and durabi l i - a l though there may be cons iderab l e con-
requi red for the cont rol l er c lock and step- ty. Br ick pavers, t i les, textured wood deck- st raints on the amount of wa ter that can be
down t ransformer . Close coord inat ion w i th ing (where permi t ted by local codes and used .
the bui lding's elect r ical and mechan i ca l wea ther cond i t ions) , and co l ored or
Where possibl e, the heav i est wa ter ele-
eng i neers is requi red to ensure that al l of exposed aggrega te concrete are al l exce l -
ment s shou ld be located di rect ly over sup-
the water , elect r ical , and dra i nage needs for lent cho i ces for roof top deve l opments .
por t co l umns . The i l lusion of greater wa ter
the roof garden are prov ided, and that the
responsibi l i ty for this work is descr ibed in 4 .3 Me t hods of Anchor i ng depth can be ach i eved by color ing the bot -
tom and sides of the poo l dark gray or
the bui lding's const ruct ion spec i f i cat ions . The st ructura l e l ements , inc luding l ight f ix- bl ack . Sat i sfactory wa ter ef fects can be
tures, need to be careful ly anchored when ach i eved in depths as sha l l ow as 100 - 400
4 .0 SELECT I ON OF MATER I ALS used on roof tops . F igures 610-22 through mm (4 - 16 in) . Th i s is par t icular ly t rue if the
AND METHODS OF 610-24 show ways that this can be accom- sur face can be kept agi tated so that visibi l -
ANCHOR I NG pl i shed wi thout penet rat ing the waterproof i ty to the bot tom is obscured . (Refer to
membrane or st ructura l slab . F igures 610-25 Sect ion 530 : Pool s and Founta ins , for infor -
4 .1 St ruc tura l Ma t er i a l s and 610-26 i l lust rate ways to secure an ele- ma t i on on the des ign and deta i l ing of these
The const ruct ion of l ight standards, wa l ls, ment to a roof when such anchorage is e l ements .)
fences, w i nd screens, pergol as, curbs, steps, manda tory. Typical ly, noth i ng shou ld be t ied
to the st ructura l slab wi thout the approva l of Roofs wi th very st r ingent we i ght con-
and other st ructura l e l ements shou ld al l be st ra ints may requi re a sha l l ow pool created
cons idered in re l at ionship to the st ructura l the bui lding archi tect . Other techn iques for
anchor i ng e l ements are shown in F igures by us ing pre formed shapes made f rom 5
l imi tat ions of the roof and i ts suppor ts mm (1/4 in) f ibergl ass . A sat isfactory wa ter
be l ow. The omn i present factor of we i ght 610-27 through 610-29 . In many cases,
ra ised pl ant ing beds or simi lar st ructures are sur face can be obta i ned wi th a very sha l low
has a st rong ef fect on wh i ch mater i a l s are depth (F igure 610-30) . Thi s detai l is of ten
used . A l um i num l ight standards , l ight - secured by the we i ght of the soi l or mater i -
als, and may not requi re anchor i ng . used in garden ponds to prov ide a natura l
we i ght concrete for pav ing, curbs and appearance .
wa l ls, and other st rong but l ightwe ight Roof top furni ture of ten does not need to
mater i a l s shou ld be used whenever such be f ixed in pl ace but can be lef t to be 5 .2 Wa t erproo f i ng and Anchor i ng
e l ements are needed . Tab l es 610-7 and moved as needed , unl i ke the chai rs, bench- Poo l Wa l l s
610-8 gi ve typica l we i ghts for some of the es, and other si te furni ture in most on-
common mater i a l s used in the const ruct ion grade publ i c l andscapes . However , it is best Un l ess poo l wa l l s are proper l y anchored
of roof gardens . and sea l ed, they can cause ser ious l eaks .
to use heavy meta l or wood furni ture to
F igures 610-31 through 610-34 i l lust rate
prevent i ts movemen t by st rong w i nds
4 .2 Pav i ng di f ferent me thods of ach i ev ing a posi t ive,
l eakproof sea l . In F igure 610-31, the poo l
The type and pat tern of pav ing mater i a l s 5 .0 POOLS AND FOUNTA I NS
bot tom and wa l l are poured as an integra l
chosen are as i mpor tant to the v i ewers uni t di rect ly on the cont i nuous wa terproof
f rom sur round i ng bui ldings as they are to 5 .1 Genera l Cons i dera t i ons
membrane of the roof . The anchor i ng re in-
the actua l users of the roof garden . The The use of wa ter can add great l y to the forc ing rods may be p l aced when pour i ng
a color , tone, texture, and cont rast of these interest and en j oyment of roof deck areas . the st ructura l slab if recommended by the
V st ructura l eng i neer . In F igure 610-32, a
s
sma l l er core wa l l is poured and t ied into the
n st ructura l slab wi th prep l aced rods . The
a wa terproof membrane is then laid on the
J
The ef fects of wind, heat , cold, drought , and prec ipi tat ion, are ampl i f i ed in roof top st ructura l slab and brought over the core
U and deck l andscapes, because of the i r sha l low pl ant ing med i um and the impor tance wa l l and down to the slab sur face aga in in
G1 of protect ing the st ructure be l ow. a cont i nuous run . The poo l bot tom, as we l l
as the ba l ance of the wa l l , is then poured
1 . In cold c l imates, al l piping must be dra ined comp l ete l y or insul ated aga inst f reez ing . separate l y over the core wa l l . Because of
n The we ight of accumu l ated ice and snow must also be accounted for , so as not to the chance of crack ing, this separate pour
exceed the l imi ts of the roof 's st ructural system . shou l d be re inforced wi th wi re mesh , and
i consu l tat ion w i th a st ructura l eng i neer is
O
O 2 . Trees and ver t ical st ructures must be des igned or se lected to resist w i nd damage due recommended . The wa ter sur face e l evat ion
to over turning or break ing . of the poo l is establ i shed just be l ow the
he ight of the core wa l l .
3 . Dry ing and overheat ing of pl ant ing med i um can of ten be cont rol l ed by the appl ica-
0 t ion of mu l ch and the instal lat ion of an i rr igat ion system . F igure 610-33 is a var i at ion of F igure
610-32 . The core wa l l is poured on top of

n
 610 - 1 1

the f i n i shed prot ec t i ve s l ab . Ins i de the poo l

area , a wa t e rproo f membr ane is p l aced and
brough t to the t op of the core wa l l . The
bo t t om and wa l l of the poo l are then
pour ed separa t e l y as a un i t . F i gure 610-34
shows a var i a t i on whe r e the poo l is l i ned
w i th t i le . In areas whe r e f reez i ng occurs in
the w i nt er , poo l s shou l d be dra i ned for t he
dura t i on o f the season to preven t damage
to the wa t e rproo f s t ruc ture .

6 . 0 PROV I S I ON FOR UT I L I T I ES

6 .1 E l ec t r i ca l

A s t andard 110- 120-vo l t ac e l ect r i ca l sup-

p l y is suf f i c i ent for mos t roof ga rden uses ,
such as l i ght i ng, barbecu i ng , app l i ances ,
fount a i n and i r r i ga t i on cont ro l l ers . Ou t door
hea t ers , e l ect r i ca l l y powe r ed mob i l e w i n-
dow wash i ng mach i nes , and occas i ona l l y
fount a i n pumps may requ i re 220 vo l t ac .
Al l e l ect r i ca l requ i remen t s shou l d be me t in
accordance w i th the r ecommenda t i ons of
an e l ect r i ca l eng i neer .
Al l e l ect r i ca l supp l y condu i t s shou l d be
enc l osed in me t a l for prot ec t i on f rom d i g-
g i ng , g i ven the sha l l ow soi l cond i t i ons ,
a l t hough l ow-vo l t age l i ght i ng may be sup-
p l i ed by f l ex i b l e cab l e . The subsur f ace d i s-
t r i but i on sys t em shou l d be p l aced pr i or to
i nsta l l i ng t he p l ant i ng med i um and / or
pav i ng . E l ect r i ca l l y ope ra t ed or photoce l l -
cont ro l l ed t i m i ng dev i ces are add i t i ona l
conven i ences for ga rdens wh i ch are regu-
l ar l y l i ght ed at n i ght .

6 . 2 Wa t e r
A supp l y of c l ean wa t e r is needed for i rr i -
ga t i on , ornamen t a l poo l s and fount a i ns ,
the c l ean i ng of roof sur f aces , and f i re pro-
t ec t i on . Wa t e r pressure for i r r i ga t i on sys-
t ems shou l d be prov i ded f rom a m i n i mum
l eve l of 240 kPa (35 ps i ) to a max i mum of
approx i ma t e l y 480 kPa (70 ps i ) . Th i s sup-
p l y , i f connec t ed to the bu i l d i ng ' s po t ab l e
wa t e r sys t em, can a l so be used for dr i nk i ng d
fount a i ns . Wa t e r for f i re prot ec t i on can be C~
separa t e and need no t be po t ab l e .
When des i gn i ng wa t er f ea tures for roof and deck l andscapes , there are severa l f ac tors
I r r i ga t i on and fount a i n wa t e r supp l i es mus t
to cons i der regard i ng the we i gh t of the wa t er , as we l l as the dangers of poss i b l e
l eaks i nto the st ruc ture be l ow. con t a i n su i t ab l e back f l ow preven t i on U

1 . Whe r e poss i b l e , the heav i es t wa t er e l ement s shou l d be l oca ted d i rect l y over suppor t
dev i ces to gua rd aga i ns t con t am i na t i on of
po t ab l e wa t e r sources . 0
co l umns w i th i n the st ruc ture . Prov i s i on shou l d be made for i ndoor
l oca t i ons o f l i ght i ng and i r r i gat i on con-
2 . M i n i mum wa t er depths shou l d be used . A dark l y-co l ored bo t t om and s ides of the t rol l ers, e l ect r i ca l pane l s , pumps , mo tors ,
poo l , as we l l as ag i ta t i on of the wa t er wi l l a l l ow for sat i sfactory e f fects in dep ths as and o ther mechan i ca l equ i pmen t needed
sha l l ow as 100-400 mm (4-16 in)
for t he garden , as we l l as for ga rden i ng
too l s and supp l i es .
3 . Poo l s mus t be proper l y anchored to the st ructure , and sea l ed to prevent l eaks .
F i gures 610-31 through 610-34 i l lust rate var i ous anchor i ng me t hods tha t preserve
the integr i ty of the wa t erproo f membr ane .
 610 - 1 2
7 . 0 SAFETY AND SECUR I TY Tab l e 610 - 7 . WE I GHT OF COMMON BU I LD I NG MATER I ALS

Mos t roof ga rdens are severa l stor i es above Ma t er i a l Ib/ f t ' kg / m '
ground l eve l , crea t i ng a need to a l l ev i a te
Gran i te 170 2720
psycho l og i ca l f ears as we l l as to prov i de
phys i ca l bar r i ers for sa f e t y. G i ven l i mi t ed Marb l e 170 2720

roof space , i t may be necessary to a l l ow Slate 160-180 2560 - 2880

users to approach the edge of a roof , but i t
L i mestone 155 2480
is genera l l y mor e appea l i ng to have a space
or bar r i er be t ween t he roof edge and the Sandstone 145 2320

usab l e areas . F i gure 610-35 shows three Sha l e 160 2560

d i f f erent ways to hand l e parape t wa l l s .
Expanded sha l e 40-45 640-720

I t may be des i rab l e to prov i de p l aces F ie ld stone 95 1520

whe r e peop l e can ga i n access to a ra i l ing
on t he roof ' s parape t in order to l ook Grave l 120 1920

downwa rd as we l l as hor i zont a l l y for those Pebb l es 120 1920

who des i re to do so . The spaces be t ween Pum i ce 40 640
ra i l ings and pos t s shou l d be c l osed in w i th
Concre te
w i re fabr i c , sa f e t y p l a t e g l ass , f i berg l ass , or
Li ghtwe i ght 80 - 100 1280 - 1600
o ther su i t ab l e ma t er i a l to preven t easy or Precast 130 2080
acc i dent a l pene t ra t i on by sma l l ch i l dren , Re i nforced 150 2400

pe ts , or others . F i gure 610-36 shows how Concre te b lock : 200 mm (8 in) 50 -60 800 - 960
gua rd ra i l i ngs can be a t t ached to the t op or
Br i ckwork (average) 115 1840
roof s i de of the parape t or se t s l i ght l y back
f rom t he pa rape t . H i ghe r bar r i ers o f Cast i ron 450 7200
opaque or t ransparent ma t er i a l can be sub- Stee l 490 7840
st i tuted in these same l oca t i ons for bo t h
Bronze 513 8210
sa f e t y and w i nd prot ec t i on .
T i mber
8 . 0 MA I NTENANCE Hardwood (average) 45 720

Sof twood (average) 35 560

Mos t roo f gardens requ i re cons i s t ent ma i n-
t enance . Th i s i nc l udes wa t er i ng , fer t i l i z ing, Sand
Dry 90 - 110 1440-1760
shear i ng , prun i ng , brac i ng , rak i ng , rep l ant - We t 110 - 130
ing, sweep i ng , the remova l of debr i s , the 1760 - 2080
repa i r and ad j us t men t of i r r i gat i on and
Sand and grave l : mi xed 115 1840
l i ght i ng equ i pmen t , and the c l earance of
Cl ay soi l
obs t ruc t i ons in the dra i nage sys t em .
Compac t ed , dry 75 - 100 1200-1600
Compac t ed , we t 125 2000
8 .1 Pav i ng , F i x t ures , and
Loam
Furn i sh i ngs Dry 80 1280
Pav i ng , dr i nk i ng fount a i ns , l ight f i xtures , We t 120 1920

fl. benches , poo l s , fount a i ns , decks , wa l l s , Spec i a l commerc i a l so i l : we t 110 1760

f ences , steps , ramps , e t c . , requ i re l i t t le spe-
V
s c i a l ma i n t enance assoc i a t ed w i th roof and
Topso i l
Dry 80 1280
deck l andscapes . We t 120 1920
n Pea t
J P l an t ed areas nea r pavemen t edges
shou l d be checked every 2 to 3 years to
Dry
We t
50
60
800
960
de t e rm i ne whe t he r roots have pene t ra t ed
U unde r the pavemen t . Roo t s grow i ng unde r
Humus
4) Dry 35 560
pav i ng can heave the pav i ng and as a resu l t We t 80 1280
change the sur f ace dra i nage . These root s Wa t er 60 960

shou l d be cut to s l ow fur ther growt h . F l agstone and set t ing bed 25 Ib/ f t ' 122 kg /m'
Ti le and set t ing bed 15-73 Ib/ f t ' 73-353 kg/m'
8 . 2 P l an t Ma i n t enance
O Source: A . F. Wedd l e , Landscape Techn i ques , van Nos t rand Re i nho l d , New York , 1983 ; C. G . Ramsey and H . R . Sl eeper ,
O Norma l l eve l s of ma i n t enance are needed Arch i tec tura l Graph i c St andards , 9 t h ed. , W l ey , New York, 1994 ; O l wen C . Mar l owe , Ou t door Des i gn , Wa t son-Gupt i l l , New
each season . Spec i a l a t t ent i on shou l d be York , 1977 ; Amer i can Inst i tute of Stee l Const ruc t i on , Inc .

g i ven to prun i ng t rees and shrubs in order

to ma i nt a i n a ba l ance be t ween branch i ng
and root grow t h . Regu l ar ma i n t enance wi l l
not on l y pro l ong the l i fe of the p l ant s but
1111 . 0
 610 - 1 3

F i gur e 610 - 27 . At t ach i ng wood t o conc r e t e decks . Wood

pos t s and p l anks of a garden , f l ower bed , or sandbox a t t ached to
concre t e deck. Wa l l s no t ove r 600 mm (2 f t ) in he i gh t are braced
w i t h 300 mm x 300 mm x 5 mm (1 f t x 1 f t x 114 i n) ga l van i zed
ang l e braces. Sma l l four -s i ded beds need on l y corne r braces. So i l or
r i vets ho l d bed in p l ace .

F i gur e 610 - 26 . At t ach i ng f ences t o wa l l s. Pre f er red a t t ach-

men t of f ence to the top o f a wa l l i ns t ead o f d i rec t l y to roo f sur -
f ace. F i t t i ngs shou l d be durab l e and st rong , or ga l van i zed p i pe
pos t s can be subs t i tut ed and p l aced when wa l l is pour ed.

F i gur e 610 - 28 . Use o f deadmen t o anchor wood s t ruc - F i gur e 610 - 29 . Anchor i ng l a rge p l an t s and t rees . Me t hod
t ur es. A l t erna t i ve me t hod for anchor i ng wood pos t s and p l ant s to for secur i ng guy w i res to concre t e beds. Ga l van i zed eye -hook bo l t s
concre t e deadmen . are p l aced when the wa l l s are cons t ruc t ed. Eye bo l ts can a l so be
a t t ached to masonr y bu i l d i ng sur f aces. Wa t e rproo f i ng is necessary
a t a t t achmen t po i nt s .

N
CL
V
s
d
n
L

V
N

O
O
DC

0
r
 610- 1 4
Tab l e 610 - 8 . WE I GHT OF WOOD

Gr een Dr i ed t o 12% mo i s t ur e con t en t

Ib/ f t ' kg/ f t ' I b / f bm kg / f bm Ib/ f t ' kg/ f t ' I b / f bm kg / f bm

Doug l as f i r 38 1 7 3 . 17 1 . 43 34 1 5 2 .83 1 .27
Redwood 52 23 4 . 33 1 . 95 28 13 2 .33 1 .05
Cedar , west ern red 27 12 2 . 25 1 .01 23 10 1 .92 0 .86
'1 f t ' = 12 board f t ( fbm) of l umber .

Source : Cour t esy of the Ca l i forn i a Redwood Assoc i a t i on .

wi l l a l so he l p preven t the over turn i ng of

t op-heavy p l ant s due to s t rong w i nds .
Per i od i c th i nn i ng shou l d be done to a l l ow
the w i nd to pass t hrough t he fo l i age ,
excep t in areas whe r e p l ant s are used for
w i ndbreaks .

P l ant s on roof s or decks are , in e f fect ,

grow i ng in cont a i ners . There fore , t he root s
of l arge t rees and shrubs wi l l t end to dom-
i na t e the p l ant i ng med i um and i nh i b i t t he
growt h of sma l l er p l ant s . The areas nea r
the edges o f the cont a i ners shou l d be
checked for roots and i f they appea r to be
a f f ec t i ng the grow t h of sma l l er p l ants ,
roots shou l d be pruned .

Roo f gardens mus t be we l l -dra i ned and

p l ants requ i re mor e f requent f eed i ng and
re l a ted care . A year af ter insta l l at ion, al l
p l ant ed areas shou l d rece i ve a top dress i ng ,
approx i ma t e l y 5 mm (1 /4 in) th i ck , made up
of a m i x ture s i mi l ar to the or i g i na l p l ant i ng
med i um . Th i s shou l d be cont i nued annua l l y
or ad j us t ed to ma i nt a i n the or i g i na l l eve l of
the grades and p l ant i ng m i x ture .

Fa i l i ng p l ants shou l d be rep l aced as soon

as the i r cond i t i on becomes appa ren t .
Usua l l y , these p l ant s shou l d be rep l aced
w i th the same var i e ty un l ess i t can be
s
de t e rm i ned tha t the par t i cu l ar p l ant is not
hardy in a spec i f i c l oca t i on .
V Last l y , ma i n t enance can be s i mp l i f i ed i f
to
p l ants are se l ec t ed for the i r zona l hard i ness ,
for the i r res i stance to w i nd and human
abuse , for the i r non i nvas i ve root sys t ems ,
L
and for the i r re l i abi l i ty in not exceed i ng a
Y spec i f i ed s i ze . The re are f ew ornamen t a l
V
N l andscape p l ants used in the wor l d wh i ch wi l l
0 no t grow in we l l -des i gned roof gardens in
the i r own loca l i ty. Howeve r , just as des i gners
n mus t care fu l l y choose p l ants for the spec i f i c
m i croc l i ma t e , soi l , and o ther hab i t a t cond i -
~t - t i ons f ound in ground l eve l l andscapes , so
O
O they a l so mus t exerc i se sound j udgmen t in
se l ec t i ng p l ants for roof l andscapes .

The i nt ent of th i s sec t i on has been to

he l p prov i de t he phys i ca l con t ex t needed
r for p l ant s to grow success fu l l y ra ther t han
to prov i de da t a on the l arge numbe r o f
 610- 15

In add i t i on to s t andard ma i n t enance prac t i ces assoc i a t ed w i th a l l t ypes of l andscapes ,

roof and deck gardens requ i re spec i a l a t t ent i on to prot ec t i on of the st ruc ture be l ow
and rep l en i shment of the grow i ng med i um .

1 . P l ants shou l d be checked every 2 to 3 years to de t erm i ne whe t he r roots have pene -
t rated into the roof st ruc ture , or are adverse l y a f f ec t i ng the growt h of sma l l er p l ants .
These roots shou l d be cut to s l ow fur ther growt h .

2 . Spec i a l a t t ent i on shou l d be g i ven to prun i ng t rees and shrubs in order to ma i nt a i n a

ba l ance be t ween branch i ng and root growt h . Th i s wi l l he l p prevent the over turn i ng
of top-heavy p l ants due to s t rong w i nds .

3 . Al l p l ant ed areas shou l d annua l l y rece i ve a top dress i ng , approx i ma t e l y 5 mm (1/4

in) th i ck , made up of a m i x ture s imi l ar to the or ig ina l p l ant i ng med i um .

p l ant s tha t may be su i t ab l e f rom every cl i - L i esecke , Hans Joach i m (ed. ) . R i cht l i n i en
ma t i c zone in the wor l d ( re f er to Sec t i on fur d i e P l anung , Aus f uhrung un Pf l ege von
550 : P l ant s and P l ant i ng for add i t i ona l Dach begrunungen , 1995 ( in Ge rman) .
i nforma t i on) . L i esecke , Krupka , Losken and Bruggeman .
Grund l agen de r Dach begrun i ng , Pa t zer
REFERENCES Ver l ag , Ber l i n , 1989 ( in Ge rman) .
Baker , Maxwe l l C. Roof s , Mu l t i -Sc i ence Osmundson , Theodor e . Roo f Ga rdens :
Pub l i sher , Ltd ., Mon t rea l , Canada , 1980 . H i story , Des i gn and Cons t ruc t i on , W W
Nor ton , Evans ton , 1L, 1998 .
Cent ra l Mor t gage & Hous i ng Corp ., Corp .
Staf f , and Consu l t an t s . Roo f Decks Des i gn Osmundson , Theodor e. " The Chang i ng
Gu i de l i nes , CMHC , Mon t rea l , Canada , Techn i que o f Roo f Ga rden Des i gn , "
1979. Landscape Arch i t ec ture , Wash i ng t on , DC ,
Sep t embe r 1981 .
" Des i gn Gu i de l i nes : Roo f Ga rden Ser i es , "
Arch i t ec t ' s Journa l , A . 1 . I n f orma t i on W i r th , Thomas . " Landscape Arch i t ec ture
L i brary , London , 1980-1982 . above Ground , " Con f e r ence on
Unde rground Space , Vo l . l , Pe rgamon
Ernst , Wo l f gang . Dachab d i cht ung Dachae
Press , London , 1976.
Grun ung , K l e f f erman t Ver l ag , 1992 ( in
Ge rman , w i t h Eng l i sh and French sum-
mar i es) .

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 SECT I ON

Int er i or Landscapes

Con t r i bu tors:
Jay Gr aham
Gr aham Landscape Arch i t ec t
Annapo l i s , Ma r y l and

Ne l son Hamme r , ASLA

Hamme r Des i gn
Bos t on , Massachuse t t s

Ge r a rd Le i der
Ren tok i l Env i ronmen t a l Serv i
R i ve rwoods , I l l ino i s

Techn i ca l Wr i t e r :
Ky l e D. Brown

Rev i ewe rs:

E l l en Ca r l sen
Rentok i l Env i ronmen t a l Serv i
Bur tonsv i l l e , Ma r y l and

CONTENTS
1 .0 Int roduc t i on o t echn i qu , . . . , . .1t -ct Phys i ca l
5 .2 Cha rac t e r o f Inter i or P l ants
2 . 0 Phys i ca l Requ i r emen t s of P l ant s Requ i r emen t s
Si ze
2 .1 L i ght 3 .1 L i ght Grow t h Hab i t d
Day l i ght Tex t ure
Int ens i t y V
W i ndows + C l erestor i es Co l or s
Dura t i on
Qua l i t y Sky l i ght s 5 .3 Des i gn Sugges t i ons
G l az i ng Ma t er i a l s 5 .4 Common l y Used P l ant s n
2 .2 Tempera ture , Hum i d i t y , and A i r
Qua l i t y E l ect r i c L i ght Si ze Ca t egor i es L
3 .2 A i r P l ant Li st
Tempe r a t ur e r
Re l a t i ve Hum i d i t y 3 .3 Wa t e r Env i ronmen t a l Cond i t i ons
Hand Wa t e r i ng i
A i r Qua l i t y Re f erences
2 .3 Wa t e r Au t oma t i c Sys t ems
2 . 4 P l ant i ng Med i um 3 .4 P l an t i ng Med i um
n
3 .5 Cons t ruc t i on De t a i l s

0
2 . 5 Space / Vo l ume
4 . 0 Des i gn Process

N
2 . 6 We i gh t o f P l ant s
2 . 7 Acc l i ma t i za t i on 5 . 0 P l ant Pa l e t t e
2 . 8 Ma i n t enance
5 .1 Des i gn Ob j ec t i ves
 620 - 2

1 . 0 I NTRODUCT I ON

T
he i nter i or l andscape des i gner mus t
he m i nd fu l tha t the pr i mary func t i on
of mos t i nter i or env i ronmen t s is to
serve peop l e ra ther than to grow p l ants .
W i t h the except i on o f fac i l i t i es spec i f i ca l l y
des i gned for the d i sp l ay or growt h of p l ant s
(such as greenhouses or conserva tor i es) ,
p l ant ma t er i a l s mus t be ab l e to to l era t e the
env i ronmen t a l cond i t i ons crea t ed for
human comf or t . Budge t a ry cons i dera t i ons
wi l l o f t en prec l ude the adap t a t i on of a
bu i l d i ng ' s env i ronmen t a l sys t ems to accom-
moda t e p l ant needs . Howeve r , w i th m i nor
mod i f i ca t i ons to the phys i ca l cond i t i ons
w i th i n a bu i l d i ng , i t is poss i b l e to f i nd many
p l ant s f rom t he t rop i ca l and subt rop i ca l
reg i ons of t he wor l d tha t wi l l surv i ve
i ndoors in the t empe ra t ure and hum i d i t y
ranges a l so comf or t ab l e for human act i v i ty.

The " ha rdscape " aspec t s of i nter i or

l andscape des i gn and cons t ruc t i on , (such as
pav i ng ma t er i a l s , l andscape furn i ture , poo l s
and fount a i ns) are not s i gn i f i cant l y d i f fer -
ent t han those same e l emen t s in the exter i -
or env i ronmen t .

Th i s sec t i on wi l l focus pr i mar i l y on the

phys i ca l needs and requ i remen t s of p l ant
ma t er i a l s used w i th i n inter ior , c l i ma t e con-
t ro l l ed spaces .

2 . 0 PHYS I CAL
OF PLANTS

L i gh t
4) . Br i ght day l i ght is typ i ca l l y abou t 53 500- wua r i ry:
128 400 Ix (5 , 000-12 , 000 fc) , depend i ng on L i ght qua l i ty re fers to the t ype o f rad i ant
Grow i ng p l ant s conve r t rad i ant ene rgy
l at i tude , season , and t i me of day . The aver - ene rgy ava i l ab l e to p l ant s . F i gure 620-1
( f rom day l i ght or e l ect r i c l ight sources) i nto
age wor k i ng env i ronmen t in a bu i l d i ng shows tha t p l ant s use rad i ant ene rgy pr i -
f ood . P l ant s use rad i ant ene rgy of wave -
i nter i or some t i mes on l y rece i ves 535 Ix (50 mar i l y f rom the b l ue and red ends of the
l engths in the 400- to 850-nanome t e r (nm)
fc) or l ess . v i s ib l e spec t rum . Mos t e l ect r i c l i ght sources
range . Wh i t e l ight , the v i s i b l e par t of the
rad i ant ene rgy spec t rum, cons i sts o f wave - are pr i mar i l y monochroma t i c and t end to
Dur a t i on :
l engths in the 430- to 700-nm range . L i ght emphas i ze the ye l l ow-green par t of the v i s-
for p l ant growt h is typ i ca l l y descr i bed in Wh i l e research cont i nues to seek the nec - ib l e spec t rum . Na tura l l ight , wh i ch cont a i ns
t e rms of i ntens i ty , dura t i on , and qua l i ty . essary ba l ance be t ween i nt ens i ty and dura - the ent i re spec t rum of v i s ib l e l ight p l us
s t i on for op t i mum p l ant growt h , i t is appar - u l t rav i o l e t and i nf rared wave l eng t hs , is
U I n t ens i t y. en t tha t con t i nuous i l l um i na t i on is no t a i dea l for p l ant grow t h . Howeve r , l i ght pass-
Q su i t ab l e subs t i tut e for l ess than the m i n i - i ng t hrough t i nt ed or re f l ect i ve g l ass wi l l
Int ens i ty of l i ght is a quant i t a t i ve f i gure
U mum requ i red i ntens i ty . P l ant s need per i ods have i ts spec t ra l ene rgy d i st r i but i on a l t ered
s typ i ca l l y measur ed in l ux ( foot cand l es) , or
o f rest , each spec i es hav i ng evo l ved un i que in add i t i on to reduc i ng i ts i ntens i ty . G l az i ng
d l umens per square me t e r (square foot ) . A
n pre f erences for par t i cu l ar photoper i ods , the manu f ac ture rs can prov i de the des i gner
l umen is the spec i f i c quant i t y of l ight em i t - re l at i ve l engths of l i ghtness and darkness w i th da t a documen t i ng both the spec t ra l
L t ed by a l i ght source w i t hou t regard to the
a f f ec t i ng the grow t h of an organ i sm . The ene rgy d i st r i but i on and pe rcen t age of l i ght
i d i rec t i on of i ts d i st r i but i on . A l ux ( foot can- ave rage pho t ope r i od for p l ant s is 8 to 12 t ransm i t t ance of the i r produc t s .
O d l e) is a quant i t a t i ve measur e re f er r i ng to
" i hours o f darkness and 12 to 16 hours of
how much l ight is be i ng rece i ved on a sur - l ight . I f on l y m i n i mum l ight i nt ens i ty is pro- 2 .2 Tempe r a t ur e , Hum i d i t y , and A i r
N
f ace . (Re f er t o Sec t i on 540 : Ou t door Qua l i t y
n v i ded , op t i mum l i ght dura t i on mus t be pro-
L i ght i ng , for mor e i n forma t i on on de f i n i - v i ded .
t i ons and pr i nc i p l es of l i ght i ng .) P l ant requ i remen t s for a i r typ i ca l l y re fer to
t empera ture , re l a t i ve hum i d i t y , and a i r
D i f f erent p l ant s have vary i ng m i n i mum qua l i ty.
N requ i remen t s for l i ght i nt ens i ty (Tab l e 620-
 620 - 3

Tempe ra t ure : and to reduce any excess i ve bu i l dup of the s i ze and amoun t o f a p l ant ' s fo l i age ;
hea t , but p l ant s can be ha rmed by hot or the vo l ume , compos i t i on , and poros i t y of
Mos t p l ant s pre f er a st ab l e range of t em- co l d b l asts of a i r. I f the f l ow o f a i r causes the p l ant i ng med i um ; the t empe ra t ure and
pera tures , w i th a drop of no mor e t han 5°C the l eaves to move a t excess i ve ve l oc i t i es , hum i d i t y o f the i nter i or space ; and t he gen-
(10°F) f rom day t i me to n i ght t i me t empe ra - damage to t he p l ants is l i ke l y. Excess i ve l ev- era l hea l th o f the p l ant . P l ant s wi l l t ran-
ture . Trop i ca l reg i on p l ant s genera l l y fal l e ls of po l l ut ant s in t he ai r , such as c l ean i ng sp i re rap i d l y in cond i t i ons of h i gh l i ght
i nto three ca t egor i es , each w i th a pre f er red f luids, pa i nts , or pe t ro l eum produc t s , can and / or h i gh t empe r a t ur e and / or l ow
range o f t empe ra t ure : Coo l [5 to 15°C (40 have a devas t a t i ng e f f ec t on p l ant fo l i age , hum i d i t y , requ i r i ng mor e f requen t wa t er -
to 60°F ) day t i me ] ; i nt ermed i a t e [10 to usua l l y turn i ng i t b l ack . P l ants are mos t a t i ng . One of the mos t i mpor t an t reasons for
20°C (50 to 70°F ) day t i me ] ; and wa rm [15 r i sk f rom prob l ems re l a t i ng to poor a i r regu l ar ma i n t enance is to mon i t or each
to 30°C (60 t o 85°F ) day t i me ] . Co l d t em- qua l i ty dur i ng or i mmed i a t e l y fo l l ow i ng p l ant ' s spec i a l need for wa t e r . Unso f t ened
pera tures 0°C (32°F) or l ess even for a bu i l d i ng cons t ruc t i on , when chem i ca l po l - wa t e r at a t empe ra t ure be t ween 15° and
shor t per i od , can cause pe rmanen t damage l ut ants f rom cur i ng pa i nt or new carpe t i ng 25°C (60° and 80°F ) shou l d be used . P l ant s
to fo l i age . I f t he t empe ra t ure of the root are mos t preva l ent , and when cont rac t i ng may be grouped accord i ng to the i r wa t e r
ba l l fa l ls be l ow 10°C (50°F) , p l ant grow t h opera t i ons such as drywa l l cons t ruc t i on requ i remen t s in order t o s i mp l i f y ma i n t e -
wi l l s top ; and p l ant s wi l l d i e i f the t empe r - crea t e mass i ve amoun t s o f dus t . Mos t i nte- nance . Some p l ant s requ i re tha t the i r root
a ture drops be l ow -1°C (30°F) (F i gure r iors do not have the op t i mum env i ron- ba l l s dry ou t to an ex t ent , wh i l e o thers
620-2) . men t a l cond i t i ons necessary for p l ant s to requ i re the i r roots to rema i n mo i s t or even
regenera t e a l arge amoun t of damaged we t mos t of t he t i me .
Re l a t i ve Hum i d i t y.
fo l i age .
2 . 4 P l an t i ng Med i um
Trop i ca l p l ants pre f er a re l at i ve hum i d i t y of
Recen t s tud i es have proven i ndoor
60 to 90 percent , bu t many are adap t ab l e The p l ant i ng med i um , wh i ch may or may
p l ant s can reduce , or even e l i m i na t e ,
to the 35 to 50 percen t re l at i ve hum i d i t y not cont a i n any soi l , mus t accomp l i sh three
" background " l eve l s of ub i qu i tous chem i -
typ i ca l of bu i l d i ng i nter i ors . Th i s l ow re l a- func t i ons :
ca l po l l ut ant s such as benzene , f orma l de -
t i ve hum i d i t y , wh i l e dr i er t han mos t p l ant s
hyde , and t r i ch l oroe thy l ene f rom i ndoor
pre fer , is a be t t er range for preven t i on of 1 . A l l ow wa t e r and nut r i ent s to reach t he
a i r. They do th i s by me t abo l i z i ng these e l e-
d i seases such as mo l d or l ea f rot . I f the p l ant t hrough the roots .
men t s i nto non- tox i c subs t ances p l ant s can
hum i d i t y is ±30 percent or l ower , t hen
use as nut r i ent s . 2 . A l l ow oxygen to reach t he root s .
mos t p l ant s wi l l requ i re grea t er amoun t s of
wa t e r . 2 .3 Wa t e r 3 . Anchor and g i ve stab i l i ty to the p l ant .

A i r Qua l i t y: A p l ant i ng med i um shou l d be:

The amoun t of wa t e r needed by i ndoor
p l ant s i ndoors depends on a var i e ty of f ac- 1 . Porous
P l ant s requ i re ca rbon d i ox i de (CO I ) to
tors : seasona l f l uc tua t i ons gove rn i ng the
comp l e t e photosynthes i s . Forced a i r c i rcu-
dura t i on of day l i ght and ang l e of t he sun ; 2 . Easy to dra i n
l at i on t hrough bu i l d i ng vent i l a t i ng sys t ems
the s i ze , shape and or i ent a t i on of w i ndows ;
he l ps to ma i n t a i n ready supp l i es of COz 3 . Capab l e o f re t a i n i ng wa t e r

4 . Ster i l e
J 471101 ' q

i
5 . Low in so l ub l e sa l ts

6 . L i gh twe i gh t (whe re needed)

1 . Mos t common inter ior p l ants pre f er a stab l e range of t empera tures , w i th a d i urna l
change of no mor e than 5°C (10°F) . Freez i ng t empera tures may damage fo l i age or
2 . 5 Space / Vo l ume
ki l l the p l ant i f the root mass is sub j ec t to co l d cond i t i ons . Avo i d p l ant i ngs over
unhea t ed and non- i nsu l a t ed spaces such as park i ng garages . I t is i mpor t an t to know bo t h the ex i s t i ng
and pot ent i a l he i ght , breadth , and charac -
2 . Many p l ants are adapt ab l e to the re l at i ve hum i d i t y typ i ca l of bu i l d i ng inter iors (35 to ter o f each t ype o f p l ant in order to mi n i -
50 percent ) . Wh i l e p l ants in dr i er c l i ma t es may requ i re mor e f requent wa t er i ng , l ow m i ze i nt er f erence no t on l y be t ween p l ant s
hum i d i t y is be t t er for prevent i on of mo l d and d i seases . but a l so w i th such arch i t ec tura l f ea tures as s
co l umns , bu l kheads , sta i rs, and l ow ce i l i ngs
3 . Bl asts of a i r are l i ke l y to damage p l ant fo l i age . Avo i d p l ant i ngs near outs i de doors
(F i gure 620-3) . W i t h l arge spec i es of
and HVAC vent s . Mos t inter iors do not have the op t i mum env i ronment a l cond i t i ons V
p l ants , th i s need for adequa t e room s
necessary for p l ants to regenera t e a l arge amoun t of damaged fo l i age .
becomes cr i t i ca l . A p l ant whose i nna t e
f orm has to be reshaped to accommoda t e n
4 . Recen t stud i es have demons t ra t ed tha t p l ants can reduce , or even e l i mi na te , " back -
arch i t ec tura l f ea tures may appea r m i s- L
ground " l eve l s of ub i qu i tous chem i ca l po l l utants such as benzene , forma l dehyde ,
and t r i ch l oroe thy l ene f rom i ndoor a i r. Howeve r excess i ve l eve l of po l l utants , com- shapen and i ncongruous w i t h i ts i nter i or r

mon l y occur r i ng dur i ng const ruc t i on , can severe l y damage p l ant fo l i age , usua l l y se t t i ng i f i mproper l y pruned . I t is pre f erab l e O
turn i ng it b l ack . to spec i f y p l ant ma t er i a l s whose na tura l . a
shape can be ma i n t a i ned e i ther by s l ow
5 . Large t rees [3 000 mm (10 f t ) or l arger ] shou l d be a l l owed at l east 3 to 6 mon t hs growt h w i t hou t prun i ng , or by s t andard n

0
dur i ng the grow i ng season to acc l i ma t e to the i r new env i ronment , and sma l l ma t er i - prun i ng prac t i ces . Uppe r s tory p l ant s spec -

N
al [600 mm (24 in) or less] at l east 6 to 10 weeks . Dur i ng th i s t i me , the amoun t of i f i ed for t wo story or tal l one story spaces
l ight shou l d be gradua l l y reduced . shou l d not exceed z /3 the he i ght of t he
space when they are p l ant ed . Ta l l spec i -
 620 - 4

mens l eave t oo l i t t le room for grow t h and

may b l ock t oo much i ncom i ng l ight to the i r
own i nner fo l i age or to unders tory p l ant s
benea t h t hem . Pa l ms or o t he r spec i es
wh i ch canno t be pruned shou l d a l ways be
g i ven adequa t e ver t i ca l space above t hem
for future growt h .

2 . 6 We i gh t o f P l an t s

The we i gh t of the p l ants and the i r p l ant i ng

med i um is an i mpor t an t cons i dera t i on
when they are a par t of the l oad ca l cu l a-
t i ons for a st ruc tura l s l ab or an uppe r f l oor
p l ant er . The we i gh t of a p l ant wi l l depend
upon i ts age (ca l i per ) , he i ght , c rown s i ze ,
fo l i age t ype and dens i ty , and p l ant i ng
med i um vo l ume and dens i t y. The we i gh t of
the p l ant i ng med i um var i es accord i ng to
bo t h the ma t er i a l used and the amoun t of
wa t e r i t cont a i ns . A l i ghtwe i ght soi l m i x is
g i ven in Sec t i on 610 : Roo f and Deck
Landscapes , and o ther qua l i t i es of t he
p l ant i ng med i um are covered in Sec t i on
810 : So i l s and Aggrega t es .

2 . 7 Acc l i ma t i za t i on

P l ant s be i ng moved f rom the i dea l l ight

cond i t i ons o f a shade house , gr eenhouse or
nursery i nto a bu i l d i ng i nter i or mus t s l ow l y
be acc l i ma t i zed to the l owe r l i ght cond i -
t i ons . W i t hou t th i s per i od o f ad j us tmen t ,
mos t p l ant s wi l l go i nto shock , s top grow-
ing, become weakened , and poss i b l y d i e .
The l ength of t i me requ i red to acc l i ma t i ze a
p l ant depends on the spec i es , the degree of
change in l ight i ntens i ty , and the s i ze of t he
p l ant . Large t rees [3 000 mm (10 f t ) or l arg-
er ] shou l d be a l l owed a t l east 3 to 6 mon t hs
dur i ng the grow i ng season to acc l i ma t e ,
and sma l l ma t er i a l [600 mm (24 in) or l ess]
at l east 6 to 10 weeks . Dur i ng th i s t i me , the
amoun t of l i ght shou l d be gradua l l y
reduced to ha l f of the or i g i na l amoun t or
l ess i f needed .

,+'
1 . Pl ants wi l l t ransp i re rap i d l y in cond i t i ons of h i gh l ight , wa rm t empera tures , or l ow
humi d i ty , and wi l l requ i re mor e f requent wa t er i ng . Unso f t ened wa t er be t ween 15°
V and 25°C (60° and 80°F) shou l d typ i ca l l y be used .
2 . Hand wa t er i ng a l l ows the ma i n t enance t echn i c i an to ta i lor the wa t er i ng needs to the
C i nd i v i dua l p l ants and par t i cu l ar env i ronment a l cond i t i ons . However , i t is ex t reme l y
l abor i ntens i ve , requ i res tha t al l p l ants be access i b l e , and wi l l resu l t in the gradua l
J
compac t i on of p l ant i ng med i um due to cont i nuous top-wa t er i ng .
i
O 3 . Sub i r r i ga t i on may be used to reduce the f requency of wa t er i ng , avo i d the gradua l
i compac t i on of p l ant i ng med i um , and de l i ver wa t er to the root sys t em as needed , as
opposed to the f l ood /drought / f l ood cyc l e of hand wa t er i ng .
n 4 . Dr i p i r r igat ion or other automa t i c sys t ems may be used to wa t e r i naccess i b l e p l ants
and m i n i m i ze l abor requ i rement s . Howeve r , they are expens i ve to instal l , may be
prone to vanda l i sm and requ i re mon i tor i ng for seasona l ad j us tment s . Au toma t i c sys-
N t ems are mos t successfu l i f spec i es w i th s i mi l ar wa t er needs are p l ant ed in groups . i
 620- 5
2 .8 Ma i n t enance Tab l e 620-1 . RECOMMENDED L I GHT SOURCES
The ma i n purpose of p l ant ma i n t enance is
to mee t a l l the phys i ca l requ i remen t s of the
p l ant s on a cont i nua l bas i s . Spec i f i c ma i n t e - D i s t ance be t ween l i ght Recommended l i ght sour ce
sour ce and p l an t
nance t asks i nc l ude the supp l y i ng of wa t e r
and fer t i l i zer , the cont ro l o f i nsec ts on an 3 m (10 f t ) and l ess Day l ight : ver t ical gl az ing,sky l ights
Coo l -wh i te f luorescent
as -needed bas i s , and prun i ng. The qua l i ty Natura l - l ight f luorescent
of ma i n t enance wi l l of t en be the pr i mary Mercury l amp l ow wa t t age
f ac tor in de t erm i n i ng the ac tua l versus Incandescent
pot ent i a l l i fe of the p l ant s . 3. 0-4 .5 m (10- 15 f t ) Day l ight : ver t ica l gl az ing, sky l ights
Quar t z -me ta l ha l ide comb i na t i on
H i gh-pressure sod i um l amp (onl y for pl ant l ight ing)
3 . 0 TECHN I QUES TO MEET Me ta l ha l ide l amp , phosphor -coa t ed
PHYS I CAL REQU I REMENTS Mercury l amp , de l uxe-wh i te
Mercury l amp , wa rm de l uxe-wh i te
H i gh-pressure sod i um (color - rendi t ion a des ign factor )
3 .1 L i ght Quar t z -ha l ogen l amp
Incandescent
L i ght can be prov i ded e i ther f rom day l i ght
or e l ec t r i c l ight . Day l i ght is pre f erab l e 4 .5 m (15 f t ) and greater Day l i ght : ver t ica l gl az ing, sky l ights
because i t prov i des a grea t er spec t rum o f Quar t z -me ta l ha l ide comb i na t i on
H i gh-pressure sod i um l amp (onl y for pl ant l ight ing)
t he rad i ant ene rgy needed by mos t p l ants , Me t a l ha l ide l amp, c l ear
and is genera l l y prov i ded mor e d i f fuse l y Me t a l ha l ide l amp, phosphor -coa t ed
than e l ect r i c l ight . D i f fused l i ght is pre f er - Mercury l amp , de l uxe-wh i te
H i gh-pressure sod i um (color rendi t ion a des ign factor )
ab l e to l ight f rom a po i nt source because i t Quar t z -ha l ogen l amp
a l l ows be t t er l ight pene t ra t i on to the i nner Incandescent
fo l i age of a spec i men , as we l l as be t t er l ight
pene t ra t i on t hrough uppe r story spec i mens W i ndows and C l eres tor i es : (F i gure 620-6) . I f sky l i ght s are i nc l uded as
i nto the p l ant s be l ow . Howeve r , whe r e day- par t of t he bu i l d i ng des i gn for t he purpose
W i ndows and c l erestor i es are on l y abou t of prov i d i ng day l i ght for i nter i or p l ants ,
l i ght is i nsuf f i c i ent in quant i t y or dura t i on
one - th i rd as e f f i c i ent in adm i t t i ng l ight as then there are a numbe r of i mpor t an t con-
(due to the season or the t i me of day) , e l ec- t he ove rhead hor i zont a l or ang l ed open i ngs
t r i c l ight is of t en an essent i a l supp l emen t a ry s i dera t i ons for max i m i z i ng the i r e f f ec t i ve-
of sky l i ght s (F i gures 620-4 and 620-5) . ness :
source , or t he so l e source , of l ight for p l ant
W i ndow e f f i c i ency is de t e rm i ned by i ts s i ze ,
growt h . 1 . Loca t i on : sky l i ght s and p l ant s are
the or i ent a t i on of the open i ng , and the
Day l i gh t : t ype of g l az i ng . In the nor thern hem i - mor e e f f ec t i ve l y re l a t ed i f they are not
sphere , t he e f f ec t i ve a rea for p l ant growth , a l i gned in p l an but a l i gned for the
Day l i ght re f ers to the sum of d i rec t sun- g i ven a souther l y so l ar or i ent a t i on , is equa l ang l e of the sun to h i t the p l ant s .
l ight , re f l ec t ed sun l i ght , and (on overcas t in dep t h on l y to t he he i gh t o f the w i ndow ,
days) sky l i ght . Day l i ght can be adm i t t ed 2 . Or i en t a t i on : in t he nor thern hem i -
assum i ng tha t the p l ant s are l oca t ed a t si l l
i nto i nter i or l andscapes t hrough w i ndows , sphere , nor th f ac i ng sky l i ght s are on l y
he i gh t .
c l erestor i es , or sky l i ght s . m i n i ma l l y e f f ec t i ve in t e rms of the
Sky l i ght s : i nt ens i t y of l i ght pene t ra t i on , but
l arge areas of nor th- f ac i ng sky l i ght
Sky l i ght s have the advan t age of encourag- can prov i de reasonab l e l eve l s of we l l -
i ng p l ant s to grow upwa rd t owa rd t he l ight d i f fused l i ght . Sou t h f ac i ng sky l i ghts
(eas t -wes t ax i s) can prov i de t oo much
d i rec t l i ght and cause a one -s i ded
p l ant growt h , bu t they are a good
1 . L i ght in typ i ca l bu i l d i ng inter iors is se l dom of suf f i c i ent i ntens i ty to susta i n mos t source of re f l ec t ed l ight . A m i x of eas t
p l ants w i thout sky l i ghts or supp l ement a l e l ect r i ca l l i ght i ng . Tab l e 620-1 l ists poss i b l e and wes t f ac i ng sky l i ght s (nor th- W
l ight sources in order of pre f erence . . sou t h ax i s) prov i des a be t t er ba l ance CL
of l ight (F i gure 620-7) . V
2 . Con t i nuous i l l umi na t i on is not a su i tab l e subst i tute for l ow l ight intens i ty, as p l ants s
De t a i l s : the des i gn o f a sky l i ght sys-
requ i re per i ods of l ight and dark (photoper i ods) . The average photoper i od for p l ants
t em tha t wi l l adm i t the max i mum n
i s 12-16 hours of l ight , and 8-12 hours of darkness .
amoun t of l i ght poss i b l e is as fo l l ows :
L
3 . Na tura l l ight is idea l for p l ant growth , howeve r t i nted or re f l ect i ve g l ass wi l l a l ter i ts a . Bu l khead : a m i n i ma l d i s t ance f rom r
spec t ra l energy and i ntens i ty . G l az i ng or ar t i f ic ia l l ight sources shou l d prov i de rad i ant ce i l i ng to sky l i ght f r ame wi l l perm i t .O
energy f rom the b l ue and red ends of the spec t rum (F i gure 620-1) . s_
a mor e d i rec t pa t h for the day l i ght . O
L i ght -co l ored wa l l s sur round i ng the
4 . W i ndows and c l erestor i es are on l y abou t one- th i rd as ef f i c i ent in adm i t t i ng l ight , as bu l khead wi l l i ncrease the amoun t
n
sky l i ghts . In the nor thern hem i sphere , the e f fec t i ve area for p l ant growt h in south-
o f re f l ec t ed l ight (F i gure 620-8) .
f ac i ng w i ndows is equa l in dep th to the he i ght of the w i ndow (F i gure 620-5) .

5 . A m i x of east and wes t - f ac i ng sky l i ghts typ i ca l l y prov i de the best ba l ance of l ight for
b . Ce i l i ng open i ng: i f the ce i l i ng open-
i ng is l arger than t he sky l i ght open-
N
 620- 6

Tab l e 620-2 . CHARACTER I ST I CS OF ELECTR I C LAMPS

Tungs t en ,
ha l ogen , and H i gh-pressure Low-pressure
Character i st i cs i ncandescent F l uorescent Mercury vapor Me t a l ha l i de sod i um sod i um
Lumens per wat t 6-23 25-100 30-63 68-125 77-140 137-183
Lumens 40-33 600 96-15000 1 200-63000 12 000-125 000 5 400-140 000 4800-33000
Lumens per wat t 75-97 75-91 70-86 73-83 90-92 75-90
ma i ntenance (%)*
Wa t t age range ' 6- -1 500 4-215 40-1 000 175-1 500 70-1 000 35-180
Li fe' 750-8000 9000-20000 16 000-24 000+ 1 500-15 000 20 000-24 000 18 000
Co l or temperature ' 2 400 3 100 2700-6500 3300-5900 3200-4700 2 100-1 780
Co l or rendi t ion' 95-99 55-95 22-52 65-70 21 0
Co l or breadth of appl i cat ion Good Good Fai r Good Fai r Poor
Cont rol Exce l lent Poor Fai r Fai r to good Good Poor
Ini t ial Cost (per l amp) Low Moderate Modera te High High Moderate
Operat iona l cost (power ) High Moderate Modera te Low Low Low
Breadth of appl i cat ion W i de W i de Med i um Med i um to wi de Nar row Nar row
`Percentage of output in l umens dur ing l i fe of the bulb .
tLumens .
Source: Cour tesy of GTE Sylvania Light ing Products.

ing, the area i n f l uenced by the

br i ghtness f rom the sky l i ght wi l l be
ex t ended .

G l az i ng Ma t er i a l s:

The g l ass or p l ast i c used in w i ndows or sky-

l i ghts wi l l have vary i ng proper t i es o f l ight
t ransm i t t ance , absorpt i on and re f l ec t i on .
The pre -cons t ruc t i on ca l cu l a t i ons shou l d
i nc l ude day l i ght f i gures wh i ch t ake i nto
accoun t the t ype of g l az i ng ma t er i a l and
the amoun t of l ight i t wi l l t ransm i t . Th i s
i n forma t i on is ava i l ab l e f rom al l manu f ac -
turers of g l ass and p l ast i c . The range var i es
f rom c l ear g l ass a t 84 percent t ransm i ss i on
to doub l e -g l az i ng w i th bronze t int a t 18
percen t t ransm i ss i on . (Re f er to Sec t i on 870 :
G l ass , Pl ast i cs , and Fabr i cs , for mor e i nfor -
ma t i on on the t ypes and proper t i es of g l ass
and p l ast i c for g l az i ng purposes .) Tab l e 620-1 shows the r ecommended 620-9) . In t empe ra t e c l i ma t es , the fo l l ow-
to l i ght i ng sources f ar p l ant s . They are l i sted in i ng l oca t i ons shou l d be avo i ded :
G) E l ec t r i c L i gh t :
IZ order of pr i or i ty based on p l ant growt h ef f i -
c i ency , co l or rend i t i on pre f erence , and 1 . P l ant i ngs over unhea t ed spaces such
Norma l l y , e l ect r i c l i ght i ng shou l d be t rea t ed
V as park i ng garages because root ba l l s
N on l y as a supp l emen t to day l i ght . El ect r i c ene rgy e f f i c i ency. Tab l e 620-2 g i ves da t a
need prot ec t i on f rom l ow t empe ra -
l ight has the advan t age of be i ng f l ex i b l e on the charac t er i st i cs o f e l ect r i c l amps , and
C tures , un l ess the p l ant i ng med i um is
and can there fore ach i eve good l ight di st r i - Tab l e 620-3 g i ves i n forma t i on on t he su i t -
J i nsu l a t ed suf f i c i ent l y to keep root
but i on ove r p l ant s at op t i mum l ux ( foot - ab i l i ty of var i ous l amps for p l ant growt h .
i mass t empera tures above 15 ' C (60°F)
cand l e) l eve l s by vary i ng the l oca t i on ,
O
quant i t y , and t ype of f i xtures used . The 3 .2 Ai r 2 . P l ant i ngs near out s i de doors because
beamspr ead of l amps shou l d be cons i dered dra f ts are d i f f i cu l t to cont ro l
Prov i d i ng p l ant s w i th proper above ground
C in t he des i gn of l amp spac i ng . Up l i ght i ng and i n-ground t empera tures is i mpor t an t
wi l l no t cont r i but e s i gn i f i cant l y to p l ant 3 . P l ant i ngs i mmed i a t e l y ad j acen t to
and shou l d be cons i dered dur i ng the con- hea t i ng and a i r -cond i t i on i ng supp l y
growt h , and c l ose prox i m i t y of up l i ght s to ceptua l s t age of any bu i l d i ng des i gn (F i gure ven t s because a i r t empe ra t ure and
N fo l i age can burn the fo l i age or hea t t he root
mass enough to cause damage .
 620 - 7

o f wa t er i ng , the s i ng l e mos t t i me - con-

Tab l e 620 - 3 . LAMP SU I TAB I L I TY FOR I NTER I OR PLANT L I GHT I NG sum i ng t ask of an i nter i or l andscape
ma i n t enance t echn i c i an .

Types of l am ps Responses t o i nt er i or p l ant s

Incandescent and tungsten Lamps produce h igh amount s of inf rared energy , wh i ch
ha l ogen increases the t ranspi rat ion rate in fol i age . They have a h igh rat io of red to
b lue energy , wh i ch causes long i nternodes and spindl y growth . 2. The p l ant i ng med i um wi l l not com-
pac t , because wa t e r is dr awn f rom
F l uorescent Coo l -wh i te and warm-wh i t e l amps are def i c i ent in the red and far - red
wave l engths . Add 10 to 20% (by wa t tage) of i ncandescent l amps to pro- be l ow .
mot e more norma l growth responses . Standard Gro-Lux and w i de spec-
t rum Gro-Lux prov ide a ba l ance in the red, far - red, and b lue reg ions of 3 . W i t h the proper p l ant i ng med i um ,
the spec t rum for opt i mum p l ant responses . wa t e r wi l l be prov i ded to t he root sys-
Mercury O f the l amps in the mercury fami ly, br i ght -wh i te de l uxe l amps prov i de t em as needed , as opposed to the nor -
the best l ight character i st i cs for pl ant growth . ma l f l ood / drough t / f l ood cyc l e of
Me t a l ha l ide Coa t ed me ta l ha l ide (Meta l arc-coated) l amps prov i de the best l ight char - hand wa t e r i ng.
acter ist ics ( red, far - red, and b lue wave l engths) of al l h i gh-energy dis-
charge (HID) l amps . These are espec i a l l y sui tabl e for tota l ly enc l osed Au t oma t i c Sys t ems :
growth areas, such as growthrooms and inter ior l andscapes .
Mos t i r r i ga t i on sys t ems for ext er i or l and-
H i gh-pressure sod i um (HPS) These l amps distor t colors of ornamenta l p l ants because of insuf f i c i ent scapes (such as spray or i mpac t rotor ) are
b lue wave l ength emi ss ions . Therefore , they shou l d not be used a l one for
l ight ing inter ior pl ants . HPS l amps are useful to supp l ement natura l day- t echn i ca l l y poss i b l e for i nter i ors bu t may
l ight (sunl ight ) . have one or mor e of t he fo l l ow i ng d i sad-
van t ages :
Low-pressure sod i um (LPS) These l amps are poor sources of l ight for inter ior pl ants because they are
monochroma t i c , emi t l ight in the ye l l ow wave l ength , and g i ve poor color
rendi t ions . 1. They are expens i ve to insta l l .

Sour ce : Adap t ed f rom a t ab l e pr epa r ed by Chns t os Mpe l kas , P l an t Pa tho l og i s t , GTE Sy l van i a L i gh t i ng Produc t s. 2. The componen t s may be prone to
vanda l i sm .
movemen t norma l l y exceeds the to l erance n i ent for use w i t h 15 m (50 f t ) hoses .
o f mos t i nter i or p l ant s 3. The sys t em is o f t en i l l -su i ted to the
2 . Access to a s i nk for a wa t er i ng car t . d i f f erent wa t e r i ng requ i remen t s of any
I f i nter i or l andscape des i gn is s tud i ed in The s i nk shou l d have a t hreaded hose mu l t i -var i e t y p l ant pa l e t t e .
bo t h p l an and sec t i on as we l l as coord i na t - f auce t and at l east a 600 mm (24 in)
ed w i th the mechan i ca l sys t ems i nvo l ved , c l earance f rom f auce t to s i nk or f l oor. 4. The sys t em needs to be mon i t ored for
then such prob l ems as the fo l l ow i ng can be seasona l ad j us t men t and for ad j ust -
3 . A ho t -and-co l d wa t e r m i xe r f auce t . men t s requ i red by t empora ry changes
avo i ded :
in grow i ng cond i t i ons .
4 . A wand used to wa t e r hang i ng bas-
1 . P l ants l oca t ed in dead-a i r corners
ke t s or hard- to- reach l edges . 5. Inter i or p l ants , even spec i es w i th re l a-
2 . P l ants l oca t ed aga i ns t g l ass wa l l s w i th t i ve l y h i gh wa t e r i ng requ i remen t s ,
5 . Wa t e r car ts and wa t er i ng cans of
no mechan i ca l sys t em t o mod i f y need f ar l ess wa t e r t han ex t er i or
assor t ed s i zes .
ex t remes in t empe ra t ure p l ants , and i t can be d i f f i cu l t to ad j us t
6 . Cus t om-des i gned equ i pmen t for spe - au t oma t ed sys t ems to prov i de very
3 . The tops of l arge p l ant ma t er i a l or
c i a l s i tua t i ons . I f such equ i pmen t is l ow wa t e r de l i very ra tes .
hang i ng p l ant s l oca t ed in the poor l y
needed , i t typ i ca l l y mus t be s tored in a
cond i t i oned zones nea r h i gh ce i l i ngs One popu l ar ext er i or sys t em tha t can be
l ockab l e c l ose t w i th i n the bu i l d i ng .
and in mu l t i s tory spaces success fu l l y adap t ed for i ndoor use is dr i p
Three d i sadvan t ages of hand wa t er i ng i r r i ga t i on . Dr i p sys t ems so l ve t wo of t he
3 .3 Wa t e r are : mor e s i gn i f i cant prob l ems of spray or
The t wo f undamen t a l me t hods of wa t e r i ng i mpac t rotor sys t ems by de l i ver i ng very l ow
1. I t is l abor - i nt ens i ve .
p l ant s are hand wa t er i ng and au t oma t i c quant i t i es of wa t e r to prec i se l oca t i ons .
sys t em wa t e r i ng . Many t echn i ques are 2 . Al l p l ant s mus t be access i b l e . Howeve r , i t is st i l l sub j ec t to the o ther d i s- N
advan t ages of au t oma t ed sys t ems . CL
used tha t vary and comb i ne these t wo 3 . The soi l wi l l gradua l l y compac t ove r a
bas i c me t hods . V
t i me f rom con t i nuous top-wa t er i ng . The ma i n advan t ages of an au t oma t i c
sys t em are tha t p l ant s in i naccess i b l e l oca-
Hand Wa t e r i ng: One var i a t i on on hand wa t er i ng wh i ch n
t i ons are o f t en mor e eas i l y reached , and a
cont i nues to ga i n popu l ar i t y is sub i r r i ga-
Hand wa t e r i ng is a popu l a r t echn i que once an au t oma t ed sys t em is ba l anced , i t L
because i ts ma i n advan t age is t he ab i l i ty to t ion, a sys t em in wh i ch reservo i rs are p l aced requ i res l ess l abor than a non- au t oma t ed r
benea t h the p l ant i ng med i um (F i gure 620- O
ta i lor the wa t e r i ng needs to the i nd i v i dua l sys t em . An au t oma t i c sys t em may a l so be
p l ants and par t i cu l ar env i ronmen t a l cond i - 10) . Wa t e r l oaded i nto the reservo i r by advan t ageous i f p l ant s w i th s i mi l ar wa t e r
hand is dr awn out by cap i l l ary ac t i on i nto O
t i ons , i nc l ud i ng seasona l changes in the needs are p l ant ed in groups . The near
wa t e r requ i remen t s of p l ant s . the p l ant i ng med i um , us i ng w i cks wh i ch future may prov i de the adven t of a sensor - n
vary in compos i t i on by the manu f ac t ure r . cont ro l l ed dr i p i r r i gat i on sys t em tha t pro-
Too l s and fac i l i t i es needed for hand Advan t ages to sub i r r i ga t i on are :
v i des wa t e r de l i very on an as -needed bas i s .
wa t e r i ng i nc l ude : Such a sys t em , wh i l e con t i nu i ng to be mor e
1 . Depend i ng on the s i ze of the reservo i r , N
1 . Hose b i bbs or box hydrant s conve - i t is poss i b l e to reduce the f requency expens i ve t han a manua l sys t em and st i l l
 620- 8

Sand: Has poor wa t er ho l d i ng capac i ty. Styrofoam par t i c l es: A soi l addi t i ve made of
subj ect to vanda l i sm, wou l d resol ve al l the We i ght : 1600 kg /m3 (100 Ib/ f t3 ) . plast ic . I t holds no water , increases the
other concerns regard ing automa t ed sys- poros i ty of the mi x, and di s integrates under
tems , and prov i de a substant i a l reduct ion Shredded bark: Pine bark is best ; hardwood
ster i l i zat ion ; therefore, it cannot be reused .
to the cost of ma inta in ing an intens i ve l y is good . Both have good wa t er ho ld ing
p l anted inter ior l andscape . capac i ty . Soi l mi xtures norma l l y cons i st of 20 to
30 percent soi l and 70 to 80 percent soi l
Vermi cu l i te : A soi l add i t i ve made of
3 .4 P l ant i ng Med i um addi t i ves (see F igure 620-11) . M i xtures
expanded mi ca . It conta ins some nut r i ents w i thout soi l use var i at ions on the fo l lowing
The ingredi ents used in a pl ant ing mi x wi l l and has good wa ter ho ld ing capac i ty . It
propor t ion :
depend on the i r avai labi l i ty, on we i ght breaks down under ster i l i zat ion and there-
rest raints, and on the needs of the par t i cu- fore cannot be used repeated l y. We i ght : 95 ' /B sand
d
ct3 lar pl ants . Soi l and non-soi l mi xtures may to 130 kg / m3 (6 to 8 Ib/ f t3) .
V ' /3 shredded bark
conta in var ious propor t ions of the fol low-
Per l i te: A soi l addi t i ve made of si l i ceous
ing ingredi ents and have the indi cated ' /3 soi l addi t i ves
C we i ghts per cub i c me t er (cubi c foot ) : vol cani c rock . I t conta ins f luor ide, wh i ch
wi l l damage some pl ants . I t has good
J 3 .5 Cons t ruc t i on De ta i l s
Topsoi l : Sandy loam, un i form in compos i - poros i ty and some wa t er ho ld ing capac i ty.
O t ion and f ree of debr i s . We i ght : 1600 Because it does not deter iorate, it can be Tree pi ts and bui l t - in pl anters for inter ior
.7 kg / m3 (100 Ib/ f t 3) re-ster i l i zed and reused . We i ght : 95 to 130 p l ant ings have some features that dist in-
N kg / m3 (6 to 8 Ib/ f t3 ) . gui sh them f rom exter ior pl ant ings .
Pea t : Has good wa t er ho l d i ng capac i ty, but
does not compac t readi ly. We i ght : 130 to Ca l c i ned c l ay : A soi l addi t i ve made of f i red 1 . The need for a t ree pi t (wi th s ides and
160 kg / m3 (8 to 10 Ib/ f t3 ) . c l ay par t icles . It reta ins wa ter and can be a bot tom) shou ld be de termi ned af ter
N reused . invest igat ion of ex i st ing condi t ions of
 620 - 9

the soi l , unde rground spr i ngs , and dra i n i ng 6 . P l ant ers shou l d be wa t e rproo f ed i f 3 . De t e rm i ne the s i zes of the l argest
ab i l i ty (F i gure 620-12) . they are sur rounded by a fount a i n . p l ant s so tha t suf f i c i ent space can be
Wa t e r f rom a fount a i n may cont a i n prov i ded w i t hou t i nt er f erence f rom
2 . Insu l a t i on may be necessary i f the t ree chem i ca l s harmfu l to p l ant s . co l umns , sta i rs, and s i mi l ar ma j or e l e-
p i t is above an unhea t ed space in men t s of the bu i l d i ng . The st ruc tura l
t empe ra t e c l i ma t es , such as a park i ng eng i neer needs to know whe r e the
4 . 0 DES I GN PROCESS
ga r age . Hea t i ng co i l s m i gh t a l so be ma j or p l ant s wi l l be p l aced and
necessary to ma i nt a i n the root ba l l whe t he r t hey wi l l be pu t i nto tubs si t -
t empe ra t ure above 15°C (60°F) . The fo l l ow i ng cons i dera t i ons and proce -
t i ng on the f l oor s l ab or pu t i nto p i ts
dures are of f ered as gu i dance on pro j ec ts
3 . Dra i ns shou l d be i nc l uded wheneve r set i nto the f l oor.
i nvo l v i ng the des i gn and cons t ruc t i on of
poss i b l e and appropr i a t e . A s i phon i nter i or l andscapes . The s t eps in th i s proce - 4 . P l ants shou l d be l oca t ed to m i n i m i ze
p i pe can be used to check the v i abi l i - dure focus on the use of p l ant s i ns i de bu i l d- unnecessa ry phys i ca l con t ac t w i th
t y o f the dra i n or to check the wa t e r i ngs . peop l e , bu t access to al l p l ants for
re t ent i on in the absence of a dra i n ma i n t enance purposes shou l d be pro-
(F i gures 620-13 and 620-14) . 1 . Rev i ew the expec t ed ro l e of the i nte-
v i ded .
r ior l andscape w i th t he c l i ent and the
4 . A scuppe r a round each t ree pi t wi l l des i gn t eam work i ng on the pro j ec t . 5 . P l ants shou l d be se l ec t ed tha t wi l l sur -
serve to ca t ch tox i c f l oor c l eansers De t e rm i ne whe t he r i t is to be a ma j or v i ve unde r the expec t ed l eve l s of l i ght
and wax i ng l i qu i ds . s t a t emen t or a background comp l e - but wi l l no t ou t grow the i r space in a
men t to t he bu i l d i ng . shor t t i me . (No t e tha t in mos t cases ,
5 . When hose b i bbs and e l ect r i ca l j unc-
t i on boxes are i nc l uded in t ree p i ts or p l ants in i nter i or spaces grow very
2 . Based upon i ts ro l e , de t e rm i ne the
s l ow l y i f a t al l a f ter they are i nsta l l ed .)
p l ant ers , t hey shou l d be l oca t ed to env i ronmen t a l needs of the i nter i or
the s i des , away f rom whe r e the ma j or l andscape as ear l y in the des i gn 6. Al l cons t ruc t ed e l ement s , such as
p l ant s are l oca t ed . process as poss i b l e . bu i l t - in p l ant ers and wa t e r i ng and
dra i nage sys t ems , shou l d be coord i -
na t ed w i th the overa l l des i gn of the
bu i l d i ng .
r'*i -e k . yam, . 7 . I f poss i b l e , se l ect cont rac tors who
s
1 . The p l ant i ng med i um may or may not cont a i n soi l , depend i ng on the phys i ca l have pr i or exper i ence w i th i nter i or N
requ i rement s of the p l ant , ava i l abi l i ty of i ngred i ents , or we i gh t rest ra ints . p l ant i ngs . Q

8 . Se l ec t and t ag al l l arge and spec i men V

2 . Soi l m i x tures norma l l y cons i st of 20 to 30 percent soi l and 70 to 80 percent soi l p l ant ma t er i a l s far enough ahead of
add i t i ves (see F i gure 620-11) . M i x tures w i thou t soi l use vary i ng comb i na t i ons of t i me to a l l ow the p l ant s to be acc l i - n
sand , shredded bark and soi l add i t i ves . ma t i zed in some re l i ab l e way be fore L

. 0i
they are i nsta l l ed . r
3 . Tree pi ts and p l ant ers shou l d prov i de mu l ch to reta in mo i s ture , p l ant i ng med i um ,
fabr i c separa tor and a dra i nage l ayer (F i gure 620-12) . A dra i n p i pe shou l d a l so be 9 . Al l of the i nter i or l andscape ' s env i ron-
prov i ded wheneve r poss i b l e . Insu l a t i on may be needed i f p l aced above an unhea t ed men t a l sys t ems ( l i ght i ng, wa t er , a i r
space in t empera t e or co l d c l i ma t es (F i gures 620-13 and 620-14) . hand l i ng , e t c .) shou l d be t es t ed and
n
wor k i ng be fore any p l ant s are
4 . Tree p i ts and p l ant ers shou l d prevent harmfu l tox i ns f rom ent er i ng the p l ant i ng i nsta l l ed . Respons i b i l i ty for a l t erna t i ve

N
med i um . P l ant ers p l aced in poo l s or fount a i ns shou l d be wa t erproof ed , and scuppers so l ut i ons shou l d be es t ab l i shed in
shou l d be used around a t -grade pi ts to ca t ch tox i c f l oor c l eansers and l iqu ids . advance in case any sys t em fa i l s .
 620- 10
10 . Ma i n t enance shou l d beg i n a t the
t i me of i nsta l l at i on .
11 . Access f rom the out s i de of a bu i l d i ng
to i nter i or l oca t i ons whe r e the p l ant -
i ng is be i ng done shou l d be prov i d-
ed . For examp l e , a 750-L (200-ga l )
p l ant wi l l requ i re an open i ng a t l east
2 400 mm (8 f t ) square in order to
en t er a bu i l d i ng . The re is a l so the
need for a l ong- t erm access rout e i f
ma j or p l ants have to be rep l aced .

5 . 0 PLANT PALETTE

5 .1 Des i gn Ob j ec t i ves

1 . A f ee l i ng of t rans i t i on f rom ext er i or

space to i nter i or space shou l d be cre-
a t ed .

2 . A proper sense of sca l e shou l d be

g i ven to l arge i nter i or spaces .

3 . D i f f erent func t i ons shou l d be separa t -

ed phys i ca l l y and v i sua l l y.

4 . Arch i t ec tura l f orms shou l d be comp l e -

men t ed w i th p l ant s pr i mar i l y t hrough
cont ras t in form, t exture , and co l or.

5 . 2 Cha r ac t e r o f In t er i or P l an t s

S i ze:

Inter i or p l ants can be grouped by the fo l -

l ow i ng ca t egor i es of s i zes : groundcove rs ,
sma l l unders tory , l arge unders tory , uppe r
story ( t rees and pa l ms) , and v i nes and
hang i ng p l ants (Re f er to 5 .4 Common l y
Used P l ant s in th i s sec t i on for he i gh t ranges
in each o f these ca t egor i es) .
Many p l ant spec i es can be used in mor e
than one ca t egory , depend i ng on the i r par -
t i cu l ar s i ze and hab i t of growt h . The he i gh t
and spread at the t i me of p l ant i ng becomes
very i mpor t an t because mos t p l ant s wi l l no t
con t i nue to grow s i gn i f i cant l y , once p l ant -
ed i ndoors , un l ess g i ven mor e t han the i r
m i n i mum l i ght requ i remen t s . De t a i l ed
he i gh t and spread i n forma t i on is ava i l ab l e
s in the Un i t ed St a t es f rom growe rs t hrough
N
CIL the Assoc i a t ed Landscape Con t rac tors of
V Ame r i ca (ALCA) gu i de (see the Re f erences
s a t the end of th i s sec t i on) . Norma l s i ze
ranges are shown on the sca l e in F i gure
C 620-15 .
J
r Grow t h Hab i t :
O
Grow t h hab i t re f ers to the d i st r i but i on of
fo l i age on a p l ant and the charac t er of i ts
C t runk or t runks . P l ant s for i nter i or l and-
scapes can be se l ec t ed tha t have a w i de
var i e ty o f grow t h hab i t s f rom s t ems or
N t runks tha t are s i ng l e , mu l t i p l e , st ra i ght , or
620-11

U
s
n
J
r
0
'i
n

N
 620 - 1 2

curved (F i gure 620-16) , and f rom branch-

i ng s t ruc tures such as ova l , pyram i da l , fast i -
g i ate , l o l l i pop, scu l ptured , bra i ded , weep-
i ng or top i ary .

Tex ture :

Trop i ca l p l ant s are par t i cu l ar l y versa t i l e in

t e rms of t exture , g i ven the i r w i de range of
l eaf s i zes . The j uxt apos i t i on of p l ant s w i th
w i de l y d i f f erent t ex tures is one of the char -
acter i st i cs assoc i a t ed w i th crea t i ng a t rop i -
ca l appea rance (F i gure 620-17) . Fo l i age
t extures range f rom the f i ne l acy de l i cacy of
a Ma i denha i r Fern to the coarseness of a
B i rd-of -Parad i se ' s huge l eaves or the many
l obes of a Se l l oum Ph i l odendron . Many
t runks and s t ems a l so g i ve a f ee l i ng o f tex-
ture , f rom the smoo t h t runk of the F i cus to
the coarse t runk of some of the pa l ms .

Co l or .

F l owers are the source of co l or for mos t

p l ant i ngs , bu t f l ower i ng typ i ca l l y requ i res a
h i gh l eve l of l ight , and p l ants mus t be
rot a t ed every 3 to 4 weeks . A w i de range
of co l ors is ava i l ab l e v i a p l ant fo l i age , how-
ever , i nc l ud i ng a range of greens (dark to
l ight ) , ye l l ow-greens to b l ue -greens , and
var i ega t ed var i e t i es ( l ight and dark ma rk -
i ngs) . Co l or var i a t i on is some t i mes h i gh-
l i ghted , as w i th t exture , by p l ac i ng p l ant s to
emphas i ze the cont ras t s .

5 . 3 Des i gn Sugges t i ons

1 . The need for h i gh l eve l s of l ight , par -
t i cu l ar l y na tura l l ight , and the use of
i . g l ass-enc l osed spaces to ach i eve a
I
t rans i t i on f rom ext er i ors to i nter i ors
have resu l t ed in a f ew common i den-
1 . Tab l e 620-4 l ists the env i ronment a l requ i rement s of a numbe r of spec i es common to
Nor th Amer i can inter ior l andscapes . Se l ec t i on of p l ant ma t er i a l s is based on these t i f i ab l e arch i tec tura l and i nter i or l and-
scape pro to t ypes (F i gure 620-18) .
requ i rement s and the des i gn ob j ec t i ves .
2 . P l ant s shou l d be grouped i nto mass -
2. I t is pre f erab l e to spec i fy p l ant ma t er i a l s whose na tura l shape can be ma i nt a i ned i ngs as a coun t e rba l ance to the mor e
e i ther by s l ow growt h w i thou t prun i ng , or by s t andard prun i ng prac t i ces (see F i gures f orms .
dom i nan t arch i t ec tura l
620-20 through 620-27 for the s i ze and shape of common l y used p l ants) . Uppe r
A l t hough a ma t t e r of sub j ec t i v i ty ,
story p l ants spec i f i ed for we l l - l i t t wo story or tal l one story spaces shou l d not exceed
mos t i nter i or p l ant i ng des i gns canno t
2 / 3 the he i ght of the space in when they are p l anted , to i nsure adequa t e room for
func t i on e f f ec t i ve l y as par t o f the
growt h (F i gure 620-3) .
overa l l des i gn un l ess t hey are drama t -
3 . S i ze at the t i me of p l ant i ng is very i mpor t ant because mos t p l ants wi l l not cont i nue ic in quant i t y , s i ze , and a r r angemen t
to grow s ign i f i cant l y , un l ess g i ven mor e than the i r m i n i mum l ight requ i rement s . (F i gure 620-19) .
V
Suf f i c i ent access f rom the outs i de of a bu i l d i ng to inter ior l andscapes mus t be pro- 3. Reg i ona l d i f f erences and sty l es in
v i ded . des i gn can be ach i eved by se l ec t i ng
n
i p l ant s based on the i r charac t er , s i ze ,
J 4 . Tex ture and co l or are i mpor t ant des i gn cons i dera t i ons , of t en h i gh l i ght ed by empha -
r and t exture , and by the manne r in
s i z i ng cont rasts be t ween var i ous spec i es . Fo l i age is typ i ca l l y the pr i mary source of
.O wh i ch they are composed . The char -
co lor , as f l owers usua l l y requ i re h i gh l eve l s of l ight and p l ants mus t be f requent l y
i ac t er of a t empera t e , t rop i ca l , or ar i d
rota ted .
ext er i or l andscape can be rep l i ca t ed
C i ndoors t hrough the cho i ce and use of
5 . A numbe r of common l y used bu i l d i ng protot ypes for inter ior l andscapes have been
deve l oped based on arch i tectura l and l i ght i ng requ i rement s (F i gure 620-18) . P l ants var i ous p l ants and cons t ruc t i on ma t e -
are of t en massed and comp l i men t ed w i th wa t er fea tures , l and forms and rocks w i th i n r ia ls . A l so , the use of spec i men p l ant -
N these l andscapes to count erba l ance the more dom i nan t arch i tectura l forms . i ngs can make a des i gn espec i a l l y d i s-
 620- 1 3
t i nc t i ve . The sty l e of p l ant ers can a l so i n forma t i on on t he range of env i ronmen t a l
se t a t one or est ab l i sh a par t i cu l ar cond i t i ons tha t var i ous p l ant s requ i re .
charac t er.
REFERENCES
4 . In add i t i on to p l ants , o ther l andscape
e l ement s , such as wa t e r f ea tures ,
l and forms , and rocks-can be used to ALCA Gu i de to Int er i or Landscap i ng ,
he l p crea t e a var i e ty o f l andscape Assoc i a t ed Landscape Con t rac tors o f
e f f ec ts . Ame r i ca , 1750 Meadow Road , McLean ,
VA 22102 , 1982 .
5 . G i ven the re l a t i ve l y l ow l i ght cond i -
Bednar , M i chae l l . The New At r i um ,
t i ons in typ i ca l i nter i or se t t i ngs [1 600
McGraw-H i l l , New York , 1986 .
Ix (150 fc) or l ess] , mos t i nter i or p l ant s
wi l l usua l l y not f l ower [Spa th i phy l l um Ca they , H. M. "Rays , The Bas i s o f L i ght :
is one except i on tha t wi l l f l ower at I ndoor Ga rden i ng , " Int er i orscape ,
1 070 Ix (100 fc) or grea t er ] . For per - Decembe r 1982 .
manen t co l or in the des i gn , there fore , Furut a , Tok. Inter i or Landscap i ng , Res t on
p l ant s grown spec i f i ca l l y for the i r Pub l i ca t i on Co ., Inc ., Res ton , VA, 1983 .
f l owers shou l d be used . F l ower i ng Ga i nes , R i chard L . Inter i or P l ant scap i ng ,
p l ant s wi l l need to be changed Arch i t ec tura l Record Books , New York ,
approx i ma t e l y every 2 to 6 weeks , 1977.
depend i ng on the i r spec i es and the
Gra f , A l f red B . Exot i ca , Ser i es IV, Roehrs ,
amoun t of l i ght and wa t e r t hey
Eas t Ruther ford , NJ , 1985.
rece i ve , i f t he f l owers are to rema i n
f resh in appea r ance . A f l ower se l ec t i on Hamme r , Ne l son R . , ASLA . Int er i or
schedu l e shou l d be es t ab l i shed and Landscape Des i gn , McGr aw-H i l l , New
coord i na t ed w i th wha t eve r ma t er i a l s York , 1992
are ava i l ab l e l oca l l y. Manake r , George H. , Inter i or P l ant scape ,
Prent i ce-Ha l l , Eng l ewood Cl i f fs, NJ , 1981 .
5 . 4 Common l y Used P l an t s
Scr i vens , St ephen . Inter i or P l ant i ng in Large
S i ze Ca t egor i es : Bu i l d i ngs , The Arch i t ec tura l Press , London ,
1980 .
Inter i or p l ant s are typ i ca l l y ca t egor i zed
accord i ng to the fo l l ow i ng s i zes :

1 . Trees : 1 500 t o 75 000 mm (5 to 25 f t )

or mor e

2. Large unders tory : 900 to 1 500 mm

(3 t o5 f t )

3. Sma l l unders tory : 300 to 900 mm

(1 to 3 f t )

4 . Groundcove r : l ess than 300 mm (1 f t )

5 . V i nes and hang i ng p l ant s : No t ca t ego-

r i zed by s i ze

P l an t L i st :
s
F i gures 620-20 t hrough 620-27 show var i -
ous p l ant s tha t have proved to be v i ab l e as
i nter i or p l ant s and are read i l y ava i l ab l e in
V
Nor t h Ame r i ca . Many o ther spec i es and
add i t i ona l var i e t i es ex i st tha t may be as
good or be t t er for spec i f i c purposes . n
Des i gners are urged to keep a l er t to new L
p l ant s and t o exp l ore new ways to use r
o ther f ami l i ar p l ant s . O

Env i ronmen t a l Cond i t i ons:

n
The numbe r of p l ant s ava i l ab l e to t he
des i gner i ncreases drama t i ca l l y as the phys-
i ca l requ i remen t s of p l ant s (par t i cu l ar l y 0
l ight ) are op t i m i zed . Tab l e 620-4 g i ves N
 620-14
Tab l e 620 - 4a . L I GHT I NG USE REQU I REMENTS FOR COMMONLY USED PLANTS - TREES

L I GH I TEMPERATURE (F) MO I STURE SI ZE (HE I GHT) WE I GHT CHARACTER USE

Med- Ve ry I ~e r "
i un NO h i gh coed
. La rge
Bo t an i ca l name ,
common name Low , 75-100 21X SIX Coo l W Wam , Bonea l Muc , NOMed Max , Br ow Unde r -
50k h k fc 4060° 50-70° 62-85° E Mo i s t We t m (fl) m ((!) OIL) Oh. ) l ea f Pa l m OBn r f t ry

A i phanes ca r yo t ae f o l i a
" 1 . 5 -6 9 1125 2700
sp i ne pa l m (5 -20) (30) (2500) (6000)

Ar auca r i a he t e rophy l l a , " 9-4 .5 7 .5 675 2250

No r f o l k I s l and p i ne (3 -15) (25) (1500) ( 5000 )

Ar ecas t rum r omanzo f f i anum , 1 . 5 -6 9 1125 2700

queen pa l m (5-20) (30) ( 2500 ) ( 6000 )
i
Beauca r nea r ecurva t a , 6-3 6 675 125
pony t a i l pa l m (2-10) (20) ( 1500 ) ( 2500 )

Br assa i a ac t i nophy l l a , 9-6 12 1125 3600

sche f f l e r a (3-20) (40) ( 2500 ) ( 18000 )
I
Buc i da buce r as , 1 . 5-3 4. 5 225 675
b l ack o l i ve (5-10) (15) ( 500) ( 1500 )

Bu t i a cap i t a t a , 1 . 5-6 9 1125 2700

j e l l y pa l m (5 -20) (30) ( 2500 ) ( 6000 )

Ca r yo f a ur ens , 1 . 5-6 9 1125 2700

f i sht a i l pa l m (5 -20) (30) ( 2500 ) ( 6000 )

Qus i a rosea , 1 . 5-6 9 125 2700

au t og r aph t r ee (5 -20) (30) ( 2500 ) (6000)

Cocco l oba uv i f e r a , 1 5 - 4 .5 6 675 1125

sea g r ape (5 -15) (20) (1500) (2500)

F i cus ben j am i na , . 9-6 12 1125 3600

weep i ng f i g (3 -20) (40) ( 2500 ) (8000)

F i cus ben j am i na ' Exo t i ca , ' 9-6 12 1125 3600

Java f i g (3 -20) (40) ( 2500 ) ( 8000 )

F i cus e l as t i cs ' Decor a , ' " 9-6 12 1125 3600

rubbe r p l an t (3 -20) (40) ( 2500 ) ( 8000 )

F i cus l yra t e , 9-6 12 1125 3600

f i dd l e l ea f f i g (3-20) (40) ( 2500 ) ( 8000 )
i
F i cut i r e t usa n i t i da , " " . 9-6 12 ~ 1125 3600
I nd i an l aure l (3-20) (40) ( 2500 ) ( 8000 )

V
s

J
a_
O
O
C

0
N
 620-15
Tab l e 620 - 4b . L I GHT I NG USE REQU I REMENTS FOR COMMONLY USED PLANTS - LARGE UNDERSTORY

L I GHT TEMPERATURE (F) MO I STURE SI ZE RANGE (FT) USE

Very Inter - Sma l l

Bot an i ca l name , Low , Med i um , H igh, H igh, Coo l , med i a t e , Wa rm , Si ze Range , under -
common name 50 Ic 75-100 fc 200 fc 500 fc 40-60° 50-70° 62-85° Dry mo i s t we t m (f t .) story

Brassa i a arbor i col a I To 4 .5 (15)

Hawa i i an schef f l era
Caryota mi t is, " To 7 .5 (25)
c l ump i ng f ishtai l pa l m
Chamaedorea erumpens , To 4 .5 (15)
bamboo pa l m
Chamaedorea Sei fr izi i , To 4 .5 (15)
reed pa l m
Chamaerops humi hs , To 6 (20)
European fan pa l m
Chrysa l idocarpus futescens, To 7 .5 (25)
but ter f ly pa l m (Areca pa lm)
Ci bo l i um schi edes, ! To 4.5 (15)
t ree fern
Cycas ci rcinal is, ' To 3 .6 (12)
fern pa l m
Cycas revoluta, To 3 (10)
sago pa l m
D i ckson i a f ibrosa, To 6 (20)
go l den t reefern
D i ef tenbach i a amoena , To 1 .8 (6)
g i ant dumbcane
D i ef fenbach i a 'Tropi c Snow, ' To 1 .8 (6)
t ropi c snow dumbcane
D i zygotheca e l egant i ss ima , To 7 .5 (25)
fa lse aral ia
Dracaena deremens i s To 1 .5 (5)
'Janet Cra ig, '
Janet Cra i g dracaena
Dracaena deremens i s
'Warneck i i , ' To 1 .5 (5)
Warneck i i dracaena
Dracaena f ragrans
'Massangeana , ' To 6 (20)
corn pl ant
Dracaena marg inata , To 6 (20)
Madagascar dragon t ree
Draecana ref l exa angust i fol i a " To 6 (20)
(Pl eome l e)
Ma l ays i an dracaena V
Howe i a forsterana, To 4 .5 (15)
kent i a pa l m
Phoen i x roebe l eni i , To 3 .6 (12)
dwar f da te pa l m L
r
Pol ysc i as f rut icose, To 3 .6 (12)
M i ng aral ia
Rhaps i a exce l sa, To 6 (20)
l ady Pa l m n
Spa th i phyhum ' Mauna Loa, ' To 1 .5 (5)
Mauna Loa peace l i ly
Yucca e l ephant ipes,
spine l ess yucca j
To 6 (20)
N

T i me-Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 620-16
TABLE 620 -4c . L I GHT I NG REQU I REMENTS FOR COMMONLY USED PLANTS - SMALL UNDERSTORY

LI GHT TEMPERATURE (F) MO I STURE HE I GHT

ry
Inter
Bot an i ca l name , Low Med i um H i gh h i gh Coo l , med i a t e Wa rm , S i ze range ,
common name SO f c 75-100 f c 200 f c 500 fc 40-60° 50-70 ' 62-85 Dry Mo i s t We t m ( f t .)

Ag l aonema commo t a t um ,
va r i ega t ed Ch i nese To .6 (2)
eve rgr een

Ag l aonema F r anshe r ' To " 6 (2)

F r anshe r eve rgr een

Ag l aonema ' Ma l ay Beau t y '

( ' Pewt er ' ) , " To . 6(2)
pew t e r ag l aonema

Ag l aonema ' Par rot l ung l e , ' To .6 (2)

pa r ro t j ung l e eve rgreen

Ag l aonema
' Pseudo -brac t ea turn , To .9 (3)
go l den eve rgreen

Ag l aonema 'S i l ver Queen , ' To .6 (2)

s i l ver queen eve rgr een

Aspa r agus p i umosus , " To .6 (2)

f e rn aspa r agus

Aspa r agus sprenger i , To .6 (2)

f e rn aspa r agus

Asp i d i s t ra e l a t i on " To .9 (3)

cas t - i ron p l ant

Asp i en i um n i dus , " To 1 .2 (4)

b i rd ' s nes t f e rn

Chamaedo r ea e l egans , To 1 .2 (4)

Nean t he Be l l a pa l m

Cod i aeum X Ka ren , To 1 .8 (6)

c ro t on

D i e f f enbach i a X Exot i ca , " To 1 .2 (4)

dumbcane

Dr acaena de r emens i s
' Jane t Cr a i g ' Compac t a , To .6 (2)
dwa r f Jane t Cra i g dr acaena

Fa t s i a j apon i ca , To 1 .2 (4)
Japanese f a t s i a

Nephro t ep i s exa l t a t a
' Bos ton i ens i s , ' " To .6 (2)
Bos t on f ern

Ph i l odendron se l l oum , " To 1 .8 (6)

sadd l e - l ea f ed ph i l odendron

Po l ypod i um aur eum

' Manda i anum , ' " To .9 (3)
N b l ue hare ' s- foo t , f ern
N
Po l ysc i as ba t t our i ana , " To 3 .6 (12)
Ba l f our ara l i a
V
N Sansev i e r i a t r i f asc i a t a l aurent i i , " " To 1 .2 (4)
snake p l an t
C
Spa t h i phy l i um ' C l eve l and i i , '
L C l eve l and peace l i ly
To .9 (3)

L
Spa t h i phy l l um wa l l i s i i , " To .3 (1)
wh i t e f l ag

Spa t h i phy l l t i m ' Mauna

C Loa Supr eme , ' To .6 (2)
Mauna Loa peace l i ly supr eme

Zam i a fur furacea , " To 1 .5 (5)

N Jama i ca sago t ree

T i me - Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Ar ch i t ec t ur e

 620 - 17

Tab l e 620 - 4d . L I GHT I NG REQU I REMENTS FOR COMMONLY USED PLANTS - GROUNDCOVER , VI NES , AND HANG I NG PLANTS

L I GHT TEMPERATURE (F) MO I STURE USE HANG I NG SIZE RA NGE

Very
Bo t an i ca l name , Low , Med i um , H i gh , H i gh , Int er - Wa rm ,
common name 50 f c 75-100 200 500 Coo l , med i a t e , 62-85° Ground Hang- S i ze range
fc fc fc Dry Mo i s t We t cove r v i ne i ng m (k)
I

Anansa comosus var i ega t es ,

va r i ega t ed p i neapp l e ! To .6 (2)

Aspa r agus p l umosum , To .9 (3)

f ern aspa r agus

Aspa r agus sprenger i , " To .9 (3)

f ern aspa r agus

Ch l orophy t um comosum ' Va r i ega t um , ' To .6 (2)

va r i ega t ed sp i de r p l an t j

C i ssus ant arc t i ca , To .9 (3)

kanga roo v i ne

C i ssus rhomb i f o l i a ' Manda i ana , ' To .9 (3)

gr ape i vy

C i ssus rhomb i f o l i a Then Dan i ca , ' To .9 (3)

oak l ea f gr ape i vy

Cr y t om i um f a i ca t um , To .6 (2)
ho l l y f ern

Ep i p r emnum aur eum , To .9 (3)

go l den Po t hos

Fa t shede r a l i ze i , 'Pi a , ' To .9 (3)

ara l i a i vy

F i cus pum i l a , To .6 (2)

c r eep i ng f i g

Hede r a canar i ens i s , " To .9 (3)

A l ge r i an i vy

Hede r a he l i x , " To .3 (1)

Eng l i sh i vy

Hoya ca rnosa , " To .9 (3)

Ind i an rope p l an t

L i r i ope mosca r i , To .3 (1)

monkey grass

Ma r an t a l euconeur a caro l i nae

Ke r chov i ana , " " To 25 ( . 75
pr aye r p l ant

Mons t e r a de l i c i osa , To .9 (3)

Mex i can bread f ru i t

Neor egeha ca ro l i nae ' Tr i co l or , ' " To .3 (1)

t r i co l or brome l i ad

Nephro l eps i s exa l t a t a ' Bos ton i ens i s , ' To .6 (2)

s
Bos t on f ern
I Q
Ph i l odendron oxyca rd i um , "
I To .9 (3)
hear i l ea f ph i l odendron
I,
V
s
Ph i l odendron pandur ae f orme , To .6 (2)
f i dd l e l ea f ph i l odendron n
L
I

P l a t yce r i um b i f urca t um , " To .9 (3)

s t aghorn f ern r

Sanseve r i a t r i f asc i a t a ' Hahn i i , ' To . 15 ( .5)

b i rd ' s nes t snake p l ant
i
S t ephano t i s f l or i bunda , To .9 (3)
Madagasca r j asm i ne

Syngon i um podophy l l um ' Noack Wh i l e , ' To .6 (2)

0
Noack Wh i t e neph t hy t i s

Tradescan t i a f l um i nens i s , To . 15 ( .5)

N
I
wande r i ng Jew

T i me - Savo r S t anda rds f or 1 ands r anp r rh i t Pr t ur a

 SECT I ON iZ

D i s t urbed Landscapes

Con t r i bu tors :
W i l l i am Agnew
REVEL Env i ronmen t a l Consu l t i ng , I nc .
For t Co l l i ns , Co l or ado

He rbe r t R. Schaa l
EDAW , Inc .
For t Co l l i ns , Co l or ado

Ma r c The i sen
Syn t he t i c Indus t r i es
Cha t t anooga , Tennessee

Rev i ewe rs :
Dr . Dav i d Johnson
Wes t e rn Eco l og i ca l Resour ces
Bou l der , Co l or ado

Dr . Edwa rd F. Reden t e
Shepa rd M i l l er , I nc .
For t Co l l i ns , Co l or ado

CONTENTS

1 .0 Int roduc t i on St rawba l e D i kes St ra t i graphy

1 .1 Prob l em o f Eros i on Si l t Fences 5 . 0 Sur f ace Cond i t i on i ng
2 .0 Rec l ama t i on Process Grave l Bag St ruc tures Topso i l
2 .1 Es t ab l i sh i ng Ob j ec t i ves Con t i nuous Be rms St ab i l i z i ng Topso i l s
Mee t i ng Gove rnmen t St anda rds Rock Check Dams I mprov i ng Wa t e r Re t ent i on Capac i t y

u
Q
Econom i c and Soc i a l Ob j ec t i ves 3 .2 Eros i on Con t ro l Techno l og i es Mod i f y i ng Ac i d i c So i l s
Env i ronmen t a l Ob j ec t i ves 3 .3 Tempor a ry Degr adab l e Ma t er i a l s Mod i f y i ng Sa l i ne So i l s
Eva l ua t i on of Ob j ec t i ves Mu l ches App l y i ng Fer t i l i zers
2 . 2 Fac tors In f l uenc i ng Me t hods o f Tack i f i ers Seedbed Prepara t i on n
Rec l ama t i on Bi ax i a l l y Or i en t ed Process Ne t s Mu l ches a
Soi l Charac t er i s t i cs Bonded F i ber Ma t r i x Sys t ems 6 . 0 P l ant i ng L
Vege t a t i on F i ber Rov i ng Sys t ems Tempor a ry Eros i on Con t ro l P l ant i ngs
O t he r Cons i dera t i ons Eros i on Con t ro l B l anke t s / Ma t s Pe rmanen t P l ant i ngs
2 .3 Se l ec t i ng Appropr i a t e Rec l ama t i on 3 .4 Tur f Re i n f orced Ma t s Se l ec t i ng P l ant Ma t er i a l r
Me t hods , Ma t er i a l s , and Deve l op i ng 3 .5 Ha rd Armor Sys t ems Acqu i r i ng P l ant Ma t er i a l
a P l an Geoce l l u l ar Con t a i nmen t Sys t ems Na t i ve Regrow t h
s
3 . 0 Prot ec t i on o f So i l , Wa t e r Qua l i t y , and Fabr i c Formed Reve t men t s Nurse ry Stock
Ad j acen t Und i s t urbed Ar eas Conc re t e B l ock Sys t ems Seed i ng Me t hods
3 .1 Use o f Sed i men t and Fros i on Con t ro l Gab i ons P l ant i ng Schedu l es
Dev i ces R i p- rap 7 .0 Es t ab l i shmen t and Ma i n t enance o f 0
Sed i men t Con t ro l Techn i ques 4 .0 Landshap i ng and St ra t i graphy Vege t a t i on
Sed i men t Bas i ns Landshap i ng Re f erences
 640 -2
Pub l i c Law (PL) 95-87 , the Sur f ace M i n i ng l eve l s , and cover i ng al l ac i d- form i ng and
1 . 0 I NTRODUCT I ON
Con t ro l and Rec l ama t i on Ac t (SMCRA) of o ther tox i c ma t er i a l s . Add i t i ona l ob j ec t i ves

A
d i s turbed l andscape is any por t i on of 1977 , crea t ed the Of f i ce of Sur f ace M i n i ng . are der i ved f rom the l and use goa l s for the
l and sur f ace tha t has been drast i ca l - These t wo ac ts se t ou t a var i e ty of spec i f i c d i s turbed area .
ly a l t ered and is not in an a t t rac t i ve , requ i rement s , but the i r common goa l is to
Econom i c and Soc i a l Ob j ec t i ves :
stab l e , or produc t i ve cond i t i on . D i s turbed l imi t eros i on and re turn the l andscape to a
l ands are ex t reme l y vu l nerab l e to eros i on , s t ab l e and produc t i ve cond i t i on . S i nce De t e rm i n i ng pot ent i a l uses for any g i ven
and they may have sur f aces unsu i t ab l e for SMCRA , a var i e ty of o ther l aws have been s i te may be made by :
p l ant grow t h because of compac t i on , enac t ed tha t u l t i ma t e l y i mpac t l arge sca l e
s t eepness , ston i ness , infer t i l i ty, phy to tox i c d i s turbance act i v i t i es and i nc l ude : Wa t e r 1 . Ident i f y i ng uses for wh i ch there may be
chem i ca l s , ac id i ty , a l ka l ini ty, or i nstab i l i ty. Qua l i t y Ac t of 1987 wh i ch out l i ned the a demand or a need
F l oods , f i re, vo l can i c erupt i on , agr i cu l ture , Na t i ona l S t ormwa t e r program ; Haza rdous 2 . Ana l yz i ng proposed uses to con f i rm the
m i n i ng , h i ghway cons t ruc t i on , overuse , and So l i d Was t e Amendmen t s to RCRA degree of demand or need t hrough a
and l and deve l opmen t are examp l es of na t - (1984) and RCRA , subt i t l e D (1991) wh i ch ma r ke t ana l ys i s
ura l even t s and human act i v i t i es wh i ch cre- ca l l ed for m i n i mum na t i onw i de s t andards
a t e d i s turbed l andscapes . for prot ec t i ng human hea l th and t he env i - 3 . Ana l yz i ng the s i te to de t e rm i ne eng i -
ronmen t and prov i ded t echn i ca l suppor t to neer i ng and env i ronmen t a l feasab i l i t i es
1 .1 Prob l em o f Eros i on st a t es to deve l op env i ronmen t a l l y sound
4 . Ana l yz i ng costs and bene f i t s to de t er -
was t e managemen t s t andards ;
The i mpac t of a par t i cu l ar l and d i s turbance m i ne the re turn on i nves tmen t and the
Amendmen t to the C l ean Wa t e r Ac t of
is rare l y l i mi ted to the a l t ered s i te . Soi l ero- soc i a l , env i ronmen t a l , and econom i c
1992 began requ i r i ng d i s turbances grea t er
s i on is i nev i t ab l e on d i s turbed l andscapes consequences of deve l opmen t
and wi l l s i gn i f i cant l y a f f ec t downs t r eam t han 5 acres to ob t a i n a NPDES perm i t to
wa t ers . The U .S . Env i ronmen t a l Prot ec t i on he l p i dent i f y and quant i f y re l eases of po l l u- 5 . Crea t i ve l y app l y i ng pr i nc i p l es of l and-
Agency (EPA) repor ts tha t sed i men t y i e l ds t ants i nto our wa t e rsheds . scape arch i t ec ture to ach i eve e f f i c i enc i es ,
f rom areas unde rgo i ng cons t ruc t i on are 20 max i m i ze bene f i ts , and m i n i m i ze adverse
Sec t i on 640 descr i bes genera l pr i nc i p l es
to 40 , 000 t i mes grea t er t han f rom und i s- env i ronmen t a l i mpac t s
and me t hods of rec l ama t i on use fu l in
turbed wood l ands . Each year in t he Un i t ed accomp l i sh i ng tha t goa l . 6 . Organ i z i ng pub l i c mee t i ngs to sol i c i t
Sta tes , 3 600 bi l l ion kg (4 bi l l ion tons) of i nput f rom the commun i t y
so i l e rode f rom t he l and . Sed i men t 2 . 0 RECLAMAT I ON PROCESS
accoun t s for mor e t han z / 3 of al l po l l ut ant s Env i ronmen t a l Ob j ec t i ves :
ent er i ng U .S . wa t e rways . Es t i ma t es i nd i ca t e A l t hough t he bas i c rec l ama t i on process is In add i t i on to econom i c and soc i a l ob j ec -
up to $13 bi l l ion per year is spen t in the
t he same for bo t h ex i st i ng and proposed t i ves , cons i dera t i on shou l d be g i ven to such
U .S . to d i rec t l y m i t i ga t e the of f -s i te i mpac t s l andscape d i s turbances , there are severa l env i ronmen t a l f ac tors as :
o f eros i on and sed i men t . Sed i men t
s i gn i f i cant advan t ages to p l ann i ng the
adverse l y a f f ec ts recrea t i ona l areas , aqua t i c rec l ama t i on pr i or to the d i s turbance . Pr i or 1 . Wa t e r qua l i ty
l i fe, and domes t i c wa t e r supp l i es . p l ann i ng can l imi t bo t h on- and of f -s i te 2 . Ai r qua l i ty
So i l s deve l op s l ow l y t hrough comp l ex i mpac t s , make the opera t i ons and use of
equ i pmen t mor e e f f i c i ent , speed up the 3 . Eros i on
organ i c and i norgan i c processes . One hun-
dred years are requ i red for the f orma t i on of rec l ama t i on process , prov i de be t t er rec l a-
4 . Aes the t i cs
25 mm (1 in) o f topso i l in typ i ca l subhum i d ma t i on cond i t i ons , and s i gn i f i cant l y reduce
reg i ons . In ar id reg i ons and h i gh-a l t i tude the cos t s . 5 . Wi ldl i fe
areas , whe r e na tura l processes are much The fo l l ow i ng st eps are essent i a l : 6 . Ad j acen t areas
s l owe r t han in hum i d reg i ons , 1000 years
may be requ i red . Topso i l is c l ear l y a mos t 1 . Es t ab l i sh i ng ob j ec t i ves 7 . Long- r ange produc t i v i t y
va l uab l e and l i mi ted na tura l resource wh i ch
2 . De t e rm i n i ng f ac tors tha t may i nf l uence 8 . Pos t -d i s turbance l anduse
s has to be managed w i th grea t care and
me t hods of rec l ama t i on
respons i b i l i ty. Eva l ua t i on o f Ob j ec t i ves :
d
3 . Se l ec t i ng appropr i a t e rec l ama t i on me t h-
u In response to th i s i ncreas i ng env i ron- Ob j ec t i ves shou l d be spec i f i c and quant i f i -
ods , ma ter i a l s , and deve l op i ng a p l an
men t a l awa reness , i mpor t an t l eg i s l a t i on ab l e . They mus t be rea l i st i c and ma t ched to
has been dra f t ed to he l p cont ro l the prob- 2 .1 Es t ab l i sh i ng Ob j ec t i ves accep t ab l e r i sks and reasonab l e costs . For
IC
l ems of eros i on and wa t e r po l l ut i on . The examp l e , i t is poss i b l e to :
L U .S . f edera l gove rnmen t passed the Mee t i ng Gove rnmen t St anda rds:
Na t i ona l Env i ronmen t a l Po l i cy Ac t in 1969 1 . De t e rm i ne t he amoun t of eros i on wh i ch
and l a ter passed Pub l i c Law (PL) 92-500 , The s t andards es t ab l i shed in the Un i t ed wi l l occur on a d i s turbed s i te dur i ng cer -
St a t es (and in many o ther count r i es) by ta i n h i gh-prec i p i t a t i on even t s .
r an amendmen t to t he Federa l Wa t e r
f edera l , state , and l oca l gove rnmen t s pro-
Po l l ut i on Con t ro l Ac t Amendmen t s o f 2 . De t e rm i ne the f requency o f these even t s
v i de the bas i s for many rec l ama t i on ob j ec -
s 1972 . In 1972 , t he Federa l C l ean Wa t e r Ac t and est ab l i sh the r i sk for any g i ven year .
es t ab l i shed t he Na t i ona l Po l l ut ant t i ves . The s t andards typ i ca l l y requ i re such
0 measures as re turn i ng the ground sur f ace 3 . De t e rm i ne the loss and damage wh i ch
D i scharge E l i m i na t i on Sys t em (NPDES) per -
m i t sys t em . Th i s amendmen t encourages t o approx i ma t e l y i ts or i g i na l contour , wou l d resu l t f rom the even t .
0 reest ab l i sh i ng vege t a t i ve cove r to cont ro l
st a t es to est ab l i sh regu l a t i ons to cont ro l
eros i on a t a degree equa l to pred i s turbance
non-po i n t sources of wa t e r po l l ut ant s .
 640 - 3

Tab l e 640 -1 . SO I L MATER I AL SU I TAB I L I TY FOR SALVAGE AND RECLAMAT I ON USE .

Leve l s o f su i tab i l i ty by so i l group '

M8 j orpa r ame t e rs GOOD FA I R POOR UNSU I TABLE

USDA so i l t ex t ure F i ne sandy l oam , ve ry C l ay l oam , sandy c l ay Sandy , l oamy sand , C l ay - t ex t ured so i l s
f i ne sandy l oam , l oam , s i l ty c l ay sandy c l ay , s i l ty w i t h mo r e t han
l oam , si l t l oam , l oam c l ay , c l ay 60% c l ay
sandy l oam

Sa l i n i ty , mmhos** l cm <3 3-6 6-9 >9

A l ka l i n i t y <4 4-8 8-12 >12

( exchangeab l e
sod i um pe rcen t age , ESP)

Concen t r a t i on o f tox i c or Ve ry l ow Low Mode r a t e H i gh

undes i rab l e e l emen t s ;
i . e. , boron , se l en i um , arsen i c ,
l i me , e t c.

So i l pH 6 . 1-7 .8 5 . 1-6 .1 4 . 5-5 .0 <4 .5

7 . 9-8 .4 8 . 5-9 .0 >9 .1
Add i t i ona l pa r ame t e r s
t o be eva l ua t ed

Mo i s t cons i s t ency Ve ry f r i ab l e , f r i ab l e Loose , f i rm Ve ry f i rm,

ex t r eme l y f i rm

Coa r se f ragmen t s , % by vo l ume 0-10 10-20 20 -35 >35

Ava i l ab l e wa t e r - re t en t i on capac i t y , >0 - 400 (0-16) 2-4 (0 . 08-0 . 16 <2 (<0.8)

mm l mm ( i n l i n)

Permeab i l i t y , mm l h r ( i n l hr ) 15-150 (0 . 6-6 .0) 5-15 (0 . 2-0 .6) <5 or >150 (<0 .2 or >6 .0)

Organ i c ma t t e r , % >1 .5 0 .5-1 .5 <0 .5

So i l s t ruc ture Granu l ar , c rumb Pl aty , b l ocky Mass i ve , s i ng l e gra i n

* Ra t i ngs may be ra i sed one c l ass if soi l amendmen t s or managemen t pract i ces can be app l i ed to ove rcome the l imi tat ions .
Source F rom USDA Forest Serv i ce , Use r Gu i de to So i l s : M i n i ng and Rec l ama t i on in the West , Genera l Techn i ca l Repor t INT-68 , Int ermount a i n Forest and Range Exper i ment Stat ion .
" " mi l l imo l es per cub i c me t er

4 . Des i gn f ea tures to m i t i ga t e eros i on and o ther f ac tors , howeve r , cou l d prove to be de l i nea t i ons on the order of 4 ha (10 acres) .
s i l tat i on f rom t he even t . of equa l or even grea t er i mpor t ance in Orde r 2 mapp i ng re fers to sca l es of 1 :12,
some c i rcums t ances , depend i ng on the 000 to 1 : 31 , 680 w i t h m i n i mum de l i n-
5 . De t e rm i ne t he cos t of m i t i ga t i on mea -
reg i on and i ts c l i mac t i c character i st i cs , e t c . ea t i ons of 0 . 6 to 4 ha (1 .5 to 10 acres) .
sures and compa r e these w i th ant i c i pa t - Orde r 1 mapp i ng re fers to sca l es of l ess
ed damages and pro j ec t ed bene f i t s . I t is o f t en the i nt erac t i on of these f ac tors t han 1 : 12 , 000 and is used for mapp i ng
tha t is mos t cr i t i ca l when work i ng w i th d i s- comp l ex areas or whe r e there is a scarc i ty
I f the costs exceed the damages or ben-
t urbed s i tes . One or mor e o f these f ac tors of topso i l .
ef i ts, then the pro j ec t and i ts ob j ec t i ves may be in an ex t reme cond i t i on ; e .g ., the
shou l d be reexam i ned . So i l Tes t i ng- So i l tests prov i de the f unda -
soi l m i gh t be ex t reme l y dry or ex t reme l y
we t , very h i gh in ac id i ty , very l ow in organ- men t a l i n forma t i on needed to se l ec t mea -
2 . 2 Fac t ors I n f l uenc i ng Me t hods o f
ic ma t er i a l s , and par t of a s t eep , uns t ab l e sures for es t ab l i sh i ng vege t a t i on . I mpor t an t
Rec l ama t i on
s l ope . soi l charac ter i st i cs wh i ch can be i dent i f i ed s
The key to success fu l rec l ama t i on beg i ns
In mos t par ts o f the wor l d and on mos t
by f i e ld observa t i on i nc l ude : hor i zon th i ck-
ness , l i tho l ogy , co lor , t exture , st ruc ture ,
a
w i th a bas i c know l edge of the s i te and the
na ture of the d i s turbance .
pro j ec ts , t he t wo f undamen t a l aspec t s of
rees t ab l i sh i ng a d i s turbed l andscape are :
coarse f ragmen t s , cons i s t ency , hardness , us
root d i st r i but i on , presence of l i me , pres-
The re are many s i te f ac tors tha t inf lu- (1) to prov i de a v i ab l e grow i ng med i um
ence o f so l ub l e sa l ts, and k i nds of vege t a - n
ence the var i ous me t hods of rec l ama t i on , (soi ls, wa t er , su i t ab l e s l opes , e t c .) and (2) to
t i on . Lab ana l ys i s de t e rm i nes : t exture , d i s-
i nc l ud i ng : (1) ex i st i ng soi l charac ter i st i cs , se l ec t or encourage appropr i a t e vege t a t i on . L
pers i on , wea therab i l i t y , wa t e r re t ent i on
(2) ex i st i ng vege t a t i on , (3) annua l and sea- capac i t y , sa tura t i on percen t age , hydrau l i c
sona l prec i p i t a t i on , (4) t empe r a t ur e So i l Charac t er i s t i cs: N
conduc t i v i t y , nut r i ent cont ent , t race e l e-
ex t remes , (5) evapot ransp i ra t i on rate , (6) Sa i l Mapp i ng - The Na tura l Resour ce men t s , and pH ( i f pH is grea t er t han 7 or r
w i nd , (7) grow i ng per i od , (8) s l ope , (9) Conserva t i on Serv i ce (NRCS) in the Un i t ed l ess t han 6, add i t i ona l tests are run for
aspec t , (10) e l eva t i on , (11) dra i nage pa t - St a t es (or i ts equ i va l ent in o ther count r i es) sa l ini ty, sod i c i ty , or ac id i ty , respec t i ve l y) . s
t erns , and (12) an i ma l , i nsect , and human
behav i or pa t t erns .
has genera l soi l maps for mos t areas . Mos t Lab tests for tox i c i ty de t e rm i ne the pres- 0
of th i s mapp i ng is cons i dered reconna i s- ence o f e l emen t s such as boron , mo l ybde -
Th i s sec t i on pr i mar i l y addresses t he f i rst sance l eve l , or Orde r 3, mapp i ng . Orde r 3 num , se l en i um, a l um i num , i ron pyr i te , and
mapp i ng re fers to map sca l es o f 1 : 12 , 000 manganese .
t wo of these f ac tors because o f the i r cr i t i ca l
i mpor t ance in al l rec l ama t i on pro j ec ts . The to 1 : 250 , 000 or sma l l er w i th m i n i mum
 640 - 4
In m i n i ng , boreho l e da t a is i nva l uab l e in O t he r Cons i de r a t i ons :
3 .0 PROTECT I ON OF SO I L ,
de t erm i n i ng t he amoun t and charac t er of
The U .S . Wea t he r Serv i ce ( and s i mi l ar WATER QUAL I TY , AND
soi l ma t er i a l s . When the m i ne p l an and t he
agenc i es in other count r i es) pub l i sh c l i ma - ADJACENT UND I STURBED
rec l ama t i on p l an are i nt egra t ed , the mos t
to l og i ca l da t a , and U .S . Geo l og i ca l Survey AREAS
e f f i c i ent use of equ i pmen t and opera t i ons
maps prov i de da t a needed to de t e rm i ne
resu l ts .
s l ope , aspec t , e l eva t i on , and dra i nage pa t -
Pr i nc i p l es and bas i c measures o f cont ro l -
Tab l e 640-1 prov i des da t a on soi l su i t - t erns . In forma t i on on an i ma l s , i nsects , and l ing and l i mi t i ng the e f f ec t of d i s turbances
ab i l i ty for sa l vage and rec l ama t i on use . human behav i or pa t t erns may be ob t a i ned
i nc l ude :
Su i tab i l i ty , as used in th i s tab l e , re fers to t he t hrough the NRCS , st a t e f i sh and game
qua l i t i es and proper t i es of na tura l soi l s or to depar tmen t s , loca l un i vers i t i es , loca l gov - 1 . Care fu l l y l i mi t i ng the s i ze of d i s turbances
soi l ma t er i a l s tha t chem i ca l l y and phys i ca l l y ernmen t s , and know l edgeab l e area res i - dur i ng cons t ruc t i on by i nd i ca t i ng t hem
prov i de the necessary wa t e r and nut r i ent den t s . on the p l ans and by us i ng bar r i cades and
supp l y for the top growt h and root deve l - bounda ry ma rke rs on-s i t e
opmen t of p l ant s . The ra t i ngs are i nd i ca tors 2 .3 Se l ec t i ng Appropr i a t e Rec l ama t i on
2 . Cor rec t i ng uns t ab l e cond i t i ons by
of the pot ent i a l qua l i ty of na tura l soi l pro- Me t hods , Ma t er i a l s , and
r emov i ng prob l em areas and by con-
f i les, cer ta i n soi l hor i zons , or the under l y i ng Deve l op i ng a P l an
s t ruc t i ng wa l l s
parent ma t er i a l , d i sregard i ng nut r i ent l eve l s .
The ac tua l me t hods used to rec l a i m d i s-
3 . Prot ec t i ng d i s turbed sur f aces f rom ero-
Vege t a t i on : turbed l andscapes wi l l vary somewha t f rom
s i on as soon as poss i b l e by cover i ng ,
reg i on to reg i on , depend i ng on the many
mu l ch i ng , and seed i ng
Ano t he r cr i t i ca l f ac tor i nf l uenc i ng me t hods d i f f erences i nvo l ved be t ween bas i c s i te f ac-
o f rec l ama t i on is t he se l ec t i on and / or tors . The overa l l rec l ama t i on process , how- 4. Keep i ng s t orm runof f ve l oc i t i es l ow by
encour agemen t of appropr i a t e vege t a t i on . ever , rema i ns the same and i nc l udes the roughen i ng sur f aces and by cons t ruc t i ng
L i st ed be l ow are typ i ca l cond i t i ons mos t fo l l ow i ng e l emen t s : check dams
o f t en cons i dered un f avorab l e for est ab l i sh-
1 . Prot ec t i on o f soi l , wa t e r qua l i ty , 5 . Prot ec t i ng d i s turbed sur f aces f rom s t orm
i ng vege t a t i on on a d i s turbed l andscape .
wi l d l i fe , and ad j acen t und i s turbed runof f by cons t ruc t i ng d i vers i on d i t ches ,
1 . So i l ma t er i a l s on very st eep , drought y , areas d i kes , and condu i t s
or uns t ab l e s l opes 2 . Landshap i ng and s t ra t i graphy 6 . Re t a i n i ng sed i men t on-s i t e by cons t ruc t -
2 . Sha l l ow or s tony so i l s w i t h t oo l i t t le si l t , 3 . Sur f ace cond i t i on i ng
i ng sed i men t ponds , si l t f ences , and f i l ter
c l ay, and humus to serve as reservo i rs boxes , and by us i ng chem i ca l f l occu l ent s
for p l ant nut r i ent s and soi l mo i s ture 4. P l ant i ng
7 . Ensur i ng the soi l sur f ace has adequa t e
3 . St rong l y ac i d , s t rong l y a l ka l i ne , or h i gh- 5 . Es t ab l i shmen t and ma i n t enance of roughness to l essen the i mpac t s of over -
sa l t so i l s vege t a t i on l and wa t e r f l ow and sed i men t t ranspor t
( the roughe r the be t t er )
4. Soi l ma t er i a l s con t a i n i ng reac t i ve pyr i t e Each o f these e l ement s is covered separa t e-
(FeS2) , wh i ch ox i d i zes to f orm su l fur i c ly and in mor e deta i l in 3 .0 of thi s sec t i on . F i gures 640-1 t hrough 640 - 10 i l lust rate
ac i d (H2SO4) var i ous ways to l imi t eros i on on d i s turbed
l andscapes . Tab l e 640 - 2 is a check l i st of
5 . So i l s w i th tox i c ma t er i a l s such as so l u- sed i men t cont ro l measures .
b l e copper , a l um i num , or manganese
6. So i l s very l ow in ava i l ab l e n i t rogen and
phosphorus

7 . We t and ponded soi l s

to 8 . Ve ry h i gh ra infa l l or very l ow and

a uncer t a i n ra infa l l In rec l a i m i ng a d i s turbed s i te i t is essent i a l to es t ab l i sh ob j ec t i ves , de t erm i ne f ac tors
i nf l uenc i ng me t hods of rec l ama t i on , se l ect the appropr i a t e rec l ama t i on me t hods and
ut l ' f 9 . Ac t i ve f rost heav i ng ma ter i a l s , and f i na l l y deve l op a p l an.

10 . Absence of essent i a l Rh i zob i um 1 . Success fu l rec l ama t i on beg i ns w i th a bas i c know l edge of the s i te and the na ture of
n ( l egume ) bac t er i a and mycor rh i za l fung i the d i s turbance . Unders t and i ng ex i st i ng soi l character i st i cs and vege t a t i on are t wo
and other bene f i c i a l m i croorgan i sms s i te f ac tors tha t are of cr i t ica l i mpor t ance in al l rec l ama t i on pro j ec ts .
L
The U .S . NRSC soi l surveys cont a i n veg-
e t a t i on da t a for var i ous s i te t ypes . 2 . O t he r s i te factors tha t may i nf l uence the me t hods of rec l ama t i on are : prec i p i tat i on,
t empera ture , evapot ransp i ra t i on rate , w i nd , grow i ng per i od, s l ope , aspec t , e l eva-
r Add i t i ona l s i te descr i pt i ons prov i de a
t ion, dra i nage pa t tern , and an i ma l , insect , and human behav i or .
de t a i l ed br eakdown by spec i es and i nc l ude
o ther re l evant da t a . Whe r e d i f f i cu l t or 3 . The t wo f undamen t a l aspec ts of reestab l i sh i ng a d i s turbed l andscape are to prov i de
unpreceden t ed soi l cond i t i ons ex i st , on-s i t e a v i ab l e grow i ng med i um (Tab l e 640-1) by manag i ng soi l d i s turbance to prevent
test p l ots shou l d be spec i f i ed to de t e rm i ne eros i on and to se l ect or encourage the appropr i a t e vege t a t i on tha t wi l l stabi l i ze the
t he response of se l ec t ed p l ants to proposed soi l (Tab l e 640-4) .
rec l ama t i on t echn i ques .
 640-5
3 .1 Use of Sed i men t and Eros i on
Cont ro l Dev i ces
One of the obj ect i ves of any revegetat ion
or eros ion cont rol pl an shou l d be to stabi -
l ize soi ls and manage eros ion and sed i ment
depos i t i on in an economi ca l manner .
Proj ect managers and key dec i s ion makers
are of ten hard pressed to rec l a im d i sturbed
si tes at a m i n i mum cost . G i ven si te cond i -
t ions such as s lope angl es, c l imate , runof f ,
soi l cond i t ion and end l and use , a spec i f ier
mus t se l ect wi th conf i dence a techn i que
he / she fee ls wi l l per form up to expecta-
t ions at the lowest cost. Frequent l y the
se l ect ion of appropr i ate sed i ment and ero-
s ion cont rol techn iques , in comb i nat i on,
may prov ide the greatest oppor tun i ty for
success (F igure 640-1) .
Sed i men t Con t ro l Techn i ques :
Sed i ment bas in - Sed i ment bas ins are
ponds created by excavat ion that are usu-
al ly temporary in des ign and are i ntended
to col lect and store sed i ment f rom si tes that
are c l eared and/or graded dur ing const ruc-
t ion . Frequent l y these si tes are lef t exposed
for extended per iods of t i me before e i ther
permanent vegetat ion is reestabl i shed or
permanent dra i nage st ructure comp l e ted .
Bas in const ruct ion is i ntended to t rap sedi -
ment before i t l eaves the d i sturbed si te .
Since sed i ment bas ins are temporary , they
must be ma i nta i ned unt i l the d i sturbance
area is permanent l y stabi l i zed (F ig . 640-6) .
St raw ba l e d i kes - St raw ba l e di kes inter-
cept and deta in sma l l amount s of sed i ment
t ranspor ted by sheet and rill type runof f .
The di kes t rap sed i ment by pond i ng wa t er
and a l l owi ng sed i ment to set t le out . St raw
ba l e di kes a lso s l ow runof f veloci t ies, act ing
to reduce sheet , rill and gul l y eros ion . St raw
ba l e di kes may a lso be used to reduce ero-
s ion and sed i mentat i ons around the distur-
bance area per imeter (F igure 640-7) .
A
Si l t fence - A si l t fence is a temporary
po l ypropy l ene sed i ment barr ier p l aced on bur l ap or po l ypropy l ene , f i l led wi th sui tabl e dissipate the energy of f l owi ng wa ter and Q
the s lope contour to t rap sed i ment by R3
mater i a l (sand or sed iments) and p l aced or reduce gul l y eros ion . They are temporary v
pond i ng wa ter beh i nd it and a l lowing sedi - stacked on the soi l sur face to create a con- stabi l i zat ion st ructures that are used unt i l
men t to set t le out . Si l t fence can ef fect i ve- t inuous berm . the dra i nageway is permanent l y stabi l i zed . n
ly t rap sheet and rill eros ion wi thin sma l l Check dams are used in ephemera l st reams a
dra i nage areas and on s lopes wi th grad i ents Cont i nuous berms - A cont i nuous berm is to reduce f l ow veloci t ies, t rap and store L
up to 2 :1 . Si l t fence is mos t cost ef fect ive a temporary di vers ion or sed i ment barr ier l arger -s i zed sed i ment and prov ide stabi l i zed
when used for sed i ment and eros ion con- const ructed wi th inf i l l mater i a l and used to drops .
trol around the per imeter of a d i sturbance di ver t and intercept sheet runof f . r
area . Cont i nuous berms are useful for eros ion 3 .2 Eros i on Cont ro l Techno l og i es
and sed i ment cont rol around the per imeter
Grave l bag st ructures - Simi lar to st raw of const ruct ion si tes . The berms deta in and It is i mpor tant to make a dist inct ion regard-
ba l e di kes and si l t fence , grave l bag st ruc- pond sed i ment l aden stormwater , resul t ing ing the i ntended use of eros ion and sedi -
tures are temporary st ructures used a long in sed i ment depos i t ion . ment cont rol mater i a l s . For many instal la-
const ruct ion per i meters or wi th in f l ow t ions, vegetat ion a lone wi l l prov ide ade- 0
channe l s to t rap sed i ments and/or s l ow Rock check dams - Check dams are rock qua t e l ong- term eros i on protect ion .
runof f ve loc i t ies . Bags are const ructed of dams const ructed across dra i nageways to However , get t ing vegetat ion establ i shed
 640 - 6
requi res a var i ety of techn iques . Mater i a l s
of a t emporary nature wh i ch faci l i tate veg-
etat i ve establ i shment , then degrade , are
ca l l ed temporary eros ion and revegetat ion
mater i a l s .
As prev ious l y di scussed, these temporary
mater i a l s cons i st of degradab l e natura l
and/or synthet i c component s wh i ch pro-
v ide temporary eros ion cont rol and a id in
the growth of vegetat ion . In on l y a f ew
instances are temporary products total ly
organ i c . Vi ta l geosynthet i c component s
inc lude net t ings, st i tchings and adhes i ves .
These shor t - term mater i a l s degrade l eav ing
on l y vegetat ion .
Temporary techn i ques inc lude the use of
st raw, hay and hydraul i c mu l ches , tack i f iers
and soi l stabi l i zers, hydrau l i c mu l ch
geof ibers ; eros ion cont rol nets, meshes ,
bl ankets, bonded f iber mat r i ces and f iber
rov ing systems .
Si te condi t ions requi r ing the h igher per -
formance of re inforced vegetat ion or revet -
ment systems wi l l requi re permanent ero-
sion and revegetat ion mater i a l s . Permanent
mater i a l s may be subd i v ided into biotechni -
cal compos i tes ' " when vegetat ion is rein-
forced or hard armor systems when non-
vege ta ted iner t mater i a l s are instal led .
Biotechni ca l compos i tes ' " are composed
of non-degradab l e mater i a l s wh i ch furni sh
temporary eros ion protect ion, acce l erate
vegetat i ve growth and ul t imate l y become
entang l ed wi th l iving pl ant t issue to extend
the per formance l imi ts of vegetat ion .
Re inforced vegetat ion prov ides a perma-
nent modera t e- to-h i gh f l ow res i stance
when biotechni ca l compos i tes are protect -
ed f rom sunl ight by shad i ng f rom vegeta-
t ion and soi l cover.
Examp l es of b iotechn i ca l compos i tes
inc lude UV stabi l i zed f iber rov ing systems ;
eros ion cont rol revegetat ion ma ts ; tur f re in-
N forcement ma ts ; permanent eros ion re in-
a forcement mat r i ces ; soi l and spor ts tur f 3 .3 Tempora ry Degradab l e Recyc l ed paper mu l ch is made f rom
V geof ibers ; vege ta ted geoce l lul ar conta in- Ma t er i a l s newspr int , magaz i nes and other wast e
men t systems ; and vege ta ted concrete paper sources . Wood f iber mu l ch is manu-
b lock systems . Hard armor systems gener - Mu l ches-Mu l ch appl i cat ions inc lude the factured f rom wood waste and the mu l ch
n al ly emp l oy iner t mater i a l s used to prov i de use of st raw or hay that is b l own or hand b l end is compr i sed of 70% wood f iber and
J h igh to max i mum f l ow res i stance where spread onto the sur face , hydraul i ca l l y 30% paper f iber. The hydraul i c mu l ch is
cond i t ions exceed per formance l imi ts of appl i ed mu l ches f rom recyc l ed paper , vi rgin mi xed in a hydraul i c appl i cat ion mach i ne
re inforced vegetat ion systems . Hard armor wood f iber , or a b l end of both . (hydroseeder ) and app l i ed as a l iquid slurry
r systems a l so are used to prov ide permanent St raw or hay mu l ch must be anchored wh i ch conta ins the recommended rate of
eros ion protect ion of areas subj ect to high seed and fer t i l i zer for the si te . Of t en
into the soi l i mmed i ate l y to mi n i mi ze loss
f lows, wave act ion and/or scour at tack . by w i nd or wa t er. St raw/hay mu l ch is hydrau l i c mu l ches are manuf ac tured con-
Examp l es inc lude geoce l lul ar conta i nment ta ining a tack i f ier to anchor the mater i a l to
0 anchored by cr imp ing, t rack ing, disk ing,
systems ; fabr ic formed revetments ; con- punch ing, net t ing or g lu ing . G lu ing can be the soi l sur face .
crete b lock systems ; gabions, r iprap, com- accomp l i shed wi th a var i ety of organ i c and
pos i tes and hybr ids . Tack i f i ers-Tack i f i ers are typica l ly used to
acryl ic tack i f iers . anchor or g lue mu l ch or st raw to increase
 640 - 7

the i r e f f ec t i veness f or e ros i on con t ro l , t hus

res i s t i ng movemen t by w i nd or wa t e r.
Some t ack i f i ers such as t hose made f rom
po l yme r s , p l an t muse l age or gua r a r e
ex t r eme l y i mpor t an t t o l ubr i ca t e t he s l ur r i es
and i nc rease app l i ca t i on e f f i c i ency and per -
f ormance . L i qu i d co -po l yme r s and na t ur a l
produc t s , t o a l i m i t ed ex t en t , can a l so be
spec i f i ed a l one t o con t ro l e ros i on and dus t ,
and s t ab i l i ze t he so i l sur f ace .

B i ax i a l l y or i en t ed process ne t s - B i ax i a l l y
or i en t ed process ne t s a r e t yp i ca l l y manu -
f ac t ured f rom po l ypropy l ene or po l ye t hy l -
ene res i ns. These ne t s a r e ex t r eme l y ve rsa -
t i l e in t ha t compos i t i on , s t reng t h , e l onga -
t i on , ape r t ur e s i ze and shape , co l or and
u l t rav i o l e t s t ab i l i t y can eas i l y be des i gned
i nto t he produc t f or s i t e -spec i f i c requ i re -
men t s . B i ax i a l l y or i en t ed ne t s have proven
t o be so adap t ab l e t hey a re be i ng used t o

Tab l e 640 - 2 . SED I MENT CONTROL CHECKL I ST

CONSTRUCT I ON OPERAT I ONS

a il o
3 E
CONTROL MEASURES PR I OR TO pvq . ro o `° `°
OR CONCURRENT W I TH a ro H ° a a
m
CONSTRUCT I ON
c ° $
m .
~ am c
"
c~
c
'c
r E ~
E u
;
m a E
'c
v
ro
U U U `^ 4 "+ ti W m a 4
I
Sed i men t bas i ns
Check dams

F i l ter bar r i ers

l
Si l t f ence i
Con t i nuous bean
Grave l bag st ruc tures
D i vers i on d i kes and d i t ches
Be rms
S l ope dra i ns
Seed i ng , mu l ch i ng , and ne t t i ng j to
Mu l ch i ng (hydrau l i c and / or st raw)
I
So i l b i nders
U
BFM ' s !I s
I
FRS ' s
Sodd i ng
i L
Na tura l Eros i on Cont ro l B l anke t s
Synthe t i c sof t a rmor
r
D i t ch pav i ng
S l ope pav i ng
s
R i p- rap (and other Ha rda rmor Sys t ems)
O t he r j l

Source : Mod i f i ed f rom the Co l orado Depa r t men t o f H i ghways , I -70 in a Moun t a i n Env i ronment - Va i l Pass , Co l orado , Denver , Co l orado.
 640 - 8
crea t e mor e comp l ex produc t s and are
even used a l one to anchor l oose f i ber
mu l ches such as s t raw , hay and wood
ch i ps . The l i ghtwe i ght ne t t i ngs p l aced ove r
mu l ches come in rol l s wh i ch are 3 000 to
4 500 mm (10-15 f t ) in w i d th , we i gh t on l y
abou t 55 k i l ograms (120 Ibs) and wi l l cover
0 .4 hec t are (one acre) or mor e . Insta l l a t i on
of these produc t s is l ess l abor i nt ens i ve
t han t rad i t i ona l ne t t i ngs produc t s .

Bonded f i ber ma t r i x sys t ems - Bonded f i ber

ma t r i ces (BFM ' s) are hydrau l i ca l l y app l i ed
sys t ems tha t con f orm to the soi l sur f ace
and are used on s t eep s l ope app l i ca t i ons .
Once dry , the ma t r i x f orms a b l anke t o f
con t i nuous 100% cove rage wh i ch adhe res
to t he soi l . The resu l t i ng b l anke t is wa t e r
i nso l ub l e wh i ch means i t can be re -we t
repea t ed l y and wi l l ho l d soi l and seed w i th-
ou t wash i ng away.

Bonded f i ber ma t r i ces are fu l l y

b i odegradab l e and are compr i sed o f wood
f ibers , organ i c tack i f i ers and m i nera l bond-
i ng agen t s or may have a wood f i ber -gyp-
sum componen t . As vege t a t i on t akes ho l d ,
bonded f i ber ma t r i x sys t ems s l ow l y decom-
pose . Po l ypropy l ene geot ext i l es may be
added to BFM ' s to fur ther enhance t enac i -
t y and pe r f ormance .

F i ber rov i ng sys t ems - Deve l oped in the

l ate 60' s , rov i ngs are app l i ed in a cont i nu-
ous s t rand for pro t ec t i on of dra i nage
swa l es and s l opes .

F i berg l ass rov i ng is a ma t er i a l f ormed

f rom f i bers dr awn f rom mo l t en g l ass and
ga thered i nto s t rands to f orm a s i ng l e r ib-
bon . Po l ypropy l ene rov i ng is f ormed f rom
con t i nuous s t rands o f f i br i l l ated ya rns
wound on t o cy l i ndr i ca l packages such tha t
the ma t er i a l can be f ed cont i nuous l y f rom
the out s i de of the package . Use of f i ber -
g l ass rov i ng has been dec l i n i ng and is be i ng
d i sp l aced by mor e versa t i l e " env i ronmen-
ta l l y f r i end l y " po l ypropy l ene rov i ng .
s
4) Eros i on cont ro l rov i ng is unusua l
because of t he f l ex ibi l i ty o f app l i ca t i on ,
V a l l ow i ng for any w i d t h or th i ckness o f
ma t er i a l to be app l i ed . O t he r eros i on con-
n t rol ma ter i a l s , such as b l anke t s or ma t s
a
L requ i re t he user to app l y the w i d t h or th i ck- emu l s i f i ed aspha l t or o ther na tura l or syn- and soi l crus t i ng , to conserve soi l mo i s ture ,
ness of ma t er i a l supp l i ed . F i ber rov i ngs to keep seed in p l ace and to i ncrease p l ant
the t i c soi l stab i l i zers . Pho t ob i odegradab l e
may be v i ewed as an " i n s i tu" eros i on con- po l ypropy l ene rov i ng may be used for t em- germ i na t i on (F i gure 640-4) . Bi ax i a l l y or i -
t ro l geosynthe t i c w i th reduced l abor and en t ed ne t t i ngs or woven meshes of vary i ng
r porary app l i ca t i ons or when UV stab i l i zers
ma t er i a l cos t s ove r t rad i t i ona l b l anke t are added for ex t ended use s i tua t i ons . charac t er i st i cs are p l aced on one or bo t h
ma t er i a l s . The con t i nuous s t rand concep t s i des of f i ne l y t uned eros i on cont ro l b l an-
prov i des ease of i nsta l l at i on w i th m i n i ma l Eros i on Con t ro l B l anke t s / Ma t s -
ke t s adap t ed to ant i c i pa t ed s i te cond i t i ons .
was t e f ac tors f rom over l ap . Tempor a ry eros i on cont ro l b l anke t s are These one to t wo me t e r w i de b i odegrad-

0 Us i ng compr essed ai r , rov i ng is rap i d l y

app l i ed t hrough a nozz l e ove r the seeded
used to stab i l i ze and prot ec t d i s turbed so i l s
f rom ra infa l l i mpac t and sur f ace eros i on , to
i ncrease inf i l t rat ion, decrease compos i t i on
ab l e f i ber eros i on cont ro l b l anke t s are com-
posed of st raw, exce l s i or , cot ton , coconut ,
Ne t t i ngs or
po l ypropy l ene or b l ends .
sur f ace and then anchored in p l ace us i ng
 640 - 9
meshes may cont a i n u l t rav i o l et (UV) stab i -
l i zers for cont ro l l ed degrada t i on or l ong
cha i n i nt er rupt ers to acce l era t e pho-
todegrada t i on . Add i t i ona l l y , ne t t i ngs can
be manu f ac t ured w i th 100% b i odegrad-
ab l e na tura l ma t er i a l s . Co l ors vary f rom
c l ear , tan , green to b l ack . Me t hods of ho l d-
i ng the f i bers in p l ace range f rom g l ues and
g l ue st r ips to mor e super i or para l l e l l ock
st i t ch i ng w i th cot ton , po l yes t er or po l y-
o l e f i n threads . App l i ca t i ons for the w i de
var i e ty of b l anke t s range f rom prot ec t i on o f
gradua l s l opes to l ow f l ow i ng channe l s .
The t op of the l ine na tura l b l anke t s may
prov i de t empora ry res i st ance to shor t dura -
t i on f l ow ve l oc i t i es of up to near l y three
me t ers (10 f t ) per second .

Pe rhaps mos t advan t ageous to the env i -

ronmen t , these meshes and b l anke t s may
u l t i ma t e l y become b i odegradab l e . As pho-
todegrada t i on progresses , the p l ast i c cha i ns
assoc i a t ed w i th the na tura l b l anke t s break
i nto shor t er and shor t er segmen t s down to
a p l ast i c " sand " wh i ch becomes par t of the
soi l . These shor t segmen t s become b i o l og i -
ca l l y degradab l e and are a t t acked by soi l
m i c roorgan i sms and conver t ed to ca rbon
d i ox i de and wa t e r . The na tura l compo -
nen t s w i th i n the ne t t i ng b i odegrade and
u l t i ma t e l y i ncrease so i l fer t i l i ty. Fu l l y
b i odegradab l e na tura l b l anke t s not con-
s t ruc t ed w i th synthe t i c ne t t i ng i nc l ude co i r
and j ute ma t er i a l s.

Open weave po l ypropy l ene geot ext i l es

can prov i de compa rab l e pe r f ormance to
na tura l f i ber eros i on cont ro l b l anke t s .
These pho tob i odegradab l e , na tura l l ook-
i ng , h i gh s t rength po l ypropy l ene meshes
prot ec t the soi l sur f ace f rom wa t e r and
w i nd eros i on wh i l e acce l era t i ng vege t a t i ve
deve l opmen t , and are ava i l ab l e in
38 000 mm (12 1/2f t ) w i de l i ght we i gh t rol l s
su i t ab l e for s l opes and channe l i nsta l l at i on .
Eros i on cont ro l meshes may be used a l one ,
ab l e . Th i s durab l e ma t er i a l of h i gh tens i l e t hrough the use of geosyn the t i c ma t er i a l s .
w i th dry mu l ches or as a stab i l i z i ng under -
l ay for sod re i n forcemen t . They a l so show s t rength typ i ca l l y l ast 4-10 years a l l ow i ng A f l ex i b l e three -d i mens i ona l ma t r i x re ta i ns
prom i se as an open weave geot ext i l e f ac i ng amp l e t i me for vege t a t i on es t ab l i shmen t . seeds and soi l , s t i mu l a t es seed germ i na t i on ,
tZ
Presumab l y these produc t s canno t w i th- acce l era t es seed l i ng deve l opmen t and mos t
for fos t er i ng vege t a t i on on geosynthe t i ca l -
s t and shear st resses equ i va l ent to se l ec t i mpor t ant l y , synerg i st i ca l l y meshes w i th U
ly re i nforced s t eepened s l opes or b i oeng i - s
neer i ng i nsta l l a t i ons whe r e es t ab l i shmen t synthe t i c tur f re i n f orcemen t ma t er i a l s , deve l op i ng p l ant roots and shoot s . In l ab-
of woody p l ant spec i es is des i red . howeve r they are t es t ed to w i ths t and f l ow ora tory and f i e ld ana l yses , b i ot echn i ca l l y n
ve l oc i t i es be t ween 2-3 . 1m / sec (6-10 re i nforced sys t ems have res i sted f l ow ra t es
D i sp l ay i ng rap i d pho t ob i odegrada t i on in L
f t / sec) . Logs made of f l ex i b l e co i r ma t er i a l in excess of 4 . 2m/ sec (14 f t /sec) for dura -
one d i rec t i on , these meshes a l l ow woody d
are a l so used to e f f ec t i ve l y manage the t i ons of up to t wo days , prov i d i ng tw i ce the
vege t a t i on to f ree l y sprout and eme rge
changes in s t ream f l ow ve l oc i ty , prov i de eros i on prot ec t i on o f unre i n forced vege t a -
t hrough the i nsta l l at i on w i th l i t t le pot ent i a l r
of g i rd l i ng. channe l and shore l i ne stab i l i zat i on, and a t i on .
p l ant i ng med i um for vege t a t i on .
Such pe r f ormance has resu l t ed in the s
When pro j ec t sens i t i v i ty requ i res the use
3 . 4 Tur f Re i n f or cemen t Ma t s w i despread prac t i ce o f tur f re i n forcemen t
of a fu l l y b i odegradab l e ma t er i a l , na tura l
as an a l t erna t i ve to concre t e , r i prap and
co i r (coconut ) ma t t i ng can be ut i l i zed for Tur f re i n forcemen t is a me t hod or sys t em
shore l i ne stab i l i zat i on, s t reambank prot ec- o ther a rmor sys t ems in the prot ec t i on of
by wh i ch the na tura l ab i l i ty of p l ant s to open channe l s , dra i nage d i tches , de t ent i on
t i on and o ther b i oeng i neer i ng app l i ca t i ons pro t ec t so i l f rom eros i on is enhanced bas i ns and s t eepened s l opes .
whe r e woody p l ant es t ab l i shmen t is des i r -
 640- 1 0
Permanen t tur f re i n forcemen t ma t s are
composed o f durab l e synthe t i c ma t er i a l s
tha t are stab i l i zed aga i ns t u l t rav i o l e t degra -
da t i on and i ner t to chem i ca l s norma l l y
encoun t e red in a na tura l soi l env i ronmen t .
These ma t t i ngs cons i s t of a l of ty web of
mechan i ca l l y or me l t bonded po l yme r ne t -
t i ngs , mono f i l amen t s or f i bers wh i ch are
en t ang l ed to f orm a s t rong and d i mens i on-
a l l y s t ab l e ma t r i x . Po l yme rs i nc l ude
po l ypropy l ene , po l ye thy l ene , ny l on and
po l yv i ny l ch l or i de .

Spec i f i c tur f re i n forcemen t ma t s have

been deve l oped for the mos t cr i t i ca l app l i -
ca t i ons and are f requent l y re f er red to as
pe rmanen t eros i on re i n forcemen t ma t r i ces .
Hav i ng a very h i gh coe f f i c i ent of f r i ct i on
w i th soi l , re i n forcement ma t r i ces comp l e -
men t vege t a t i on and prov i de l ong- t erm
pe r f ormance in channe l s and on s l opes
unde r the mos t adve rse cond i t i ons . These
three -d i mens i ona l pe rmanen t eros i on re in-
f orcemen t ma t r i ces prov i de unpara l l e l ed
s t rength and d i mens i ona l stab i l i ty. Due t o
the i r h i gh s t rength proper t i es , re i nforce- seeded , fer t i l i zed and covered w i th a var i - cons t ruc t i on is conduc t ed in p l ace w i th no
men t ma t r i ces may be used as a f orm e t y of e i ther t empora ry or pe rmanen t ero- heavy equ i pmen t or sk i l l ed l abor requ i red .
wh i ch is f i l l ed w i th concre t e or grou t to cre- s i on cont ro l mu l ches tha t prov i de sur f ace
a t e an i nexpens i ve hard a rmor sys t em . Fabr i c f ormed reve tmen t s are genera l l y
prot ec t i on wh i l e the ce l l s grea t l y reduce the
ava i l ab l e in three sty l es : f i l terpo i nt , un i form
H i gh s t rength tur f re i n forcemen t ma t s chances o f subsur f ace fa i l ure and ac t as a
sec t i on , and ar t i cu l a t i ng b l ock ma t s . F i l ter
prov i de suf f i c i ent th i ckness and vo i d space deepe r roo t ed b i ot echn i ca l compos i t e .
po i nt ma t s are f ormed w i th a doub l e - l ayer
to perm i t soi l f i l l i ng/ re t ent i on and t he Sha l l ow l atera l root deve l opmen t is l i mi ted
woven fabr i c , j o i ned toge ther by i n t erwo-
deve l opmen t of vege t a t i on w i th i n t he by the geoce l l wa l l s . Vege t a t ed geoce l l u l ar
ven f i l ter po i nt s wh i ch re l i eve hydros t a t i c
sys t ems w i ths t and f l ow ve l oc i t i es of 1 .8-
ma t r i x . Tur f re i n f orcemen t ma t s are pressure . Un i f orm sec t i on ma t s are f ormed
2 . 4m/ se c (6-8 f t / sec) .
i nsta l l ed f i rst , t hen seeded and f i l l ed w i t h w i th a doub l e - l ayer woven fabr i c , j o i ned
soi l . For h i gher f l ow cond i t i ons , geoce l l u l ar toge ther by spacer cards on c l ose l y spaced
con t a i nmen t sys t ems may ac t as an easy t o cent ers . Re l i e f of hydros t a t i c up l i f t pressure
Seeded pr i or to insta l l at ion, eros i on con-
t rol revege t a t i on ma t s are dense , l ower insta l l f orm wh i ch is f i l l ed w i th concre t e or may be prov i ded by i nser t i ng p l ast i c weep
grou t to crea t e a hard a rmor sys t em . tubes t hrough t he ma t a t spec i f i ed cent ers .
prof i l e ma t s des i gned to prov i de l ong- t erm
ground cove r and eros i on prot ec t i on . Typ i ca l l y a geot ex t i l e wi l l be p l aced Ar t i cu l a t i ng b l ock ma t s are f ormed w i th a
benea t h the expanded web to prov i de sep- doub l e - l ayer woven fabr i c , j o i ned toge ther
Eros i on cont ro l revege t a t i on ma t s prov i de
ara t i on and / or f i l t rat ion . Eros i on cont ro l i nto a ma t r i x of rec t angu l ar compa r t men t s
super i or t empora ry eros i on prot ec t i on .
app l i ca t i ons for geoce l l u l ar con t a i nmen t each separa t ed by a na r row per i me t er of
By the i r na ture , pe rmanen t eros i on re i n- sys t ems are many , i nc l ud i ng : s t eep s l ope i n t e rwoven f abr i c .
f orcemen t ma t r i ces and tur f re i n forcemen t revege t a t i on , channe l l iners , shore l i ne
H i gh s t rength cab l es may be t hreaded
ma t s can be expec t ed to prov i de mor e veg- reve tmen t s , re t a i n i ng wa l l s , boa t ramps ,
s e t a t i on en t ang l emen t and l ong t e rm per - and l ow f l ow s t ream cross i ngs .
be t ween the t wo l ayers o f f abr i c to i nter -
N connec t the concre t e f i l l ed compa r t men t s
Q. f ormance t han eros i on cont ro l revege t a t i on
Fabr i c f ormed reve t men t s - Fabr i c f orm i ng (b l ocks) , and prov i de for b l ock ar t i cu l a t i on .
ma t s .
u
s sys t ems are ma t t resses typ i ca l l y cons t ruc t - Hydros t a t i c pressure re l i ef is ach i eved by
d 3 .5 Ha rd Armor Sys t ems ed of wa t e r permeab l e , doub l e l ayer woven sl i ts cut be t ween ad j acent b l ocks and / or
n geot ext i l es wh i ch are pos i t i oned on the i nser t i ng p l ast i c weep tubes . A f i l t rat ion
a Geoce l l u l ar con t a i nmen t sys t ems - area to be prot ec t ed and f i l l ed w i th a geot ex t i l e is r ecommended benea t h al l f ab-
J Geoce l l u l ar con t a i nmen t sys t ems wor k in a pumpab l e f i ne aggrega t e concre t e (st ruc- r ic f ormed reve tmen t s .
un i que f ash i on in tha t s t rength or stab i l i za- tura l grout ) . The t wo l ayers of geot ext i l e
t i on by con f i nemen t is ach i eved by a ser i es Conc re t e b l ock sys t ems - Conc re t e b l ock
are j o i ned a t d i scre t e po i nt s to crea t e a
r of three -d i mens i ona l ce l l s up to 200 mm (8 f orm wh i ch when f i l l ed w i th grou t wi l l con-
sys t ems cons i st o f pre f abr i ca t ed concre t e
in) deep . When expanded i nto pos i t i on , pane l s of var i ous geome t r i es wh i ch may be
f orm to mos t subso i l cond i t i ons. Th i ckness
s the po l ye thy l ene or po l yes t er ce l l s have the and geome t ry are de t e rm i ned by i nterna l
a t t ached t o and l a id upon a woven
mono f i l amen t or non -woven geot ext i l e .
0 appea rance of a l arge honeycomb , one of spacer threads woven i nto the uppe r and
Bend i ng and tors i on are accommoda t ed by
na ture ' s mos t e f f i c i ent st ruc tures . The ce l l s l ower shee t s of fabr i c . In many cases the
are t hen back f i l l ed w i th soi l , sand , grave l , hav i ng the concre t e b l ocks ar t i cu l a t ed w i th
ma t t resses may be i nsta l l ed for l ess cos t
or rock depend i ng upon app l i ca t i on . For j o i nts , weav i ng pa t t erns or connec t i on
t han conven t i ona l a rmor sys t ems s i nce al l
vege t a t i on , t he so i l -back f i l l ed ce l l s are dev i ces . Conc re t e b l ock sys t ems may be
 640 - 1 1

subd i v i ded i nto three groups : non- t i ed

i nt er l ock i ng b l ocks , cab l e- t i ed b l ocks , and
i n-s i tu concre t e .

Conc re t e b l ock reve tmen t s i ncorpora t e

ce l l u l ar concre t e b l ocks , e i ther open or
c l osed , and are under l a i n w i th a proper l y
des i gned f i l t rat ion geot ext i l e . The b l ocks
are he l d on t he s l ope by anchors p l aced a t
the top of the s l ope and / or by f r i ct ion
be t ween the s l ope and t he b l ocks . The
b l ocks can be assemb l ed i nto f abr i ca t ed
ma t s e i ther a t t he f ac tory or on s i te .
Sec t i ons of precab l ed concre t e b l ocks may
be p l aced by us i ng a spec i a l spreader ba t ,
wh i ch may l owe r cos t s on l arge pro j ec ts .
The b l ocks may a l so be handp l aced w i th or
w i t hou t cab l e subsequen t l y i nsta l l ed .

Ar t i cu l a t ed concre t e b l ock reve t men t

sys t ems comb i ne t he f avorab l e aspec t s of
l i ghtwe i ght b l anke t s and meshes (such as
poros i ty , f l exibi l i ty, vege t a t i on encourage -
men t , w i l d l i f e hab i t a t enhancemen t , and
ease of i nsta l l at i on) w i th the nonerod i b i l i ty ,
se l f we i ght , and h i gh t rac t i ve force res i s-
t ance o f r ig id l i n i ngs . These spec i a l l y
des i gned i nt er l ock i ng precas t concre t e gr i ds
are a proven cost -e f f ec t i ve , aesthe t i c , and
func t i ona l a l t erna t i ve to dumped s tone r ip-
rap , gab i ons , st ruc tura l concre t e , and other
heavy-du t y , durab l e channe l prot ec t i on
sys t ems . Add i t i ona l l y , these sys t ems of fer
enhanced f l ow e f f i c i enc i es , nur tur i ng of
vege t a t i ve cover and sa f e access .

Gab i ons - Gab i ons are compa r t men t ed rec-

t angu l ar cont a i ners made of ga l van i zed
stee l hexagona l w i re mesh or rec t angu l ar
p l ast i c mesh and f i l l ed w i th hand-s i zed
s tone . Ce l l s of equa l capac i t y are f ormed by
f ac tory- i nser t ed p l ast i c or w i re ne t t i ng
d i aphr agms or par t i t i ons wh i ch add
s t rength to t he cont a i ner and he l p ma i nt a i n and f ree f rom overburden , spo i l , shade and no topso i l is present and compac t i on is
i ts shape dur i ng the p l acemen t of s tone . In organ i c ma t er i a l . The r i p- rap ma t er i a l is i nord i na t e l y h i gh .
h i gh l y cor ros i ve cond i t i ons , a po l yv i ny l genera l l y p l aced on a grave l bedd i ng l ayer
F i gures 640-11 t hrough 640-14 i l lust rate
ch l or i de coa t i ng is used ove r the ga l van i zed and / or a woven mono f i l amen t or nonwo -
severa l cons i dera t i ons and t rea tmen t s re l at -
w i re . ven geot ext i l e f abr i c .
ed to rec l ama t i on of s l opes .
U
Advan t ages of gab i ons i nc l ude f l exibi l i ty, St ra t i graphy :
Q
durab i l i ty , s t rength , permeab i l i t y and econ- 4 . 0 LANDSHAP I NG AND
U
omy versus r ig id st ruc tures . The growt h of STRAT I GRAPHY St ra t i graphy re fers to the l ayer i ng of sub-
na t i ve p l ant s is promo t ed as gab i ons co l l ect sur f ace ma t er i a l s . The charac t er i st i cs of the
Landshap i ng : n
sed i men t in the s tone f i l l . A h i gh percent - subsur f ace s t ruc ture wi l l have a s i gn i f i cant
age o f i nsta l l at i ons are under l a i n by woven The aes the t i c charac t er of l andshap i ng is i mpac t on stabi l i ty, on wa t e r ho l d i ng capac - L
mono f i l amen t and nonwoven geot ext i l es l arge l y dependen t upon the proposed l and i ty, and on the e f f ec t of bur i ed tox i c ma t e -
to reduce hydros t a t i c pressure , fac i l i tate use ob j ec t i ves , bu t care shou l d be t aken to r ia ls . Tox i c ma t er i a l s shou l d be p l aced as
sed i men t cap ture and prevent wash out crea t e reasonab l e s l opes . The s t eeper and deep as poss i b l e in l oca t i ons una f f ec t ed by r
f rom beh i nd the s t ruc ture . l onger the d i s turbed s l ope , the mor e di f f i - groundwa t e r . In the Un i t ed Sta tes , Pub l i c
cu l t i t is to rec l a i m . A genera l ru l e of t humb Law (PL) 95-87 requ i res a m i n i mum o f
R i p- rap - R i p- rap cons i sts of s tone dumped
in p l ace on a f i l ter b l anke t or prepared is tha t as t he percent o f s l ope doub l es , soi l
loss i ncreases 2 .6 t i mes , and as t he l ength
1 200 mm (4 f t ) of soi l cover over ac i d-gen-
era t i ng ma t er i a l s .
0
s l ope to f orm a we l l graded mass w i th a
m i n i mum of vo i ds . St one used for r i p- rap of s l ope doub l es , soi l l oss i ncreases 3 t i mes.
S l opes 3 :1 or s t eeper ca l l for spec i a l rec l a-
The amoun t of a p l ant growt h med i um 0
is hard , dense , durab l e , angu l ar in shape , necessary to est ab l i sh a st ab l e vege t a t i ve
res i stant to wea t he r i ng and to wa t e r ac t i on ; ma t i on measures . In mos t of these cases , commun i t y is 450 to 600 mm (18 t o 24 in) .
 640 - 1 2
Th i s dep t h is needed to serve as a reservo i r ,
mak i ng wa t e r ava i l ab l e t o p l ant s dur i ng
per i ods of l ow prec i p i t a t i on . When the
ma t er i a l s be l ow th i s med i um are t oo
porous to re t a i n wa t er , an ar t i f i c i a l mo i s ture
bar r i er (p l ast i c , aspha l t , or s i mi l ar ma t er i a l )
can be p l aced be t ween the st rata . When
p l ac i ng topso i l on a soi l med i um , the sub-
gr ade shou l d be suf f i c i ent l y rough to
ensure a bond be t ween the t wo l ayers .

5 . 0 SURFACE COND I T I ON I NG
Sur f ace cond i t i on i ng is conce rned w i th t he
chem i ca l and phys i ca l na ture o f the t op
severa l cen t i me t ers ( i nches) of grow t h
med i um .

Topso i l :

Topso i l is the pre f er red grow i ng med i um .

The cos t of topso i l remova l , stockp i l i ng ,
and r ep l acemen t is t yp i ca l l y l ess t han
chang i ng the chem i ca l and phys i ca l proper -
t i es of subso i l to make i t su i t ab l e as a p l ant
grow i ng med i um . Research has shown tha t
ne i ther the age nor the dep t h o f a s tockp i l e
wi l l s i gn i f i cant l y a f f ec t the qua l i ty of the soi l
as a grow i ng med i um . However , f resh l y
moved topso i l is eas i er to spread and is an
exce l l ent source o f v i ab l e na t i ve seed and
o ther p l ant propagu l es . O l de r stockp i l es , i f
no t proper l y managed , can be a source of
undes i rab l e p l ant s .

Un l i ke subso i l or m i n i ng spo i l s , topso i l

cont a i ns i mpor t an t soi l f auna and bac t er i a
wh i ch are ac t i ve in ma i n t a i n i ng aera t i on ,
wa t e r inf i l t rat ion, and root pene t ra t i on and
in t rans form i ng m i nera l s i nto f orms use fu l
to p l ants . Mo i s t , we l l -aera t ed , wa rm so i l s
cont a i n i ng organ i c ma t t er prov i de t he bes t
cond i t i ons for th i s b i o l og i ca l act i v i ty .

St ab i l i z i ng Topso i l :

I t is d i f f i cu l t to crea t e a good bond be t ween

topso i l and subso i l or to stab i l i ze topso i l
s th i cknesses of mor e t han 75 to 100 mm (3
to 4 in) on s l opes grea t er t han 3 :1 .
Stab i l i za t i on of the topso i l on such s l opes is
V typ i ca l l y accomp l i shed by us i ng a sheeps-
s foot rol l er or by r i bb i ng on con t our .
n
I mprov i ng Wa t e r Re t en t i on Capac i t y :
L
So i l ma t er i a l s wh i ch have l i t t le capac i t y to
reta i n wa t e r can be i mproved by add i ng
r organ i c ma t t er , such as t rea t ed sewage
s l udge , manur e , or compos t . Sewage
s s l udge is good because i t cont a i ns nut r i ent s
and t race e l emen t s essent i a l to p l an t
growt h . App l i ca t i on ra tes are de t e rm i ned
by t est i ng for concent ra t i ons of var i ous
chem i ca l s in order to preven t excess n i t ro-
gen f rom po l l ut i ng ground or sur f ace
 640 - 13

Tab l e 640 - 4 . GRASSES FOR LANDSCAPE RECLAMAT I ON "

Eas t ern to M i dwes t Seeds pe r

m i dwes t e rn t o wes t e rn Spec i es 4S4 kg
Spec i es Sc i ent i f i c name Var i e t y s t a t es s t a t es ava i l ab i l i ty (1000 lb)

Drough t - to l erant bunchgrass

Beardl ess whea tgrass Pseudoroegner i a spi cata ssp . inermi s Wh i tmar X A 142
Big b luegrass Poa amp l a Sherman , Serv i ce, X A 900
or Canbar
Bl uebunch whea tgrass Pseudoroegner i a spi cata Secar or Go l dar X X A 117
Hard fescue Festuca ov ina , var i ety dur iuscul a Durar , Aurora X X A 565
Indi an r i cegrass Oryzops i s hymeno i des Nezpar or Pa l oma X L 188
Need l e and thread St ipa coma t a X L 123
Russ i an wi ldrye Psa t hyros t achys j uncea Sawk i , UNS , Bozoi sky, X A 175
or Vina l
Sand dropseed Sporobu l us c ryp t andrus X X L 5 , 000
Siber i an whea tgrass Agropyron s ibi t i cum X A 206
Sl ender whea tgrass E l ymus t rachycau lus Nat i ve , Pryor , San Luis, X X A 160
Pr imar , or Revenue
Weep i ng lovegrass Eragrost is curvu l a Erme l o or Morpha X (W) X A 1,500
Sheep fescue Festuca ov ina Covar , Mx-86 or Azy X X A 565

Drough t to l erant sod f orm in g grasses

Canada b luegrass Poa compressa Rubens , Standard,
Maver i ck , O l ymp i c or Safar i X X A 2 , 495
Tal l fescue Festuca a rund i nacea Penn l awn X A 227
Creep i ng red fescue Festuca rubra X A 615
Pubescent whea tgrass Elyt r igia i n t e rmed i a Greenl eaf , UNS ,
Luna , Mandan X A 90
Pubescent whea tgrass Elyt r igia i n t e rmed i a Topar or Manska X X A 0
St reambank whea tgrass E l ymus l anceol atus Sodar X A 170
Intermed i ate whea tgrass Elyt r igia i n t e rmed i a Oahe , Rush, Tegmar ,
Slate or Greenar X A 93
Th i ckp i ke whea tgrass El ybigi a dasys t achyam Cr i tana X L 186
Western whea tgrass Pascopyrum smi thi i Ar r iba, Bur ton, Nat ive,
or Rosana X X A 126
Bermudagrass Cynodon dacty l on Guymon or Hu l l ed X (W) X A 1,787
T i mothy Ph l eum pratense Cl i max or Out l aw X X A 1,230
Kentucky bluegrass Poa pratens i s Troy, Cha l l enger , Freedom
or 30 other var iet ies X X A 2 , 150

Sand stab i l i z i ng p l ants _

Prai r ie sandreed Ca l amov i l l a l ong i fo l i a Goshen X L 274
Swi tchgrass Pan i c i m v i rgatum Pathf inder , Bl ackwe l l ,
or Nebraska 28 X X A 389
Sand b l uestem Andropogon ha lhi Garden , El idar , s
Woodwa rd or Goldst r i ke X L 113
Indi an r i cegrass Oryzops i s hymeno i des Nezpar or Pa l oma X L 188
V
Need l e and thread St ipa coma t a X L 123 s
Sand lovegrass Eragrost is t r i chodes Bend X A 1,300
n
Beachgrass Ammoph i l i a spp . X NA 114
L
B l owout grass Red f i e l d i a f l exuosa (W) X L 263
Sandhi l l muh l y Mu l henberg i a pungens (W) X L 614

Ac i d to l erant grasses
Canada bluegrass Poa compressa Rubens X X A 2,495
Perenni a l ryegrass
Coloni a l bentgrass
Lo l i um pe r enne
Agrost i s ten ius
Linn, Moy , or Zero Nu i
H i gh l and
X
X
X
X
A
A
247
8,723 0
Creep i ng bentgrass Agrost i s pa lust r is Ca to or Cobra X X A 7 , 800
Creep i ng foxtai l Al opecurus a rund i naceus Gar r i son X X A 400
Hard Fescue Festuca ov ina , var i ety dur iuscul a Durar or Aurora X X A 565
 640- 14

Tab l e 640 - 4 . GRASSES FOR LANDSCAPE RECLAMAT I ON* ( con t i nued )

Bermudagrass Cynodon dac ty l on Guyman or Hu l l ed X (W) X A 1 , 787

Meadow foxta i l A l opecurus pra t ens i s Gar r i son X X A 580
Red f escue Fes tuca rubra Penn l awn X X A 615

Red top Agrost i s a l ba X X A 4 , 990

Sw i t chgrass Pan i cum v i rga tum Pathf i nder , Bl ackwe l l

or Nebraska 28 X (W) X A 389

Weep i ng l ovegrass Eragrost i s curvu l a Erme l o or Morpha X (W) X A 1 , 500

A l ka l i ne to l erant gr asses _
Al ka l i saca ton Sporobu l us a i ro i des Sa l ta l k or Sa l ado X A 1 , 750
Al ka l i grass Pucc i ne l l i a l emmon i Lemmons , Nut ta l l , Fu l ts X A 1 , 200

Bermudagrass Cynodon dac ty l on Guymon or Hu l l ed X (W) X A 1 , 787

Foxta i l bar l ey Hordeum j uba t um x X A 352

Perenn i a l ryegrass Lo l i um pe renne Linn, Moyou Zero Nu i X X A 247

St reambank whea tgrass Agropyron r i par i um Sodar X X A 170

Ta l l whea tgrass Agropyron e l onga t um Al kar , Jose X X A 79

Wes t ern whea tgrass Agropyron smi fh i i Ar r ipa , Bar ton ,
Na t i ve or Rosana X X A 126

Al ka l i cordgrass Spar t i na grac i l i s X NA 224

Bas i n w i l drye E l ymus onereus Magna r X NA 95

Canada w i l drye E l ymus canadens i s X X NA 106

Sa l tgrass D i st i ch l i s st r i cta (W) X NA 83

Russ i an w i l drye E l ymus j unceus Sawak i , UNS ,

Bozo i sk i or Vi na l X A 175
Cres t ed whea tgrass Agropyron deser torum Ephnam , Fa i rway
Hy-crest or Nordan X A 175

Al ka l i grass Pucc i ne l l i a l emmon i Lemmons , Fu l ts X A 2 , 100

S l ender whea tgrass Agropyron t rachycau l um Nat i ve , Pryor , San Lui s .

Pr i mar , or Revenu 160

Gr asses and l egumes to l eran t o f mo i s t so i l s

Al s i ke c l over Tr i fo l i um hybr i dum X X A 680 , 000

Al ka l i cordgrass Spar t i na grac i l i s X A 224 , 000

Reed canarygrass Pha l ar i s arund i nacea X X A 506 , 000

Co l on i a l bentgrass Agrost i s tenu i s H i gh l and X X A 8 , 723 , 000

Creep i ng bentgrass Agrost i s pa l ust r i s Ca to , Cobra X X A 7 , 800 , 000

Poa t r ivial is Poa t r ivia l is Sabre X A 2 , 540 , 000

Creep i ng foxta i l A l opecur i us arund i naceus Gar r i son X X A 400 , 000

Meadow foxta i l A l opecur i uspra t ens i s Gar r i son X X A 580 , 000

Perenn i a l ryegrass Lo l i um pe renne L i nn , Moy or Zero Nu i X X A 247 , 000

Legumes
s Crown ve t ch Coron i l l a var i a Penng i f t , Chemung
or Emera l d X X A 110 , 000
Bi rdfoot t reefoi l Lotus com i cu l a tus Emp i re , Dawn , Leo , Norcen ,
Cascade or MacK i naw X X A 407 , 000
V
s Ser i cea l espedeza Lespedeza cunea t a X X A 350 , 000
Wh i t e c l over Tr i fo l i um repens X X A 850 , 000
n
Al s i ke c l over Tr i fo l i um hybr i dum 680 , 000
L
" Codes are as fol lows ; an X indi cates presence of spec i es in a g i ven aras, A indi cates commer i c i a l l y avai lable, L indi cates l imi ted avai labi l i ty, NA indi cates not commer i ca l l y ava i l abl e and W indi -
cates a warm-season Brass best adaot ed to the southern states . or simi l ar cul ture .

r wa t e rs , and t o pr even t a bu i l dup o f tox i c 1 . Ba rnya rd manu r e and compos t ed 3 . Sewage s l udge and e f f l uen t a t vo l umes
t r ace e l emen t s . A USDA Fores t Se rv i ce ga rbage a t 34 000 t o 68 000 kg / ha (15 equ i va l en t t o 45 000 t o 113 000 kg / ha
pub l i ca t i on en t i t l ed A Gu i de f or t o 30 t ons / ac re ) (20 t o 50 t ons / ac r e ) o f dr y ma t t e r
0 Revege t a t i ng Coa l M i ne So i l s i n t he
2. A i r -dr i ed l eaves a t 4 550 t o 9 070 kg / ha Any one o f a f am i l y o f ge l - l i ke chem i ca l
Eas t e rn Un i t ed St a t es sugges t s t he f o l l ow-
(2 t o 4 t ons / ac r e ) produc t s ca l l ed supe rmo i s t ur i ze rs can a l so
i ng ra t es o f app l i ca t i on :
be used t o i mprove t he wa t e r re t en t i on
capac i t y o f dr y so i l s . When m i xed i nto so i l ,
 640- 1 5
t hese produc t s ac t l i ke t i ny sponges ,
expand i ng many t i mes the i r or i g i na l vo l - Tab l e 640 - 3 . FORMS OF L I ME
ume and ho l d i ng wa t e r for use by p l ant s .
As t hey have a use fu l l i fe of on l y severa l Type
_ Cha rac t e r i s t i _
mon t hs , these produc t s are used on l y to Ground l i mes t one ( ca l c i um ca rbona t e ) " Inso l ub l e i n wa t e r bu t so l uab l e i n ac i d
he l p est ab l i sh p l ants . " Long - r ange e f f ec t [m i x a t l eas t 250 mm
(10 " ) deep]
Mod i f y i ng Ac i d i c So i l s :
Burn t l i me ( ca l c i um ox i de ) and " Ve ry so l uab l e in wa t e r
hydr a t ed l i me (ca l c i um hydrox i de ) " I mmed i a t e bu t shor t - range e f f ec t
H i gh ac i d i ty resu l ts f rom the ox i da t i on of
m i nera l s l i ke su l f i des . So i l ma t er i a l s wh i ch
are ac i d i c can be mod i f i ed by add i ng l i me
(Tab l e 640-3) . The SMP buf f er pH test is
used for m i ne spo i l s to de t e rm i ne l i me
app l i ca t i on ra t es . L i me shou l d be app l i ed as
far in advance of seed i ng as poss i b l e and as
deep l y as poss i b l e , at l east to the dep t h
tha t the ma t er i a l s are exposed to t he a i r
dur i ng the cond i t i on i ng process . In add i t i on
to cor rec t i ng l ow pH , l i me wi l l :

1 . I mprove t he phys i ca l cond i t i on of soi l .

2 . Add ca l c i um to the soi l .

3 . Acce l era t e the decompos i t i on o f organ i c

ma t t er , re l eas i ng n i t rogen .

4. Increase fer t i l i zer e f f i c i ency.

5 . Increase nut r i ent ava i l ab i l i ty .

6 . Dec rease tox i c i ty o f a l um i num and fer r i c

i ons as we l l as decrease the ava i l ab i l i ty of
heavy me t a l s such as l ead , mercury , and
cadm i um .

The approx i ma t e amoun t of l i me tha t

shou l d be app l i ed to ad j us t spo i l pH is
shown in F i gure 640-15 .

Mod i f y i ng Sa l i ne So i l s:

Sa l i ne so i l s can be mod i f i ed by l each i ng F i gur e 640 - 17 . Me t hods o f sur f ace con

excess so l ub l e sa l ts t hrough the soi l (F i gure
640-16) . Th i s can be done by add i ng App l y i ng Fer t i l i zers :
organ i c ma t t e r or o ther such ma t er i a l to
i mprove the inf i l t rat ion qua l i ty of the soi l , So i l ma t er i a l s l ow in nut r i ent s can be
and by i r r i ga t i ng w i th l ow-sa l t wa t e r. Sod i c i mproved by app l y i ng fer t i l i zer. Suf f i c i ent
and sa l i ne-sod i c soi l s are a d i f f erent ma t t er , n i t rogen is usua l l y ava i l ab l e in topso i l for
as wa t e r a l one wi l l no t l each ou t excess p l ant es t ab l i shment , wh i l e subso i l s and
geo l og i c ma t er i a l s are usua l l y de f i c i ent .
exchangeab l e sod i um . The mod i f i ca t i on
procedure i nvo l ves rep l ac i ng sod i um by N i t rogen is mor e of a l i mi t i ng f ac tor in p l ant Q
ano t he r ca t i on and then l each i ng , ini t i a l l y produc t i v i t y t han i t is in the es t ab l i shmen t V
of p l ants . A l t hough n i t rogen is needed t he s
w i th sa l ty wa t e r . Gypsum is common l y
used for th i s purpose . The gypsum requ i re- f i rst season on some s i tes, i ts app l i ca t i on is n
men t (GR) to rec l a i m sod i c soi l is ca l cu l a t ed mos t bene f i c i a l dur i ng the second grow i ng
season . S i nce n i t rogen is wa t e r so l ub l e , i ts L
as fo l l ows : GR=3 . 85(Na .) in me t r i c t ons / ha
[GR=1 . 72(Na . ) in tons / acre]of gypsum . The e f f ec t is i mmed i a t e bu t shor t - t e rm .
sod i um i ndex numbe r (Na.) is de t e rm i ned App l i ca t i ons be fore the des i red perenn i a l
by chem i ca l ana l ys i s of the sub j ec t soi l and ma t er i a l s are es t ab l i shed wi l l f avor annua l r
weeds i ns t ead . I t is common prac t i ce to u
is expressed in m i l l i equ i va l ent s o f
exchangeab l e sod i um to be rep l aced by app l y add i t i ona l n i t rogen at t he t i me of
ca l c i um . O t he r ma t er i a l s used for th i s pur - mu l ch i ng to make up for the shor t - t erm 0
pose are su l fur i c ac id, su l fur , l i me-su l fur , dep l e t i on of ava i l ab l e n i t rogen by m i croor -
and i ron su l f a te . gan i sms when mu l ch is added . The amoun t
o f n i t rogen used for 4 550 kg / ha (2
tons / acre) of s t raw is 23 to 27 kg (50 to 60
 640- 1 6
lb) . In the l ong t erm, l egumes are an i mpor -
t ant f ac tor in sus t a i n i ng suf f i c i ent n i t rogen
l eve l s and shou l d be cons i dered in the p l ant
mix .

Un l i ke n i t rogen de f i c i enc i es , phosphorus

de f i c i enc i es wi l l l imi t and even preven t
seed l i ng es t ab l i shment . On soi l ma t er i a l s
wh i ch test l ow in phosphorus , 112 kg / ha
(100 Ib / acre) of P2Os are app l i ed to coarse-
t ex tured soi l , and 228 kg / ha (200 Ib/ acre)
are app l i ed on f i ne- t extured soi l s . S i nce
phosphorus is no t mob i l e in the soi l , i t is
i mpor t an t to m i x i t i nto the root i ng med i -
um .

Seedbed Prepara t i on :

At a m i n i mum , the phys i ca l cond i t i on of

the sur f ace ma t er i a l mus t be deve l oped
i nto a good seedbed . A good seedbed has
the fo l l ow i ng proper t i es :

1 . F i rm, but not compac t ed , unde r the

seed i ng dep t h

2 . Re l a t i ve l y l oose above t he seed i ng dep t h

to a l l ow seed pene t ra t i on and cover

3 . Free of weeds

4 . Capab l e of ho l d i ng mo i s ture
Favorab l e phys i ca l cond i t i ons are typ i -
ca l l y deve l oped t hrough cu l t i va t i on by r ip-
p i ng or p l ow i ng compac t ed ma ter i a l s , t hen
d i sk i ng and ha r row i ng (F i gure 640-17) . I f
t he sur f ace is par t i a l l y vege t a t ed and
i nh i b i t i ng eros i on , i t may be des i rab l e no t
to cu l t i va t e . In such areas , a l l ow ex i st i ng
p l ant s to rema i n , or use herb i c i des to e l i m-
i na t e weeds , and deep- f ur row the seed
d i rect l y i nto t he soi l . Roughen i ng the sur -
f ace w i th dozer t racks , pocke t s , gouges ,
and fur rows s l ows runof f , checks eros i on ,
and in dry areas prov i des for the accumu l a -
t i on and re t ent i on of snow and ra i n (see
F i gure 640-13) .

Mu l ches:
s
N Mu l ches are he l pfu l in crea t i ng f avorab l e sur -
f ace cond i t i ons for p l ant es t ab l i shment by :
V
N 1 . Inh i b i t i ng w i nd and wa t e r eros i on
n 2 . Fac i l i tat i ng wa t e r i nf i l t rat i on
L
3 . Inh i b i t i ng evapora t i on , and t he reby
reduc i ng the upwa rd movemen t of sa l ts

r 4 . Mode r a t i ng soi l t empera tures

7
5 . Add i ng des i rab l e propagu l es to the
seedbed when i t is compr i sed of f resh
na t i ve ma t er i a l s

6 . Add i ng bene f i c i a l m i c roorgan i sms to the

soi l
 640 - 1 7

In mor e hum i d c l i ma t es , seed i ng , fer t i l i z-

i ng , and mu l ch i ng are common l y done in
one opera t i on hydrau l i ca l l y . In such cl i -
ma t es , wood f i ber a t 2 260 kg / ha (1
ton / acre) is used . In and c l i ma t es i t is
i mpor t an t to p l ace seed benea t h the soi l
sur f ace , and mu l ch is app l i ed as a separa t e
opera t i on . The mos t common prac t i ce is to
app l y hay or s t raw at 3 400 to 4 500 kg / ha
(1-1 / 2 to 2 tons / acre ) . The s t raw is
c r i mped i nto the sur f ace w i th a d i sk - t ype
packer . On s l opes grea t er than 3 :1 or in
h i gh-w i nd areas , mu l ch is anchored w i th
spec i a l equ i pmen t , nets , and tack i f i ers such as :

1 . Aspha l t emu l s i on a t 11 200 L / ha (1200

ga l / acre)
2 . Res i n emu l s i on in wa t e r a t 5 600 L / ha
(600 ga l / acre)

3 . La t ex emu l s i on at the manu f ac turer ' s

r ecommenda t i ons
4 . Na tura l soi l b i nders (guar or p l ant ago) a t
the manu f ac turer ' s r ecommenda t i ons
5 . Wood f i ber hydromu l ch a t 840 kg / ha
(750 Ib/ acre)

Mu l ch may a l so be i nt egra t ed i nto ero-

s i on cont ro l b l anke t s or ma t s made of jute ,
paper , exce l s i or , st raw, coconu t , or synthe t -
ic ma t er i a l s .
sorghums , and mi l l e ts . Severa l ster i l e grass
6 . 0 PLANT I NG
hybr i ds are a l so ava i l ab l e and prov i de
O t he r t ypes of mu l ch i nc l ude :
The se l ec t i on of p l ant ma t er i a l s is depen- exce l l ent vege t a t i on cover and eros i on pro-
1 . Woodch i ps , po l e pee l i ngs , and shredded den t upon l and use ob j ec t i ves and var i ous t ec t i on w i t hou t t he seed vo l un t eer i ng asso-
bark or woodch i ps a t 44 800 kg / ha (20 s i te f ac tors . c i a t ed w i th annua l grasses (Tab l e 640-4) .
tons / acre)
Tempor a ry Eros i on Con t ro l P l ant i ngs : Pe rmanen t P l ant i ngs:
2 . Shredded na t i ve grasses and brush a t
3 360 to 4 480 kg / ha (1-1 / 2 to 2 Tempor a ry eros i on cont ro l p l ant i ngs are I t is essent i a l tha t spec i es wh i ch are i nt end-
tons / acre) se l ec t ed for the i r ab i l i ty to est ab l i sh a qu i ck ed to be pe rmanen t shou l d be we l l -adapt -
cove r . I f these t empora ry p l ant s are unde - ed to the s i te ; tha t is, they shou l d be ab l e
3 . Manur e or dr i ed sewage s l udge a t s i rab l e in the l ong run , t hen t hey can be to reproduce and sust a i n the i r popu l a t i ons
11 200 to 33 600 kg / ha (5 to 15 preven t ed f rom go i ng to seed and may be for a subs t ant i a l per i od of t i me. A process
tons / acre) read i l y e l i m i na t ed or succeeded by pe rma - of eco l og i ca l success i on can be promo t ed
nen t p l ant i ngs when grown unde r the by us i ng a w i de var i e ty of p l ant ma ter i a l s ,
4 . Rocks and grave l at 25 to 50 mm (1 to 2
in) deep [302 400 kg / ha = 25 mm deep nurse crop concep t . Common l y used p l ants thus fac i l i tat i ng gradua l changes in the s
for t empor a ry eros i on cont ro l i nc l ude commun i t i es of p l ant s . Nurse crops or p i o-
(135 tons / acre = 1 in deep) ] CL
annua l grasses such as annua l ryegrass , nee r p l ant i ngs may be requ i red for se l ec t ed
5 . Pl ast i c f i l ms bar l ey f i e ld brome , oa ts , w i n t er rye , whea t , s i tes to make m i croc l i ma t i c cond i t i ons mor e U
- - - f avorab l e for l a t t er -st age spec i es . Th i s is
par t i cu l ar l y i mpor t an t on s i tes w i t h severe - n
l y cons t ra i n i ng cond i t i ons and on t hose at a
h i gh e l eva t i ons . P i oneer t ree spec i es unab l e L
1 . A genera l ru l e of t humb is tha t as the percent of s l ope doub l es , soi l loss i ncreases to reproduce unde r the i r own canopy
three t i mes . S l opes 3 :1 or s t eeper ca l l for spec i a l stab i l i zat ion measures (see F ig . i nc l ude aspen , br i s t l econe p i ne , l i mber p i ne ,
640-3) . and l odgepo l e p i ne . Eventua l l y , these r
spec i es are e i ther re j uvena t ed by d i stur -
Z . The amoun t of p l ant growth med i um necessary to estab l i sh a st ab l e vege t a t i ve bance or succeeded by spec i es l i ke spruce s
commun i t y is 450 to 600 mm (18 to 24 in) . and f i r. 0
3 . The cost of topso i l remova l , stockp i l i ng, and rep l acement is typ i ca l l y l ess than In na tura l se t t i ngs , a v i sua l b l end i ng of
chang i ng the chem i ca l and phys i ca l proper t i es of subso i l to make i t su i tab l e as a d i s turbed and und i s turbed areas is ach i eved
p l ant grow i ng med i um . by se l ec t i on of new p l ant ma t er i a l s s i mi l ar
 640 - 1 8

4 . Comme r c i a l na t i ve p l ant nurser i es

5 . Comme r c i a l seed supp l i ers

6 . U .S . NRCS p l ant ma t er i a l s cent ers

7 . U .S . Fores t Serv i ce nurser i es

8 . Sma l l pr i va t e seed co l l ec tors

Na t i ve Regrow t h:
A me t hod proved e f f ec t i ve for es t ab l i sh i ng
na t i ve vege t a t i on on s t eep s l opes is
descr i bed in an ar t i c l e ent i t l ed " The Na t i ve
Regrow t h Me t hod for S t eep S l opes , "
Landscape Arch i t ec ture , January 1979 , by
Wayne Tyson . Th i s me t hod , us i ng pred i s-
turbance vege t a t i on and topso i l , recom-
mends the fo l l ow i ng s t eps :
1 . Crush or shred l ow vege t a t i on on the
s i te and r emove i t w i th 100 to 150 mm
(4 to 6 in) of topso i l .

2 . Stockp i l e the so i l / mu l ch m i xture , keep-

i ng the sur f ace mo i s t to preserve i nher -
en t mo i s ture .

3 . Spread the soi l mu l ch even l y ove r a

mo i s t , roughened subgrade . On s t eep
s l opes , do not exceed a so i l / mu l ch l ayer
of 100 mm (4 in) , and bond i t to the
subgrade w i th a sheeps f oo t ro l l er.

Nurse ry St ock :

Co l l ec t ed t rees and shrubs are t ransp l ant ed

dur i ng the i r dorman t season . Sods and
shrub pads are read i l y t ransp l ant ed by use
of f ront -end l oaders . Cont a i ner i zed ma t er i -
a l s may be p l ant ed dur i ng any par t of the
grow i ng season , prov i ded tha t amp l e wa t e r
is ava i l ab l e (F i gure 640-18) . Some nurser i es
spec i a l i z i ng in rec l ama t i on p l ant s have
deve l oped spec i a l i zed m i n i cont a i ners for
in s i ze , form, t exture , and co l or to t hose in the deve l opmen t of forage and eros i on seed l i ng s tock . Ac tua l p l ant i ng me t hods
ad j acent und i s turbed areas . Mos t eros i on cont ro l p l ant s .) fo l l ow s t andard nursery prac t i ces . Bas i ns
cont ro l grasses are se l ec t ed for the i r sod are cons t ruc t ed a round p l ant s and are
5 . PI N (P l ant In forma t i on Ne t work ) . Th i s e i ther cove red w i th p l ast i c or mu l ched to
f orm i ng charac t er i st i cs . Deep root i ng p l ant s
ne t wor k is a compu t e r -based da t a bank t rap and re t a i n mo i s ture and to reduce
are bes t for s l opes .
for i n forma t i on on na t i ve and na tura l - compe t i t i on by weeds .
Q Se l ec t i ng P l an t Ma t er i a l : i zed vascu l ar p l ants of severa l wes t e rn
a Seed i ng Me t hods :
U st a t es in the Un i t ed St a t es . PI N i n forma -
Sources o f t echn i ca l ass i s t ance on se l ec t i ng t i on is a serv i ce o f the U .S . Depa r t men t
p l ant ma t er i a l s for rec l ama t i on o f d i s turbed Seed f rom the area to be d i s turbed or f rom
of Inter i or ' s F i sh and W i l d l i f e Serv i ce ,
n l andscapes i nc l ude : nea rby areas may be co l l ec t ed by us i ng
Wes t e rn Energy Land Use Team , l oca t ed
comb i nes , bumpe r hoppers , or var i ous
L 1 . Un i vers i t i es and the i r ex t ens i on serv i ces . a t For t Co l l i ns , Co l orado .
hand me t hods (F i gure 640-19) . C l ean i ng
2 . U .S . Na tura l Resource Conse rva t i on Acqu i r i ng P l an t Ma t er i a l : and sor t i ng of seed is necessary on l y for
comme rc i a l opera t i ons . When l egumes are
r Serv i ce of f i ces .
P l ant ma t er i a l can be ob t a i ned f rom one or used , the seed is typ i ca l l y i nocu l a t ed w i th
3 . U .S . Sur f ace Env i ronmen t and M i n i ng mor e of the fo l l ow i ng sources ( the NRCS n i t rogen- f i x i ng bac t er i a . The i dea l t i me to
pub l i ca t i ons . and U .S . Fores t Serv i ce d i st r i bute l ists) : co l l ec t seed is unde r dry cond i t i ons j ust
0 1 . The pred i s turbance vege t a t i on and topso i l be fore the seeds beg i n to d i sperse na tura l -
4 . U .S . Na tura l Resource Conse rva t i on ly, wh i ch is usua l l y 6 to 8 weeks a f t er
Serv i ce p l ant ma t er i a l s cent ers . (These
2 . Ex i st i ng vege t a t i on co l l ec t ed f rom the area b l oom i ng . The seed shou l d be spread ou t
cen t ers are l oca t ed t hroughou t the
and a l l owed to dry t horough l y for 1 to 2
Un i t ed St a t es and have been set up for 3 . St a t e nurser i es
weeks i mmed i a t e l y a f ter co l l ec t i on . Store
 640- 19
seeds in dry , vent i l a t ed l oca t i ons . Fabr i c
cont a i ners are be t t er t han p l ast i c bags .

Seed is p l an t ed by broadcas t i ng ,
hydroseed i ng , or dr i l l i ng (F i gure 640-20) .
Broadcas t i ng requ i res a t l east tw i ce as
much seed as dr i l l ing, and poorer s i tes need
mor e seed than f avorab l e s i tes . Seed i ng
ra tes are based on the numbe r o f i nd i v i dua l
p l ant s (PLS) des i red per square me t e r ( f t ' )
[conver t ed to k i l ograms ( Ibs) of seed pe r
area] . The formu l a for ca l cu l a t i ng the seed-
i ng ra te is as fo l l ows : 10 000mz (43 , 560 f t ' )
X PLS des i red per square me t e r ( f t ' ) - seeds
per k i l ogram ( Ib) X pur i ty X germ i na t i on =
p l ant i ng ra t e of comme rc i a l seeds in Kg / ha F i gur e 640 - 26 . Range f enc i ng me t hods .
( Ibs / acre) .
fal l in Nor th Ame r i ca . Cove r can be es t ab- 2 . Per i od i c fer t i l i zat ion to i ncrease p l ant
In ar i d areas , i t is i mpor t an t to dr i l l t he l i shed dur i ng any par t of the grow i ng per i od v i gor
seed 5 to 10 mm ( 1 / 4 to 1 / 2 in) unde r t he when mo i s ture is ava i l ab l e and by proper
sur f ace to preven t germ i na t i ng seeds f rom 3 . Mow i ng or burn i ng to f avor perenn i a l s
se l ec t i on of spec i es . Perenn i a l grasses tha t
dry i ng out . I t is i mpor t an t tha t the seedbed grow in coo l seasons usua l l y do be t t er when 4 . Fenc i ng , screen i ng , and the use of
be f i rm ; otherw i se , i ts mo i s ture ho l d i ng p l ant ed in the fal l ; l egumes and woody chem i ca l repe l l ents (Tab l e 640-5) and
capac i t y wi l l be reduced . Ro l l i ng be fore p l ants do be t t er when p l ant ed in the spr i ng; po i sons for pes t cont ro l
and / or a f ter seed p l acemen t is bene f i c i a l . some annua l s can be success fu l when p l ant -
5 . Prov i d i ng roos t s and rockp i l es to encour -
ed in m i d to l ate summe r . In cr i t ica l areas ,
Broadcas t i ng is the l east expens i ve and age na tura l preda tor cont ro l
f ast est seed i ng me t hod ; i t is no t so depen- c l ear p l ast i c may be used as a t empora ry
way to i ncrease seed germ i na t i on . Th i s
den t upon sur f ace cond i t i ons and i t has the
ma t er i a l he l ps preserve soi l mo i s ture and wi l l REFERENCES
advan t age of hand l i ng unc l eaned seed .
i ncrease ear l y and l ate season soi l t empe ra -
Broadcas t i ng can a l so be accomp l i shed
tures , bu t i t requ i res care fu l managemen t to A l derson , James and W. Cur t i s Sha rp .
aer i a l l y . When broadcas t i ng or hydrau l i ca l -
preven t excess i ve t empera tures in some Grass Var i e t i es in the Un i t ed St a t es . U .S .
ly app l y i ng seed , the seed i ng ra te shou l d be Depa r t men t of Agr i cu l ture . CRC Press ,
doub l ed compa r ed to dr i l l seed i ng ra t es . areas . Tab l e 640-4 l ists grass spec i es recom-
Boca Ra ton , FL . , 1995 .
Broadcas t seed i ng may be e f f ec t i ve in ar i d mended for use in l andscape rec l ama t i on .
Andew , W i l l i am and Ma r c S . The i sen .
areas unde r the fo l l ow i ng cond i t i ons :
7 . 0 ESTABL I SHMENT AND Prac t i ca l App l i ca t i ons in Eros i on and
1 . On l oose soi l whe r e s l ough i ng wi l l cove r Sed i men t Con t ro l Us i ng Na tura l and
MA I NTENANCE OF
the seed Geosyn t he t i c Ma t er i a l s . Proceed i ngs for
VEGETAT I ON
the B i l l i ngs M i n i ng Sympos i um . Bi l l i ngs ,
2 . Fo l l ow i ng p l ow i ng or d i sk i ng MT , 1996 .
F i gures 640-21 t hrough 640-26 i l lust rate a
3 . Ahead o f mechan i ca l t rea tmen t prov i d- var i e ty o f t echn i ques for t ransp l ant i ng , Gray , Dona l d H ., and Andr ew T. Les i er .
i ng seed cove rage wa t er i ng , and prot ec t i ng vege t a t i on . B i ot echn i ca l S l ope Prot ec t i on and Eros i on
Cont ro l , Van Nos t r and Re i nho l d , New
4 . In deep ashes a f t er burns Once p l ant ma t er i a l s are es t ab l i shed , the
York , 1982 .
fo l l ow i ng managemen t prac t i ces can he l p
5 . Unde r dec i duous t rees pr i or to l ea f fal l ach i eve des i red dens i t i es and re l at i ve l y sta- Gray , Dona l d H . and Robb i n B . Sot i r.
B i ot echn i ca l and So i l B i oeng i neer i ng S l ope
P l an t i ng Schedu l es : b l e cond i t i ons :
Stab i l i zat i on, John W i l ey & Sons , Inc . New
In genera l , the bes t season to p l ant is j ust
pr i or to the season tha t rece i ves t he mos t
1 . Supp l emen t a l wa t e r i ng (par t i cu l ar l y
i mpor t an t for t rees and shrubs in and
York , 1996.
The i sen Ma r c S. and W i l l i am Agnew.
a
N
t tS
dependab l e prec i p i t a t i on , usua l l y spr i ng or areas) Proper Use and Se l ec t i on of We t l ands ,
u
s
Wood l ands and Wi ldl i fe Pro t ec t i on
Produc t s . Land and Wa t e r Magaz i ne. Vo l . c
CIS
40 , No . 6. Nov l Dec. 1996 . L
1 . Common l y used p l ants for t emporary eros i on cont ro l i nc l ude annua l grasses such as
annua l ryegrass , bar l ey f i e ld brome , oa ts , w i nt er rye , whea t , sorghums , and mi l l ets USDA Fores t Serv i ce . Use r Gu i de t o
Vege t a t i on M i n i ng and Rec l ama t i on in t he N
(Tab l e 640-4) .
Wes t , U .S . Depa r t men t o f Agr i cu l ture , a. .
2 . A process of eco l og i ca l success i on can be promo t ed by us i ng a w i de var i e ty of p l ant Ogden , UT, 1979 .
mater i a l s , thus fac i l i tat ing gradua l changes in the commun i t i es of p l ants . U .S . Depa r t men t o f Transpor t a t i on Federa l s
H i ghway Adm i n i s t ra t i on . St anda rd
3 . The formu l a for ca l cu l a t i ng seed i ng ra tes is as fo l l ows : 10 000 m l (43 , 560 f tz) X PLS Spec i f i ca t i on for Cons t ruc t i on o f Roads and
(numbe r of p l ants) des i red per square me t e r ( f t ' ) d i v i ded by seeds per k i l ogram ( lb) Br i dges on Federa l H i ghway Pro j ec ts . U . S. 0
X pur i ty X germ i na t i on=p l ant i ng rate of commerc i a l seeds in k i l ograms per hec t are Gove rnmen t Pr i nt i ng Of f i ce , Wash i ng t on ,
( Ib/ acre) . DC , 1996 .
 SECT I ON ~ I

Sound Con t ro l
Ee l . i,
Con t r i bu tors :
Wa l t e r Kehm
E . D. A. Co l l abora t i ve , Inc .
Toron t o , On t a r i o
Canada

Ph i l l i p El l i s
W i mpey Labora tor i es , Ltd .
Hayes , M i dd l esex
Eng l and
Rev i ewe rs :
1 . R. Wea r
M i n i s t ry of Transpor t a t i on and
Commun i ca t i ons
Prov i nce o f On t a r i o
Downsv i ew , On t a r i o
Canada

Robe r t Arms t rong

Fede ra l H i ghway Adm i n i s t ra t i on
Wash i ng t on , D . C .

Robe r t Newman
Chr i s t ophe r Menge
Bo l t Be r anek and Newman I nc.
Cambr i dge , Massachuse t t s

' CONTENTS
1 .0 Int roduc t i on 4 .3 A i rcra f t No i se 6. 5 Bar r i er Wa l l s and Ear th Be rms
1 .1 Bas i c Approaches to Sound Con t ro l 4 .4 Indust r i a l No i se 6. 6 Vege t a t i on
Acous t i ca l P l ann i ng (Prep l ann i ng) 5 . 0 No i se Con t ro l St anda rds 6. 7 Bu i l d i ng Layou t and Si te Se l ec t i on
Re t rof i t t i ng 5 .1 Accep t ab l e Sound Leve l s i n 7 .0 Des i gn Pr i nc i p l es
1 . 2 Acous t i c Var i ab l es Res i dent i a l and Recrea t i ona l 7.1 Des i gn Cr i ter i a
Source o f t he Sound Env i ronmen t s 7. 2 Aes the t i c I ssues
Pa th and D i s t ance of Sound 5 .2 No i se Ra t i ng P l anes
Transm i ss i on 5 .3 Sound Leve l Zon i ng and Land Use Mass
Rece i ver of t he Sound P l ann i ng Tex t ure
6. 0 Con t ro l of No i se -Ou t doors 8 .0 Des i gn App l i ca t i on (Case Stud i es) r
2 .0 Phys i cs of Sound
2.1 Na t ure o f Sound Waves 6 .1 Sour ce o f t he Sound 8.1 Recrea t i ona l Deve l opmen t n
2. 2 Sound Pressures and Dec i be l s 6 .2 Pa t h and D i s t ance o f t he Sound (Examp l e Prob l em)
3 .0 No i se Transm i ss i on 8. 2 Res i dent i a l Deve l opmen t U
3.1 De f i n i t i on and Sources o f No i se Ef f ec t o f D i s t ance f rom a Po i nt Source (Examp l e Prob l em)
3. 2 Psycho l og i ca l Response to No i se Ef f ec t o f D i s t ance f rom a L i ne Source 8 .3 Indust r i a l Deve l opmen t : Open-P i t
n
3. 3 Un i t s of No i se Measur emen t O t he r Ef f ec ts (Po i nt and L i ne Sources) M i ne (Examp l e Prob l em)
Leq (Equ i va l ent No i se Leve l ) 6.3 Sound Bar r i ers 8 .4 Indust r i a l Deve l opmen t : St ee l P l ant
Ldn (Day -N i gh t Equ i va l ent No i se D i s t ance (P l acemen t of Bar r i er ) (Examp l e Prob l em)
Leve l ) He i gh t of Bar r i er 9 . 0 Ma i n t enance Cons i dera t i ons
Ln Cont i nu i t y of Bar r i er 9 .1 Ear th Be rms
4 . 0 No i se Es t i ma t i ons and Ca l cu l a t i ons Leng t h of Bar r i er 9 .2 Bar r i er Wa l l s
4 .1 Tra f f i c No i se Phys i ca l Mass of a Bar r i er (Ma t er i a l ) Re f e rences
4 .2 Tra i n No i se 6. 4 Ear th Be rms
 660-2
1 . 0 I NTRODUCT I ON Acous t i ca l P l ann i ng (Prep l ann i ng) : 1 .2 Acous t i c Va r i ab l es

T
h i s sec t i on prov i des des i gn and p l an- Whe r e acoust i ca l p l ann i ng is poss i b l e , se t - Three acous t i c var i ab l es t o address when
n i ng gu i de l i nes for the reduc t i on or backs and o ther me t hods can be emp l oyed a t t emp t i ng to m i n i m i ze no i se prob l ems in
e l i m i na t i on of unwan t ed sound in the to m i n i m i ze sound t ransm i ss i ons . t he l andscape are : (1) the source of the
l andscape . Because sound cont ro l is a very Acous t i ca l p l ann i ng shou l d be par t of any sound , (2) the pa th and d i s t ance of the
l arge sub j ec t , the amoun t of t echn i ca l l and use p l ann i ng pro j ec t , espec i a l l y w i th sound t ransm i ss i on , and (3) the rece i ver of
i n forma t i on present ed here is necessar i l y such ma j or pro j ec t s as a i rpor ts , h i ghways , the sound .
l i mi t ed . Howeve r , sources of add i t i ona l and ra i l roads . Acous t i ca l mode l s shou l d be
deve l oped and t es t ed to assess t he p l an- Source o f t he Sound:
i n forma t i on are l i sted unde r Re f erences a t
the end of th i s sec t i on . Regu l a t i ons and n i ng i mp l i ca t i ons bo t h on and of f the prop-
Mos t no i se can be mod i f i ed by acous t i ca l
s t andards for no i se aba t emen t and acoust i - er ty . t rea tmen t a t i ts source ; howeve r , th i s is
ca l p l ann i ng are no t common , but an i nves- Acous t i ca l p l ann i ng is mor e des i rab l e o f t en no t as econom i ca l l y f eas i b l e as con-
t i ga t i on of l oca l ord i nances is never the l ess t han ret rof i t t ing, because as pot ent i a l no i se t rol of no i se by var i ous l andscape p l ann i ng
essent i a l when one is i nvo l ved in any l and prob l ems are i dent i f i ed, cos t -sav i ng m i t i ga- t echn i ques .
use p l ann i ng pro j ec t . t i ve measures can be t aken to reduce no i se
l eve l s to accep t ab l e s t andards wh i l e a t the Pa th and D i s t ance o f Sound Transm i ss i on :
The sc i ence of sound cont ro l in the l and-
scape i nvo l ves much mor e t han the s i mp l e same t i me des i gn i ng a phys i ca l l andscape The pa th and the d i s t ance o f sound t rans-
quant i f i ca t i on of da t a . The qua l i ty of sound w i th i mproved v i sua l qua l i t i es . Th i s can be m i ss i on cons t i tut e an i mpor t an t var i ab l e in
may be as i mpor t an t as the quant i t y of ach i eved , for i ns t ance , t hrough grad i ng any s t ra t egy o f no i se reduc t i on . A va l l ey or
sound . Some sounds can have pro f ound concep t s tha t re t a i n s i gn i f i cant na tura l a downw i nd s i te , for i nst ance , can make
psycho l og i ca l e f f ec ts on peop l e . For exam- l and f orms and ex i st i ng vege t a t i on , as we l l any deve l opmen t l oca t ed in these areas
p l e , the cons t an t drone o f cars on a h i gh- as i ncorpora t e no i se buf f er mounds whe r e mor e suscept i b l e to no i se . Va l l eys and
way is rare l y as of f ens i ve as t he squea l i ng necessary . Prep l ann i ng can accommoda t e rav i nes can exacerba t e cond i t i ons by chan-
o f brakes at an i nt ersec t i on . Mask i ng pub l i c and pr i va t e i nt erests by reduc i ng ne l i z i ng sound waves . Such t opograph i c
unwan t ed sound (by fa l l i ng wa t er , for no i se to accep t ab l e l eve l s , wh i l e re t a i n i ng cond i t i ons can presen t prob l ems when
i ns t ance) is a t echn i que wh i ch can m i t i ga t e l andscapes of h i gh qua l i ty . i nt ens i ve l y used h i ghways or ra i l ways cross
no i se d i s turbance by mod i f y i ng the qua l i ty a va l l ey , for i ns t ance . Ana l yses o f t opo-
Re t rof i t t i ng: graph i c and c l i ma t i c f ac tors are requ i red to
of t he sound rece i ved by the ear .
Acous t i ca l p l ann i ng pr i nc i p l es can a l so be assess the d i rec t i ons of sound t ransm i ss i on .
1 .1 Bas i c App roaches t o Sound e f f ec t i ve l y app l i ed to ex i s t i ng deve l opmen t ,
Con t ro l Rece i ver o f t he Sound :
but the aes the t i c resu l ts are of t en una t t rac-
t i ve . Est ab l i sh i ng adequa t e r i ght s-o f -way or Peop l e who are accus t omed to qu i e t l and-
Two approaches to sound cont ro l in the
buf f er zones is di f f i cul t , typ i ca l l y i nc l ud i ng scapes are s i gn i f i cant l y l ess to l erant of no i se
l andscape i nc l ude acous t i ca l p l ann i ng ,
arch i tec tura l bar r i ers or wa l l s . Cap i t a l con- t han peop l e accus t omed to suburban or
whe r e pot ent i a l no i se prob l ems are mi n i -
s t ruc t i on and eventua l ma i n t enance costs urban env i ronmen t s . Mask i ng of no i se can
m i zed dur i ng des i gn st ages , pr i or to any
cons t ruc t i on , and ret rof i t t ing, whe r e no i se can become l i mi t i ng f ac tors . some t i mes be accomp l i shed by i nt roduc i ng
prob l ems are m i t i ga t ed by a l tera t i on to p l easant sounds , such as t he sound o f f l ow-
ex i st i ng deve l opmen t s . i ng wa t e r or rust l i ng l eaves .

2 . 0 PHYS I CS OF SOUND

Tab l e 660-1 . TYP I CAL SOUND LEVELS OF EVERYDAY OCCURANCES 2 .1 Na t ur e o f Sound Waves

Sound waves are genera t ed by any pu l sa-

Occu r r ence Sound l eve l , dB(A) t i on or v i bra t i on of a source . The sur round-
i ng a i r is d i s turbed , thereby caus i ng pres-
Weakes t sound tha t can be hea rd ( t hresho l d of hea r i ng) ii
Ins i de broadcas t s l ru l i o 21 sure changes wh i ch can be hea rd . The
Rura l a rea a t n i gh t grea t er the change in pressure , the l ouder
Wh i spe r ed conve rsa t i on a t 2 m (6 f t ) try the sound .
l i brary S~
Res i dent i a l area dur i ng day t i me The ra te of repe t i t i on o f these sound
L Rura l li )
waves is re f er red to as f requency . I t is mea -
Suburban
Suburban , ad j acen t t o a i rpor t f ,o sured in cyc l es per second or un i ts of her t z
U Conve r sa t i on a t 1 m (3 f t )
C i t y cen t e r
60
65
(Hz ) . The norma l aud i b l e range for humans
is 20 to 20 , 000 Hz .
Ma j or roads ( ad j a ( en t prope r t y ±20 m 165 i t ) i ns i de)
Townsh i p road ; 11
2 . 2 Sound Pr essur es and Dec i be l s
H i ghway 0)
F r eeway (12- l ane ) ?,
A l t hough the human ear ac t s l i ke a sound
N D i ese l t ruck a t 15 m (5(1 f t )
No i sy me t a l -wor k i ng shop lni i f i l ter by d i scr i m i na t i ng aga i ns t some f re-
I mpu l s i ve p i l e dr i v i ng a t 10 m { 32 t t) 1 10 quenc i es and g i v i ng pre f erence to others ,
l et t ak i ng ot t a t .50 m (165 t t) 12(1 the range of sound pressure wh i ch the
Pa i n beg i ns > 12 i t human ea r can de t ec t is re l at i ve l y broad .
 660 - 3
G i ven thi s broad range , the measuremen t
of sound is made more conven i ent by use
Tab l e 660-2 . NO I SE SURVEY (LONDON , EARLY 1960 ' S)
of a l ogar i thmi c sca l e ca l l ed the dec i be l (dB)
sca l e .
To s i mu l a te human hear i ng , a sound Percent age of persons quest i oned who we re
measur i ng i ns t rument is equ i pped w i th an d i sturbed by no i se
e l ect ron i c A-we i ght i ng f i l ter wh i ch cor re- Source of no i se When home When outdoors When at work
sponds to human de t ec t i on of sound. St reet traf f ic 36 20 7
Sound pressure l eve l s measured w i th the A- Ai rcraf t 9 4 1
we i ght i ng f i l ter sw i t ched on are g i ven in Ra i lway 5 1 4
dB(A) . Indust ry and bui ldings 4 - 4
Internal noises at home 4 -
Tab l e 660-1 l ists typ i ca l sound l eve l s of No i se f rom ne ighbors 6 - -
Chi ldren 9 3 -
everyday occur rences . 10 2 2
Adul ts ( talking)
Rad i o and te levision 7 1 1
3 . 0 NO I SE Bel ls and si rens 3 1 1
Pets 3 - -
3 .1 De f i n i t i on and Sources of No i se
Unde r al l c i rcumstances , any unwan t ed ,
ef fect on human ears, the average sound
unp l easant , l oud, or harsh sound is refer red Tab l e 660-3 .
energy of the f l uctuat i ng no i se is ca l cul at -
to as no i se . CALCULAT I NG D I FFERENCES
ed . Th i s is t ermed the equ i va l ent energy
BETWEEN DEC I BEL LEVELS
Tab l e 660-2 summar i zes a no i se survey concept , and the s i ng l e- f i gure l eve l , mea -
car r i ed out in London , Eng l and . Th i s survey sured in un i ts of dB(A) , is ca l l ed the equ i v-
and more recent stud i es conf i rm that veh i c- a l ent no i se level , or Leq . Leq can be deter - D i f f e rence be t ween Add i t i on t o h i ghe r
ul ar t raf f ic is the ma j or source of urban m i ned over any t i me per i od and is usua l l y t he t wo l eve l s , dB l eve l , dB

no i se . expressed in brackets , e .g ., Leq (1 hour ) .

Ins t rument s are commerc i a l l y ava i l ab l e 1 3
3 .2 Psycho l og i ca l Response to wh i ch measure Leq di rect l y. 2 2
+ 2
No i se
Ld (Day-N i ght Equ i va l ent No i se Leve l ) : 4 1
A l though the acceptab i l i ty of the type and 5 t
l eve l of no i se is h i gh l y sub j ect i ve , no i se The day-n i ght equ i va l ent no i se l eve l Ldn is a t
7 1
of ten d i sturbs peop l e by inter fer ing w i th no i se uni t wh i ch is obt a i ned by comb i n i ng
R t
commun i ca t i on , s l eep, and other everyday the equ i va l ent energy l eve l for the day t i me 9 1
act i v i t i es . No i se can a l so cause phys i ca l di s- per i od (07 : 00 to 22 :00 hours) w i th the 1a o
comfor t and , i f i ntense enough , can cause equ i va l ent energy l eve l for n i ght t i me
Fxa rnp l e : 50 dB i 50 dB + 50 dB + 60 dB
damage to hear i ng . Peop l e are usua l l y (22 : 00 to 07 : 00 hours) . Because no i se at
i
annoyed more by h i gh- f requency sound n i ght is more d i sturb i ng and more annoy- i3 d11 60 (1B
than by l ow- f requency sound , by cer ta i n ing than no i se dur i ng the day , a we i ght i ng
tona l qua l i t i es (e .g ., wh i nes , hi sses, or factor of 10 is app l i ed to the n i ght t i me 61 dB

squea l s) , by i mpu l s i ve sound (e .g . , bangs no i se .

and c l anks) , and by i ntermi t tent sound . 4 .1 Tra f f i c No i se
L (No i se Leve l ) :
Any f requent or cont i nuous exposure to No i se genera t ed by t raf f ic depends on :
no i se can l ead to a reduc t i on of human ef f i - The no i se l eve l Ln refers to that l eve l
c i ency by a deter i orat i on of phys i ca l and wh i ch is exceeded for n percent of the 1 . Vo l ume
emot i ona l we l l -be i ng . measuremen t t i me per i od . Ln is used to 2. M i x (e .g ., cars and t rucks)
prov i de stat ist ica l i nforma t i on abou t a
3 .3 Un i t s o f No i se Measur emen t 3. Speed
f l uctuat i ng no i se s igna l . Some representa-
The A-we i ght ed sound l eve l [db(A) l is typ- t i ve examp l es of L n are Lto (peak) , L50, 4. Road character i st i cs (e .g ., grad i ent
ical ly used to measure sound l eve l s in env i - and L9o (amb i ent ) . and sur face)
ronment a l stud i es . It is good pract i ce to O
r
state the mode of measuremen t used when 4 . 0 NO I SE EST I MAT I ONS AND No i se propaga t ed to a rece i ver depends on :
refer r ing to no i se l eve l s measured w i th a CALCULAT I ONS 1 . D i st ance f rom t raf f i c O
me t er (i .e ., s l ow, fast , or peak) . Three no i se V
descr i pt i ons are : L eq , Ld n , and Ln . To assess the potent i a l i mpac t of no i se f rom
2. Type of ground
a proposed ma j or faci l i ty such as a new n
L eq (Equ i va l ent No i se Leve l ) : 3 . He i ght of rece i ver u
h i ghway or a i rpor t expans i on , no i se l eve l s O
Even though no i se l eve l s may be f luctuat - mus t be pred i c ted . Common sources of 4. Amoun t of sh i e l d i ng N
i ng cont i nuous l y , a s i ng l e- f i gure dB(A) no i se and character i st i cs f rom wh i ch ca l cu- 5. He i ght of source
measuremen t wi l l on l y refer to no i se l eve l s l at ions can be made are descr i bed be l ow.
at a par t i cu l ar po i nt in t i me . To use a s ingl e , The eas i est way to i ncorpora t e al l these
or equ i va l ent , l eve l wh i ch has the same var i ab l es in any ca l cu l at i on is by use of a
 660-4
compu t er , espec i a l l y i f a l arge numbe r o f
pos i t i ons a l ong a road have to be cons i d-
ered . Severa l ca l cu l a t i on me t hods are ava i l -
ab l e . A gu i de wh i ch g i ves de t a i l ed i nst ruc-
t i ons for bo t h a manua l and a compu t e r
me t hod o f no i se pred i c t i on has been pro-
duced in A l ber t a , Canada . The L eq homo -
graph shown in F i gure 660-1 can be used
to i l lust rate a s i mp l e examp l e as fo l l ows :

1 . A st ra i ght l ine is dr awn f rom the star t -

i ng po i nt t hrough 60 mph on the au t o
speed sca l e to the turn l ine .
2 . A second st ra i ght l ine is dr awn f rom
th i s turn i ng po i nt to the po i nt on the
vo l ume sca l e i nd i ca t i ng 5000 veh i c l es
per hour . The i nt ersec t i on of th i s
st ra i ght l ine w i th the p i vot l ine is
boxed .
3 . A th i rd st ra i ght l ine is dr awn f rom th i s
box to the 500 f t po i nt on the d i s-
t ance sca l e .

4 . The i nt ersec t i on of th i s l ine w i th the

Leq sca l e g i ves t he pred i c t ed Le q a t the
observer : 65 dB(A) .

Th i s me t hod can be repea t ed for bo t h

med i um and heavy t rucks , and the resu l tant
o f al l three va l ues is ob t a i ned by us i ng the dB
add i t i ons me t hod shown in Tab l e 660-3 .

A comp l e t ed ca l cu l a t i on of no i se pred i c-
t i on i nvo l ves add i t i ona l ca l cu l a t i ons wh i ch UNACCEPTABLE
No i se exposu r e i s so seve r e t ha t sound i nsu l a t i on
t ake i nto accoun t road and no i se propaga -
cos t s wou l d be proh i b i t i ve , and ou t doo r env i ronmen t
t i on charac t er i st i cs . A comprehens i ve t raf f i c wou l d be excess i ve l y no i sy.
no i se s tudy typ i ca l l y i nvo l ves ca l cu l a t i ng
the Leq for both the day and n i gh t per i ods 75 dB
- ______ - - ___ - - - - - - ____ - - ______ - - ______ - -

and t hen comb i n i ng t hem to obt a i n the Ldn .

NORMALLY UNACCEPTABLE

4 .2 Tra i n No i se No i se exposur e i s s i gn i f i can t l y mo r e seve r e .

I ndoor cond i t i ons unaccep t ab l e un l ess adequa t e
The L eq nomogr aph used for t raf f i c no i se sound i nsu l a t i on i s prov i ded . Ou t doo r r ec r ea t i on

can a l so be used for t ra i n no i se pred i c t i on space may have t o be she l t e r ed .

(F i gure 660-1) . Ad j us t men t s to the bas i c NO I SE LEVEL

- __ - - - - - ______ - __ - - - ____ - - - - - - - ___ - - - - __
ca l cu l a t ed l eve l have to be made for such AT BU I LD I NG 55 dB

f ac tors as the ex i s t ence of we l ded t racks or FACADE

NORMALLY ACCEPTABLE
whe t he r or not the ra i l way crosses a stee l No i se exposu r e may cause some conce rn bu t
s t ruc ture (i .e . , an overpass) . cons t ruc t i on comp l y i ng w i t h " Res i dent i a l S t anda r ds -
shou l d prov i de accep t ab l e i ndoor cond i t i ons .
4 . 3 A i rc ra f t No i se
- ____ - - - - ____ - - - - ______ - ____ - ____ - - - ____
Ai rcra f t no i se pred i c t i ons are usua l l y repre- 45 dB
O
sen t ed by a se t of no i se con tours for areas ACCEPTABLE

n sur round i ng t he a i rpor t . Severa l me t hods No i se exposu r e bo t h I ndoo r s and ou t doo r s

Is ob t rus i ve.
O for ra t i ng a i rcra f t no i se exposure have been
V deve l oped , i nc l ud i ng:
* Re f e r r i ng t o Canad i an Cen t r a l Mor t gage and Hous i ng Corpor a t i on s t andan l s

NEF no i se exposure forecas t

n
NN I no i se and numbe r i ndex
O
N F i gur e 660 -2 . No i se l eve l s a t bu i l d i ng f acade . Th i s char t shows no i se s t anda rds
CNR compos i t e no i se ra t i ng
deve l oped by the Canada Mor t gage and Hous i ng Corpora t i on for eva l ua t i on o f proposed
n i gh t sound l eve l
da y -Ldn res i den t i a l deve l opmen t w i t h i n i ts j ur i sd i c t i on ( Canada Mor t gage and Hous i ng
Corpor a t i on , O t t awa , Canada , 1979) .
 660- 5
Tab l e 660 - 4 . ACCEPTABLE NO I SE
LEVELS FOR RES I DENT I AL AND Tab l e 660 - 5 . COMMUN I TY REACT I ON TO A I RCRAFT NO I SE
OUTDOOR RECREAT I ON ENV I RON -
MENTS . No i se exposur e Commun i t y r esponse pr ed i c t i on
f or ecas t (NFF )
No i se l eve l ,
Env i ronmen t L eq (24h) > 40 Repea t ed and v i gorous i nd i v i dua l comp l a i n t s are l i ke l y . Conce rned
- group and l ega l ac t i on m i gh t be expec t ed .
Bedrooms 35 35 40 Ind i v i dua l comp l a i n t s may be v i gorous . Group ac t i on and appea l s
Li v i ng, d i n i ng , recrea t i on rooms 40 to author i t i es m i gh t resu l t .
K i t chens . ba throoms , ha l l ways , 45 Sporad i c to repea t ed i nd i v i dua l comp l a i n t s . Group ac t i on is
30 35
ut i l i ty rooms poss i b l e .
Ou t door recrea t i on areas 55
30 Sporad i c comp l a i n t s may occur . No i se may i nt er f ere occas i ona l l y
Source - Cour t esy of Canad i an Mor t gage and w i th res i dent ' s ac t i v i t i es .
Hous i ng Corpora t i on .

The f i rst three o f these are s i mi l ar a t i ona l areas , as r ecommended by the In mos t cases , loca l , state , or f edera l
because t hey comb i ne many f ac tors i nto a Canad i an Cent ra l Mor t gage and Hous i ng gove rnmen t s have no i se cont ro l s t andards
s i ng l e numbe r eva l ua t i on . The formu l as Corpora t i on ( CMHC) . (No t e tha t th i s is the for var i ous t ypes o f l and use . For examp l e ,
requ i re i n forma t i on abou t the t ypes of a i r - r ecommenda t i on of on l y one author i t y .) the CMHC recogn i zes three d i f f erent ca t e-
cra f t us i ng the a i rpor t , the numbe r of gor i es of no i se l eve l (Leq / 24 hours) at t he
5 . 2 No i se Ra t i ng bu i l d i ng f acade and app l i es t he fo l l ow i ng
movemen t s , and the amoun t of no i se gen-
r ecommended po l i cy to new res i dent i a l
era t ed , measur ed in t e rms of e f f ec t i ve per - The Int erna t i ona l St andards Organ i za t i on
deve l opmen t (F i gure 660-2) :
ce i ved no i se dec i be l s (EPN dB) . documen t I SO 1996 (1971) shows how to
assess the fo l l ow i ng : 1 . In the l owe r no i se zone , whe r e the
The Ld n me t hod of a i rcra f t no i se annoy -
ance assessmen t has been adop t ed in the no i se l eve l is be t ween 45 and 55 dB
1 . The accept ab i l i t y of a no i se l eve l
(F i gure 660-2) , new hous i ng con-
Un i t ed St a t es . Th i s is the same un i t as
2 . The se t t i ng of no i se l imi ts s t ruc t i on mee t i ng Canada ' s Na t i ona l
descr i bed in 3 .3 Un i t s o f No i se
Measur emen t in th i s sec t i on . Hous i ng Ac t Res i dent i a l St anda rds is
3 . Appropr i a t e no i se cr i ter i a
cons i dered to have suf f i c i ent sound
4 . 4 I ndus t r i a l No i se The I SO documen t uses a bas i c cr i ter i on i nsu l a t i on .
of 35 to 45 dB(A) for res i dent i a l purposes .
Indust r i a l i nsta l l a t i ons genera t e no i se f rom 2 . In t he i n t ermed i a t e no i se zone ,
Cor rec t i ons to th i s are app l i ed for d i f f erent
a w i de var i e ty of sources , such as f ans , be t ween 55 and 75 dB (F i gure 660-2) ,
t i mes of the day and for d i f f erent commu -
b l owers , t rans formers , hea t i ng and vent i - hous i ng sha l l be den i ed f i nanc i ng unde r
n i ty zones . In order to est ab l i sh t he accept -
l a t i ng sys t ems , and rec i proca t i ng or turb i ne the Na t i ona l Hous i ng Ac t un l ess spec i a l
ab i l i ty of a measur ed no i se l eve l (ca l l ed the
eng i nes . Me t hods for es t i ma t i ng no i se and adequa t e sound i nsu l a t i on is pro-
ra t i ng l eve l ) , th i s cr i ter i on is used for com-
em i ss i on and for cont ro l l i ng no i se are v i ded .
para t i ve purposes .
there fore var i ed . For a use fu l descr i pt i on of
3 . In the uppe r no i se zone , whe r e the
var i ous me t hods , re fer to Har r i s in the 5 . 3 Sound Leve l Zon i ng and Land l eve l exceeds 75 dB (F i gure 660-2) ,
Re f erences a t the end of th i s sec t i on . Use P l ann i ng f i nanc i ng for hous i ng sha l l be den i ed
unde r the Na t i ona l Hous i ng Ac t .
5 . 0 NO I SE CONTROL STANDARDS Sound l eve l zon i ng , or acous t i ca l p l ann i ng ,
re fers to the separa t i on be t ween the source The Canad i an M i n i s t ry of Transpor t has
of no i se and the rece i vers of tha t no i se i mp l emen t ed the gu i de l i nes shown in Tab l e
No i se cont ro l l eg i s l at i on in Nor t h Ame r i ca
can be f ound a t f edera l , prov i nc i a l / st a t e , (usua l l y in res i dent i a l areas) . Such p l ann i ng 660-5 for assess i ng l i ke l y commun i t y reac-
is accomp l i shed by ca t egor i z i ng var i ous t i on to no i se crea t ed by a i rcra f t .
and l oca l l eve l s . Regu l a t i ons common l y
dea l w i th t he fo l l ow i ng: Ll and uses in a deve l op i ng commun i t y , and
t hen prescr i b i ng des i gn no i se l eve l s not to 6 . 0 CONTROL OF NO I SE
1 . Transpor t a t i on be exceeded in any par t i cu l ar area . In th i s OUTDOORS
manne r , sens i t i ve bu i l d i ngs such as schoo l s ,
2 . Source em i ss i on (max i mum l eve l s)
churches , and hosp i t a l s can be separa t ed O
Measur es to cont ro l no i se can be d i v i ded r
3 . Nu i sance f rom i ndust r i a l areas and t raf f i c no i se . In
i nto three ca t egor i es , each of wh i ch can be
es t ab l i shed commun i t i es , howeve r , acoust i - n
4 . Zon i ng addressed in a no i se cont ro l s t ra t egy. These O
ca l p l ann i ng is usua l l y a di f f i cul t concep t to
5 . Recrea t i ona l areas i mp l emen t . Cer t a i n t ypes of act i v i ty and
are : V
deve l opmen t have to be rest r i cted, proh i b- 1 . Source of t he sound
n
5 .1 Accep t ab l e Sound Leve l s i n i ted, or con f i ned to cer t a i n areas to mee t
p l ann i ng requ i remen t s . O f cur rent i nterest 2 . Pa th and d i s t ance of the sound t rans-
Res i den t i a l and Rec r ea t i ona l O
m i ss i on
Env i ronmen t s is the re t rof i t t i ng of h i ghways w i th no i se
bar r i ers to reduce no i se l eve l s in sur round- 3 . Rece i ver o f the sound
Tab l e 660-4 shows max i mum accep t ab l e
i ng res i dent i a l areas .
l eve l s of road and rai l t raf f i c no i se for res i -
dent i a l env i ronmen t s and ou t door recre-
 resul t ing in a sound level at the rece i ver of
68 dB(A) .
Ef fect of D i s t ance f rom a Po i nt Source :
Refer r ing to the above examp l e , note that
each t i me the di stance is doub l ed, the
sound level fal ls of f by 6 dB(A) . Therefore ,
if the d i stance away f rom the same we l d-
ing mach i ne were increased to 100 m (300
ft), the sound level wou l d be 62 dB(A) .
Ef fect of D i s t ance f rom a L i ne Source :
For l ine sources such as t rains or cont inu-
ous t raf f ic, the sound leve l wi l l decay by 3
dB(A) per doub l i ng of di stance, up to a dis-
tance of about ha l f the l ength of the l ine
source .
O t he r Ef fects (Po i nt and L i ne Sources) :
The dependence on di stance g i ven above
is for propaga t i on of noi se over hard
ground (such as pavement ) , or for an e le-
vated source or rece i ver over sof t ground
(such as a grassy f ield or a garden) . The
decay rate over sof t ground , when both
F i gure 660-3 . Ef fec t of d i st ance f rom a l ine source . Thi s char t shows the amount source and rece iver are less than 2 m (6 f t )
to be sub t r ac t ed f rom a sound power l eve l at the source in order to de termi ne the sound above the ground, is increased by 1-1/2 dB
l eve l at some d i stance . Not e that sound l eve l s de t ermi ned wi th this graph are unre l i abl e per doub l i ng of di stance . Sound levels and
i f at d i s t ances less than three ma j or d i mens i ons f rom the source, and i f the source radi - at tenuat ion over a di stance may a l so vary
ates sound in a marked di rect iona l manne r. substant i a l ly accord i ng to w i nd , ai r turbu-
l ence, and tempera ture . These ef fects are
di f f icul t to predi ct .
At suf f i c i ent di stances, al l noi se sources
can be cons i dered a po int source . Thus , the 6 .3 Sound Bar r i ers
sound level at a rece i ver can be ca l cul ated
by the fo l lowing equat i on : The degree of at tenuat ion prov ided by a
noi se barr ier is ma in l y a funct ion of (1) the
L P = LW - (20 log R) - 8 di f f ract ion ang l e a through wh i ch the
where : sound path mus t be bent in order to get
f rom source to rece iver and (2) the f re-
LP =sound level at receiver , dB(A) quency of the sound source (F igure 660-4) .
LW = sound level of source, dB(A) (If the F i ve ma i n factors that inf luence the
noi se is caused by a mach i ne , the acoust i c ef fect i veness of a barr ier are : (1)
va lue of LW can some t i mes be di stance (of fset ) , (2) he ight , (3) cont inui ty,
obta i ned f rom the manufac turer .) (4) l ength, and (5) mass .
6 .1 Source of the Sound R = di stance be tween source and rece i v An addi t iona l factor inf luenc ing the
er , (f t) (A useful cr i ter ion for a suf f i acoust i c ef fect i veness of a barr ier is the
No i se can be reduced at the source e i ther c i ent di stance is that R shou ld be sound absorpt ion capabi l i ty of the barr ier ,
by archi tecture or equ i pment mod i f i cat ion . greater than the sum of the three pr in i .e ., the degree to wh i ch it mi n i mi zes ref lec-
In some instances the amount of noi se gen- c iple d i mens i ons of the source . At dis t ion of sound .
O
r erated is so great that it is rarely cost -ef fec- tances less than this, the equat i on is
n t ive or feasibl e to abate the noi se at the unre l i abl e .) D i s t ance (P l acement of Bar r i er ) :
O source . In such cases a comb i na t i on of
V other acoust i ca l cont rol measures may be F igure 660-3 shows how the sound level
g i ven by the above equa t i on can be
A sound barr ier shou ld be erected as c lose
as poss ibl e to e i ther the noi se source or the
requi red . rece i v ing pos i t ion in order to max i mi ze the
n obta i ned graphi ca l l y.
di f f ract ion ang l e (F igure 660-5) .
6 .2 Pa th and D i s t ance of the Sound Examp l e (F igure 660-3) : G i ven a we l d-
O Transm i ss i on ing mach i ne wi th a sound leve l of 110 He i ght of Bar r i er:
No i se can be at tenuated by increas ing the dB(A) , the sound level 50 m (164 f t ) away The m i n i mum he ight of the barr ier shou ld be
0 d i stance be tween the source and the
rece i ver and /or by i nt roduc i ng noi se
is de termi ned . The graph shows that , at
di stance, 42 dB(A) can be subt racted f rom
such that the l ine of s ight be tween source
and rece iver is inter rupted (F igure 660-6) .
screen ing . the sound leve l at the source [110 dB(A) I ,
F i gur e 660 - 5 . D i s t ance as a va r i ab l e i n f l uenc i ng t he F i gur e 660 - 6 . He i gh t as a va r i ab l e i n f l uenc i ng t he e f f ec -
e f f ec t i veness o f a no i se bar r i er . Bar r i ers shou l d be p l aced to t i veness o f a no i se bar r i er . Bar r i ers shou l d be p l aced to i nt er -
max i m i ze the d i f f rac t i on ang l e. rupt l i nes of s i ght .

Con t i nu i t y of Bar r i er : s t ruc ture to m i n i m i ze sound d i f f rac t i on bar r i er ; however , a reduc t i on of 5 to 10

a round the ends of the bar r i er (F i gure 660-8) . dB(A) is cons i dered to be mor e cost -e f f ec t i ve .
No gaps or ho l es shou l d be present in a
no i se bar r i er. I t mus t be e f f ec t i ve l y a i r t i ght Phys i ca l Mass of a Bar r i er (Ma t er i a l ) : 6 . 4 Ea r t h Be rms
(F i gure 660-7) .
To m i n i m i ze sound pass i ng through a bar r i er , The care fu l des i gn and s i tua t i on of ear th
Leng t h o f Bar r i er., i t shou l d have a sur f ace we i ght , or mass , of be rms can be an e f f ec t i ve way o f reduc i ng
a t l east 6 to 12 kg / m 2 . A no i se l eve l reduc - no i se f rom t raf f i c or cons t ruc t i on opera -
As a gu i de l i ne , the l ength of a no i se bar r i er t i on of 10 to 15 dB(A) is poss i b l e w i th such a t i ons . Be rms can e i ther be t empor a ry or
shou l d be a t l east 1 to 2 t i mes t he d i s t ance
rema i n as a pe rmanen t f ea ture o f the l and-
be t ween the bar r i er and the prot ec t ed
scape (F i gures 660-9 and 660-10) . The s l ope
of a be rm depends on the t ype of sur f ace
t rea tmen t or ma i n t enance i nvo l ved . For
i nst ance , a mowed grass be rm is eas i er to
No i se can be a t t enua t ed by i ncreas i ng the d i s t ance be t ween the source and the ma i nt a i n i f graded to a s l ope of 1 :3 or l ess .
rece i ver and / or by i nt roduc i ng no i se screen i ng . Tab l e 660-4 l ists accept ab l e no i se l ev-
e l s for res i dent i a l and recrea t i ona l env i ronmen t s . Tab l e 660-1 l ists typ i ca l sound l ev- 6 . 5 Ba r r i e r Wa l l s and Ea r t h Be rms
e l s of var i ous no i se genera tors .
Bar r i er wa l l s can be used separa t e l y or in
comb i na t i on w i th ear th be rms to m i n i m i ze
1 . Genera l l y speak i ng , each t i me the d i st ance f rom a po i nt source of sound is doub l ed ,
no i se l eve l s (F i gure 660-11) .
the sound l eve l fal ls of f by 6 dB(A) . Each t i me the d i st ance f rom a l ine source , such
as a roadway , is doub l ed , the sound l eve l wi l l decay by 3 dB(A) . The t ype of ground
6 . 6 Vege t a t i on
sur f ace , w i nd , and t empera ture wi l l fur ther mod i f y these sound l eve l s .
The t ype o f ground sur f ace ove r wh i ch
2 . F i ve ma i n f ac tors tha t i nf l uence the e f f ec t i veness of a no i se bar r i er wa l l are d i stance , sound t rave l s does have a subst ant i a l e f f ec t
he i ght , cont i nu i ty , l ength, and mass . F i gures 660-5 through 660-8 i l l lust rate the on sound a t t enua t i on , par t i cu l ar l y when
i nf l uence of these factors .
t rave l i ng over l arge d i s t ances . Areas covered
3 . Ear th be rms can be an e f fect i ve no i se reduc t i on t echn i que (F i gure 660-9 and 660- w i th grass or o ther t ypes of groundcove r are O
r
10) . They may be used in comb i na t i on w i th bar r i er wa l l s to ach i eve the des i red mor e absorpt i ve than hard , paved sur faces ,
e f fect (F i gure 660-12) . wh i ch t end to ref l ect the sound . Ta l l er p l ant -
O
ings , such as hedges or sha l l ow screen p l ant - U
4 . Dense p l ant i ngs of t rees w i th an unders tory of shrubs can resu l t in a reduc t i on of 3 i ngs (even t hough they may comp l e t e l y
to 5 dB(A) per 30 m (100 f t ) of dep th f rom the sound source (F i gure 660-12) . Areas b l ock the v i ew of the no i se source) , wi l l not
covered w i th grass or other t ypes of groundcover wi l l absorb mor e sound than hard , s i gn i f i cant l y reduce ac tua l no i se l eve l s .
paved sur f aces . Howeve r , dense p l ant i ngs of t rees w i th an O
unders tory of shrubs can resu l t in a reduc t i on
5 . In add i t i on to spec i a l l y cons t ruc t ed dev i ces , the use of ex i st i ng or proposed bu i l d i ngs of 3 to 5 dB(A) per 30 m (100 f t ) of dep t h
to sh i e l d others tha t are mor e sens i t i ve , and the use of natura l or cons t ruc t ed l and-
f rom the sound source (F i gure 660-12) . 0
scape fea tures , can be e f fect i ve sound cont ro l t echn i ques .
 660- 8

F i gur e 660 - 7 . Con t i nu i t y as a va r i ab l e i n f l uenc i ng t he F i gur e 660 - 8 . Leng t h as a va r i ab l e i n f l uenc i ng t he e f f ec -

e f f ec t i veness o f a no i se ba r r i e r . Bar r i ers shou l d be so l i d ra ther t i veness o f a no i se ba r r i e r . Bar r i ers shou l d ex t end beyond the
t han per fora t ed . pro t ec t ed s t ruc ture to m i n i m i ze sound d i f f rac t i on a round the ends
o f the bar r i er.

F i gur e 660 - 9. Ea r t h be rms f or no i se con t ro l . Ear th be rms and wa l l s can he l p cont ro l w i nd and no i se . P l ant i ngs can prov i de psy-
cho l og i ca l re l i e f f rom no i se and a l so he l p to cont ro l w i nd.

The pr i mary va l ue of vege t a t i on in con- 3 . The opt i m i za t i on o f o ther s i te p l an- who are a f f ec t ed . In the case of a h i ghway ,
nec t i on w i th sound cont ro l in the l andscape n i ng or des i gn cr i ter i a (d i scussed in for i ns t ance , bo t h the ac tua l users of the
is for i ts aes the t i c and psycho l og i ca l appea l . 7 .0, wh i ch fo l l ows) h i ghway as we l l as the users of ad j acent
Pe rhaps t he mos t i mpor t an t va l ue of p l ant - l ands are f ac tors to cons i der . Des i gn cr i ter i a
i ng is to make bar r i er wa l l s , be rms , and 7 . 0 DES I GN PR I NC I PLES are no t l i mi t ed to aes the t i c conce rns a l one
o ther sound cont ro l dev i ces seem l ess v i su- but shou l d a l so address a se t of progr am
a l l y i nt rus i ve in t he l andscape . 7 .1 Des i gn Cr i t er i a ob j ec t i ves es t ab l i shed for the roadway , t ak-
The three mos t i mpor t an t cr i ter i a for no i se i ng i nto accoun t the v i ews to bo t h na tura l
6 . 7 Bu i l d i ng Layou t and S i t e and bu i l t sur round i ngs . No i se bar r i ers can
Se l ec t i on bar r i er des i gn are acous t i c e f f ec t i veness ,
a id dr i ver or i ent a t i on and dec i s i on mak i ng
econom i c feas ibi l i ty, and v i sua l a t t rac t i ve-
and prov i de sequent i a l v i sua l exper i ences .
O ness . Acous t i c cr i ter i a i nc l ude the s i te p l an-
r Spec i a l l y cons t ruc t ed no i se bar r i ers are They shou l d i nt egra t e we l l w i th the ex i s t i ng
n i ng ob j ec t i ves , the cho i ce o f bar r i er ma t e -
n expens i ve , bu t for tuna t e l y are no t t he on l y l andscape and promo t e f ee l i ngs of secur i ty
r ia l , and t he qua l i t y o f cons t ruc t i on .
O means ava i l ab l e for no i se cont ro l . O t he r and comf or t for both dr i vers and passen-
Econom i c cr i ter i a i nc l ude the cos t of ma t e -
V means ava i l ab l e i nc l ude :
r ia ls and l abor , i mp l emen t a t i on ease , and
gers .

1 . The use of ex i st i ng or proposed bu i l d- opera t i ng and ma i n t enance cos t s . Vi sua l

n 7 . 2 Aes t he t i c I ssues
i ngs to sh i e l d others tha t are mor e cr i ter i a i nc l ude env i ronmen t a l l y accept ab l e
O sens i t i ve a l t erna t i ves for h i ghway users as we l l as for No i se bar r i ers a l ong h i ghway cor r i dors
N peop l e who have to l i ve near the bar r i ers . shou l d be seen as e l emen t s wh i ch de f i ne
2 . The use of na tura l or cons t ruc t ed
and enc l ose l i near space . V i sua l percep t i on
l andscape f ea tures (hi l ls and va l l eys , The des i gn o f no i se bar r i ers shou l d
0 in these cor r i dors wi l l be i n f l uenced by t rav-
ear th be rms , e t c.) i ncorpora t e bo t h the func t i ona l requ i re-
el speed , l ight , spa t i a l qua l i ty , l oca t i on ,
men t s and the aes the t i c pre f erences of al l
phys i ca l d i st ances , roadway charac ter i st i cs ,
660 -9

0r
0
 660 - 1 0

F i gur e 660 - 13 . The appa r en t he i gh t o f a wa l l . A F i gur e 660 - 14 . S t epped -back wa l l . A wa l l wh i ch s t eps back can
comb i na t i on of ver t i ca l and hor i zont a l l i nes in a wa l l ( i . e. , open up the v i ew for the motor i s t and prov i de psycho l og i ca l re l i e f f rom
ar t i cu l a t i on and t ex ture ra ther than a mono l i th i c mass) f ee l i ngs o f t i ght enc l osure .
can reduce the appa ren t he i gh t of the wa l l .

and v i ew i ng he i ght , al l mod i f i ed by the Mass: ob j ec t al l t end to decrease the appa ren t
bas i c des i gn e l emen t s of p l anes , mass , and degree of t ex ture . Sur f aces tha t are re l a-
t ex ture . Mass re fers to the f orm and shape of a bar r i -
t i ve l y smoo t h (i .e ., f i ne- t extured) not on l y
er . Mass i ve , unre l i eved f orms can some t i mes
cause undes i rab l e re f l ec t i ons of l ight and
P l anes : arouse uncomf or t ab l e f ee l i ngs of c l aust ro-
sound bu t a l so promo t e mono t ony in the
phob i a or i nsecur i ty (F i gure 660-14) .
P l anes are an i mpor t an t e l emen t in no i se l andscape (F i gure 660-17) .
O bar r i er des i gn . In h i ghway des i gn , for The appa ren t mass of a no i se bar r i er can
r
i ns t ance , whe r e m i n i ma l r i gh t s-o f -way be m i n i m i zed by means of s t epped wa l l 8 . 0 DES I GN APPL I CAT I ON
n
O ex i st , bar r i ers can provoke f ee l i ngs o f sec t i ons , s t aggered a l i gnment s , p l ant i ngs , ( CASE STUD I ES)
V excess i ve enc l osure or g i ve a mono t onous shadow l ines or revea l s , co l or var i a t i on ,
d appea rance . In such c i rcums t ances , i t is ar t i cu l a t i on of form, and i nt egra t i on w i th To i l lust rate the app l i ca t i on of no i se aba t e -
n necessary to crea t e var i e ty and i nterest in l and f orm (F i gure 660-15) . men t t echn i ques and des i gn pr i nc i p l es , four
u t he des i gn of the bar r i ers and re l a t ed l and- case stud i es are presen t ed be l ow . Al l four
O scape by chang i ng the t extures , choos i ng Tex ture :
cases are assumed to be based upon pre-
N
d i f f erent ma ter i a l s , us i ng co l or , and ar t i cu- Tex ture is a v i sua l , sur f i c i a l qua l i ty re f er r i ng p l anned s i tes .
l at i ng the f orms (F i gure 660-13) . to the ex t en t of deta i l of a ma t er i a l or
0 des i gn (F i gure 660-16) . Increased speed of
t rave l , ang l e o f v i s i on, and d i s t ance f rom an
 660- 1 1

Tab l e 660 - 6 . ASSESSMENT OF COMMUN I TY RESPONSE TO VAR I OUS

NO I SE LEVELS

Int rud i ng no i ser L eq

m i nus ex i s t i ng I mpac t ca t agory Es t i ma t ed commun i t y
amb i en t L eq response descr i pt i on
_ S - -
done No observed reac t km

0 Li t t l e Sporad i c comp l a i nt s
i 5 Med i um W i despread comp l a i nts
- 10 St rong I -hreats o f commun i t y act i on
Grea t er than + 1(7 Very st rung V i gorous commun i t y act i on

to pred i c t t raf f i c no i se l eve l s a t var i ous

d i s t ances t hroughou t the park .

3 . The ex i st i ng and pred i c t ed no i se l ev-

e l s are compa red , and an i mpac t ca t -
egory is ass i gned to each of the 12
pos i t i ons in the park accord i ng to
Tab l e 660-6 .
4 . An ana l ys i s of park program compo -
nen t s is comp l e t ed to assess p l an re l a-
t i onsh i ps and sens i t i v i ty to no i se .

5 . A concep tua l l and use p l an is pre-

pa red . The p l an i nc l udes cons i dera -
t i on of future no i se l eve l s for each
progr am e l emen t , ut i l i zat i on of ex i st -
i ng and proposed vege t a t i on for no i se
buf f er i ng [30 m (100 f t ) m i n i mum] ,
and p l acemen t of the l east no i se-sen-
s i t i ve fac i l i t i es in the no i s i est zones
(e .g ., park i ng lot , park bu i l d i ng , and
ac t i ve recrea t i ona l areas) .
DE51RA5LE - COUR5ETEXTURED WALL
8 . 2 Res i den t i a l Deve l opmen t
(Examp l e Prob l em)
F i gur e 660 - 17 . Coa r se - t ex t ur ed wa l l s
m i n i m i ze re f l ec t i ve g l a r e and prov i de Descr i p t i on:
v i sua l d i ve rs i t y a l ong h i ghways .
A hous i ng deve l opmen t is proposed nex t to
P l ant i ngs can a l so be used to m i n i m i ze
an ex i s t i ng ma j or h i ghway . A no i se l imi t of
g l are and enhance v i sua l d i vers i t y.
Ldn 60 dB(A) at t he f acades of the neares t
houses is requ i red (F i gure 660-20) .

Procedure :
8 .1 Rec r ea t i ona l Deve l opmen t
( Examp l e Prob l em) 1 . Compu t e r pred i c t i ons show tha t w i th
no no i se screen i ng , t raf f i c no i se l eve l s
Descr i p t i on :
wou l d be 8 dB(A) above the l imi t .
A ma j or h i ghway is proposed on the
2 . The re l at i ve ground he i ght s of t he O
per i phery of a proposed recrea t i ona l park . r
hous i ng lots and the roadway vary
Pr i or to deve l opmen t , it is necessary to
a l ong t he l ength of the deve l opmen t .
assess t he l i ke l y i mpac t of t raf f i c no i se on O
the park (F i gure 660-18) .
Sec t i ons are t aken a l ong th i s l ength
and the he i ght and pos i t i on of be rms
V
Procedure : and / or bar r i er wa l l s are t es t ed (F i gure
n
660-21) .
1 . Ex i st i ng Leq amb i en t no i se l eve l s a t 12 O
pos i t i ons in t he park are measur ed a t 3 . In the f ina l des i gn of the s i te p l an , an N
morn i ng , even i ng , and n i ght (F i gure ear th be rm so l ut i on is chosen . Care is
660-19) . g i ven to i ts l ayout and f orm in order to
m i n i m i ze mono t onous e l eva t i ons and
2 . Pro j ec t ed t raf f i c vo l umes for t he pro- to ensure tha t s l opes can be eas i l y
posed h i ghway are ob t a i ned and used
 660- 1 2
Tab l e 660 - 7 . NO I SE LEVEL DATA AT S I TE FOR VAR I OUS PHASES OF M I N I NG ( EXAMPLE PROBLEM )

P l an t No i se - l eve l da t a

Powe r
A t 10 - m (32 ' )
Type hp kW Numbe r d i s t ance Sound powe r l eve l
Phase

Ini i i , i l ground c l ea rance Do i e r 182 210 2 86 114

Dump t ruck 416 310 2 81 109
f -xcava tor 101 75 2 80 108
l oade r 101 75 2 79 107

Ove rburden r emova l I -xcava tor

F l ect r i c 268 200 2 75 101
D i ese l 268 200 1 85 113
Dump t ruck 416 310 18 81 109
Gr ade r 188 140 1 80 108
Rack dr i l l - 1 90 118
1 l ydr iul i c breake r 1 85 113

Coa l ex t rac t i on Excava t or

El ect r i c 268 200 2 7 .5 103
D i ese l 268 200 1 85 113
Loade r 268 200 1 8 .5 113
Dump t ruck 416 310 3 81 109

Was t e - l ip dress i ng Do7e r 282 210 2 3 86 114

C ; rm l e r 188 140 1 80 108

c l ose to ex i st i ng res ident i a l areas . No i se l eve l s

f rom ear thmov i ng , b l ast i ng , t ranspor t a t i on ,
and coa l process i ng are a ma j or concern .

Procedure :

1 . A base l i ne survey is unde r t aken to

measur e ex i s t i ng Leq amb i en t no i se
l eve l s a t 10 se l ec t ed l oca t i ons in the
v i c i n i ty of the proposed m i ne .

2 . No i se l eve l da t a for each t ype of

equ i pmen t to be used dur i ng t he var -
i ous phases of m i n i ng are comp i l ed in
Tab l e 660-7 . These da t a are t hen p l ot -
t ed on the commun i t y map to produce
no i se contours of the no i se l eve l s tha t
can be expec t ed at any p l ace in the
commun i t y (F i gure 660-22) .

3 . Groups o f dwe l l i ngs whe r e no i se

i nt rus i on is expec t ed to be a prob l em
are i dent i f i ed .
F i gur e 660 - 18 . Acous t i ca l s i t e p l ann i ng ( examp l e prob l em) . In th i s examp l e , the
no i se- i nsens i t i ve area (park i ng lot ) i s used as a buf f er zone be t ween the h i ghway and the 4 . Var i ous me t hods of no i se cont ro l are
recrea t i ona l areas . r ecommended , depend i ng on t he
ex t en t of expec t ed i nt rus i on . These
O
r i nc l ude :
ma i n t a i ned . A var i e ty of shrub and t ree l ong , con t i nuous f acade . The bu i l d i ngs are
n spec i es is r ecommended to enhance used as sh i e l d i ng e l ement s , and the spaces
O a . Cho i ce of qu i e t er equ i pmen t
the v i sua l qua l i ty of the be rm . w i th i n the c l usters are or i ent ed away f rom
V no i se sources to preven t a reverbera t i on of b . Des i gn of no i se be rms or o ther
In the overa l l s i te p l an of the commun i - sound w i th i n the spaces . sound cont ro l s t ruc tures whe r e
n ty, the concern for sound cont ro l resu l ts in appropr i a t e
the i nt egra t i on of open space w i t h the 8 . 3 I ndus t r i a l Deve l opmen t : Open -
O no i se be rm ; th i s i nc l udes a pedes t r i an wa l k - c . Acous t i c i nsu l a t i on of cer t a i n
N P i t M i ne (Examp l e Prob l em)
way , p l ayground areas , and inf i l l buf f er dwe l l i ngs
p l ant i ng . Hous i ng un i ts are l a id ou t in c l us- Descr i p t i on : d . Rest r i c t i on of some m i n i ng opera -
ters t o max i m i ze open space and to m i n i - t i ons to cer t a i n hours of the day
The deve l opmen t and opera t i on o f an
m i ze t he undes i rab l e v i sua l e f f ec ts of a
open-p i t coa l m i ne is proposed in an area
 660 - 1 3
. No i se level da ta for the proposed
blast and e lect r ic arc furnaces are col -
l ected .
3 . A genera l i zed si te master pl an eva lua-
t ion is prepared to assess the most
des i rabl e locat ion for the proposed
furnaces .
4 . Af ter establ i shing the most feasibl e
si te locat ions, ca l cul at ions of noi se
levels at the proper ty l ine are made to
de termi ne where the levels wou l d
exceed 55 dB(A) .
5 . For those areas where noi se levels
wou l d exceed 55 dB(A) , recommen-
dat ions are prepared to reduce the
noi se by the preservat ion of wood l ot
stands and/or the des ign of ear th
berms , etc .
6 . Overa l l grad i ng pl ans for the si te are
integrated wi th the requ i rements for
ear th berms to mi n i mi ze const ruct ion
costs .
7 . A parkway be l t is created to separate
the const ruct ion and pl ant t raf f ic f rom
the recreat iona l and resident ial areas .
The integrat ion of noi se berm des ign
wi th a comprehens i ve master p l an for the
stee l pl ant l eads to the creat ion of a green-
be l t area, wh i ch is const ructed for the
advant age of the publ i c w i th l i tt le add i t ion-
al cost to the owner.

9 .0 MA I NTENANCE
CONS I DERAT I ONS

A ma j or concern in the des ign of acoust i ca l

bar r i ers is the l ong- term ma i nt enance
invol ved . Ease of access, int rusion on adj a-
cent proper ty owners , durabi l i ty of mater i a ls,
m i n i mum cost , ease of rep l acement , and
visual appearances are the ma j or cons idera-
t ions . Ini t ial least -cost opt ions may , in fact ,
F i gure 660-20 . Acoust i ca l s i te p l ann i ng (examp l e prob l em) . In this examp l e , a have the highest cost when cons ider ing the
be tween the ma j or h i ghway and the proposed res i -
gr eenbe l t i s used as a no i se bu f f e r impl i cat ions of long- term ma i ntenance .
den t i a l deve l opmen t.
9 .1 Ear th Be rms
e . Cho i ce of t ranspor tat ion routes to t ion furnaces are of great concern to the The deve l opment of ear th berms as noi se O
mi n i mi ze the extent of t ruck use in commun i t y and the regul at ing agenc i es barr iers requi res the man i pu l at i on of l and- r
or near resident ia l areas (F igure 660-23) . forms and the stabi l i zat ion of the soi l . The n
man i pu l at i on of l andforms invol ves careful O
8 .4 Indust r i a l Deve l opmen t : Stee l Procedure : cons iderat ion of the sur round i ng grad i ng V
P l ant (Examp l e Prob l em) and dra i nage cond i t ions . New grad i ng
1 . A base l ine survey is under taken to
measure exist ing Leq amb i ent noi se shou ld b l end into ex i st ing l andscape as n
Descr ipt ion : much as poss ibl e . Slopes shou ld not exceed u
l eve ls at se l ected locat ions wi thin the O
A stee l mi l l is proposed ad j acent to exist ing ex i st ing recreat iona l and resident ial 1 :3 for ease of grass cut t ing and equ i pment
publ i c recreat iona l areas and a sma l l rura l areas . access . Groundcovers other than grass may
commun i t y. No i se levels dur ing the con- be used ; they usua l l y requi re less ma i nte-
st ruct ion phase and af terwards f rom the nance , a l though weed cont rol can be a
operat ion of e i ther blast or elect r ic reduc-
 660 - 14

F i gure 660-21 . Be rm he i gh t des i gn ( examp l e prob l em) . E l eva t i ons are t aken o f a l l per t i nent e l emen t s to de t e rm i ne whe t he r
or no t d i f f rac t i on ang l es are adequa t e , e t c .

F i gure 660-22 . M i ne l oca t i on and

pred i c t ed no i se con t ours ( examp l e
prob l em) . Con t ours show wha t no i se l ev-
e l s can be expec t ed a t any l oca t i on in the
commun i t y.

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O
V
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O

O
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660-15

O
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0
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d
c
0
O
 660 - 1 6

ma j or prob l em , espec i a l l y in mun i c i pa l i t i es Land Use Compa t i b i l i t y P l ann i ng , U .S .

REFERENCES
wh i ch have weed cont ro l l eg i s l at i on . Depa r t men t o f Transpor t a t i on Adv i sor y
C i rcu l ar , no . 15015050-6 , U .S. Gove rn-
Recent l y , there has been an i ncreased Acous t i cs Techno l ogy in Land Use men t Pr i n t i ng Of f i ce , Wash i ng t on , DC ,
use of var i ous groundcove rs , shrubs , and P l ann i ng , Vo l . 1 : Ana l ys i s o f No i se Impac t , Decembe r 1977.
t rees in an a t t emp t to prov i de a l ong- t erm, and Vo l . 2 : Road Tra f f i c No i se Tab l es .
On t a r i o M i n i s t ry o f the Env i ronmen t , A Gu i de to V i sua l Qua l i t y in No i se Bar r i er
se l f -ma i nt a i n i ng na tura l p l ant commun i t y ,
Des i gn , repor t for U.S . Depa r t men t o f
a l though the ini t ia l ma i n t enance requ i re- O t t awa , On t ar i o , Canada , Novembe r
Transpor t a t i on , Decembe r 1976 .
men t s can be h i gher (F i gure 660-24) . 1978 .
Assessmen t of No i se w i t h Respec t to Har r i s , Cyr i l M . ( ed. ). Handbook of No i se
9 . 2 Ba r r i e r Wa l l s Cont ro l , 2d ed., McGr aw-H i l l , 1979 .
Commun i t y Response , I n t e rna t i ona l Or -
The ma i n t enance i mp l i ca t i ons of no i se bar - gan i za t i on for St anda rd i za t i on I SO New Hous i ng and A i rpor t No i se (me t r i c
r i er wa l l s i nc l ude such bas i c cons i dera t i ns as Recommenda t i ons R1996 , 1971 . ed .), Cen t ra l Mor t gage and Hous i ng
Corpora t i on , O t t awa , Ont ar i o , Canada ,
access to bo t h s i des of the bar r i ers and The Aud i b l e Landscape : A Manua l for
access to poss i b l e cutof f l and . Des i gn com- H i ghway No i se and Land Use , r epor t f or Ma r ch 1978.
p l ex i ty , qua l i ty cont ro l dur i ng cons t ruc t i on , U . S . Depa r t men t o f Transpor t a t i on , Road and Ra i l No i se-Ef f ec t s on Hous i ng .
and the cho i ce of ma t er i a l s t o m i n i m i ze Novembe r 1974. Cent ra l Mor t gage and Hous i ng Corpor -
damage and abuse are f ac tors tha t wi l l Bar ry ,T. M. , and l. A. Reagan . FHWA a t i on , O t t awa , Ont ar i o , Canada.
a f f ec t l ong- t erm ma i n t enance cos t s . As H i ghway Tra f f i c No i se Pred i c t i on Mode l , Sav i enman , H. l . , l. T. Ne l son , and G. P.
w i th berms , the l oca t i on and a l i gnmen t of U . S . Fede r a l H i ghway Adm i n i s t r a t i on W i l son . Handbook of Urban Ra i l No i se and
no i se bar r i ers requ i re s tudy in order to pre- Repo r t FHWA - RD - 77 - 108 , Decembe r V i bra t i on Cont ro l , U . S. Depa r t men t o f
ven t or reduce prob l ems of snow dr i f t i ng 1978. Tr anspor t a t i on Repor t DOT - TSC- UMTA-
O across roadways and wa l ks , e t c . (F i gure 81-72 , NT I S , Spr i ng f i e l d , VA , Februa r y
r A Descr i pt i on of the CNR and NEF Sys t ems
660-25) . 1982 .
for Es t i ma t i ng Ai rcra f t No i se Annoyance ,
n Canad i an A i r Tr anspor t a t i on Adm i n - U.S . Depa r t men t o f Labor , No i se Cont ro l , A
O
i s t ra t i on Repor t R-71-20 , O t t awa , On t a r i o , Gu i de for Wor ke rs and Emp l oyers , OSHA ,
V
Canada , 1971 . Of f i ce o f I n f orma t i on , 1980.
n Fede r a l Av i a t i on Adm i n i s t r a t i on . A i rpor t -

0
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0

Smi t e Ut i l i t i es
 SECT I ON I

Wa t e r Supp l y

Con t r i bu tor :
Dan i e l Bub l y , P.E . , L . A . , A.I . C .P.
Bub l y Assoc i a t es , Inc .
Sha ron , Massachuse t t s
Graph i cs :
Joseph C. C l oud

Ma r k B. Da rno l d , RE . ,
The Berksh i re Des i gn Group , Inc .
Nor t hamp t on , Massachuse t t s
Rev i ewe r :
Robe r t T. Fer rar i , P.E .
Fe r r a r i -At wood Eng i nee r i ng , I nc.
Prov i dence , Rhode I s l and

CONTENTS
1 . 0 Int roduc t i on 4 .0 Cons t ra i n t s on We l l Deve l opmen t 7 .4 ,, , r
2 . 0 St anda rds and Cr i t er i a 4.1 Prox i m i t y to Seawa t e r 7.5 Dam Loca t i on
2. 1 Wa t e r Qua l i t y 4. 2 Prox i m i t y to Organ i c Depos i t s 7.6 Wa t e r Trea t men t
2. 2 Wa t e r Quan t i t y 4. 3 Land Use Dens i t y and Was t e D i sposa l 7. 7 S i t e Prepara t i on
2. 3 F i re F i ght i ng Requ i r emen t s Re l a t i onsh i p be t ween Sewage 7.8 Consu l t an t s
2. 4 Non-agr i cu l tura l I r r i ga t i on Leach i ng Sys t ems and t he Wa t e r Tab l e Re f erences
3 . 0 Sour ces of Wa t e r Dens i t y of Deve l opmen t
3. 9 Gene r a l 4. 4 I ndus t r i a l and Was t e Con t am i na t i on
3. 2 Low-Y i e l d Sys t ems 5 .0 Groundwa t e r F l ow Ana l ys i s
to
We l l s 6 .0 We l l Recha rge Area Ana l ys i s
C i st erns 7 .0 Reservo i r Des i gn Cons i de ra t i ons
Sur f ace Ca t chmen t s 7.1 S i ze o f Wa t e r shed r
3 .3 H i gh-Y i e l d We l l s 7. 2 S i ze o f Reservo i r
3 .4 Sur f ace Wa t e r Supp l i es 7. 3 Shape and Dep t h o f Reservo i r

0
 710 - 2

P
1 . 0 I NTRODUCT I ON
i ped wa t er supp l i es are ord inar i l y
used for
Tab l e 710-1 . PLANN I NG GU I DE FOR WATER

Types of es t ab l i shment s
Ga l l ons per person per day
(un l ess otherw i se not ed)
Ai rpor ts (per passenger ) 5
1 . Pot ab l e wa t er for homes , schoo l s ,
indust r i es , etc . Apar tments , mul t iple fami ly (per resident ) 60
Bathhouses and sw i mmi ng pool s 10
2 . F i re f i ght i ng
Camps :
3 . Nonagr i cu l tura l i r r igat ion ( l awns and Const ruct ion, semi permanent 50
gardens) Day (wi th no mea l s served) 15
Luxury 100
In many cases, al l three uses are supp l i ed Resor ts, day and night , wi th l imi ted p l umb i ng 50
by a s ing l e sys t em of p i p i ng, a l though there Campground wi th cent ra l comfor t faci l i t ies 35
are cases whe re al l three are supp l i ed by Cot tages and sma l l dwe l l ingswi th seasona l occupancy 50
separa t e sys t ems.
Count ry c lubs (per resident member ) 100
. 0 STANDARDS AND CR I TER I A Count ry clubs (per nonres ident member present ) 25
,2
Dwe l l ings :
2 .1 Wa t e r Qua l i t y Board inghouses 50
Addi t iona l for nonres ident boarders 10
Wa t e r i nt ended for human consumpt i on Luxury residences and estates 150
mus t mee t extens i ve phys i ca l , chemi ca l , Mul t ipl e- fami ly apar tments 60
and b io log i ca l st andards for qua l i ty and Roomi ng houses 40
rel iabi l i ty . These st andards i nc l ude color , Single- fami ly houses 75

taste, and t ransparency as we l l as f reedom Factor ies (gal lons per person per shi f t , exc lusive of indust r ial waste) 35
f rom bacter i a and chemi ca l s re l ated to
H i ghway rest area (per person) 5
human or indust r i a l was t es .
Hote ls wi th pr ivate baths ( two persons per room) 60
Spec i f i c wa t er qua l i ty st andards are pub-
l i shed in the Un i t ed States by ind i v idua l Hote ls wi thout pr ivate baths 50

state and federa l agenc i es , but there are Inst i tut ions other than hospi tals (per person) 125
var i at ions be t ween states and count i es and Hospi ta ls (per bed) 250+

these st andards do change w i th t i me . Some Laundr i es, sel f -serviced (gal lons per washing, i .e ., per customer ) 50
ex i st ing pub l i c wa t er supp l i es do not mee t
Mob i l e home parks (per space) 250
al l the s t andards to wh i ch they are sub j ec t
because (1) mos t of these st andards are Mote l s wi th bath, toi let , and k i tchen faci l i t ies (per bed space) 50
very conserva t i ve and (2) some are not Mote l s (per bed space) 40
re l ated to pub l i c hea l th or sa fety but rather
to aesthe t i c qua l i t i es of wa t er (e .g ., the Picnic parks (toi let wastes only, per picnicker) 5

ease of use in wash i ng mach i nes) . Picnic wi th bathhouses, showers, and f lush toi lets (per picnicker) 10
Restaurants wi th toi let faci l i t ies (per pat ron) 10
2 .2 Wa t e r Quan t i t y W i thout toi let faci l i t ies (per pat ron) 3
Wi th bars and cocktai l lounge (addi t ional quant i ty per pat ron) 2
The amoun t of wa t er used in var i ous par ts
of the wor l d var i es w i th reg i ona l l ega l , and School s :
pol i t i ca l t rad i t ions . For i nstance , in the Boarding (per pup i l ) 100
Day, wi th cafeter ia, gymnas i ums , and showers (per pup i l ) 25
nor theast ern Un i t ed States the average Day, wi th cafeter ia but no gymnas i ums or showers (per pup i l ) 20
wa t er use is abou t 75 ga l (285 L) per cap i - Day, wi thout cafeter ia, gymnas i ums , or showers (per pup i l ) 15
ta per day in rura l areas , and 150 ga l (570
Service stat ions (per vehicle) 10
L) per cap i ta per day in me t ropo l i t an areas .
Th i s is a reg i on (1) whe re the Eng l i sh com- Stores (per toi let room) 400
mon- l aw t rad i t ion l imi ts the r ight to wa t er Theaters :
D. to nonconsump t i ve uses (use and return to Dr ive- in (per car space) 5
st ream) , (2) whe re l i t t le wa t er is used for Mov i e (per audi tor ium seat ) 5
u i r r igat ion, and (3) whe re wa t er supp l y sys Trai lers wi thout individual baths and sewer (per person) 50
t ems are funded ent i re l y w i th loca l f ees and
r
taxes . In me t ropo l i t an areas of the south-
west , whe r e the Span i sh l aw t rad i t ion Tab l es 710-1 and 710-2 i l lust rate the 2 .3 F i re F i gh t i ng Requ i r emen t s
grants preempt i ve r ights to wa t er on a f i rst - spec i f i c wa t er requ i rement s for var i ous l and
uses and the rates of f l ow for var i ous For f i re f ight ing, the amoun t of wa t er tha t
come- f i rst -estab l i shed basis, average (pub- shou l d be i mmed i a t e l y ava i l ab l e6par t i cu l ar -
l icly supp l i ed) wa t er use is abou t 350 ga l p l umb i ng f i xtures .
ly the rate at wh i ch i t shou l d be capab l e of
0 (1325 L) per cap i ta per day . be i ng de l i vered to any bu i l d i ng or group of
bu i ld ings6i s a func t i on of the s i ze, dens i ty ,
 710 - 3

Tab l e 710 - 2 . RATES OF FLOW FOR CERTA I N PLUMB I NG , HOUSEHOLD .

AND FARM F I XTURES .

F l ow pr essur e p l ow ra t e , f pm (gpm)
Loca t i on Kpa (ps i )*
Ord i nary bas i n f auce t 55 .2 (8) 7 .6 (2 .0)
Se l f -c l os i ng bas i n f auce t 55 .2 (8) 9 .2 (2 .5)
S i nk f auce t , 3/8- i n 55 .2 (8) 17 .0 (4 .5)
S i nk f auce t , 1/2- i n 55 .2 (8) 17 .0 (4 .5)
Ba th tub f auce t 55 .2 (8) 22 .7 (6 .0)
Laundry tub f auce t , - 1/2- i n 55 .2 (8) 18 .9 (5 .0)
Showe r 55 .2 (8) 18 .9 (5 .0)
Ba l l -cock for c l oset 55 .2 (8) 11 . 34 (3 .0)
F l ush va l ve for c l oset 103 .4 (15) 56 . 7-151 .2 (15-40) -
F l ushome t er va l ve for ur ina l 103 .4 (15) 56 .7 (15 .0)
Ga rden hose (50 f t , 3/4- i n si l l cock) 206 .8 (30) 18 .9 (5 .0)
Ga rden hose (50 f t , 5/8- i n out l et ) 103 .4 (15) 12 .6 (3 .33)
Dr i nk i ng fount a i ns 103 .4 (15) 2 .8 (0 .75)
F i re hose 11/2- i n , 1/2- i n nozz l e 206 .8 (30) 151 .2 (40 .0)

"F l ow pressure is the pressure in the supp l y near the faucet or wa t er out l et wh i l e t1u Taw r t or
wa t er out l et is w i de open and f l owi ng .
- W i de range is due to var i at ion in des i gn and type o f c loset f lush va l ves .
Source : EPA , Manua l o f Wa t er Supp l y Systems , U .S . Government Pr int ing Of f i ce, Wash i ngton ,
D . C , 1973 .

fl-

and va l ue o f the bu i l d i ng or group o f bu i l d- f i ght i ng equ i pmen t can ge t on t o the s i te ga l (1900- to 3800-L) wa t e r t anks and a r
i ngs . and t he ra te at wh i ch wa t e r can be app l i ed . boos t er hose co i l ed on a spoo l for i mmed i - N
a t e use. a
Success fu l f i re f i ght i ng depends mor e on To m i n i m i ze damage , i t is essent i a l to
the speed w i th wh i ch coo l ant (wa t er , typ i - app l y coo l an t to the f i re be fore any room is Once a room or bu i l d i ng is fu l l y
ca l l y) can be app l i ed to a f i re ra ther than fu l l y i nvo l ved . Th i s is usua l l y done e i ther i nvo l ved , l arger amoun t s o f wa t e r are nec-
the tota l amoun t of wa t e r ava i l ab l e . The w i t h hand-he l d chem i ca l ex t i ngu i shers or essary for cont ro l . In l ow-dens i t y res i dent i a l
key to success is the speed w i th wh i ch f i re w i t h wa t e r car r i ed to the s i te by f i re t rucks . areas , the ab i l i ty to supp l y a t l east three
These t rucks typ i ca l l y have 500- to 1000- fu l l -s i ze f i re hose s t reams [500 to 750 gpm
 710 - 4

(1900 to 2840 Lpm) ] is recommended . and (2) so that al l par ts of the bui ldings can 180 m) of every bui lding, wi th a l arger
F igure 710-1 shows the si ze of the ma i ns be reached wi th not more than 600 f t (180 number wi th in that d i stance of any ma j or
and the l ength of the runs for a typica l m) of hose . Al ternat ive ly, a separate wa ter bui lding or congested area.
wa t er pressure of 60 psi (413 .7 Pa) . ma i n and hydrant system can be prov i ded
to increase the ef fect i veness of the 2 .4 Nonagr i cu l tura l I r r igat ion
For l arge bui lding comp l exes or denser i mpoundment . F igure 710-3 shows a c las-
urban deve l opment , conf l agrat ion cont rol Piped wa ter supp l y systems are of ten used
sical appl i cat ion of this pr inc ipl e . for non-agr i cul tura l i rr igat ion . Norma l l y ,
becomes the key cons iderat ion . The recom-
mended des ign inc ludes de l i very rates of Proper si te des i gn for f i re f ight ing most commun i t i es regul ate the t ime and
2500 gpm (9500 Lpm) or more , wi th inc ludes : cond i t ion of i ts use and des ign the supp l y
reserves of over 150,000 ga l (570,000 L) . system to hand l e an unrest r i cted f l ow.
To mee t these goa l s in rura l or suburban 1 . Di rect , easi ly perce i ved, a l l -weather Wh i l e the total vo l ume of wa ter used for
areas w i thout excess i ve i nvestment in very vehi cul ar access to each bui lding, to such purposes in most areas is sma l l com-
large d i ame ter wa t er ma ins , wh i ch are cost - each hydrant , and, where appropr i - pared to potab l e use, the peak rate of f low
ly, adequa t e reserves of wa t er shou ld be ate, to each sur face wa t er i mpound- in suburban ne i ghborhoods on the af ter -
prov ided as c lose as conven i ent l y poss ibl e ment noon of hot summer days can be greater
to the h igh l y va lued bui ldings . 2 . Cont ro l of the mass i ng of any deve l - than the f low requi red for f i re f ight ing .
opment wi th f i rebreaks or f i re wa l l s to Un l ess the dist r ibut ion system has been
Thi s reserve usua l l y takes the form of spec i f ica l ly des i gned for it, this peak
_A e l evated tanks or standp ipes l inked to the reduce the possibi l i ty of conf l agrat ion
demand wi l l substant i a l l y reduce the abi l i ty
d wa t er supp l y system wi th l arge-d i ameter or 3 . Si te l ayout that a l lows f i re hoses to be
d of the system to de l i ver wa t er to f i res at the
redundant ma i ns f rom the standp ipes to run to al l s ides of each bui lding necessary rates, both dur i ng the peak hours
the vicini ty of the highl y va lued deve l op- and for severa l hours thereaf ter .
r men t (F igure 710-2) . In areas prone to brushf i res, si te des ign
N shou ld inc lude cont rol of f l ammab l e vege- Since the use of wa ter for non-agr i cu l -
Al ternat i ve wa ter reserves for conf l agra- tat ion around or near bui ldings, inc lud ing tura l i rr igat ion is essent i a l ly an aesthet i c or
t ion cont rol cou ld be prov ided by sur face the use of pavements , mowed l awns , irri- recreat iona l concern, i ts prov i s ion cannot
i mpoundment s located c lose to the highl y ga ted pl ant ings, and the avo i dance of f l am- be cons idered essent i a l to publ i c hea l th,
va l ued bui ldings . Such sur face suppl i es mab l e shrubs (cedar , pine, spruce , etc .) . safety, or we l fare . Opt i ons inc lude : (1)
wou l d have to be p l aced (1) so that f i re rest r ict ions on the use of water , e i ther pro-
r t rucks can park i mmed i a te l y ad j acent to the Hydrants shou ld be laid out so that at
least two are wi thin 500 to 600 f t (150 to hibi t ing i rr igat ion ent i re ly or l imi t ing it to
i mpoundment [ less than 20 f t (6 m) away]
 710 - 5

hours of l ow wa t e r demand ; (2) prov i s i on of a l t erna t i ve wa t e r sources for i r r i ga t i on . I t dr awn f rom sources of l i mi ted s torage
of au t oma t i c i r r i ga t i on sys t ems tha t opera t e mus t be recogn i zed tha t wa t ers d i ver t ed capac i t y , can have s i gn i f i cant adve rse
a t o f f -peak hours on l y ; or (3) deve l opmen t f rom ponds , s t reams , or groundwa t e r , i f e f f ec ts both on the ponds and s t reams f rom
wh i ch such wa t e r is dr awn and on down -
s t ream wa t e rbod i es as we l l .

3 . 0 SOURCES OF WATER
Wa t e r supp l i es are typ i ca l l y used for human consump t i on , f i re f i ght i ng, and i r r iga-
t i on . The qua l i ty and quant i t y of wa t er requ i red wi l l vary by reg i on and i nt ended use .
3 .1 Gene r a l
1 . The amoun t of wa t er used in var i ous par ts of the wor l d var i es w i th reg i ona l c l i ma te , A l t erna t i ve sources of po t ab l e wa t e r for
l ega l , and pol i t i ca l t rad i t i ons . Tab l es 710-1 and 710-2 i l lust rate the spec i f i c wa t er !, any bu i l d i ng pro j ec t i nc l ude : (1) pub l i c
requ i rement s for var i ous l and uses and the ra tes of f l ow for var i ous p l umb i ng f ix- wa t e r supp l y sys t ems , (2) on-s i t e we l l s of
tures . var i ous k i nds , and (3) sur f ace reservo i rs and
ponds . Se l ec t i on of the source depends on
2 . E l eva t ed t anks l i nked to the wa t er supp l y sys t em, or sur f ace wa t er i mpoundmen t s l oca t i on and pro j ec t s i ze . In ar i d areas , pub-
may be used as f i re f i ght i ng reserves for l arge bu i l d i ng comp l exes or dense deve l op- l ic sys t ems tha t dr aw the i r wa t e r f rom d i s-

aa
men t . A
t ant sources may be the on l y a l t erna t i ve . In
mor e hum i d reg i ons , espec i a l l y away f rom
3 . F i re hydrant s shou l d be l a id out so tha t a t l east t wo are w i th i n 150 to 180 m (500 to
urban i zed areas , on-s i t e sources may be the
600 f t ) of every bu i l d i ng, w i th a l arger numbe r w i th i n tha t d i st ance of any ma j or
bu i l d i ng or conges t ed area . on l y a l t erna t i ve . In genera l , pub l i c sources , N
whe r e ava i l ab l e , wi l l be the l east cost l y and r
4 . The peak ra te of f l ow in suburban ne i ghborhoods on hot summe r days can subs t an- comp l ex , and the i r use wi l l of t en be man -
t ial ly reduce the abi l i ty of the sys t em to de l i ver wa t er requ i red for f i re f i ght i ng . Non- da t ed by l oca l of f i c i a l s . Se l ec t i on of the
essent i a l wa t er use may need to be rest r i cted . t ype of on-s i t e source wi l l depend on geo-
l og i c oppor tun i t y .
5 . Al terna t i ve wa t e r sources for non-agr i cu l tura l i r r igat ion may have adverse i mpac t s
on the pond and s t ream sys t em f rom wh i ch they are d i ver ted , and shou l d be di s-
couraged un l ess care fu l l y stud i ed .
710 - 6

3 . 2 Low-Y i e l d Sys t ems Many of these l esser aqu i f ers are in areas i nsects , b i rd dropp i ngs , e t c ., ou t of the c i s-
tha t , upon casua l exam i na t i on , wou l d no t tern) , the c i stern i tse l f (a l arge re i nforced
For sma l l pro j ec t s requ i r i ng on l y a l i mi ted appea r prom i s i ng . In g l ac i a t ed reg i ons of concre t e or masonry t ank) , a wa t e r pump ,
wa t e r supp l y , there are severa l poss i b l e the nor theas t ern Un i t ed Sta tes , for exam- and some f orm of f ina l t rea tmen t or d i s i n-
sources , i nc l ud i ng we l l s , spr i ngs , c i sterns , p l e , we l l s are common l y dr i l l ed i nto areas f ec t i on (ch l or i na t i on) sys t em .
and sur f ace i mpoundmen t s (or ca t ch- tha t have a th i n man t l e of compac t g l ac i a l
men t s) . The cho i ce of sys t em genera l l y ti l l over l y i ng hard , seem i ng l y i mpe rmeab l e The ca t chmen t area necessary to y i e l d
depends on reg i ona l geohydro l og i c cond i - 100 ga l (380 L) of wa t e r pe r day , assum i ng
rock in order to dr aw wa t e r f rom f rac tures
t i ons , w i t h we l l s (whe re t hey are feas i b l e) 75 percen t capture and a dry year , wou l d
in the uppe r 200 f t (60 m) of the bedrock .
usua l l y be i ng the mos t cos t -e f f ec t i ve a l ter - be 2000 f t2 for 60 in of mean ra infa l l per
For spec i f i c i n forma t i on on the feas ib i l i ty
na t i ve . and cos t of a l ow-y i e l d we l l in any loca l i ty, year (185 m2 for 1525 mm) , 3000 f t2 for 40
in (280 m2 for 1015 mm) , and 6000 f t2 for
We l l s : cont ac t l oca l we l l cont rac tors , l oca l pub l i c
hea l th of f i c i a l s, or st a t e or f edera l geo l o- 20 in (560 m2 for 510 mm) . F i gure 710-6
In mos t areas whe r e annua l ra infa l l exceeds g i sts . Tab l e 710-3 shows a summa r y of the shows mean annua l ra infa l l f i gures for the
evapot ransp i ra t i on , suf f i c i ent mo i s ture is k i nds of we l l s tha t have been used unde r Un i t ed St a t es .
re t a i ned in the soi l to make l ow-y i e l d we l l s var i ous geo l og i ca l cond i t i ons . The c i stern vo l ume requ i red is a func t i on
f eas i b l e . F i gure 710-4 shows the areas in the of t he d i st r i but i on of ra infa l l t hrough t he
Un i t ed St a t es whe r e adequa t e soi l mo i s ture C i s t erns : year . In areas w i th ra infa l l l i mi t ed to on l y
can be expec t ed , and F i gure 710-5 shows In areas whe r e there is i nsuf f i c i ent soi l or one season , a very l arge s torage capac i ty ,
pr i nc i pa l aqu i f ers . No t e tha t the aqu i f er map f rac tured rock to re t a i n enough wa t e r for abou t 30 , 000 ga l (a vo l ume 10 f t x 15 f t x
shows on l y those aqu i f ers tha t can be 30 f t ) , or 115 , 000 L (a vo l ume 3 m x 5 m x
we l l s , whe r e the wa t e r t ab l e is i naccess i b l e ,
expec t ed to produce at l east 50 gpm (190 9 m) , wi l l be requ i red per 100 ga l (380 L) o f
or whe r e the groundwa t e r is con t am i na t ed ,
Lpm) per we l l , a y i e l d suf f i c i ent to suppor t bu t whe r e there is suf f i c i ent ra infa l l , wa t e r use per day . In reg i ons w i th ra infa l l
a commun i t y of 1000 peop l e . I f l esser pot ab l e wa t e r may be supp l i ed by ca t ch i ng d i st r i but ed t hroughou t the year , on l y a
aqu i f ers we r e i nc l uded on the map , i nc l ud- the ra infa l l on a cont ro l l ed , i mpe rmeab l e f rac t i on of thi s, pe rhaps 20 to 25 percen t
i ng those capab l e of supp l y i ng enough wou l d be requ i red . F i gure 710-7 shows the
sur f ace and s tor i ng i t in a c i stern or cove red
wa t e r for a s i ng l e dwe l l i ng un i t , t hen v i r tu- reservo i r . A typ i ca l i nst a l l a t i on wou l d seasona l d i st r i but i on o f ra infa l l for the
a l l y t he ent i re area whe r e ra infa l l exceeds i nc l ude a bu i l d i ng roof to prov i de the Un i t ed St a t es .
evapot ransp i ra t i on wou l d be i nd i ca t ed .
ca t chmen t area , some f orm of pre t rea t -
men t sys t em ( to keep debr i s , l eaves ,
 710 - 7

Tab l e 710 - 3 . SU I TAB I L I TY OF WELL CONSTRUCT I ON METHODS FOR D I FFERENT GEOLOG I CAL COND I T I ONS

D r i l l ed

Ro t a r y

Cha r ac t e r i s t i cs Du Bo r ed Dr i ven Pe r cuss i on Hydr au l i c Ai r Je t t ed

Range of 0-15 m 0-30 m 0-15 m 0-300 m 0-300 m 0-225 m 0-30 m
prac t i ca l dep t hs (1-50 ' ) (0-100 ' ) 0-50 ' ) (0-1000 ' ) (0-1000 ' ) (0-750) (0-100 ' )
(genera l order of
magn i tude)
D i ame t e r 9-6 m 50-750 mm 31-50 mm 100-450 mm 100-600 mm 100-250 mm 50-300 mm
(3-20 ' ) (2-30 " ) (11 / 4-2 " ) (4-18 " ) (4-24 " ) (4-10 " ) (2-12 " )
Type o f geo l og i c Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
f orma t i on :
C l ay
Si l t Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Sand Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Grave l Yes Yes F i ne Yes Yes No 6 mm (1 / 4 " )
pea grave l
Cemen t ed Yes No No Yes Yes No No
grave l
Bou l de rs Yes Yes , i f l ess No Yes , when in D i f f i cu l t No No
than we l l f i rm bedd i ng
d i ame t e r
Sands t one Yes , if Yes , if sof t Th i n l ayers Yes Yes Yes No
so f t and / or on l y
and / or f rac tured
f rac t ured
L i mes t one Yes , if Yes , if sof t No Yes Yes Yes No
so f t and / or
and / or f rac tured
f rac tured
Dense i gneous No No No Yes Yes Yes No
rock

" The ranges of va lues in this tab l e are based upon genera l cond i t i ons . They may be exceeded for spec i f ic areas or cond i t ions .
Source : EPA, Manua l of Wa t er Supp l y Systems , U S . Government Pr int ing Of f i ce , Wash i ngton , D .C ., 1973

F i gure 710 - 8 shows a t yp i ca l c i s t ern

des i gn w i t h a s i mp l e pr e t r ea t men t dev i ce
shown be t ween t he roo f dra i n downspou t
and t he c i s t ern . The c i s t ern i tse l f mus t be Sour ces o f po t ab l e wa t e r f or any bu i l d i ng pro j ec t i nc l ude : (1) pub l i c wa t e r supp l y sys-
s t ruc tura l l y des i gned t o w i t hs t and t he t ems , (2) on-s i t e we l l s of va r i ous k i nds , and (3) sur f ace reservo i rs and ponds .
hydros t a t i c pressure i nhe ren t i n l i qu i d con- Se l ec t i on o f t he source depends on l oca t i on and pro j ec t s i ze .
t a i ne rs ( as in sw i mm i ng poo l s) . The pre -
t r ea t men t sys t em shown is i n t ended on l y t o 1 . In genera l , pub l i c wa t e r sources , whe r e ava i l ab l e , wi l l be t he l eas t cost l y and com-
sc r een coa rse debr i s and t o d i ver t t he dus t - p l ex , and the i r use wi l l o f t en be manda t ed by l oca l of f i c i a l s .
l aden f i rst f l ush away f rom t he c i s t ern . F i na l
t r ea t men t o f t he wa t e r wou l d be pe r - 2. Low y i e l d we l l s a re f eas i b l e f or on-s i t e use in mos t reg i ons whe r e ra i nfa l l amoun t s
f o rmed be t ween t he c i s t ern and t he use r exceed evapo t ransp i ra t i on . Consu l t l oca l of f i c i a l s or we l l con t rac tors f or spec i f i c
and shou l d i nc l ude f i l t ra t i on and ch l or i na - i n f orma t i on on t he f eas i b i l i ty and cos t of t hese we l l s f or a par t i cu l ar s i te .
t i on .
3. C i s t erns may be used t o cap t ur e runo f f f rom a cont ro l l ed sur f ace in a reas whe r e suf -
d
F i gure 710 - 9 shows a ve ry o l d t ype o f f i c i ent ra i nfa l l is ava i l ab l e t hroughou t t he yea r . Wa t e r mus t be f i l tered and d i s i nf ec t - d
c i s t ern and pr e t r ea t men t sys t em used in dr y ed pr i or to human consump t i on .
a r eas o f t he Med i t e r r anean to cap t ur e ra i n- N
wa t e r t ha t fe l l i n v i l l age or pa l ace cour t - 4. Sur f ace ca t chmen t s may be poss i b l e i f runo f f f rom a l arge enough a rea can be i nt er - r
ya rds . The sur f ace runo f f wou l d i nf i l t ra t e t o cep t ed and i mpounded on s i te . The dra i nage a rea shou l d be c l ean and f ree o f al l
t he sys t em a l l a round t he pe r i me t e r o f t he l i ves tock uses or o t he r sour ces o f po l l ut i on . Wa t e r mus t be f i l tered and d i s i n f ec t ed
c i s t ern i s apron and be f i l t ered t hrough sand pr i or to human consump t i on .
f i l l t o t he c i s t ern i s wa t e r l eve l . S t or age
i nc l udes bo t h t he c i s t ern i tse l f and t he sa t - 5. For l arger pro j ec t s , a l arger we l l or sur f ace reservo i r may be requ i red . The des i gn o f
e i ther sys t em wi l l requ i re spec i a l i zed eng i nee r i ng and / or hydrogeo l og i c exper t i se . 0
ur a t ed sands (pe rcen t wa t e r in tot a l vo l ume
r
= abou t 40 pe rcen t ) . Th i s cons t ruc t i on
 710 -8

0
710 - 9

fl.

aD

O
ti
 710 - 1 0
requ i res no re i nforc i ng and re l a t i ve l y l i t t le
cemen t .

Sur f ace Ca t chmen t s :

In areas whe r e groundwa t e r is no t ava i l ab l e
and whe r e ra infa l l is not we l l -d i s t r i but ed
t hroughou t the year , i nd i v i dua l wa t e r co l -
l ec t i on and s torage may be poss i b l e i f the
runof f f rom a l arge enough area can be
i nt ercept ed and i mpounded . F i gure 710-10
shows t he dra i nage area in acres requ i red
to supp l y 1 acre - foot (1233 .5 m 3) [326 , 000
ga l (1 , 304 , 000 L) , or enough for the
domes t i c use of t wo to three dwe l l i ng
un i ts] of wa t e r for var i ous par ts o f the
Un i t ed Sta tes , or for s i mi l ar areas in other
par t s of t he wor l d . Th i s dra i nage area
shou l d be c l ean (pre f erab l y grassed) and
f ree of al l l i vestock uses or o ther sources of
po l l ut i on .

The reservo i r shou l d be no l ess than 8 f t

(2 .4 m) deep a t i ts max i mum and shou l d be
l arge enough to store at l east 1 year ' s aver -
age runof f f rom i ts t r i butory wa t e rshed .
F i gure 710-11 shows a p l an and sec t i on of
a typ i ca l s torage pond .

Trea t men t shou l d i nc l ude f i l t rat ion and

d i s i nf ec t i on (ch l or i na t i on) . F i l t rat i on cou l d
be by s l ow, sand f i l t rat ion in a t rea tmen t
fac i l i ty cons t ruc t ed of concre t e bu i l t on-s i t e
for the purpose , or by pressure sand f i l t ra-
t i on or d i a t omaceous f i l t rat ion in a pre f ab-
r i ca ted me t a l or p l ast i c package sys t em . For
de t a i l ed i n forma t i on on t rea t men t sys t ems
and d i s i nf ec t i on ava i l ab l e in any loca l i ty,
consu l t loca l hea l th of f i c i a l s, equ i pmen t
supp l i ers , and t he U .S . Na tura l Resource
Conse rva t i on Serv i ce or a s i mi l ar agency
out s i de the Un i t ed St a t es .

3 . 3 H i gh -Y i e l d We l l s

For l arger pro j ec ts , such as a l arge inst i tu-

t i on or a new t own , a l arger we l l or sur f ace
reservo i r may be requ i red . The des i gn o f
e i ther sys t em wi l l requ i re spec i a l i zed eng i -
neer i ng and / or hydrogeo l og i c exper t i se . In
t he nor theas t ern Un i t ed St a t es and sou th-
eas t ern Canada , we l l s can be expec t ed to
be l ess cost l y and requ i re l ess ( i f any) wa t e r
t rea tmen t , i f t hey are geo l og i ca l l y f eas i b l e .
! 2 The feas ib i l i ty of h i gh-y i e l d we l l s is h i gh l y
dependen t on l oca l cond i t i ons , w i th y i e l ds In the g l ac i a t ed nor theas t ern Un i t ed 1 . St a t e we l l prot ec t i on requ i remen t s
u rang i ng f rom 50 , 000 to 1 mi l l i on ga l St a t es , good s i tes for h i gh-y i e l d we l l s
N 2 . The charac t er and l and use h i story o f
(190 , 000 to 3 , 800 , 000 L) per we l l per day. i nc l ude coarse ou t wash p l a i ns , i ce channe l
r f i l l ings a l ong va l l eys , r i ver ter races , kame t he t r i butory area
N We l l s i tes w i th good y i e l d pot ent i a l can be
a ve ry va l uab l e , and t hey shou l d be care fu l l y f i e lds, and s i mi l ar sur f i c i a l depos i t s . Sha l l ow When used for pub l i c wa t e r supp l i es ,
cons i dered in p l ann i ng any l arge l and area . aqu i f ers are of t en charac t er i zed on the i r h i gh-y i e l d we l l s are o f t en requ i red to be
Unfor tuna t e l y , loca l wa t e r supp l y of f i c i a l s sur f ace by xerophy t i c spec i es such as p i t ch prot ec t ed by a buf f er zone on wh i ch mos t
usua l l y l ack the funds , fores i ght , and capa - p i ne (P i nus r i g i da) . o ther l and uses are proh i b i t ed . Such zones
bi l i ty to prot ec t good we l l s i tes f rom deve l - can be severa l hundr ed f ee t w i de [e .g ., in
Deve l opmen t of h i gh-y i e l d we l l s shou l d
opmen t for o ther uses . Massachuse t t s a 400- f t (120-m) rad i us is
t ake i nto accoun t :
requ i red] .
 710 - 1 1

3 .4 Sur f ace Wa t e r Supp l i es depend i ng on the spec i f ic case and on state 3 . Poss ibl e urban l and use conf l icts
standards .
Sur face wa t er suppl i es inc lude : 4 . Possibl e indust r ial and wast e di sposa l
For informat ion on sur face wa ter qual i ty, contami na t i on
1 . Uncont ro l l ed run-of - r i ver systems (as consu l t state and other wa t er qua l i ty agen-
in St . Loui s and New Or l eans) c ies . In the Un i ted States, sur face waters 4 .1 Prox i m i t y to Seawa t er
2 . Ma i n st ream, mu l t i purpose dams are genera l l y c lassi f ied by state as Cl ass A, F igure 710-12 shows the typica l re lat ion-
(e .g ., Hoover Dam/ Lake Mead) sui tabl e for dr ink ing wi th l i t t le or no t reat -
ship of f resh groundwa t er to brack i sh
men t ; Cl ass B, sui tabl e for dr ink ing wi th groundwa t er in idea l ly homogeneous soi ls
3 . Spec i a l -purpose reservoi rs bui l t on t reatment ; and Cl ass C or lower , not sui t -
t r ibutary st reams (e .g ., Massachuse t ts in seacoast cond i t ions. Not e that the f resh
ab l e for dr ink ing . water , in ef fect , f loats on top of the sal t
Quabb i n and a mul t ipl ici ty of sma l l
reservoi rs throughout the nor theast - wa ter because of i ts l ower spec i f ic grav i ty.
4 .0 CONSTRA I NTS ON WELL F igure 710-13 shows the ef fect of l ower i ng
ern Un i ted States) DEVELOPMENT the wa ter tabl e wi th a we l l . The area of the
4 . Natura l ponds and l akes wi th c l ean cone of the depress ion wi l l be such that the
waters (e .g ., Lake M i ch i gan) The deve l opment of high-y i e ld we l l s can annua l yie ld of the we l l wi l l equa l the annu- d
l ower wa t er tabl es signi f i cant ly and draw al surplus of rainfal l over runof f and evapo-
Wa t er drawn f rom run-of - r i ver and ma i n wa ter f rom cons iderab l e d i stances . The
st ream, mu l t i purpose dams requi res exten- t ranspi rat ion for the area of the cone , and L
p l ann i ng of a high-y i e ld we l l shou ld inc lude the depth of the cone wi l l be wha t ever is
sive t reatment before use, inc lud ing clar i f i - cons iderat ion of the fo l lowing deve l op- necessary to prov ide a steep enough gradi -
cat ion, f i l t rat ion, and chlor inat ion, wi th ment const ra ints : ent to move the wa t er to the we l l . The
constant qua l i ty cont rol . more permeab l e the soi l , the f lat ter the
1 . Prox imi ty to seawa ter and the possi -
Wa t er drawn f rom t r ibutary reservoi rs
and f rom c l ean ponds and l akes can be
used wi th re lat ive ly l i t t le pret reatment ,
bi l i ty of sal t int rusion
2 . Proximi ty to organi c depos i ts(swamps ,
cone . The greater the yield, the larger the
cone in al l d i mens i ons . 0r
marshes, etc .)
 71 0- 1 2

In a seacoas t cond i t i on , i f t oo h i gh an
annua l vo l ume is w i t hdrawn , so tha t t he
wa t e r t ab l e fa l l s to mean sea l eve l , brack i sh
wa t e r wi l l en t er t he we l l , ru i n i ng i t for
wa t e r supp l y purposes .

4 . 2 Prox i m i t y t o Organ i c Depos i t s

F i gure 710-14 shows a typ i ca l h i gh-y i e l d
we l l i nsta l l at i on in the nor theas t ern Un i t ed
St a t es . Both the organ i c depos i t s and the
unconso l i da t ed aqu i f er l ie a l ong a va l l ey . A
spec i f i c prob l em is tha t organ i c depos i t s
t end to be concent ra tors o f me t a l l i c su l f i des
(bog i ron) by the decompos i t i on of organ i c
de t r i tus . These su l f i des are st ab l e on l y as
l ong as they are sur rounded by wa t e r
devo i d of d i sso l ved oxygen . For tuna t e l y ,
these organ i c depos i t s a l so t end to be re l a-
t i ve l y i mpe rmeab l e ; as a resu l t , the cone of
depress i on at nea rby we l l s wi l l de f orm ,
draw i ng a re l at i ve l y sma l l propor t i on of the
we l i s tota l f l ow f rom the organ i c depos i t .
Howeve r , i f t oo h i gh an annua l vo l ume
of wa t e r is w i t hdr awn f rom such a we l l ,
wa t ers bear i ng oxygen wi l l bo t h d i sso l ve
the me ta l l i c su l f i des and i ncrease the per -
meab i l i t y of the depos i t , s i gn i f i cant l y
i ncreas i ng the i ron and / or manganese con-
t ent of t he we l l , ru i n i ng i t for wa t e r supp l y
purposes . (Res t i ng t he we l l , a l l ow i ng
anaerob i c cond i t i ons to reest ab l i sh t hem-
se l ves in the organ i c depos i t s , wi l l of t en
restore t he st a tus quo ant e .)

4 . 3 Land Use Dens i t y and Was t e

D i sposa l
The urban i zed use o f l and and the pot ab l e
use of the wa t ers under l y i ng i t are compa t -
ibl e , sub j ec t to the fo l l ow i ng cond i t i ons : The deve l opmen t of h i gh-y i e l d we l l s can l ower wa t e r t ab l es s i gn i f i cant l y and dr aw
wa t er f rom cons i derab l e d i s t ances . The p l ann i ng of a h i gh-y i e l d we l l shou l d i nc l ude
1 . The was t ewa t e r is d i sposed of cons i dera t i on of the fo l l ow i ng deve l opmen t cons t ra i nt s:
t hrough l each i ng sys t ems tha t do not
i nt ersec t or pene t ra t e the wa t e r t ab l e . 1 . We l l s in seacoas t env i ronmen t s mus t ma i nt a i n adequa t e wa t er tab l e l eve l s . I f the
wa t er tab l e fa l ls to mean sea l eve l , brack i sh wa t e r ent ers the we l l , and ru i ns i t for
2 . The l and use dens i t y is no t excess i ve . wa t er supp l y purposes .
3 . The pas t l and uses of t he recharge
2 . In areas whe r e we l l s are ad j acent to organ i c depos i ts , w i thdraw of s i gn i f i cant vo l -
area d i d no t i nvo l ve t he use , s torage ,
umes may i ncrease the i ron and / or manganese cont ent of the we l l , ru i n i ng i t for
sh i pmen t , or d i sposa l of chem i ca l s .
wa t er supp l y purposes . Res t i ng the we l l , wi l l of t en cor rec t the prob l em .
Re l a t i onsh i p be t ween Sewage Leach i ng
3 . Con t am i na t i on f rom was t ewa t er is a concern in areas w i th o l d or fa i l ing cesspoo l s ,
21 Sys t ems and t he Wa t e r Tab l e: l each i ng f i e lds, etc . No we l l shou l d be deve l oped in areas whe r e the i ts cone of
Al l mode rn san i t ary codes in the Un i t ed depress i on wou l d i nc l ude any s i gn i f i cant numbe r of o l d bu i l d i ngs , un l ess s i te ana l y-
St a t es requ i re a t l east 600 mm (2 f t ) o f f ree ses demons t ra t e tha t no cont am i na t i on prob l em ex i sts.
N perco l a t i on be t ween the bo t t om of any
r inf i l t rat ion dev i ce (cesspoo l , l each i ng bed , 4 . The denser the deve l opmen t , the h i gher the concent ra t i on of n i t rates f rom on-s i te
Q) was t ewa t e r d i sposa l wh i ch may po l l ute groundwa t e r . Accept ab l e dens i t i es are a
l each i ng t rench , l each i ng pi t , e t c .) and the
wa t e r t ab l e . Th i s perco l a t i on is essent i a l to func t i on of ra infa l l amoun t s , soi l permeab i l i ty and inf i l t rat ion ra tes .
the e f f ec t i ve cont ro l of pa t hogens and the
5 . Ac t i ve or vacant Indust r i a l si tes, i nc l ud i ng process i ng , chem i ca l storage , sh i pp i ng , or
ox i da t i on of was t es .
was t e d i sposa l , shou l d not be i nc l uded in the recharge cone of any pot ab l e we l l ,
Unfor tuna t e l y , in the l ast cen tury no un l ess s i te ana l yses demons t ra t e tha t no cont am i na t i on prob l em ex i sts .
r such rest r i ct i ons ex i st ed , and in f ac t the
 710 - 1 3

Tab l e 710-4 . REQU I RED LOT SIZES

FOR I NCHES OF EXCESS RAI NFALL
OVER EVAPOTRANSP I RAT I ON (U .S .
UN ITS)

Excess Lo t s i ze ,
ra i nf a l l , i n t M / d . u.
5 120 , 000
1 60 , 000
20 30 , 000
30 22 , 500
40 15 , 000
' Ft2 per dwe l l ing uni t .

texts of the per iod recommended that

cesspoo l s and l each ing pi ts be dug down
into the wa ter tabl e . Fur thermore , in many
o lder ne i ghborhoods where the cesspoo l s
were not de l iberate l y dug deep l y , the
advent of publ i c wa ter suppl i es l ed to the
convers i on of the o ld dug we l l s to
cesspoo l s . The resul t is that no we l l shou ld
be deve l oped in an area where the wel l is
cone of depress ion wou l d inc lude any sig-
ni f icant number of old bui ldings, unl ess si te
speci f ic ana l yses demonst ra te that no prob-
l em exists .
Dens i ty of Deve l opment .
Al though proper on-s i te wast ewa t er dis-
posa l wi l l e l iminate or dest roy most wa t er
contami nants , it does increase signi f icant ly
the ni t rate concent rat ion of the groundwa-
ter. The denser the deve l opment , the high-
er the concent rat ion, but h igher rainfal l
spread over the ent i re year wi l l l ower the
concent rat ion . As a genera l measure of the
acceptab l e level of concent rat ion for any
region, densi t i es of 1 to 2 dwe l l ing uni ts per
acre are cons idered an upper l imi t in the
Un i ted States (where the excess of rainfal l
over evapot ransp i rat ion is 500 mm(20 in)
per year ) . Where the excess of rainfal l is
less, the dens i ty wou l d a l so be less . Tabl e
710-4 shows the lot si zes requi red for ade-
quate di lut ion of on-s i te sewage di sposa l
ni t rates in the under l y ing groundwa t er for
var ious par ts of the Un i ted States, assum-
ing highl y permeab l e soi ls and rapid inf i l -
t rat ion of ra inwater.
4 .4 Indust r i a l and Was t e u
N
Con t am i na t i on
Regard i ng past l and uses, both new and a
old indust r i es use an enormous var i ety of
chemi ca l s whose ef fects on human hea l th
are insuf f ic ient ly understood and whose
ef fects were tota l ly mi sunderstood in the
past . Many of these chemi ca l s are qui te
stabl e in the soi l and may , as a resul t of ion
 710 - 1 4

i nt erac t i on w i th soi l par t i c l es , move a t ra tes

much s l owe r t han the norma l l y s l ow ra tes
of groundwa t e r f l ow. As a resu l t , i t is pru-
den t to assume tha t any area ever used for
i ndust r i a l purposes , i nc l ud i ng process i ng ,
chem i ca l s torage , sh i pp i ng , or was t e d i s-
posa l , shou l d no t be i nc l uded in the
recharge cone of any po t ab l e wa t e r supp l y
we l l , un l ess s i te spec i f i c ana l yses prove oth-
erw i se .

1 GROUNDWATER FLOW
ANALYS I S

De t e rm i n i ng pa t t erns of groundwa t e r f l ow
is s i mi l ar to de t erm i n i ng pa t t erns of sur f ace
f l ow . F i rst a con t our map of the uppe r sur -
f ace o f the groundwa t e r (i .e ., the wa t e r
t ab l e) is cons t ruc t ed , and t hen the pa t t ern
of f l ow t hrough the ground is cons i dered as
t hough i t we r e a sur f ace f l ow across the
wa t er - t ab l e con tours . L i ke sur f ace wa t er ,
fl. the f l ows wi l l be perpend i cu l ar to the l ines
of equa l pot ent i a l (contours) , and aga i n l i ke
sur f ace wa t er , the f l ows wi l l be faster
r whe r e t he con tours are c l oser toge ther ,
ad j us t i ng for the permeab i l i t y of the soi l
a ( l i ke the coe f f i c i ent o f roughness on sur f ace
f l ow) .

0r
To cons t ruc t a wa t er - t ab l e con t our map :
 710 - 1 5

1 . Plot al l known water - tab l e e l evat ions

on ponds , st reams, swamps , we l ls,
etc .
2 . Assume that the wa ter tabl e is lower
than the ground sur face at al l l ow
spots where no sur face wa ter is evi -
dent , and that the two sur faces coin-
c ide wherever there is a pond or we t
spot , unl ess there is sol id ev i dence to
the cont rary.
3 . In reg i ons where rainfal l exceeds
evapora t i on (i .e ., hum i d regions) ,
assume that the wa ter tabl e is h igher
than ad jo in ing st reams (F igure 710-
15, top) . In regions where evapot ran-
spi rat ion exceeds rainfal l (i .e., ar id
regions) , assume that the wa ter tabl e
is l ower than ad j o i n i ng st reams
(F igure 710-15, bot tom) .
4 . Interpol ate the contours in the same
manner in wh i ch ground sur face
topography is interpo l ated . (Check
that the groundwa t er sur face is not
h igher than the ground sur face .)
the va l l ey . However , where there is no sur - depress ion must be drawn into the ground-
Obv ious l y , where there are amp l e expo- face st ream and i mpermeab l e st rata are wa t er sur face . F igure 710-17 shows a cross
sures of wa ter on the sur face, the ground- sect ion through a hypothet i ca l we l l in uni -
we l l down , the groundwa t er sur face is not
wa ter sur face wi l l be c lose to the ground l ikely to be inf luenced by the sur face forml y permeab l e sands wi th a f lat wa ter
sur face and there wi l l be l i tt le doubt as to tabl e (an i mprobab l e si tuat ion) . F igure 710-
the depth and s lope of the groundwa t er topography at al l .
18 shows the same cone in an ob l ique
sur face . In pl aces where there is l i tt le sur - Interpretat ion of a groundwa t er contour v i ew . F igure 710-19 is the same si tuat ion as
face water , the wa ter tabl e is l ikely to be map is simi lar to interpretat ion of sur face
we l l down and not much can be deduced F igure 710-17 but wi th a un i forml y s lop ing A
about it .
topography . In genera l , f lows are perpen-
di cul ar to contours , so that i t is reasonab l y
poss ibl e to de l ineate groundwa t er water -
wa t er tabl e (a somewha t more real ist ic
assumpt i on , but st i l l on l y theoret i ca l ) . n.
In h igh l y permeab l e soi ls, where ground- F igure 710-20 is an ob l ique v i ew of F igure
sheds of ponds , st reams, and estuar i es and
wa ter can move easi ly, the water tab l e sur -
faces are l ikely to be qui te f lat and on l y to forecast the di rect iona l movemen t of
contami nants .
710-19 . Not e that the pl an v i ew of the
cone is no longer ci rcular but ova l . F igure r
min ima l l y ref lect the shape of the ground 710-21 is the same si tuat ion as F igure 710-
sur face, but in less permeab l e soi ls the 20 but as a contoured sur face v i ewed as a
wa ter tabl e is more l ikely to ref lect the con- 6 .0 WELL RECHARGE AREA hor i zonta l map . F igure 710-22 is simi lar to
tour of the ground sur face (F igure 710-16) . ANALYS I S 710-21 but is drawn on a three-d i mens i on-
The groundwa t er contours in va l leys can be
expec ted to assume the same V form as the To de termi ne the area f rom wh i ch a high-
al ly curved groundwa t er sur face in a re la-
t ively sha l l ow aqui fer , the k ind of ground- 0r
sur face contours , where there is a st ream in y i e ld we l l wi l l draw i ts water , a cone of
 710 - 1 6

wa t e r sur f ace l i ke l y to be f ound in a com- F i gure 710-24 shows the e f f ec t of th i s F i gure 710-25 shows the e f f ec ts of sma l l
p l ex ou t wash or kame p l a i n . l am i nar f l ow on wa t e r movemen t to a we l l and l arge we l l s on the same aqu i f er . No t e
in t he uppe r por t i on of an aqu i f er . No t e tha t aqu i f ers tha t have been sat i sfactor i l y
Whe r e aqu i f ers are deep , i t is essent i a l to
tha t groundwa t e r f rom d i st ant recharge serv i ng l ow-y i e l d we l l s canno t be assumed
assume tha t groundwa t e r f l ow is l am i nar.
areas can pass ent i re l y unde r a l ow-y i e l d to be su i t ab l e for h i gh-y i e l d we l l s .
F i gure 710-23 shows a sec t i on t hrough a
we l l . The l arger t he we l l , the l arger i ts
deep bu t homogeneous aqu i f er . The recharge area and t he deepe r i ts dr aw on 7 . 0 RESERVO I R DES I GN
groundwa t e r does no t m i x but rema i ns
t he ground . CONS I DERAT I ONS
st rat i f i ed .

Si te se l ec t i on cr i ter i a for a wa t e r supp l y

reservo i r shou l d i nc l ude :

1 . A wa t e rshed l arge enough to y i e l d an

adequa t e wa t e r supp l y
2 . An i mpoundmen t vo l ume l arge
enough for adequa t e , l ong- t e rm
wa t e r s torage
3 . Su i t ab l e soi l cond i t i ons ( i . e ., the l ess
permeab l e , the be t t er )
4 . A topograph i c f orm capab l e of be i ng
shaped i nto a reservo i r a t reasonab l e
cos t (m i n i mum regrad i ng)

5 . A wa t e rshed f ree o f con t am i nan t s

6 . A reservo i r s i te f ree of excess i ve
organ i c ma t er i a l s

7 .1 S i ze o f Wa t e r shed

Per cap i t a po t ab l e wa t e r use in the Un i t ed

St a t es var i es f rom unde r 570 L (150 ga l )
per day in t he nor theas t to over 1325 L
(350 ga l ) pe r day in the sou t hwes t (whe re
ex t ens i ve i r r i gat i on t akes p l ace) . In per i ods
o f drough t in the nor theas t , w i th rest r i c-
t i ons on l awn i r r i gat i on, au t omob i l e wash-

a
d
u

0
 71 0 - 1 7

summe r f l ows . For mos t s t reams , th i s is a

very sma l l amoun t .

7 .2 S i ze o f Rese r vo i r
The s i ze of a reservo i r w i th respec t t o i ts
wa t e rshed s i ze de t erm i nes bo t h the sa f e
y i e l d o f the sys t em and the qua l i ty of the
wa t e r . The m i n i mum s i ze of a reservo i r to
be used for pot ab l e wa t e r shou l d be a t l east
equa l to 1 year ' s annua l ave rage runof f
f rom i ts t r i but ary wa t e rshed in order to
ach i eve good wa t e r qua l i ty (w i thout ex t en-
s i ve t rea tment ) , a l t hough a somewha t l arg-
er vo l ume (e . g . , 1-1 / 2 year ' s runof f ) wou l d
be be t t er . A sma l l reservo i r ( i .e . , one tha t
s tored much l ess t han 1 year ' s runof f )
wou l d un l i ke l y have ve ry c l ear wa t e r
because of suspended co l l o i da l ma t er i a l s ; a
l arger reservo i r , i f i t we r e l ow in phos-
pha t es , wou l d be l i ke l y to have much c l ear -
er wa t e r .

7 . 3 Shape and Dep t h o f Rese r vo i r

Much conce rn has ar i sen in t i mes pas t

abou t the shape and dep t h of reservo i rs ,
based on the be l i e f tha t sha l l ow wa t e r
ing, e t c ., wa t e r use can be reduced by 50 Howeve r , to prov i de tha t much s torage is encour aged the growt h of aqua t i c weeds ,
percent . Such drough t rest r i ct i ons on use l i ke l y to be very cost l y. The mos t cost - i mpar t i ng a fou l t ast e to t he wa t e r . Severa l
are norma l and w i despread in the rura l e f f ec t i ve use of a s t ream is l i ke l y to be ma j or reservo i rs we r e bu i l t on th i s prem i se
nor theas t . ach i eved w i th an amoun t o f s torage equa l in t he 1890 ' s w i th dredged-and- f i l l ed ba th-
to 1 year ' s ave rage annua l runof f ( the cr i t i - tub l i ke edges . These reservo i rs have no t al l
The annua l gross y i e l d of a wa t ershed ,
ca l po i nt on Hazen i s y i e l d-s torage curve) . been success fu l , and a f ew (as at
assum i ng a very l arge , l ong- t erm s torage
At th i s l eve l o f s torage , the gross annua l Hopk i n t on and Ash l and , Massachuse t t s)
vo l ume , cou l d reach t he ave rage annua l
sa f e y i e l d wou l d be equa l to t he gross have never been regu l ar l y used for wa t e r
ra infa l l for the wa t e rshed l ess the wa t e r -
runof f of a typ i ca l drough t yea r ( abou t supp l y. Some m i n i mum dep t h is essent i a l to
shed i s evapot ransp i ra t i on and the reser -
one -ha l f tha t o f an ave rage ra infa l l year ) . the na tura l sem i annua l therma l and chem i -
vo i r i s evapora t i on and l eakage . (F i gure
ca l st rat i f i cat i on and turnover requ i red to
710-26 shows the ave rage annua l runof f W i t h no s torage , the sa f e y i e l d of any
set t l e organ i c de t r i tus and o ther suspended
pe r square m i l e for t he Un i t ed St a t es .) s t ream wou l d fal l to a f rac t i on of i ts l owes t
ma t er i a l s , bu t any pond l arge enough to
cont a i n at l east 1 year ' s f l ow- t hrough is
l i ke l y to be adequa t e l y deep . In genera l ,
the deepe r the pond , the c l earer the wa t er ,
Des i gn of wa t e r supp l y reservo i rs is dependen t on wa t er needs , wa t e rshed charac t er - al l e l se be i ng equa l .
ist i cs, and s i te topography. The fo l l ow i ng f ac tors shou l d be cons i dered .
i
7 . 4 Wa t e r shed Cha r ac t e r i s t i cs
1 . The mos t cost -e f fec t i ve use of a s t ream for a wa t e r supp l y reservo i r is l i ke l y to be
ach i eved w i th an amoun t of s torage equa l to 1 year ' s average annua l runof f . Wa t e rshed charac t er i st i cs for po t ab l e wa t e r
reservo i rs i nc l ude : (1) f reedom f rom pas t
2 . Any pond l arge enough to cont a i n at l east 1 year ' s f l ow- through is l i ke ly to be ade - i ndust r i a l and was t e d i sposa l uses , (2) f ree-
qua t e l y deep . In genera l however , the deepe r the pond , the c l earer the wa t er . dom f rom geo l og i c sources of phosphorus ,
and (3) f reedom f rom urban i za t i on- re l a t ed
3 . Wa t e rshed character i st i cs for pot ab l e wa t er reservo i rs i nc l ude : (1) f reedom f rom pas t sources of phosphorus .
indust r i a l and was t e d i sposa l uses , (2) f reedom f rom geo l og i c sources of phosphorus ,
and (3) f reedom f rom urban i za t i on- re l a t ed sources of phosphorus . A search shou l d be made for i ndust r i a l
and was t e d i sposa l act i v i t i es in the past , u
N
4 . Sur f ace wa t e r wi l l genera l l y requ i re some form of t rea tment under sta te l aw. and susp i c i ous s i tes shou l d then be i nvest i - r
Trea tmen t is l i ke ly to i nc l ude f i l t rat ion and d i s i nfect i on . ga t ed w i th test we l l s and chem i ca l sam-
p l i ng . Many ear l y i ndust r i es used l arge
5 . The reservo i r bo t t om shou l d be st r i pped of al l debr i s , organ i c depos i ts , and topso i l , amoun t s of tox i c subs t ances for a var i e ty of
un l ess wa t er supp l i es are not needed for i mmed i a t e use . purposes and no pot ent i a l l y con t am i na t ed
s i te shou l d be accep t ed w i t hou t test i ng ,
6 . The serv i ces of a geot echn i ca l eng i neer , san i tary eng i neers , and hydro l og i sts shou l d regard l ess of the k i nd of i ndus t ry .
be re t a i ned for the des i gn of reservo i rs and the test i ng of wa t er supp l i es . I
 710- 1 8

Geo l og i ca l l y occur r i ng phospha t es can mor e damag i ng) sur f ace phospha t es i nto s torage (mor e than 1 year ) . (Re f er to
suppor t enough a l gae to make unt rea t ed s t reams and reservo i rs t oo qu i ck l y for t hem Sec t i on 420 : Sma l l Dams , for mor e i nfor -
wa t e r unaccep t ab l e for dr i nk i ng . Sur f ace to be adsorbed by soi l par t i c l es . The be t t er ma t i on abou t t he se l ec t i on of dam s i tes and
wa t e r a t the reservo i r s i te shou l d be chem- cont ro l of so l ub l e phospha t e can be t he t ypes of dams tha t can be used for
i ca l l y t es t ed for i ts phospha t e con t en t . ach i eved by rest r i ct i ng the amoun t of l and wa t e r supp l y .)
Leve l s above 15 par ts per bi l l ion (ppb) may deve l opmen t w i th i n a wa t ershed , rest ra i n-
i ng t he use o f i mpe rmeab l e sur f aces , 7 . 6 Wa t e r Tr ea t men t
be h i gh enough to ru l e ou t a success fu l sur -
f ace wa t e r supp l y w i t hou t a l gae cont ro l s . and / or by des i gn of the dra i nage for max i - Sur f ace wa t e r wi l l genera l l y requ i re some
Samp l es shou l d be co l l ec t ed in ac i d-washed mum on-s i t e soi l inf i l t rat ion .
f orm of t rea t men t unde r s t a t e l aw.
bot t l es ava i l ab l e f rom an ana l yt i ca l t est i ng Trea t men t is l i ke l y to i nc l ude ch l or i na t i on
l abora tory tha t does wa t e r test i ng . Samp l es 7 .5 Dam Loca t i on
and pH ad j us tmen t , and i t may a l so i nc l ude
shou l d be co l l ec t ed w i thou t d i s turb i ng bot - Dams for wa t e r supp l y can be l oca t ed f l uor i da t i on and / or f i l t rat ion, depend i ng on
t om sed i men t s . Gu i dance on samp l i ng e i ther on t he s t ream f rom wh i ch they wi l l r aw wa t e r charac ter i st i cs .
t echn i ques shou l d be reques t ed f rom an dr aw the i r wa t e r or a t some o ther conve -
ana l yt i ca l l abora tory. 7 . 7 S i t e Pr epa r a t i on
n i ent l oca t i on . Any reservo i r si te, to be eco-
Urban i za t i on- re l a t ed phospha t e enr i ch- nom i ca l , shou l d t ake advan t age of na tura l To ach i eve h i gh wa t e r qua l i ty in a shor t
men t appea rs to be a resu l t of a t mosphe r i c topograph i c con t a i nmen t , but th i s is no t per i od of t i me , the reservo i r bo t t om shou l d
phospha t e dus t fa l l i ng on t o dry roof s and a l ways essent i a l . I t is mor e i mpor t an t tha t be s t r i pped of al l debr i s , organ i c depos i t s ,
11 pavemen t s and t hen be i ng washed i nto t he unde r l y i ng ma t er i a l s be re l a t i ve l y and topso i l . For wa t e r supp l i es no t needed
dra i ns and s t reams. (Phospha t e dust , wh i ch i mpe rmeab l e so tha t seepage wa t ers wi l l for i mmed i a t e use ( future grow t h a decade
fa l ls on t o mo i s t soi l , wi l l be absorbed by the no t unde rm i ne the s t ruc ture . S i nce many or mor e away) , th i s s t ep can some t i mes be
r s t ream bo t t oms are a l l uv i um or ou t wash
soi l par t i c l es and become i nso l ub l e . e l i m i na t ed (F i gure 710-27) .
t Phospha t e fer t i l i zers t end to be adsorbed sand , of f -s t ream reservo i rs are some t i mes
even mor e rap i d l y.) used w i th wa t e r pumped f rom the supp l y 7 . 8 Consu l t an t s
s t ream to the s torage reservo i r dur i ng
Conven t i ona l approaches to sur f ace spr i ng f l ow peaks . The same conce rns The serv i ces of a geot echn i ca l eng i neer
dra i nage , even i f bu f f ered w i th re t ent i on app l y to o f f -s t ream reservo i rs as to on- shou l d be re t a i ned for the des i gn of dams
bas i ns to cont ro l f l ood peaks and sed i - and d i kes ; the serv i ces of a san i t ary eng i -
r men t s , wi l l sweep t he mor e so l ub l e ( and
s t ream reservo i rs , i . e ., wa t e r qua l i ty , cont ro l
nee r shou l d be re t a i ned for wa t e r t est i ng
o f urban i za t i on , and adequa t e vo l ume of
 710 - 1 9
and for the des i gn of pump i ng st a t i ons and
wa t e r t rea tmen t equ i pmen t ; and the ser -
v i ces of a hydro l og i s t shou l d be re t a i ned to
ensure tha t sp i l l ways are adequa t e to pro-
tec t the dam f rom f l ood damage .

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Hamme r . Wa t e r Supp l y and Po l l ut i on
Cont ro l , 3d ed., Ha rpe r and Row , New
York , 1977.
Sa l va to , Joseph A. Env i ronmen t a l
Eng i neer i ng and San i t a t i on , 3d ed., W i l ey ,
New York , 1982 .
U .S . Depa r t men t o f Agr i cu l ture , So i l
Conse rva t i on Serv i ce , Eng i neer i ng F i e l d
Manua l , U .S . Gove rnmen t Pr i nt i ng Of f i ce ,
Wash i ng t on , DC.
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Conse rva t i on Serv i ce , SCS Na t i ona l
Eng i neer i ng Handbook : Hydro l ogy-Sec t i on
4, Augus t 1972 .
U .S. Depa r t men t o f Agr i cu l ture . The
Yea rbook of Agr i cu l ture , 1955 , Wa t er , U .S.
Gove rnmen t Pr i nt i ng Of f i ce , Wash i ng t on ,
DC , 1955 .
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Adm i n i s t ra t i on , C l i ma t e At l as o f the Un i t ed
Sta tes , Na t i ona l C l i ma t e Cent er , Ashev i l l e ,
NC , 1984 .
U . S. Depa r t men t o f t he Inter i or , Geo l og i ca l
Survey. The Na t i ona l At l as o f the Un i t ed
St a t es of Ame r i ca , Wash i ng t on , DC , 1970 .
U . S. Env i ronmen t a l Pro t ec t i on Agency ,
Of f i ce o f Wa t e r Programs , Wa t e r Supp l y
D i v i s i on . Manua l of Wa t e r Supp l y Sys t ems ,
U. S. Gove rnmen t Pr i nt i ng Of f i ce ,
Wash i ng t on , DC , 1973 .

C..
Q
N
r

0
 SECT I ON

Sewage D i sposa l

Con t r i bu t or:
Ma r k B. Da rno l d , P.E . ,
The Berksh i re Des i gn Group , Inc .
Nor t hamp t on , Massachuse t t s

Dan i e l Bub l y , RE . , L . A . , A.I . C . P.

Bub l y Assoc i a t es , Inc .
Sha ron , Massachuse t t s

Graph i cs :
Ga ry M. F i shbeck

Rev i ewe r :
Robe r t F. Fer rar i , P.E .
Fe r r a r i -At wood Eng i neer i ng , Inc .
Prov i dence , Rhode I s l and

CONTENTS
1 .0 Int roduc t i on Ae rob i c Sys t ems 4. 5 Grease Traps
1 .1 Types o f Sewage Sys t ems 3 .5 O t he r Sewage D i sposa l A l t erna t i ves 4. 6 Dos i ng Chambe r s
1 . 2 On-S i t e D i sposa l Compos t i ng To i l e ts 4. 7 Re l a t i onsh i p o f On-S i t e Sys t ems to
2 .0 Descr i p t i on of Sewage Sys t em Processes Rec i rcu l a t i ng Sys t ems Trees and Pav i ng
3 .0 Sys t em A l t erna t i ves Ho l d i ng Tanks Trees
3 .1 Sys t em Componen t s 3 . 6 Cesspoo l s Pav i ng
Sma l l Ind i v i dua l Sys t ems 4 . 0 Des i gn of Sept i c Tanks and Leach i ng 5 .0 Ae rob i c Sys t ems w i t h Sur f ace Inf i l t ra t i on
Large C l us t er Sys t ems Sys t ems 5.1 App l i ca t i on 0
3. 2 Sys t em Con f i gura t i on 4 .1 App l i ca t i ons 5. 2 Lagoons r -L
Cos t s 4 . 2 Theory 5. 3 Package P l ant s
Dens i t y of Deve l opmen t Pr i ma ry Func t i ons 5. 4 Subsur f ace Leach i ng
Si te Su i tab i l i ty Ma i n t enance 6 .0 Ae rob i c Sys t ems w i t h Evapo t ransp i ra t i on
3 .3 Add i t i ona l Fac tors 4 . 3 S i z i ng and De t a i l s : Sep t i c Tanks Sys t ems
F i l t rat i on t hrough So i l S i z i ng 7 .0 Ae rob i c Sys t ems w i t h Sur f ace Wa t e r
Remova l of N i t ra t es Des i gn De t a i l s D i scha rge
Soi l Mod i f i ca t i on 4. 4 S i z i ng and De t a i l s: Leach i ng Fac i l i t i es Re f erences
3 .4 So l i ds Remova l l D i ges t i on Sys t ems S i z i ng N
Sept i c Sys t ems Des i gn De t a i l s

N
 720 - 2

1 . 0 I NTRODUCT I ON men t w i t hou t adverse hea l th , odor , aes- put resc i b l es , the des t ruc t i on o f pa t hogens

S
thet i c , or nut r i ent ( fer t i l i zat ion) e f f ec ts. by b i o l og i ca l l y ac t i ve f i l t rat ion, and the d i s-
ome f orm o f sewage d i sposa l is neces- cha rge of e f f l uent , pre f erab l y to the ground
sary in mos t bu i l d i ng or l and deve l op- Al l cur rent l y perm i ss i b l e sewage d i sposa l or , a l terna t i ve l y , to a wa t e rbody or to the
men t pro j ec t s for the d i sposa l of sys t ems i nc l ude some me t hod for separa -
a t mosphe r e .
domes t i c wa t e rborne was t es . Such was t es t i on of so l i ds f rom was t ewa t er , for d i sposa l
are e i ther p i ped of f -s i te to a mun i c i pa l of the so l ids , for ox i da t i on of put resc i b l e The ave r age amoun t of domes t i c
sewe r sys t em or are t rea t ed and d i sposed subs t ances d i sso l ved in the was t ewa t er , for sewage d i sposed in the Un i t ed St a t es is
of on-s i t e . Proper des i gn for the t rea tmen t des t ruc t i on of pa thogens , and u l t i ma t e l y abou t 245 L (65 ga l ) per cap i t a per day .
and d i sposa l o f domes t i c wa t e rborne for d i scharge of the resu l t i ng e f f l uent to the Abou t one - th i rd of domes t i c sewage is to i -
was t es is essent i a l for the prot ec t i on of ground , to a wa t e rbody , or to t he a t mos - l et was t e ; one- th i rd , l aundry was t e ; and
pub l i c hea l th , sa fety , and we l f are . phe re . one- th i rd , dra i nage f rom s i nks and t ubs .

At a typ i ca l mode rn l arge-sca l e mun i c i -

1 .1 Types o f Sewage Sys t ems 3 . 0 SYSTEM ALTERNAT I VES
pa l t rea tmen t p l ant , t he so l i ds are se t t l ed
The t ype o f sewage d i sposa l sys t em chosen ou t and then phys i ca l l y sk i mmed of f the
t op and bo t t om of the was t ewa t e r s t ream A l t erna t i ve me t hods of sewage d i sposa l on
for the deve l opmen t o f any t rac t o f l and
a t rac t of l and i nc l ude : (1) d i scharge to a
wi l l i nf l uence the pa t t ern and dens i t y of and e i ther i nc i nera t ed or l andf i l l ed, the
mun i c i pa l sewe r sys t em and (2) var i ous
tha t deve l opmen t . The sewe r age for any was t ewa t e r is ac t i ve l y aera t ed to b i o l og i ca l -
k i nds o f on-s i t e d i sposa l sys t ems . Se l ec t i on
pro j ec t can i nc l ude : ly r emove mos t of the d i sso l ved put resc i -
b l es and suspended organ i c so l ids , and the of t he me t hod depends on l oca t i on , geohy -
1 . S i mp l e , econom i ca l sys t ems for t he resu l t i ng e f f l uent is dosed w i th ch l or i ne and dro l og i c cond i t i ons l oca l codes , and dens i t y
sa f e , env i ronmen t a l l y sound d i sposa l d i scharged to a r i ver or l arge body of wa t e r . of deve l opmen t .
o f was t ewa t e r
In genera l , connec t i on to an ex i s t i ng
For a sma l l on-s i t e sys t em , the processes
2 . Mor e comp l ex and cost l y sys t ems for wou l d i nc l ude the d i ges t i on of so l i ds i nto mun i c i pa l sys t em wi l l be the l east comp l ex
ove r com i ng t he l i mi ts of poor l y l i qu i ds and gases , the ox i da t i on of d i sso l ved me t hod . In add i t i on , whe r e such connec -
dra i ned or i mpe rmeab l e soi l s on s i tes
tha t have good l oca t i ons or o ther
va l uab l e aspec t s
3 . Mor e comp l ex and cost l y sys t ems for
i ncreas i ng the dens i t y of deve l opmen t
on a s i te (F i gure 720-1)

1 .2 On -S i t e D i sposa l

I t is expec t ed tha t the use of on-s i t e d i s-

posa l wi l l i ncrease as urban deve l opmen t
spreads ou t wa rd beyond t he ex t en t of
ex i st i ng sewage co l l ec t i on sys t ems and as
ex i st i ng pub l i c t rea tmen t p l ant s run ou t of
reserve capac i t y.

Some deve l opmen t s , par t i cu l ar l y i ndus-

t r ia l use , wi l l requ i re spec i a l on-s i t e sys t ems
for was t es tha t canno t be d i scharged to
mun i c i pa l sewe r sys t ems or tha t canno t be
d i sposed of t hrough on-s i t e sys t ems
des i gned for domes t i c or human was t es .
Si te des i gners shou l d be awa r e : (1) tha t
many i ndust r i a l was t es requ i re spec i a l
t rea t men t (des i gned by spec i a l i sts in the
s spec i f i c i ndus t ry) and (2) tha t for such
O
Q i ndust r i a l was t es , a f t er remova l o f haz -
a rdous compounds , the t rea t ed e f f l uent
may be d i sposed of by ord i nary on-s i t e
l each i ng or by d i scharge to a mun i c i pa l
g sewe r .

0
N
 720 - 3
b . Ox i da t i on versus c l ust er sys t ems) , the des i gner shou l d
cons i der :
4 . M i sce l l aneous var i ant s :
1 . Cos t s
a . C l i vus mu l t rum and o ther compos t -
i ng sys t ems 2 . Dens i t y of deve l opmen t

b . H i gh- t ech mechan i ca l sys t ems 3 . S i te su i tab i l i ty

c . Ho l d i ng t anks 4 . Loca l gove rnmen t a l regu l a t i ons and

po l i c i es
d . Cesspoo l s
Cos t s:
3 .1 Sys t em Componen t s
Rega rd i ng costs , any t ype of i nd i v i dua l on-
Sma l l Ind i v i dua l Sys t ems : s i te approach (whe r e accept ab l e) is l i ke l y to
be much l ess expens i ve than a c l ust er sys-
Spec i f i c sma l l i nd i v i dua l sys t ems i nc l ude :
t em, of t en by a rat io of 10 :1 . The ma j or
1 . Sept i c t anks comb i ned w i t h any o f a economy of i nd i v i dua l sys t ems is t he e l i mi -
var i e ty o f subsur f ace l each i ng sys t ems na t i on of p i pe l i nes , pump i ng sta t i ons , and
( l each i ng t renches , l each i ng beds , manho l es be t ween i nd i v i dua l bu i l d i ngs and
l each i ng pi ts, e t c .) . Al l sept i c sys t ems the c l uster d i sposa l s i te . Ope ra t i on and
are l i mi ted to subsur f ace e f f l uent d i s- ma i n t enance costs are a l so a s i gn i f i cant f ac-
posa l because of the odor i nherent to tor when cons i der i ng c l uster sys t ems .
sept i c e f f l uent (F i gure 720-2) .
Dens i t y of Deve l opmen t :
2 . Ae rob i c d i ges t ers w i th subsur f ace
l each i ng sys t ems can a l so be used Rega rd i ng the dens i t y of deve l opmen t ,
w i th a var i e ty o f l each i ng sys t em con- i nd i v i dua l on-s i t e d i sposa l (w i th sys t ems
f i gura t i ons (F i gure 720-2) . l arge enough to be re l i ed on for t roub l e-
f ree l ong- t e rm serv i ce) l imi ts the deve l op-
3 . Aerob i c d i ges t ers w i th sur f ace inf i l t ra- men t dens i t y to abou t 2 dwe l l i ng un i ts (du)
t i on beds (F i gure 720-3) . per hec t are (5 du per acre) for s i ng l e
de t ached hous i ng , and t o abou t 5 du per
4 . Aerob i c d i ges t ers w i th evapot ransp i -
hec t are (12 du per acre) for three-s tory
ra t i on d i sposa l sys t ems (F i gure 720-
apa r t men t bu i l d i ngs (F i gures 720-7 and
4) .
720-8) .
5 . Compos t i ng to i l ets for human was t es
t i ons are ava i l ab l e , they are of t en manda t - Commun i t y d i sposa l sys t ems cou l d ra i se
and ga rbage , comb i ned w i t h an
ed by l oca l of f i c i a l s . (No t e tha t th i s may no t the dens i t y of such deve l opmen t some -
appropr i a t e d i sposa l sys t em for wash
be the l east cost l y or t he mos t env i ronmen- wha t , bu t a separa t e l and a l l oca t i on for t he
wa t ers .
ta l l y des i rab l e a l t erna t i ve .) commun i t y sys t em wou l d be requ i red ; con-
6 . Cesspoo l s . sequent l y , the overa l l dwe l l i ng dens i t y
Cons i de ra t i ons for on-s i t e d i sposa l m i gh t no t be s i gn i f i cant l y h i gher.
i nc l ude the fo l l ow i ng a l t erna t i ves : La rge C l us t er Sys t ems:
S i te Su i t ab i l i ty:
1 . For overa l l sys t em con f i gura t i on : Spec i f i c l arge c l uster sys t ems i nc l ude :
Rega rd i ng the su i tab i l i ty o f s i tes, i nd i v i dua l
a . Sma l l i nd i v i dua l sys t ems sca t t ered 1 . Large sept i c t anks w i th subsur f ace
on-s i t e d i sposa l can be accommoda t ed on l y
ove r t he s i te l each i ng sys t ems i f adequa t e permeab i l i t y and dep t h to
b . Large c l us t ered or commun i t y sys- 2 . Large aerob i c d i ges t ers (of t en ca l l ed groundwa t e r ex i st .
t ems concen t ra t ed at one or a f ew package p l ants) w i th sur f ace inf i l t ra-
t i on beds 3 . 3 Add i t i ona l Fac t ors
po i nt s on the s i te
Rega rd i ng the se l ec t i on of u l t i ma t e was t e -
2 . For u l t i ma t e was t ewa t e r d i sposa l : 3 . Large aerob i c d i ges t ers w i th evapo-
t ransp i ra t i on d i sposa l of e f f l uent wa t e r d i sposa l a l t erna t i ves , whe t he r to
a . So i l l each i ng w i th subsur f ace e f f l u- groundwa t e r , sur f ace wa t er , or the a t mos -
ent app l i ca t i on 4 . Unae ra t ed l agoons w i th over f l ow d i s- phere , t he des i gner shou l d cons i der :
posa l to sur f ace i nf i l t rat i on beds
b . Soi l l each i ng w i th sur f ace e f f l uent (F i gure 720-5) 1 . Si te cond i t i ons
app l i ca t i on
5 . Ae ra t ed l agoons w i th over f l ow d i s- 2 . Cos t s
c . Evapot ransp i ra t i on posa l to sur f ace i nf i l t rat i on beds 3 . Loca l gove rnmen t a l regu l a t i ons and
d . Sur f ace wa t e r d i scharge (F i gure 720-6) po l i c i es

3 . For process i ng be fore d i sposa l : 3 . 2 Sys t em Con f i gur a t i on 4 . Impac t s on wa t e r qua l i ty

a. S i mp l e anaerob i c (sept i c) d i ges t i on Rega rd i ng the se l ec t i on of t he overa l l sys-

of so l i ds t em con f i gura t i on ( i . e ., i nd i v i dua l sys t ems
 720-4
l arge sys t ems or for h i gh-dens i t y deve l op-
men t s , the chem i ca l e f f ec ts on groundwa -
ter shou l d be exam i ned and eva l ua t ed on a
case -by-case bas i s .

Remova l o f N i t ra t es :

The remova l o f n i t ra tes is i nherent l y di f f i -

cul t , cost l y , and exper i men t a l a t th i s t i me .
At Lake Tahoe , in the wes t e rn Un i t ed
Sta tes , e f f l uent f rom the commun i t y t reat -
men t p l ant is a i r -st r i pped of ammon i a ( the
chem i ca l an t eceden t o f the n i t ra tes in f i l -
t ered e f f l uent ) and requ i res comp l ex
mechan i ca l and chem i ca l processes .
E l sewhere , n i t ra t e r emova l has been
ach i eved b i o l og i ca l l y by us i ng spray i r r iga-
t ion, sha l l ow ponds and marshes , or , a f t er
f i l t rat ion, an add i t i ona l s t age of anaerob i c
d i ges t i on .

The a l t erna t i ve tha t uses spray i r r i ga t i on

requ i res a l arge l and area , w i n t er s torage of
e f f l uent in co l d c l i ma t es , and ene rgy for
pump i ng . I t can i ncrease the sod i um con-
t ent of the groundwa t e r beyond accep t ab l e
l eve l s , and i ts accept ab i l i t y for use on crops
appea rs to depend on whe t he r the e f f l uent
has been prev i ous l y f i l tered . (Tests of spray
i r r i gat i on to da t e have been l i mi ted pr i mar -
i ly to unf i l t ered e f f l uent .)

Sha l l ow pond or ma rsh den i t r i f i ca t i on

a l t erna t i ves requ i re i dea l s i te cond i t i onsd-
such as a l arge , preex i s t i ng ma r sh or
swamp tha t can be used w i t hou t d i m i n i sh-
i ng o ther env i ronmen t a l va l ues .

The anaerob i c decompos i t i on a l t erna t i ve

is mor e cost l y , requ i res the co l l ec t i on of the
f i l tered e f f l uent , and is not we l l unde rs t ood
t echn i ca l l y .

So i l Mod i f i ca t i on :

In some cases , whe r e so i l s are no t su i t ab l e

for s l ow inf i l t rat ion, they can be mod i f i ed .
I f they are too pe rmeab l e ( too coarse) to
suppor t a b i ogen i c s l i me , f i ner soi l can be
p l aced a l ong the bo t t om and s i des of
l each i ng beds , but th i s canno t be done as
conven i ent l y when t renches or p i ts are
7s used (F i gure 720-9) .
F i l t ra t i on t hrough So i l : t hrough t he s l i me , soi l bac t er i a d i ges t the
O put resc i b l es , pa t hogens , ammon i a , and Whe r e t he soi l s t ra tum is t oo sha l l ow to
Qovera l l , the mos t e f fec t i ve , econom i ca l , organ i c phospha t es . The resu l t i ng f i l tered groundwa t e r or t oo i mpe rmeab l e , ear th f i l l
and env i ronmen t a l l y sa f e me t hod for d i s- e f f l uent is c l ean , odor - f ree , and near l y su i t - can be brough t in to cor rec t t he i nadequa -
pos i ng of was t ewa t e r (and s i mu l t aneous l y cy. Th i s me t hod can be very cost l y , espe -
ab l e for dr i nk i ng excep t for i ts s i gn i f i cant l y
ox i d i z i ng i ts put resc i b l es and ammon i a , h i gh n i t rate con t en t and i ts mode ra t e l y c i a l l y if su i t ab l e f i l l is no t ava i l ab l e on or
g des t roy i ng i ts pa t hogens , and i mmob i l i z i ng
h i gh sa l t con t en t . near the s i te .
i ts phospha t es) is the s l ow f i l t rat ion of the
was t ewa t e r t hrough soi l . The soi l bac t er i a , For l ow-dens i t y deve l opmen t s , depend- To m i t i ga t e the costs of ex t ens i ve ear th
N a t the i nt er f ace of the was t ewa t e r d i st r i bu- i ng on reg i ona l hydro l og i c charac t er i st i cs f i l l , whe r e f i l l is necessary , i t is some t i mes
t i on sys t em and the soi l , mu l t i p l y and f orm (see Sec t i on 710 : Wa t e r Supp l y) , the resu l t - f eas i b l e to upgrade the qua l i ty of the
a ge l a t i nous , organ i c s l i me wh i ch ho l ds the i ng n i t ra te concent ra t i on f rom sca t t ered was t ewa t e r e f f l uent app l i ed to the soi l ,
was t ewa t e r and a l l ows i t to f i l ter s l ow l y sma l l sys t ems wi l l usua l l y not a f fect the reduc i ng i ts nut r i ent va l ue to soi l bac t er i a .
N i nto the soi l . As t he was t ewa t e r passes po t ab l e qua l i ty of unde rground wa t e r . For Such i mproved t rea tmen t wou l d reduce the
 720- 5
dens i t y o f the b i ogen i c s l i mes produced in to 3 cm (3 / 4 to 1 in) per day] . Whe r e t he
the soi l and so reduce the s i ze o f the l each- dep t h to groundwa t e r is i nadequa t e , t he
i ng area requ i red . In genera l , the be t t er the soi l sur f ace mus t be bu i l t up w i th f i l l ma t e -
processed e f f l uent , t he sma l l er the l each i ng r ial so as to prov i de adequa t e dep t h for
area requ i red . W i t h sept i c t ank e f f l uent , the perco l a t i on t hrough t he soi l w i t hou t sa tu-
max i mum l ong- t e rm l oad i ng appears to be ra t i ng i t and to prov i de enough cover ove r
abou t 0 .19 L / m 2 (1 / 2 ga l / f t2) pe r day. W i t h the l each i ng sys t em to cont ro l odors .
e f f l uent f rom mor e e f f ec t i ve process i ng , as
in a l agoon sys t em , l oad i ng ra tes up to 1 . 76 Ae rob i c Sys t ems :
L / m 2 (5 ga l / f t2 ) per day are poss i b l e . Aerob i c sys t ems ord i nar i l y requ i re the same
In mor e ex t reme cases , whe r e the soi l s i te cond i t i ons as sept i c sys t ems , bu t the i r
i tse l f is i nsuf f i c i ent l y pe rmeab l e to accep t odor - f ree e f f l uent can be app l i ed to a sur -
the f i l tered e f f l uent , sewage can be d i s- f ace inf i l t rat ion bed , usua l l y a t much h i gh-
posed of by some f orm of evapo t ransp i ra - er ra t es of app l i ca t i on , thus reduc i ng bo t h
t i on sys t em or by d i scharge to sur f ace t he s i ze of the l each i ng fac i l i ty and the
wa t ers . In deser t areas , s i mp l e evapora t i on costs per square foot . Howeve r , th i s prac-
of f the sur f ace of a l agoon is poss i b l e . In t i ce is not read i l y approved by loca l hea l th
wa rm , we t t e r c l i ma t es , grasses can t ran- of f i c i a l s excep t unde r unusua l c i rcum-
sp i re l arge amoun t s of wa t e r dur i ng t he s t ances , s i nce aerob i c sys t ems requ i re sys-
grow i ng season ; us i ng th i s approach may t ema t i c ma i n t enance and the exposed
on l y be f eas i b l e for campgrounds , parks , or e f f l uent can t ransm i t a var i e ty of pa t hogens
summe r resor t deve l opmen t s . For e i ther and paras i t es .
d i rec t evapora t i on or for t ransp i ra t i on , Ae rob i c process i ng of sewage can be
sewage process i ng wou l d requ i re some accomp l i shed e i ther in some f orm of ener -
f orm of aera t i on , both to cont ro l odor ( for gy- i nt ens i ve and mechan i ca l l y comp l ex
evapora t i on ponds) and to preven t root rot package p l ant , usua l l y pre f abr i ca t ed , or in
( for t ransp i ra t i on sys t ems) . one o f t wo k i nds of l agoons .
Be fore e f f l uent can be d i scharged to sur - Package P l an t s : The package p l ant
f ace wa t er , loca l pub l i c hea l th regu l a t i ons appea rs to have spec i a l app l i cab i l i ty whe r e
norma l l y requ i re a de t a i l ed ana l ys i s of and space and s i te cond i t i ons are cons t ra i ned .
an i mpac t s t a t emen t on downs t r eam wa t e r Package p l ant s are m i n i a ture vers i ons of
resources , a cons i dera t i on of al l o ther a l ter - mun i c i pa l sewage t rea tmen t p l ant s and , as
na t i ves be f orehand , and a compe l l i ng case such , have as the i r pr i mary func t i ons : (1)
made for deve l op i ng the spec i f i c s i te in the the se t t l i ng of so l i ds and (2) the convers i on
manne r proposed . of d i sso l ved organ i cs i nto se t t l eab l e so l i ds .
When opera t i ng proper l y , they produce
3 . 4 So l i ds Remova l / D i ges t i on
e f f l uent tha t can be app l i ed to inf i l t rat ion
Sys t ems
beds a t quant i t i es up to 18 .9 L (5 ga l / f t2 )
Rega rd i ng the se l ec t i on of a l t erna t i ve sys- per day (10 t i mes the l oad i ng ra te of sept i c
t ems for the remova l and / or d i ges t i on of t ank e f f l uent ) . Howeve r , s i nce these
so l ids , cons i dera t i on shou l d be g i ven to : dev i ces genera l l y have no prov i s i on for
au toma t i c , sys t ema t i c remova l of the accu-
1 . Cos t s mu l a t ed so l ids , they are sub j ec t t o so l i ds
2 . Si te adapt ab i l i ty over l oads , the wash i ng of so l i ds i nto l each-
i ng sys t ems , and mechan i ca l br eakdown
3 . Loca l gove rnmen t regu l a t i ons and un l ess they are pumped out once or tw i ce
po l i c i es a yea r.
The a l t erna t i ves i nc l ude sept i c sys t ems , I f no t adequa t e l y s i zed and care fu l l y
var i ous f orms of aerob i c processors or ma i nt a i ned , package p l ant s pe r f orm no
O
d i gest i on , and severa l hybr i d sys t ems . be t t er t han sept i c t anks and requ i re equa l - a
ly l arge l each i ng sys t ems .
Sep t i c Sys t ems :
Pass i ve Lagoons : Pass i ve l agoons , or 0
In t erms of cost , sept i c sys t ems are usua l l y N
stab i l i za t i on ponds , are l arge sha l l ow ponds
the l eas t -expens i ve sma l l sys t ems , hav i ng g
[0 .6 to 1 .5 m (2 to 5 f t ) deep] aera t ed by
no mach i nery , no ene rgy i nputs , and no
na tura l processes (sun and w i nd) t hrough
requ i remen t s for secur i ty , regu l ar ma i n t e -
the i r ex t ens i ve uppe r sur f ace . They are N
nance , or f requent i nspec t i on . N
common l y used in very rura l areas whe r e
In t erms of s i te adaptab i l i ty , s i mp l e sep- adequa t e space is ava i l ab l e and whe r e t hey
t i c sys t ems can on l y be used in areas whe r e can be s i ted f ar enough away f rom peop l e
subsur f ace e f f l uent d i sposa l is pract i ca l , i . e ., to m i n i m i ze the odor nu i sance of the i r N
whe r e there is suf f i c i ent soi l permeab i l i t y [2 t w i ce - a -yea r t he rma l turnovers (wh i ch
 720 - 6

br i ng odorous bo t t om sed i men t s to the sur - od i c pump i ng or , for l arger wa t e r users ,

f ace) . dra i ned d i rec t l y to a t ank t ruck .

Ae ra t ed Lagoons : Ae ra t ed l agoons are 3 . 6 Cesspoo l s

deepe r and sma l l er t han pass i ve l agoons
and use suf f i c i ent mechan i ca l aera t i on to Cesspoo l s are a very l ow cos t but e f f ec t i ve
prec l ude therma l st ra t i f i ca t i on and the d i sposa l t echn i que for very sma l l sys t ems
resu l t i ng tw i ce -a -year therma l turnovers . [up to 375 or 575 L (100 or 150 ga l ) per
These t ypes of l agoons have been used on cesspoo l per day] or for sys t ems w i th inter -
s i tes tha t are l arge enough for pass i ve m i t t ent use . They requ i re su i t ab l e so i l s and
l agoons but are too c l ose to abut t i ng l and a wa t e r t ab l e a t l east 3 m (10 f t ) deep . They
uses tha t requ i re pos i t i ve odor cont ro l . The comb i ne , at the i r center , the anaerob i c
wa t e r in these l agoons is m i xed and aera t - d i ges t i on process of t he sept i c t ank and ,
ed by sma l l s t reams of a i r tha t are pumped a round the i r ver t i ca l per i me t er , t he f i l ter ing
t hrough we i gh t ed p l ast i c tubes by re l at i ve- process of t he l each i ng pi t (F i gure 710-10) .
ly sma l l compressors . The i r on l y d i sadvan t age is that , l i ke any
o ther soi l i nf i l t rat i on mechan i sm ( l each i ng
3 . 5 O t he r Sewage D i sposa l
bed , l each i ng f i e ld, l each i ng t rench , l each-
A l t e rna t i ves
i ng pi t , e t c .), t hey wi l l con t am i na t e ground-
M i sce l l aneous a l t erna t i ves are usua l l y l imi t - wa t e r w i t h pa t hogens , unox i d i zed put resc i -
ed to s i tes whe r e e i ther the d i sposa l of nor - b l es , ammon i a , and organ i c phospha t es
ma l amoun t s of was t ewa t e r or a supp l y of un l ess there is an adequa t e zone o f unsa t -
adequa t e amoun t s of wa t e r are no t feas i -
b l e. These i nc l ude compos t i ng toi l ets, h i gh-
t echno l ogy rec i rcu l a t i ng sys t ems , and ho l d-
i ng t anks .
A numbe r of a l t erna t i ves are ava i l ab l e for sewage d i sposa l . Se l ec t i on of a par t i cu l ar
Compos t i ng To i l e ts: me t hod depends on l oca t i on , geohydro l og i c cond i t i ons , loca l codes , and dens i t y of
deve l opmen t .
At one ex t reme , such l i mi ted s i tes have
been dea l t w i th by a comb i na t i on of s i mp l e 1 . Connec t i on to an ex i st i ng mun i c i pa l sys t em is typ i ca l l y the l east comp l ex me t hod
ac t i ons6such as us i ng an o l d- f ash i oned p i t and may be manda t ed by loca l of f i c i a ls, a l though thi s may not be the l east cost l y or
to i l et (or ou t house ) or a compos t i ng to i l et the mos t env i ronment a l l y des i rab l e a l terna t i ve .
(an i ns i de ou thouse ) , t ak i ng l aundry ou t to
a comme r c i a l fac i l i ty, and no t us i ng 2 . Sys t ems may serve i nd i v i dua l si tes, or ne i ghborhoods i f l arger c l uster sys t ems are
ga rbage gr i nders . Unde r such cond i t i ons , used . Any t ype of i nd i v i dua l on-s i te approach is l i ke ly to be much l ess expens i ve
wa t e r use and was t ewa t e r genera t i on in a than a c l uster sys t em, due to the e l i mi na t i on of p i pe l i nes , pump i ng stat ions , and
manho l es .
res i dence can be reduced abou t 75 percent ,
pa t hogens can be kept ou t of the was t e -
3 . The mos t e f fect i ve , econom i ca l , and env i ronment a l l y sa f e me t hod for d i spos i ng of
wa t e r s t ream, and was t ewa t e r t rea t men t
was t ewa t e r is the s l ow f i l t rat ion of the was t ewa t er through soi l . Ind i v i dua l on-s i te
fac i l i t i es can be kep t sma l l and s i mp l e .
d i sposa l can be accommoda t ed on l y i f adequa t e space , permeab i l i ty and dep th to
Howeve r , i t shou l d be no t ed tha t bo t h l oca l
groundwa t e r ex i st .
perm i t s and mor t gages for such fac i l i t i es
are d i f f i cu l t i f no t i mposs i b l e to ob t a i n . 4 . In t erms of cost , sept i c sys t ems are usua l l y the l eas t -expens i ve sma l l syst ems , hav i ng
no mach i nery , no energy i nputs , and no requ i rement s for secur i ty , regu l ar ma i nt e-
Rec i rcu l a t i ng Sys t ems :
nance , or f requent i nspec t i on .
At the o ther ex t reme , sys t ems have been
deve l oped tha t a l l ow norma l wash i ng , 5 . Package p l ants are aerob i c sys t ems tha t have spec i a l app l i cab i l i ty whe r e space and
f l ush i ng , e t c ., w i t hou t norma l wa t e r sup- s i te cond i t i ons are cons t ra i ned . They are m i n i a ture vers i ons of mun i c i pa l sewage
p l i es or norma l was t ewa t e r d i scharges ; the t rea tment p l ants . They typ i ca l l y requ i re per i od i c pump i ng to remove so l ids .
sys t ems accomp l i sh th i s by recyc l i ng and
O t rea t i ng washwa t e r w i th i n the bu i l d i ng , 6 . Pass i ve l agoons , are l arge sha l l ow ponds [0.6 to 1 .5 m (2 to 5 f t ) deep] aera t ed by
1 and t hen us i ng the f i l tered washwa t e r for na tura l processes . They are common l y used in very rura l areas whe re adequa t e
_
s space is ava i l ab l e and whe re odor nu i sance is not a concern . Mechan i ca l l y aera t ed
to i l et f l ush i ng , e t c . These sys t ems are very
l agoons are used on s i tes tha t requ i re pos i t i ve odor cont ro l .
cos t l y and comp l ex , and t hey requ i re i
0) unusua l amoun t s of space w i th i n the bu i l d-
g i ngs . 7 . For severe l y cons t ra i ned s i tes whe re no d i scharge to the env i ronmen t can be permi t -
ted , was t es can be dra i ned to a ho l d i ng t ank [of up to 19 000 L (5000 ga l ) ] for per i -
Ho l d i ng Tanks : od i c pump i ng .

N For severe l y cons t ra i ned s i tes whe r e no d i s- 8 . Cesspoo l s are a l ow cost t echn i que for very sma l l sys t ems [up to 375 or 575 L (100

0 charge to the env i ronmen t can be perm i t - or 150 ga l ) per cesspoo l per day] or for sys t ems w i th i nt ermi t t ent use . They requ i re

N ted , was t es can be dra i ned to a ho l d i ng su i tab l e soi l s and a wa t er t ab l e at l east 3 m (10 f t ) deep .
t ank [of up to 19 000 L (5000 ga l ) ] for per i -
 720 - 7

ura t ed soi l be t ween the bo t t om of the inf i l -

t ra t i on mechan i sm and the groundwa t e r .
Th i s unsa tura t ed soi l is essent i a l for the for -
ma t i on of a b i o l og i ca l l y ac t i ve f i l ter and for
the ox i da t i on o f e f f l uent s . ( In the n i ne-
t een th cen tury i t was no t ed tha t i f
cesspoo l s we r e dug down i nto sa tura t ed
soi ls, the cesspoo l s wou l d have a h i gh inf i l -
t rat i ve capac i t y as a resu l t , and so, whe r e
poss i b l e , mos t new sys t ems we r e de l i ber -
a t e l y ex t ended down i nto groundwa t e r .
Th i s approach caused d i sease and even tu-
a l l y ea rned a bad repu t a t i on for al l
cesspoo l s .)

4 . 0 DES I GN OF SEPT I C TANKS

AND LEACH I NG SYSTEMS

4 .1 App l i ca t i ons

Sept i c t anks and l each i ng f i e l ds are the

mos t econom i ca l , adapt ab l e , t roub l e- f ree ,
and genera l l y accep t ed f orm of t rea tmen t
and d i sposa l su i t ab l e for sma l l and med i -
um-s i ze sewage d i sposa l sys t ems , i .e . , up to
abou t 57 000 L (15 , 000 ga l ) per day. They
can be adap t ed to a grea t range o f si tes,
i nc l ud i ng s l ow l y pe rmeab l e si l ts and re l a-
t i ve l y h i gh wa t e r t ab l es .

F i gure 720-11 shows a sec t i on t hrough a

typ i ca l i nsta l l at i on . The key s i t i ng requ i re-
men t for any soi l d i sposa l sys t em is an ade -
qua t e dep t h of unsa tura t ed soi l be t ween
the e f f l uent l each i ng dev i ce and the wa t e r
t ab l e . St a t e and loca l requ i remen t s vary , 1
to 1 .2 m (3 to 4 f t ) be i ng typ i ca l . No t e tha t
the sys t em can have very l i t t le s l ope , as l i t -
t l e as 150 mm (6 in) across the l ength of
the sys t em .

For s i tes w i th h i gher wa t e r tab l es , many

j ur i sd i c t i ons wi l l a l l ow sept i c t ank e f f l uent
to be pumped to a mounded l each i ng f i e ld
(F i gure 720-12) . Whe r e the under l y i ng
soi l s are pe rmeab l e (even t hough t hey are
sa tura t ed) , th i s is an accep t ab l e approach .
Whe r e the under l y i ng soi l s are no t pe rme -
ab l e ( rock or c l ay) , there is l i ke l y to be seep-
age a t t he toe of the mound , a cond i t i on
unaccep t ab l e in mos t j ur i sd i c t i ons . a
s
For s i tes w i th l ower wa t e r tab l es , par t i c- O
u l ar l y whe r e the l and s l opes steep l y , some
j ur i sd i c t i ons wi l l a l l ow the use of l each i ng
pi ts in p l ace o f l each i ng t renches or l each-
i ng beds (F i gure 720-13) .
In areas whe r e l each i ng pi ts are no t
a l l owed , or whe r e a hi l l s ide s i te is under l a i n
w i th i mpe rmeab l e ma t er i a l s , sha l l ow l each-
i ng t renches are poss i b l e , but t hey mus t be
des i gned t o preven t a t i l ted d i st r i but i on box
(or d i st r i but i on tee) f rom d i rec t i ng t oo
much f l ow to any one t rench . F i gure 720- N
14 shows t wo su i t ab l e l ayout s for such
 720 - 8

a l , l oca l i zed dea t h of the bac t er i a l s l i me ,

wh i ch perm i t s sma l l , shor t - l i ved break -
t hroughs o f unt rea t ed e f f l uent . Prot ec t i on
aga i ns t these occas i ona l break t hroughs is
usua l l y prov i ded by se t t i ng the l each i ng
fac i l i t i es back some 15 or 30 m (50 or 100
f t ) f rom we l l s and sur f ace wa t ers , and pro-
t ec t i on aga i ns t the n i t ra te con t am i na t i on o f
dr i nk i ng wa t e r is prov i ded by l i mi t i ng the
dens i t y of deve l opmen t . (Re f er to Sec t i on
710 : Wa t e r Supp l y , for mor e i n forma t i on .)

Ma i n t enance :

The ma i n t enance of sept i c t anks is l i mi ted

to (1) i n f requent pump i ng of the sept i c
t ank to r emove accumu l a t ed nondegr ad-
ab l e so l i ds (sand , paper , l aundry l int , e t c .)
and (2) rest i ng of the l each i ng fac i l i ty.

Recommenda t i ons for f requency o f sep-

t i c t ank pump i ng vary , t he need be i ng a
func t i on of the t ank i s s i ze and i ts usage .
The need for pump i ng shou l d be accom-
moda t ed in the des i gn and l oca t i on of a
sept i c t ank . Loca l boa rds of hea l th in the
Un i t ed St a t es requ i re tha t sept i c t ank l oca-
t i ons be c l ear l y ma r ked and be access i b l e to
pump t rucks . Beyond this, i t is i mpor t an t to
recogn i ze t he f o l l ow i ng cons i dera t i ons
regard i ng pump t rucks :

1 . Mos t pump t rucks car ry hoses on l y 20

to 30 m (70 to 100 f t ) l ong , a l though
some car ry hoses up to 60 m (200 f t )
l ong .

2 . A l t hough mos t pump t rucks canno t

pump sept i c t anks whose tops are
mor e than 3 m (10 f t ) be l ow the e l e-
va t i on of the t ruck , some spec i a l
pump t rucks can l i f t up to 9 m (30 f t ) .
As a genera l ru l e the shor t er the hose ,
cond i t i ons . No t e tha t t he l each i ng t renches and des t roy some pa t hogens . Howeve r ,
t he h i gher t he l i f t . Check w i th loca l
are hor i zont a l , fo l l ow i ng the contours , and none of these l at ter e f f ec ts is i mpor t an t to
exper t s to con f i rm wha t s t andards are
tha t each t rench is l oaded w i th the over - the overa l l was t e d i sposa l ob j ec t i ve .
r ecommended for a spec i f i c pro j ec t .
f l ow f rom h i gher ones . No d i st r i but i on box
The e f f l uent f rom t he sept i c t ank is r i ch
is used . The need to rest a l each i ng fac i l i ty per i -
in d i sso l ved put resc i b l e organ i cs , ammon i a ,
od i ca l l y has been we l l documen t ed in
4 .2 Theory organ i c phospha t es , suspended organ i c
recent years but is usua l l y not prov i ded for
par t i c l es , and pa t hogens and is of f ens i ve l y
in l each i ng fac i l i ty des i gn . I ts bas i s is tha t
Pr i ma r y Func t i ons: odorous . When th i s e f f l uent is app l i ed to
the l ong- t erm con t i nuous l oad i ng o f sept i c
t!f unsa tura t ed soi l (or to a sand f i l ter ) , it s t i m-
Sept i c t anks are ba f f l ed cont a i ners tha t t ank e f f l uent on t o soi l or sand wi l l resu l t in
u l a t es the grow t h of a bac ter i a l s l i me on
O serve three pr i mary func t i ons : They (1) t rap a gradua l f i l l ing of the soi l pores w i th f er -
the soi l par t i c l es . Th i s s l i me ac t s as a very
s grease and f l oa t i ng so l i ds on the top of rous su l f i de par t i c l es and pe rhaps a l so w i t h
e f f ec t i ve f i l ter , phys i ca l l y t rapp i ng the sus-
sewage f l ows , (2) a l l ow mos t heavy so l i ds ce l l u l ose f i bers ( f rom pape r and l aundry
pended par t i c l es and b i o l og i ca l l y d i ges t i ng
( i nc l ud i ng pape r produc t s and l aundry l int ) l int ) and grease . Tak i ng a l each i ng fac i l i ty
put resc i b l e organ i cs and ammon i a . The
to set t l e ou t o f the sewage f l ows to the of f - l i ne and a l l ow i ng i t to rest for a f ew
s l i me a l so des t roys pa t hogens and odors ,
t ank bo t t om , and (3) perm i t bac t er i a l mon t hs wi l l a l l ow the c l ogg i ng ma t er i a l s to
and i t conver t s the organ i c phospha t es i nto
decompos i t i on of put resc i b l e so l i ds i nto decay by na tura l processes .
i norgan i c phospha t es , a f orm wh i ch can
s i mp l e so l ub l e compounds for d i sposa l w i th e i ther prec i p i t a t e ou t of so l ut i on or adsorb In order to t ake a l each i ng fac i l i ty of f l i ne
the e f f l uent wa t e rs . They a l so prec i p i t a t e to soi l par t i c l es . (except for seasona l uses) , a second , a l ter -
some i norgan i c chem i ca l s out o f the l iquid,
na t e l each i ng fac i l i ty shou l d be ava i l ab l e .
conve r t some organ i c ma t er i a l s i nto The resu l t i ng f i l tered e f f l uent is re l at i ve-
Howeve r , s i nce t he or i g i na l l each i ng fac i l i ty
me t hane gas (wh i ch ven t s of f t hrough the ly harm l ess excep t for (1) i ts h i gher con-
N wi l l func t i on we l l for 20 years in th i s regard ,
i nf l ow sewe r to the house p l umb i ng stack) , cent ra t i ons of n i t ra tes and (2) an occas i on-
 720 - 9

i t is not necessary to bu i l d a second l each-

i ng fac i l i ty unt i l the need becomes appar -
ent . Proper s i te des i gn wou l d in mos t cases
requ i re : (1) l ayout for t wo para l l e l sys t ems ,
(2) ini t ia l cons t ruc t i on of on l y one , and (3)
prov i s i on for access o f cons t ruc t i on equ i p-
men t to the second s i te .
F i gure 720-15 shows t he overa l l l ayout
of a sept i c t ank / l each i ng f i e ld fac i l i ty w i t h
para l l e l f i e lds and a sw i t ch i ng va l ve .

NOTE OF CAUT I ON : Mos t codes , espe -

c i a l l y for l arger sys t ems , requ i re a l t erna t i ng
l each i ng fac i l i t i es f ed by a l t erna t i ng dos i ng
s i phons . Whe r e requ i red , they mus t be
used , bu t t hey do not prov i de t he l ong-
t e rm rest i ng requ i red for remova l of soi l
c l ogg i ng and are not a subst i tut e for the
second l each i ng fac i l i ty r ecommended
here i n . For l ong- t erm on-s i t e sys t em v i ab i l -
i ty, a para l l e l sys t em for l ong- t erm a l t erna-
t i on wi l l st i l l be necessary .

4 . 3 S i z i ng and De t a i l s : Sep t i c Tanks

S i z i ng:

Sept i c t anks are ord i nar i l y s i zed to ho l d 1 to

2 days ave rage sewage f l ow, the l arger
rat io for sma l l er bu i l d i ngs such as houses ,
and the sma l l er ra t i o for l arger sys t ems .
Loca l code requ i remen t s vary , but the spe -
c i f i c s i ze is no t cruc i a l . In genera l , l arger
t anks wi l l l i ke l y requ i re l ess f requen t pump -
i ng .

Tab l e 720-1 shows es t i ma t ed sewage

f l ows for var i ous genera tors . For spec i f i c
f l ows in any loca l i ty, check loca l codes .

Des i gn De t a i l s :
Rega rd i ng the des i gn of the t ank , shape
and s i ze are re l a t i ve l y un i mpor t an t . F i gure 7 . Through vent i l a t i on to a l l ow gas
720-16 shows a typ i ca l 3 785 L (1 , 000 ga l ) f l ows f rom the l each i ng f i e ld to vent
t ank made by a precas t concre t e produc t s of f t hrough t he bu i l d i ng vent st ack
company . Essent i a l charac t er i st i cs i nc l ude :
F i gure 720-17 shows a typ i ca l 56 775 L
1 . A re l at i ve l y deep shape to a l l ow so l i ds (15 , 000 ga l ) t ank . I t has t he same essent i a l
and greases to separa t e ver t i ca l l y f ea tures as the 3 785-L (1 , 000-ga l ) t ank ,
but i t uses p i pe t ees i ns t ead of concre t e
2 . A deep l y ba f f l ed out l e t to dr aw l i qu i ds inl et and out l e t baf f l es , and i t can be sup- a
f rom m i d-dep t h p l i ed w i th an i nt ermed i a t e ba f f l e to prov i de
O
3 . A ba f f l ed in l et to keep grease f rom a se t t l i ng , or c l ar i f i cat ion, t ank at i ts out l e t a
p l ugg i ng the in l et end . For deta i l s and spec i f i ca t i ons in any
loca l i ty , con t ac t l oca l precas t concre t e
4 . Pos i t i ve drop for the i nf l uent , a l so to produc t s supp l i ers .
preven t p l ugg i ng of the inl et N
4 .4 S i z i ng and De t a i l s : Leach i ng g
5 . Access ho l es for c l ear i ng c l ogs f rom a
Fac i l i t i es
the in l et and out l e t
N
6 . Access for the pump i ng of bo t t om S i z i ng: N
sed i men t s Leach i ng fac i l i t i es are ord i nar i l y s i zed to
expec t ed sewage f l ows and soi l permeab i l -
i t ies . Loca l codes g i ve i nst ruc t i on on t ech- N
n i ques for measur i ng soi l permeab i l i t y and
 720- 1 0
for s i z ing l each i ng faci l i t ies . Each jur isdi c-
Tab l e 720-1 . QUANT I T I ES OF SEWAGE FLOWS t ion has i ts own me thod , and loca l codes
usua l l y mus t be sat i sf i ed or exceeded .
Ga l l ons per person per day
Types of es t ab l i shment s (un l ess otherw i se not ed) The typ i ca l procedure is to d ig one (or
more ) sma l l -d i ame t er ho l es [100 to 300
Ai rpor ts (per passenger ) 5
mm (4 to 12 in)] to the depth of the pro-
Apar tments , mul t ipl e fami l y (per resident ) 60 posed l each i ng syst em, f i l l the ho l e w i th 0 .3
Bathhouses and sw i mm i ng poo l s 10 m (1 f t) of wa ter , keep the wa t er l eve l sta-
b l e for a spec i f i ed per i od of t i me , and then
Camps :
Const ruct ion, semi permanent 50
measure the ver t i ca l drop of the wa t er sur -
Day (wi th no mea l s served) 15 f ace in the ho l e dur i ng another spec i f i ed
Luxur y 100 per i od of t i me ( typi ca l l y 30 mi nut es) . The
Resor ts, day and night , wi th l imi ted p lumb ing 50 rate of fal l , ca l l ed the perco l at i on rate (or
Campground wi th cent ral comfor t faci l i t ies 35
per t rate) , is then ent ered in a tab l e prov i d-
Cot tages and sma l l dwe l l ings wi th seasona l occupancy 50 ed by the code wh i ch spec i f i es a cor re-
Count ry c lubs (per resident member ) 100
spond i ng s i ze of l each i ng faci l i ty in t erms of
square me t ers ( feet ) of l each i ng area per
Count ry c lubs (per nonres ident member present ) 25 l i ter (ga l lon) of was t ewa t er or per bed-
Dwe l l ings : room . Th i s numbe r is then used to s i ze the
Board inghouses 50 bo t tom area of the l each i ng t renches or
Addi t iona l for nonres ident boarders 10 beds , or the comb i na t i on of ver t i ca l and
Luxury residences and estates 150
Mul t ipl e- fami ly apar tments 60 hor i zonta l sur faces of the t renches up to
Roomi ng houses 40 the inver ts of the d i st r ibut ion p ipes , or
Single- fami ly houses 75 some other parame t er (e .g ., 100 percent of
Factor ies (gal lons per person per shi ft , exc lusive of indust r ial waste) 35
the ver t i ca l sur faces p l us 50 percent of the
bo t tom sur face) , as spec i f i ed by code .
H i ghway rest area (per person) 5
I t mus t be recogn i zed that many (or
Hote l s wi th pr ivate baths ( two persons per room) 60
mos t ) of these requ i rement s have l i t t le or
Hote l s wi thout pr ivate baths 50 no bas i s e i ther in sc i ent i f i c ana l ys i s of l each-
Inst i tut ions other than hospi ta ls (per person) 125 i ng sys t em hydrau l i cs or in exper i ence w i th
Hospi ta l s (per bed) 250+ wha t actua l l y has worked hi stor i ca l l y in the
Laundr i es, se l f -serviced (gal lons per washing, i .e ., per customer ) f i e ld . Consequent l y , a des i gn that mee t s
50
the loca l code is no guarant ee that the sys-
Mob i l e home parks (per space) 250 t em wi l l per form sat i sfactor i l y .
Mote l s wi th bath, toi let , and k i tchen faci l i t ies (per bed space) 50
The des i gner shou l d not e the fo l l ow i ng :
Mote l s (per bed space) 40
1 . Except for the f i nest -gra i ned soi l s
Picnic parks (toi let wastes only, per picnicker) 5
(i .e ., c l ayey si l t and c l ays) , i t is the per -
Picnic wi th bathhouses , showers , and f lush toi lets (per picnicker) 10 meab i l i ty of the bacter i a l s l imes gen-
era ted in the soi l by the sewage i tsel f ,
Restaurants wi th toi let faci l i t ies (per pat ron) 10
W i thout toi let faci l i t ies (per pat ron) 3 not the permeab i l i ty of the soi ls, tha t
Wi th bars and cocktai l lounge (addi t ional quant i ty per pat ron) 2 l imi ts e f f l uent absorpt i on .
Schoo l s : 2 . Perco l at i on tests y i e l d resul ts in cen-
Boarding (per pup i l ) 100 t i me ters ( inches) of inf i l t rat ion per
Day, wi th cafeter ia, gymnas i ums , and showers (per pup i l ) 25
Day, wi th cafeter ia but no gymnas i ums or showers (per pup i l ) 20
hour , but the permeab i l i ty of the bac-
Day, wi thout cafeter ia, gymnas i ums , or showers (per pup i l ) 15 ter ial s l i me is in f ract ions of mi l l i me-
ters ( inch) per day. As a resul t , mos t
Servi ce stat ions (per vehicle) 10
codes use a factor of sa fety of abou t
Stores (per toi let room) 400 100 to compensa t e .
O
a Theaters :
Dr ive- in (per car space) 3 . In the Un i t ed States , l each i ng sys t ems
s 5
Mov i e (per audi tor ium seat ) 5 des i gned accord i ng to i nadequa t e
codes of ten are not l oaded at the
Trai lers wi thout individua l baths and sewer (per person) 50
max i mum f l ow rates poss ib l e f rom
O
g Trai lers wi th individua l bath uni ts, sewer connect ion (per trai ler) 100 the bu i l d i ngs they serve ; i .e ., a three-
Workers: bedroom dwe l l i ng uni t that cou l d
Const ruct ion (per person per shi f t , at camps) 50 serve f i ve, six, or seven peop l e usua l -
Day (school or of f ices per person per shi f t) 15 ly serves on l y three peop l e . At three
Source : EPA, Manua l of Wa t e r Supp l y Sys t ems , U .S . Gove rnmen t Pr i nt i ng Of f i ce , Wash i ngton , D .C ., 1973 peop l e per dwe l l i ng uni t , typ i ca l
code-des i gned l each i ng sys t ems suf -
f i ce ; at six peop l e per uni t , the same
N des i gn fai ls .
 720 - 1 1

4 . Ef f l uent does no t perco l a t e i nto t he

soi l at the ra te a t wh i ch i t is app l i ed ;
i nst ead , i t ponds up , f i l l ing the coarse
d i st r i but i on med i a unt i l the ra te of
inf i l t rat ion ma t ches the ra t e of ef f lu-
ent app l i ca t i on .

5 . The max i mum s t eady-s t a t e l ong- t erm

absorpt i on capac i t y o f the bac ter i a l
s l i me in a l each i ng fac i l i ty for ord i nary
sept i c t ank e f f l uent is abou t 0 .19
L / m 2 (112 ga l / f t2 ) per day regard l ess
of whe t he r t he inf i l t rat i ve sur f ace is
ver t i ca l or hor i zont a l .

6 . The permeab i l i t y of t he s l i me appears

to be i nverse l y propor t i ona l to the
nut r i ent concent ra t i on of the e f f l uent ;
thus , a v i gorous wa t e r conserva t i on
progr am w i t hou t a cor respond i ng
reduc t i on in organ i c l oad i ng wi l l have
no l ong- t erm bene f i t . ( I t wi l l appea r
to wor k for 2 to 3 mon t hs .)
F i gure 720 - 18 shows the key charac t er -
ist i cs of a l each i ng t rench sys t em . The sys-
t em i nc l udes bo t h an ini t ia l l each i ng area
and space for future cons t ruc t i on of an
a l t erna t i ve l each i ng area. Each shou l d be
s i zed for app l i ca t i on of not mor e t han 0 .19
L / m 2 (1 / 2 ga l / f t 2 ) per day , measur ed ove r
t he ent i re t rench sur f ace be l ow the i nver t .

Des i gn De t a i l s :
The d i st r i but i on of the sept i c t ank e f f l u-
en t can be e i ther by a d i st r i but i on box or by
p i pe t ees . The d i st r i but i on box is t rad i t i on-
a l , and a l t hough i t has been f ound to of f er
no advan t age in stud i es by the U .S . Federa l
Hous i ng Adm i n i s t ra t i on , i t is mor e l i ke l y to
Sept i c t anks and l each i ng f i e l ds are the mos t econom i ca l , adapt ab l e , t roub l e- f ree , and be accep t ed by conserva t i ve pub l i c of f i c i a l s .
genera l l y accept ed f orm of t rea tment and d i sposa l for sma l l and med i um- s i ze sewage The d i st r i but i on box can be conver t ed i nto
d i sposa l sys t ems [57 000 L (15 , 000 ga l ) per day] . a d i vers i on dev i ce be t ween para l l e l l each-
i ng sys t ems by i nser t i ng a s i mp l e boa rd (of
1 . The key s i t ing requ i rement for any sept i c sys t em is an adequa t e dep th of unsa tura t -
rot -proof ma t er i a l ) d i agona l l y i nto the box
ed soi l be t ween the e f f l uent l each i ng dev i ce and the wa t er tab l e [ typi ca l l y 1 to 1 .2
and chang i ng i ts pos i t i on as needed . A
m (3 to 4 f t ) ] . Many jur i sd i ct ions wi l l a l l ow mounded l each i ng f i e lds for s i tes w i th
p l ast i c d i vers i on va l ve , a newe r and nea t er
h i gh wa t e r t ab l es (F i gure 720-12) , and l each i ng p i ts or l each i ng t renches for hi l ly
s i tes (F i gures 720-13 and 720-14) . dev i ce , can be used for the same purpose .
i
The l ayout of the sys t em can t ake wha t -
2 . Prot ec t i on aga i nst break throughs of unt rea t ed e f f l uent is typ i ca l l y prov i ded by se t - eve r f orm f i ts t he si te, bu t a p l an tha t l ooks
t i ng the l each i ng fac i l i t ies back 15 to 30 m (50 to 100 f t ) f rom we l l s and sur f ace ra t i ona l and order l y (symme t r i ca l , e t c .) is
wa t ers . Prot ec t i on aga i nst n i t rate cont am i na t i on of dr i nk i ng wa t er is prov i ded by mor e l i ke l y to be approved . Tab l e 720 - 2 O
l imi t ing the dens i ty of deve l opmen t . Q
shows typ i ca l se tback requ i remen t s for var -

0
s
i ous par ts of the sys t em . These va ry f rom
3 . Sept i c t anks requ i re i nf requent pump i ng to r emove accumu l a t ed nondegradab l e
code to code .
so l ids (sand , paper , l aundry l int , e t c .) . Si te p l ann i ng shou l d ensure access to t anks by
pump t rucks .
4 . 5 Gr ease Tr aps
4. Leach i ng sys t ems shou l d func t i on we l l for abou t twen t y years be fore requ i r i ng rest - For res t aurant s and o ther f ood prepara t i on
i ng . Si te p l ann i ng shou l d prov i de for the l ayout for t wo para l l e l sys t ems , a l though areas , a separa t e grease t rap be t ween
on l y one may be cons t ruc t ed ini t ial ly. N
k i t chen dra i ns ( those w i t hou t ga rbage
gr i nders) and sept i c t anks is of t en requ i red .
0
N
5 . Leach i ng fac i l i t ies are typ i ca l l y s i zed to expec t ed sewage f l ows and soi l permeab i l i - The des i gn of a grease t rap is i dent i ca l to
t i es . Loca l codes out l i ne t echn i ques for measur i ng soi l permeab i l i t y and for s i z i ng t he des i gn o f a sept i c t ank excep t tha t i ts
l each i ng fac i l i t ies .
 720- 12
out l e t p i pe is p l aced much l owe r in the t ank
t o prov i de max i mum vo l ume for the
grease .

F i gure 720-19 shows a typ i ca l precas t 3

785 L (1 , 000 ga l ) t rap . The t rap s i ze is 473
L (125 ga l ) per 50 pa t rons (U .S . Pub l i c
Hea l th Serv i ce) .

4 . 6 Dos i ng Chambe r s

For l arge sys t ems , many codes requ i re tha t

sept i c t ank e f f l uent not be a l l owed to t r i ck-
l e i nto t he l each i ng fac i l i ty at the ra te at
wh i ch i t is d i sp l aced f rom the sept i c t ank by
new i nf l ows , bu t tha t i t i nst ead be co l l ec t -
ed in a dos i ng chambe r for s l ug d i scharge
to the l each i ng fac i l i ty v i a one or t wo au to-
ma t i c s i phons every 3 or 4 hours . I t is
c l a i med tha t th i s procedure resu l ts in a
mor e even d i st r i but i on of e f f l uent w i th i n
the l each i ng fac i l i ty and tha t it a l l ows t he
sys t em to rest , i .e ., a l l ows the soi l to reaer -
a t e be t ween doses .

Unfor tuna t e l y , none of th i s is t rue in

mos t cases , s i nce in a typ i ca l l each i ng fac i l -
i ty the e f f l uent ponds up , crea t i ng a mor e
or l ess cons t an t unde rground poo l tha t
ex t ends fu l l - t i me across the ful l w i d t h and
l eng th of the fac i l i ty.

Whe r e l each i ng is to be accomp l i shed in

severa l separa t e l each i ng fac i l i t i es a t mor e
t han one l eve l , dos i ng s i phons and d i st r i b-
ut i on boxes can be used advan t ageous l y to
ba l ance the l oad i ng o f the var i ous par ts .
F i gure 720-20 shows a typ i ca l precas t dos-
i ng chambe r . No t e tha t the chambe r is
des i gned to prov i de a max i mum o f vo l ume
w i th a m i n i mum of head l oss. The s i phons
themse l ves have no mov i ng par ts .

F i gure 720-21 shows a p l an of the pr i n-

c ipa l e l emen t s of a l arge sys t em .

4 . 7 Re l a t i onsh i p o f On - S i t e Sys t ems

t o Tr ees and Pav i ng

Trees:
Rega rd i ng the re l a t i onsh i p of d i sposa l sys-
t ems to t rees , not e tha t the e f f l uent in and
s near t he l each i ng fac i l i t i es, the sept i c t ank ,
a
O
and the p i pe l i nes be t ween are anaerob i c
and hence not a t t rac t i ve to mos t p l ant
roots , w i th the poss i b l e excep t i on of such
t rees as l arch, w i l l ow , and a l der. The sewe r
p i pe be t ween the bu i l d i ng and the sept i c
t ank is not anaerob i c , howeve r , and can be
i nvaded and c l ogged by roo t s .
N Consequen t l y , excep t for the bu i l d i ng
N F i gur e 720 - 78 . Key e l emen t s o f a l each i ng t r ench sys t em . In Sec t i on A, the
sewe r p i pe , no spec i a l care need be g i ven
d i s t ance be t ween t renches shou l d be 3W (3 t i mes the w i d t h of the t rench) , or 2D (2
t i mes t he dep t h of the t rench) , wh i cheve r i s grea t er . The d i s t ance be t ween the p i pe and to the re l a t i onsh i p be t ween t rees and sep-
t i c on-s i t e sewage fac i l i t i es .
N the t op o f the t rench shou l d be 50 mm (2 in . ) .

h
 720 - 1 3

TABLE 720 -2 . Typ i ca l Se t back Requ i r emen t s

Ho r i zon t a l d i s t ance , m ( f t )

We l l or Wa t e r supp l y
Componen t o f sys t em suc t i on l i ne l i ne p r essu r e S t r eam Dwe l l i ng Prope r t y l i ne

Bu i l d i ng sewe r 15 (50) 3 (10) 15(50) - -

Sep t i c t ank 15 (50) 3 (10) 15(50) 1 . 5(5) 3 (10)

D i sposa l f i e l d and seepage 30000 ) 7 . 5(25) 15(50) 6(20) 1 .5 (5)

Seepage p i t 30000 ) 15(50) 15(50) 6(20) 3 (10)

Cesspoo l 45(150) 15(50) 15(50) 6(20) 4 .5 (15)

No t e: Th i s tab l e re fers to m i n i mum d i stances be t ween componen t s of sewage d i sposa l syst ems .

Pav i ng. commun i t i es i nc l ude l agoons or stab i l i za- sept i c t ank , i t re l i es ent i re l y on na tura l
t i on ponds and package p l ant s . processes and , w i t h f avorab l e topography ,
Rega rd i ng the re l a t i onsh i p be t ween d i spos-
on grav i t y f l ow. The so l i ds set t l e to t he bot -
al fac i l i t i es and pav i ng , some codes proh i b- 5 . 2 Lagoons t om and decompose anaerob i ca l l y (as in a
i t l each i ng fac i l i t i es unde r pavemen t s , oth-
sept i c t ank) , but the i r odor is con t a i ned and
ers perm i t t hem i f the l each i ng f i e lds i di st r i - The mos t econom i ca l and mos t t roub l e-
absorbed by the over l y i ng aera t ed wa t e r .
but i on p i pes are ven t ed , and st i l l others f ree o f these a l t erna t i ves are t he var i ous
f orms of l agoons . Bas i ca l l y , t he l agoon is a The m i nera l nut r i ent s re l eased in the
have no rest r i ct i ons . For heavy t raf f i c , p i pes decompos i t i on , toge ther w i th t he sun sh i n-
shou l d e i ther be adequa t e l y cove red w i th sha l l ow pond [0.6 to 1 .5 m (2 to 5 f t )
i ng on t he pond i s sur f ace , suppor t a v i gor -
roadbase ma t er i a l [e .g ., 0 .6 m (2 f t )] or be deep] , open to the sun and w i nd , used to
ous growt h o f a l gae . The a l gae produce
made of crush-proo f ma t er i a l s (cast i ron or re t a i n sewage for abou t a mon t h . L i ke the
precas t concre t e , e t c .) .

Vent s , whe r e requ i red , are typ i ca l l y ver -

t i ca l 100 mm (4 in) cas t - i ron p i pes a f f i xed
to t ees on t he ou t er ends of the l each i ng
p i pes , t opped w i th 180-degr ee bends , and
prot ec t ed f rom t raf f i c by a c l uster of bo l -
l ards or o ther t raf f i c cont ro l dev i ces .

5 . 0 AEROB I C SYSTEMS W I TH
SURFACE I NF I LTRAT I ON

5 .1 App l i ca t i on

As sept i c t ank / subsur f ace d i sposa l sys t ems

ge t l arger , the i r costs and space requ i re-
men t s i ncrease propor t i ona t e l y , w i th l i t t le
economy of sca l e . At some po i nt over 56
775 L (15 , 000 ga l ) per day , o t he r
approaches become compe t i t i ve . These
approaches i nc l ude not on l y the se t t l emen t
and d i ges t i on of t he suspended so l i ds in the
was t ewa t e r be fore i ts app l i ca t i on to the
l each i ng f i e lds, but a l so the remova l o f d i s-
so l ved organ i c compounds by b i o l og i ca l (A
processes . O
Q
The resu l t i ng e f f l uent can cont a i n as l i t -
t l e as 10 percent of the bac ter i a l nut r i ent s 0
of sept i c t ank e f f l uent and thus can be N
app l i ed to the soi l a t severa l t i mes the ra te g
prac t i ca l for sept i c t ank e f f l uent .
Fur t he rmore , because these a l t erna t e
O
processes are aerob i c ra ther t han sept i c , N
the i r e f f l uent norma l l y and theore t i ca l l y is
odor - f ree and thus can be app l i ed to sur -
f ace inf i l t rat ion beds as we l l as to subsur -
f ace f i l ters . A l t erna t i ves su i tab l e for sma l l er
N
 72 0 - 1 4

range , espec i a l l y s i nce the i r space requ i re-

men t s are subsur f ace .

F i gure 720-23 shows a schema t i c aera t -

ed l agoon sys t em . The aera t ed l agoon is
d i v i ded i nto t wo or mor e ponds so tha t ha l f
of the sys t em can be dra i ned and c l eaned
when the need ar i ses . On f avorab l e t opog-
raphy i t can be des i gned to wor k hydrau l i -
ca l l y, w i th no pumps . The on l y i nput s to t he
sys t em are the sewage i tse l f and com-
pressed a i r .

Ac tua l des i gn conf i gura t i ons o f l agoons

vary. Advan t age shou l d be made of ex i st -
i ng t opogr aphy whe r e poss i b l e ; s i nce there
is no mechan i ca l equ i pmen t to be i ncorpo-
ra t ed o ther t han the compressed- a i r l ines,
the ponds and beds can be any shape
des i red .

The l agoon can usua l l y be bu i l t of loca l -

l y ava i l ab l e or on-s i t e ma t er i a l s . Lagoons
can be con t a i ned by seeded ear then be rms
of c l ayey or s i l ty soi l s . I f s i ted so tha t t he
l agoon bo t t oms are a m i n i mum of 1 to 1 .2
m (3 to 4 f t ) above the l oca l wa t e r tab l e , no
ser i ous groundwa t e r con t am i na t i on is l i ke l y
a f t er the l agoons have been in use for a
per i od of t i me . Na tura l processes wi l l t end
to sea l the soi l w i th organ i c s l i mes .

5 . 3 Package P l an t s

Package p l ants , or pre f abr i ca t ed seconda ry

sewage t rea t men t p l ants , can accomp l i sh
the same e f f l uent qua l i ty as l agoons , usua l -
l y in l ess space , and w i th i n a bu i l d i ng i f
des i red . These sys t ems are mechan i ca l l y
oxygen ; th i s , a l ong w i t h the oxygen In reg i ons whe r e w i n t er f reez i ng does comp l ex , requ i re cons t an t ene rgy i nputs ,
absorbed by the ponds sur f ace , keeps the not occur , unaera t ed l agoons are usua l l y and mus t be regu l ar l y and compe t en t l y
uppe r l ayers o f the pond f resh and odor - odor - f ree , bu t in areas whe r e f reez i ng does ma i n t a i ned . In add i t i on , the U. S .
f ree . occur there wi l l be ser i ous odor gene ra t ed Env i ronmen t a l Prot ec t i on Agency has rec-
dur i ng t he tw i ce -a -year therma l turnovers ommended tha t they be pumped once or
The e f f l uent f rom the stab i l i za t i on pond tw i ce a yea r to r emove accumu l a t i ng b i o-
of the ponds .
is s i phoned of f the t op to a po l i sh i ng mass . I f not pumped , the b i omass can
l agoon ( abou t 1 day i s f l ow) and t hen dosed To cont ro l these turnovers and the i r over l oad the equ i pmen t or wash ou t i nto
on t o sand f i l ters a t ra t es up to 0 .95 L/ M2 (2 resu l t i ng odors , each l agoon can be very the inf i l t rat ion beds . Con t ac t a manu f ac t ur -
112 ga l / f t2) pe r day. gent l y m i xed w i th a l ow- ene rgy aera tor (a e rs represent a t i ve for spec i f i c deta i l s .
sma l l a i r compressor and a we i gh t ed po l y-
Th i s sys t em , l i ke sept i c sys t ems , requ i res e thy l ene t ube run i nto the l agoon to gener - In some j ur i sd i ct i ons , package p l ant s are
a l mos t no managemen t or ma i n t enance. I t e i ther no t a l l owed or mus t have overs i zed
a t e co l umns of bubb l es) . Th i s m i x i ng no t
mus t be f enced , howeve r , s i nce i t has sur - i nf i l t rat i on beds t o accommoda t e t he
on l y e f f ec t i ve l y cont ro l s the odors bu t
O f ace ponds and sewage on the ground sur - a l l ows t he pond t o be deepened t o 3 to 4 .5 washed ou t b i omass .
d f ace in var i ous s t ages of bene f i c i a t i on . The
s m (10 or 15 f t ) , fur ther reduc i ng space
ponds do have to be dra i ned and c l eaned requ i remen t s . 5 . 4 Subsur f ace Leach i ng
( l i ke sept i c t anks) a t i n f requent i nterva l s (up
Aerob i c sys t ems of any k i nd can be used
to 20 years) and the l each i ng beds do need The aera t ed l agoon sys t em is in al l o ther
b i n to be a l t erna t ed and rested , i f and when respec t s s i mi l ar to the pass i ve l agoon . w i th subsur f ace l each i ng beds , and t he
a l each i ng beds can be sma l l er t han t hose
they show s i gns o f c l ogg i ng .
F i gure 720-22 shows the overa l l space used for sept i c t ank e f f l uent . These subsur -
O Un l i ke sept i c t anks w i th subsur f ace f i l - requ i remen t s for sept i c l each i ng and aera t - f ace beds wou l d be i dent i ca l to those used
ters , t he l and used for l agoon sys t ems and ed l each i ng sys t ems for hous i ng c l usters o f w i th sept i c sys t ems , w i th the except i on of
sur f ace inf i l t rat ion canno t be used for o ther var i ous s i zes . No t e tha t sept i c sys t ems are s i ze .
purposes . qu i t e compe t i t i ve a t the l owe r end of the
N
 720- 1 5
1r
. " "N
SYSTEMS

For s i tes w i th l i mi ted absorpt i ve capac i t y

whe r e the usage is l i mi t ed to the grow i ng
season , i t is poss i b l e to d i spose of a h i gh
propor t i on of was t ewa t e r by evapot ransp i -
ra t i on . Th i s approach has been used for
summe r resor ts and as a seasona l a l t erna-
t i ve to d i scharge i nto s t reams .
NOTE : St reams in var i ous reg i ons have
seasona l var i a t i ons in the quant i t i es of f l ow .
For i ns t ance , s t reams in the eas t ern Un i t ed
St a t es have the l owes t ab i l i ty to d i l ut e
was t ewa t e r a t the he i ght of the grow i ng
season .

For evapo t ransp i ra t i on to wor k , the

e f f l uent mus t be we l l aera t ed so tha t p l ant
roots wi l l read i l y t ake up the l i qu i d . As a
consequence , evapo t ransp i ra t i on is no t
f eas i b l e w i th e f f l uent f rom sept i c sys t ems ,
but i t can wor k w i th any aerob i c e f f l uent .
The e f f l uent can be app l i ed by a numbe r o f
me t hods , i nc l ud i ng sub i r r i ga t i on , sur f ace
f l ood i ng , and spray i r r i ga t i on .

For sub i r r i ga t i on , the sys t em wou l d be

s i mi l ar to a sha l l ow t rench inf i l t rat ion sys-
t em for sept i c e f f l uent , but i t shou l d be
cons t ruc t ed as c l ose to the ground sur f ace
as poss i b l e . L i ke the subsur f ace d i sposa l o f
sept i c e f f l uent , the sub i r r i ga t i on me t hod
. does not pose any hazards to sur f ace use of
the l and .

For sur f ace f l ood i ng or spray i r r i gat i on,

cons i dera t i on mus t be g i ven to t he po t en-
t ial pa t hogen i c hazards of t he unf i l t ered
e f f l uent . The areas used for sur f ace i r r iga-
t i on are no t norma l l y ava i l ab l e for o t he r
uses , at l east dur i ng t he seasons in wh i ch
t hey are used for was t ewa t e r d i sposa l .
Crops tha t m i gh t be grown on the l and are
no t norma l l y used for human f ood .
Compa t i b l e l and uses and crops i nc l ude
game hab i t a t and hun t i ng grounds , forest
produc t s , and forage crops for horses . _

The app l i ca t i on ra t es for any evapo t ran- of

sp i ra t i on sys t em are a func t i on o f t empe ra -
ture , hours of sunsh i ne , w i nd ve l oc i ty and
dura t i on , ra infa l l , e t c . Al l these vary cons i d-
erab l y w i th the l oca t i on and the season ;
thus , any evapot ransp i ra t i on sys t em wi l l
requ i re care fu l cus t om des i gn to t he spec i f -
ic case . 3 .0

1 AEROB I C SYSTEMS W I TH t^
SURFACE WATER D I SCHARGE

The d i scharge of sewage to sur f ace wa t ers , N

whe t he r t rea t ed or unt rea t ed , is an anc i ent
 720- 1 6
For l and deve l opmen t p l ann i ng purpos-
es , space shou l d be prov i ded for some f orm
of d i ges t i on (a package p l ant or an aera t ed
l agoon) , for a sand f i l ter , and for some f orm
of den i t r i f i ca t i on for the f i l tered e f f l uent -
pe rhaps a second l agoon , sha l l ow and
weedy , 0 .6 to 1 m (2 to 3 f t ) deep . Ma r sh
areas are of t en cons i dered va l uab l e env i -
ronmen t a l resources and canno t be used as
a par t of the t rea t men t process .

REFERENCES

Bouma , l ., et a l . Soi l Absorp t i on of Sept i c

Tank Ef f l uent , I n f orma t i on C i rcu l ar 20 ,
Un i vers i t y o f W i scons i n , So i l Survey
D i v i s i on , Mad i son , W l , 1972 .

Bub l y , Dan i e l (ed .) . Dra f t Env i ronmen t a l

I mpac t St a t emen t , Was t ewa t e r Co l l ec t i on
and Tr ea t men t Fac i l i t i es , Sandw i ch ,
Massachuse t t s , U.S. Env i ronmen t a l
Prot ec t i on Agency , Reg i on l, Bos ton , MA ,
Sep t embe r 1981 .

Kropf , F. W., R. Laak , and K. A. Hea l ey.

" Equ i l i br i um Ope ra t i on of Subsur f ace
Absorp t i on Sys t ems , " Journa l of Wa t e r
Po l l ut i on Con t ro l Federa t i on , Sep t embe r
1977.
prac t i ce wh i ch has been w i de l y used cost ) of the common backyard l each i ng
because of i ts l ow cos t and ease of accom- f i e ld . Sa l va to , Joseph A. Env i ronmen t a l
p l i shmen t . As l ong as t he tota l d i scharge Eng i neer i ng and San i t a t i on , 3d ed ., W i l ey ,
In mos t areas of the Un i t ed Sta tes , in
was sma l l and sca t t ered and the vo l ume of New York , 1982 .
order to ob t a i n perm i t s for d i scharg i ng
the rece i v i ng wa t ers l arge , i t was cons i d-
ered accep t ab l e . sewage e f f l uent d i rec t l y i nto sur f ace wa t e rs
f rom new deve l opmen t s , the des i gner mus t U .S. Depa r t men t o f Hea l th , Educa t i on , and
Howeve r , as the d i scharges i ncreased in demons t ra t e tha t there are no f eas i b l e We l f are , Pub l i c Hea l th Serv i ce . Manua l o f
s i ze and in numbe r , the i r i mpac t s gr ew . In a l t erna t i ves i nc l ud i ng no ac t i on (e i ther
Sept i c Tank Prac t i ce , U.S . Gove rnmen t
an a t t emp t to reverse th i s t rend , t he ar t and f orego i ng the pro j ec t or s i t ing i t e l sewhere ) Pr i nt i ng Of f i ce , Wash i ng t on , DC , 1972.
sc i ence of san i t ary eng i neer i ng was i nvent - and tha t the t rea tmen t process wi l l produce
ed and var i ous f orms of sewage t rea t men t no s i gn i f i cant env i ronmen t a l l y adve rse
we r e deve l oped . Var i ous t rea tmen t t ech- i mpac t s on the rece i v i ng wa t ers ( i nc l ud i ng
n i ques app l i ed to l arge vo l umes o f mun i c i - the b i ochem i ca l e f f ec ts of ch l or i ne or o ther
pa l sewage , usua l l y on l i mi ted s i tes in con- d i s i nf ec t ants) . The degr ee and t ype of
ges t ed urban wa t er f ron t areas , have done t rea t men t for the e f f l uent wi l l depend in
much to ame l i ora t e the adverse e f f ec ts of l arge par t on the charac t er o f t he rece i v i ng
the wa t e r d i scharges , but these t echn i ques wa t ers , bu t the des i gner of a new pro j ec t
are far f rom per f ec t . Indeed , a l mos t no shou l d ant i c i pa t e much mor e ex t ens i ve
mun i c i pa l t rea t men t p l ant approaches the t rea tmen t than tha t usua l l y app l i ed at a
O
fl. overa l l t rea t men t e f f ec t i veness (or l ow mun i c i pa l t rea t men t p l ant .

g
a

N
ti
 SECT I ON j 7X! . . . .

Rec rea t i ona l

Wa t e r Bod i es

Con t r i bu tor :
Dan i e l Bub l y , P.E . , L . A . , A.I . C . P.
Bub l y Assoc i a t es , Inc .
Sha ron , Massachuse t t s
Graph i cs:
Ga r y M. F i shbeck
Rev i ewe rs :
Ma r k B . Da rno l d , P.E . ,
The Berksh i re Des i gn Group , Inc .
Nor t hamp t on , Massachuse t t s

Robe r t F. Fer rar i , P.E .

Fe r r a r i -At wood Eng i nee r i ng , Inc .
Prov i dence , Rhode I s l and

CONTENTS
1 . 0 Int roduc t i on Reservo i r Form
' O
m
2 . 0 Eva l ua t i ve Cr i t er i a for Recrea t i ona l Wa t e r Wa t e r shed Cons i dera t i ons r
Bod i es Cons t ruc t i on of Sma l l Dams
2 .1 Wa t e r Qua l i t y 3. 5 Excava t ed Ponds
2 .2 Wa t e r Leve l s Gene r a l
2 .3 S i de S l opes Wa t e r Supp l y and Qua l i t y
3 . 0 Sw i mm i ng Wa t e r s Re f erences
3 .1 Gene ra l n
3 .2 Sw i mm i ng Poo l s O
3 .3 Ponds and Lakes
3 . 4 St r eam I mpoundmen t s it
CID
Si te Se l ec t i on r
Wa t e r Supp l y V
Wa t e r Qua l i t y
 740 - 2
1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON Not e that da i ly f l owthrough, a key para- wa t er can be ma i nta i ned when wa ter
me ter in the des ign of mechan i ca l l y f i l tered levels fal l .
mpounded sur face wa ters are of ten va l - sw i mm i ng pools, is not appropr i ate to
ued for : 2 . For aesthet i c (i .e ., nonsw i mm i ng) rea-
de termi ne for ponds and l akes . They typi -
cal ly have far more wa t er per sw i mmer sons, wa t er bod i es that are expec ted
than the typica l l arge publ i c sw i mm i ng to lose a ma j or por t ion of the i r wa ter
1 . Sw i mm i ng and re l ated recreat ion dur i ng the summer shou ld be shaped
poo l .
as a sha l l ow bas in to suppor t a vege-
2 . Wi ldl i fe habi tat
tat i ve cover (i .e ., marsh , shrub
2 .0 EVALUAT I VE CR I TER I A FOR
3 . Aesthet i c (i .e ., visua l ) reasons swamp , etc .) to avo id revea l ing a
RECREAT I ONAL WATER muddy edge or bot tom .
Pr inc ipa l concerns in the des ign of recre- BOD I ES
at iona l wa t er bod i es are cont rol of (a) 2 .3 S i de S l opes
wa ter qual i ty, (b) wa ter leve l f luctuat ion, Wa t ers for recreat iona l use must mee t var -
and (c) edge t reatment . Each of these con- The act ion of waves wi l l eventua l l y erode
ious standards of qual i ty, appearance , and
cerns shou ld be addressed and spec i f ica l ly any pond embankmen t to a wavecut beach
ease of ma i nt enance .
incorporated into the pl ans and des igns for (except those heav i l y armored wi th stone ,
recreat iona l wa ter bod i es . Un l ess the wa t er 2 .1 Wa t e r Qua l i t y concrete , or meta l ) . The eventua l s lope of
body is l arge enough to establ ish zones , it the beach wi l l depend on the texture of the
is of ten not feasibl e to incorporate severa l 1 . In a publ i c hea l th sense , f resh wa ter soi l invo l ved . For instance, coarse sand wi l l
recreat iona l funct ions into one area . For used for sw i mm i ng shou ld approach form an approx i ma te 10 percent slope, and
instance, sw i mm i ng and boat i ng do not the qua l i ty standards used for dr ink- f iner sands a 5 percent s lope . The ver t ical
mi x . ing waters . extent of the eros ion wi l l approx i ma te the
he ight of waves genera ted on the pond .
Impoundment s des i gned pr imar i ly for 2 . In an aesthet i c sense , sw i mm i ng
waters shou ld be as t ransparent as Wave he ight is a funct ion of pond si ze, i ts
power and f lood cont rol tend to have shor t w i nd exposure , and other factors, inc luding
per iods of wa t er detent ion, i .e ., the i r annu- possibl e, inc luding be i ng f ree f rom
a lgae, weeds , organ i c det r i tus, and the si ze of boats and the relat ive exposure
al f l owthrough is l arger than the i r storage of the par t i cul ar reach of shore l ine .
capac i ty, hence the i r reta ined wa ter tends suspended si l ts and c l ays .
to be turbid and tact i lely unat t ract i ve . On 3 . In a publ i c safety sense , intens i ve l y F igure 740-1 shows the form of a wave-
the other hand, i mpoundment s des i gned cut beach, w i th 300 mm (1 ft) waves and a
used sw i mm i ng waters shou l d have
for wa t er storage (i .e ., wa t er supp l y and suf f ic ient t ransparency to faci l i tate stabl e wa t er level , on a 1 :5 s lope in coarse
l arge-sca l e i rr igat ion) tend to have long sand . Not e the steep drop that can form
rescue of drown i ng v i ct ims .
per iods of retent ion, and therefore the i r just be l ow the beach . On a steeper average
wa t er is more t ransparent and tact i lely 4 . For wi ldl i fe habi tat and sceni c va lues, slope, say 1 :3, or in f ine sand, the drop
more at t ract ive . any wa ter qua l i ty except the most wou l d be over 1 m (3 f t) deep and cou ld
ser ious l y pol luted wi l l be appropr i ate . const i tute a safety hazard for sw i mmers ,
Simi lar ly, reservoi rs that are sma l l wi th A diversi ty of wa ter body character i s- espec i a l l y chi ldren .
respect to the amount of wa t er drawn f rom t ics (i .e ., qual i ty, depth, temperature ,
them may have w i der var i at ions of wa ter Al ternat i ve shore l ine t reatments inc lude
and form) wi l l suppor t the greatest
levels . Th i s makes the shore l ines more di f f i - number of spec i es . r iprap, stone armor , and var ious types of
cul t to use for recreat iona l purposes and wa l l s . In each, cons iderat ion shou ld be
may af fect the aesthet i c va lues dur ing cer - 2 .2 Wa t e r Leve l s g i ven to the human usage of the sur round-
ta in seasons . Large reservoi rs tend to have ing area, inc luding ways to escape if any-
more stabl e wa t er levels wi th respect to 1 . For sw i mm i ng uses, wa ter cont rol sys- one happens to fal l into the wa t er.
N the i r s lower rates of w i thdrawa l and, there- t ems shou ld be des i gned so that lev-
fore, are more sui tabl e for recreat iona l uses. els can be ma i nta i ned dur ing dry sum- 3 .0 SW I MM I NG WATERS
O mer seasons, or so that access to the
m 3 .1 Genera l
r Two common a l ternat ives for sw i mm i ng
Q)
a inc lude :
1 . Sw i mm i ng pool s wi th :
a. F i l t rat ion to remove suspended
n mater i a l s
O
b . Algi c ides to cont rol a lgae

r c . Ch lor inat ion to cont rol bacter i a

U
2 . Ponds and l akes wi th :
a . Long storage t imes to set t le sus-
pended mater i a l s
0
b . Cont ro l of a l gae by cont rol l ing
wa tershed l and use and dra i nage
 740 - 3
c . Cont ro l of bac t er i a and v i ruses by
na tura l processes (e . g. , ma i n t a i n i ng
na tura l b i ot a , i nc l ud i ng preda tors)

The se l ec t i on of an a l t erna t i ve for sw i m-

m i ng depends on the purpose of the pro-
j ect , the necessary s i ze of the wa t e r body ,
and the par t i cu l ar amen i t i es of the s i te . For
sma l l sw i mm i ng areas , f i l tered, chem i ca l l y
t rea t ed sw i mm i ng poo l s are usua l l y the
mos t appropr i a t e , and they can be bu i l t
a l mos t anywhe r e . For l arger fac i l i t i es,
ponds or l akes are l i ke l y to be t he mos t
appropr i a t e , bu t the i r feas i b i l i ty is a
func t i on of hydro l og i c , geo l og i c , and topo-
graph i c oppor tun i t i es .

3 .2 Sw i mm i ng Poo l s
For sma l l res i dent i a l sw i mm i ng poo l s , a
var i e ty of des i gn a l t erna t i ves are poss i b l e ,
rang i ng f rom pre f abr i ca t ed aboveground
p l ast i c- l i ned me t a l cont a i ners to i n- the-
ground concre t e st ruc tures , a l l connec t ed
by some means to the necessary f i l ter i ng
equ i pmen t . For spec i f i c des i gn i n forma t i on
in any loca l i ty, loca l sw i mm i ng poo l supp l y
houses or cont rac tors shou l d be con t ac t ed
and the i r of f er i ngs adap t ed to spec i f i c s i te
cond i t i ons .

m
r

r
u
DC

O
 740 - 4

F i gure 740-4 . Hydro l og i c progress i on in pe rmeab l e soi l s F i gure 740-5 . Hydro l og i c progress i on in permeab l e so i l s
w i th a f l at wa t er t ab l e . w i th a s l op i ng wa t er t ab l e .

For l arger sw i mm i ng pools, those for 2 . A topograph i c form capab l e of be ing that if the i mpoundment had no l eakage ,
inst i tut ional or publ i c use, spec i a l i zed pro- shaped into a pond at reasonab l e cost no wa tershed beyond the wa ter body i tsel f
fess iona l eng ineer ing of the st ructura l con- (m i n i mum regrading) wou l d be necessary. However , s ince l eak-
ta i nment and mechan i ca l systems wi l l usu- age wi l l occur and s ince the reservoi r mus t
3 . A si te f ree of excess i ve organ i c
al ly be necessary to opt i mi ze ef fect i veness be f i l led ini t ial ly, some t r ibutary area wi l l be
mater i a l s
and costs . necessary. A profess iona l geohydro l og i st
W 4 . An adequa te wa t er supp l y shou ld be consu l ted to est imate l eakage .
.O 3 .3 Ponds and Lakes (Refer to Sect ion 710 : Wa t er Suppl y, for
O 5 . A wa tershed f ree of contami nants more informat ion .)
High-qua l i ty wa t er for sw i mm i ng can be
m found in natura l l y c l ean, ex i st ing ponds and 6 . An i mpoundment vo l ume l arge
r l akes or in ponds and l akes speci f ical ly enough for l ong- term wa t er storage
F igure 740-3 shows the si ze of t r ibutary
O area requi red to produce a g i ven vo l ume of
a des i gned to cont rol suspended sed i ments A l arge wa tershed is in most cases ne i - makeup wa ter to repl ace l ikely wa ter loss-
and nut r i ent inputs . (Refer to Sect ion 330 : es . Note that even in areas that are rela-
ther necessary nor des i rabl e since, except
Stormwa t er Managemen t for informat ion for the ini t ial f i l l ing of the pond , on l y t ively dry (except for very dry deser ts) ,
RI on the cont rol of suspended sed i ments and enough addi t iona l wa t er to compensa t e for enough runof f wa ter can be ga thered dur -
n nut r i ent inputs .) l eakage and evaporat ion is needed . (Refer ing the ra iny season if the wa tershed is
O careful ly se l ected .
to Sect ion 330 : Stormwa ter Management ,
3 .4 St ream I mpoundmen t s
for informat ion on the ca l cul at ion of runof f
Wa t er Qua l i ty:
r Si te Se l ect ion: quant i t i es .)
V To mee t wa ter qua l i ty standards des i rabl e
W Genera l des ign cons iderat ions for sw i m- Wa t er Supp l y: for sw i mm i ng :
mi ng i mpoundment s on st reams inc lude :
F igure 740-2 shows the average dry year 1 . The si te of the i mpoundment shou ld
0 1 . Sui tabl e soi l condi t ions on the bot tom rainfal l , less evaporat ion, for the Un i ted be st r ipped of al l organ i c mater i a l (i .e .,
(i .e ., the less permeab l e , the bet ter ) States . Not e that in many areas the dry vegetat ion, topsoi l , peat , etc .) .
year rainfal l exceeds the evaporat ion, so
 740 - 5

2 . The re t ent i on t i me o f the wa t e r in t he to the pond . Th i s wi l l a l l ow roo t ed To cont ro l geo l og i c phospha t e sources ,
i mpoundmen t shou l d be grea t er t han aqua t i c vege t a t i on t o est ab l i sh i tse l f the sur f ace s t reams tha t f l ow i nto the
1 year (i . e ., the vo l ume of t he reser - and absorb p l ant nut r i ents , thereby i mpoundmen t shou l d be t es t ed . I f they are
vo i r d i v i ded by t he annua l ra infa l l par t i a l l y deny i ng t he nut r i ent s to phospha t e - enr i ched (mor e than 15 par t s
runof f to i t shou l d be grea t er t han 1) . a l gae . Ove r t i me , th i s vege t a t i on can per bi l l ion) , t hey shou l d be exc l uded or an
be expec t ed to occur t hrough na tura l a l t erna t i ve s i te shou l d be f ound .
3 . Suspended sed i men t s and l i mi t i ng processes , but i t can a l so be i nt ro-
p l ant nut r i ent s (phospha t es) mus t be Cons t ruc t i on o f Sma l l Dams:
duced ar t i f i c i a l l y .
r i gorous l y exc l uded .
Whe r e a sma l l dam or d i ke is needed t o
Wa t e rshed Cons i de ra t i ons:
4 . The reservo i r shou l d be su i t ab l y he l p reta i n wa t er , severa l cons i dera t i ons
shaped to a l l ow na tura l pond c l ar i f i - The wa t e rshed of a sw i mm i ng pond need regard i ng the l oca t i on , des i gn , and con-
ca t i on processes to occur . no t be much l arger t han wha t is necessary st ruc t i on of the dam are i mpor t an t . Sec t i on
to prov i de adequa t e makeup wa t e r for 420 : Sma l l Dams , d i scusses these and pro-
Reservo i r Form :
l eakage and evapora t i on in a dry year , and v i des i n forma t i on on the des i gn and con-
Na tura l l y c l ear ponds wi l l resu l t f rom a i t shou l d no t be l arge enough to y i e l d mor e st ruc t i on of severa l t ypes of dams .
numbe r of mechan i sms tha t cont r i but e to runof f in a we t year to drop the reservo i r ' s
s torage rat io be l ow 1 . I f th i s happens , i t 3 . 5 Excava t ed Ponds
wa t e r qua l i ty , i nc l ud i ng:
t ends to crea t e prob l ems of i ncreased sed i -
1 . Adequa t e dep th , typ i ca l l y ove r 3 m Gene ra l :
men t .
(10 f t ) , to a l l ow therma l st rat i f i cat i on Ponds are some t i mes f eas i b l e in bor row p i t
o f the wa t e r and seasona l turnovers . Equa l l y i mpor t ant , the nut r i ent i nt ake
excava t i ons and quar r i es . The i r su i tab i l i ty
Th i s process l eads to the seasona l for - (espec i a l l y phospha t es) of t he wa t e rshed
for sw i mm i ng is par t i a l l y a func t i on of the i r
ma t i on of a na tura l f er rous su l f a t e mus t be care fu l l y cont ro l l ed to i nh i b i t
wa t e r qua l i ty and par t i a l l y a func t i on of
f loc , wh i ch t raps and removes sus- eut roph i ca t i on . Common sources of phos -
sa f e t y (i . e ., the i r f orm and dep th) . The l at -
pended par t i c l es tha t wou l d o therw i se pha t es are geo l og i c in or i g i n (i .e . , spr i ngs ,
ter can of t en be i mproved by grad i ng .
be t oo f i ne to set t l e of the i r own seeps , and geohydro l og i c upwe l l i ngs) and
we i gh t . No t e tha t the dep t h need no t urban in or i g i n ( runof f f rom roofs , pave - Wa t e r Supp l y and Qua l i t y.
occur ove r the ent i re pond bo t t om men t s , e t c .) .
but can be l i mi t ed to a s i ng l e l arge Ponds in bor row p i ts or quar r i es are usua l l y
To cont ro l urban runof f , a deve l opmen t ' s f ed by a m i x ture of ra i nwa t er , runof f , and
ho l e (probab l y near the dam) . Re f er
dra i nage tha t wou l d norma l l y f l ow i nto the groundwa t e r . I f the runof f and groundwa -
to Sec t i on 420 : Sma l l Dams , for i nfor -
pond shou l d e i ther be f i l tered in some way ter are bacter i a l l y c l ean and l ow in phos -
ma t i on on the des i gn and cons t ruc -
or d i ver t ed a round the pond by d i t ch or pha t es ( i . e ., l ess than 15 par ts per bi l l ion) ,
t i on of sma l l dams .
cu l ver t , i nc l ud i ng d i vers i on of t he ent i re the pond is l i ke l y to be a t t rac t i ve to sw i m-
2 . Adequa t e shoa l wa t er , l ess t han 1 to i nf l ow s t ream i f necessary . me rs regard l ess of the source of the wa t e r .
1 .5 m (3 to 5 f t ) deep , away f rom Howeve r , whe r e t he runof f or groundwa t e r
sw i mm i ng areas and c l ose to i nf l ows is a prob l em e i ther geo l og i ca l l y or because
of i mprope r d i sposa l of was t es in t he
reg i on , the mon i t or i ng and cont ro l o f
runof f and groundwa t e r f l ow i nto the pond
is essent i a l to the pond ' s accept ab i l i ty .
The se l ec t i on and des i gn of a pond or i mpoundmen t for sw i mm i ng depends on the
purpose of the pro j ect , the s i ze of the wa t e r body needed , and the par t i cu l ar amen i - Sur f ace runof f can be cont ro l l ed by
t i es of the s i te . d i t ch i ng and cu l ver t i ng , bu t groundwa t e r
1 . A l arge wa t ershed for a s t ream i mpoundmen t is in mos t cases ne i ther necessary nor f l ows mus t be cont ro l l ed by the des i gn of N
des i rab l e . The vo l ume of the reservo i r d i v i ded by the annua l ra infa l l runof f i nto i t the excava t i on in order to ach i eve a hydro-
shou l d be grea t er than 1, to m i n i m i ze sed i ment a t i on . stat i c ba l ance be t ween ra i nwa t er and O
groundwa t e r tha t exc l udes the unwan t ed m
2 . Sw i mm i ng ponds shou l d prov i de adequa t e depth , typ i ca l l y over 3 m (10 f t ) to a l l ow groundwa t e r . r
N
for therma l st rat i f i cat ion and seasona l turnovers . These depths may be l i mi ted to a
s i ng l e l arge ho l e w i th i n the pond . F i gure 740-4 shows the hydro l og i c pro-
gress i on tha t wou l d occur in the deve l op-
men t of a bor row pi t in read i l y pe rmeab l e
3 . Adequa t e sha l l ow areas [ l ess then 1 .5 m (5 f t )] shou l d be prov i ded at i nf l ow po i nts ,
soi l s in an area w i th a f l at or near l y f l at
away f rom sw i mm i ng areas , to absorb p l ant nut r i ents . Th i s wi l l m i n i m i ze a l gae
growt h in the sw i mm i ng areas . wa t e r t ab l e . No t e tha t the na tura l process-
es in reg i ons w i th an excess of ra infa l l ove r
4 . The nut r i ent i nt ake (espec i a l l y phospha t es) f rom geo l og i c and urban causes mus t be evapora t i on (average year , no t j ust dry
care fu l l y cont ro l l ed to inhibi t eut roph i ca t i on . Runof f f rom deve l opmen t shou l d be f i l - year ) wi l l norma l l y resu l t in a c l ean , t rans-
r
t ered or d i ver t ed a round the pond . If s t reams tha t f l ow into the pond are phos- paren t wa t e r body. V
pha t e -enr i ched (>15 ppb) , an a l ternat i ve s i te shou l d be f ound . N
Excava t i on in an area w i t h a s l op i ng
5 . Shore l i ne t rea tment s i nc l ude r iprap, s tone armor , and var i ous types of wa l l s . wa t e r t ab l e , howeve r , wi l l no t produce t he
Cons i dera t i on shou l d be g i ven to human use , i nc l ud i ng ways to escape i f someone same e f f ec t un l ess care fu l l y des i gned .
fa l ls into the wa t er . F i gure 740-5 shows a s i mi l ar progress i on
w i th a s l op i ng wa t e r t ab l e .
740 - 6

In the case i l l ust rated, w i t h the resu l t i ng

pond l owe r t han the wa t e r t ab l e , ground-
wa t e r wi l l con t i nue to f l ow in, and i f the
groundwa t e r cont a i ns phospha t es f rom
any source , t he pond is l i ke l y to become
eut roph i c . Cor rec t i on of th i s cond i t i on is
poss i b l e . F i gure 740-6 shows severa l poss i -
b l e cor rec t i on st ra teg i es , al l cost l y.

REFERENCES

Cowen , W. F. , and G . F. Lee. " Phosphorus

Ava i l ab i l i t y i n Par t i cu l a t e Ma t e r i a l s
Transpor t ed by Urban Runof f , " Journa l of
the Wa t e r Po l l ut i on Cont ro l Federa t i on ,
vo l . 48, no . 3, Ma r ch 1976.
Novo tny , V l ad i m i r , and Gordon Ches t ers .
Handbook of Nonpo i n t Po l l ut i on Sources
and Managemen t , Van Nos t rand Re i nho l d ,
New York , 1981 .
Wan i e l i s t a , M . P. , Y. A . Youse f , and l . S.
Tay l or . S t ormwa t e r Managemen t to
I mprove Lake Wa t e r Qua l i t y , Na t i ona l
Techn i ca l I n f o r ma t i on Serv i ce (order no .
PB82-227711) , 5285 Por t Roya l Road ,
Spr i ngf i e l d , VA, 1982 .
Wh i pp l e , W i l l i am, e t a l . S t ormwa t e r
Managemen t in Urban i z i ng Areas ,
Prent i ce-Ha l l , Eng l ewood Cl i f fs, NJ , 1983 .
 SECT I ON I

I r r i ga t i on

Con t r i bu tors :
J i m Wr i gh t ,
Ca t egor y Manage r , Ro t ors
The Toro Company
R i vers i de , Ca l i forn i a

Er i ch O. W i t t i g
The Toro Company
R i vers i de , Ca l i forn i a
Adv i sors / Rev i ewe rs :

Ken K i l l i an
K i l l i an Des i gn Group , Inc .
Howa rd , I l l inoi s

Je f f rey D. Br aue r
Go l f scapes , I nc .
Da l l as , Texas

R i cha rd Laku t i s
The Arch i t ec t s Co l l abora t i ve , Inc .
Cambr i dge , Massachuse t t s

S t ephen W. Sm i t h
EDAW , Inc .
For t Co l l i ns , Co l or ado

John Hoope r
Hoope r Eng i neer i ng , Lt d .
Pa l i nt i ne , I l l inoi s

M i chae l Ho l l and
Sasak i Assoc i a t es , Inc .
Wa t e r t own , Massachuse t t s

CONTENTS
n
1 . 0 Int roduc t i on 2 . 4 Ef f l uent Wa t e r 3 .2 So i l Charac t er i s t i cs
1 .1 Gene ra l Acqu i s i t i on 3 .3 P l ant Ma t er i a l s
1 .2 I mpor t an t Cons i dera t i ons Ana l ys i s 3 .4 Ava i l ab l e Wa t e r i ng T i me
P l ant Grow t h Requ i r emen t s Perm i t s and Regu l a t i ons 3 .5 Proper t y S i ze and Shape .
Pub l i c At t ent i on 3 .6 Loca t i on o f Bu i l d i ngs , Trees , and i
Conserva t i on of Wa t e r r
2 . 0 Wa t e r Sour ces Assess i ng Wa t e r Requ i remen t s O t he r F i xed Ob j ec t s
2 .1 Mun i c i pa l Wa t e r 3 .0 Des i gn Cr i t er i a 3 . 7 E l eva t i on Changes
2 .2 Lakes , Ponds , Reservo i rs , St reams , 3 .1 C l i ma t i c Cond i t i ons 3 .8 Econom i c Cons i dera t i ons
4 .0 Types o f I r r i ga t i on
and R i vers Ra i nf a l l
2 .3 We l l s W i nd 4 .1 Spr i nk l er I r r i ga t i on Sys t ems
 750 - 2

4 .2 Qu i ck -Coup l e r Sys t ems 7. 2 Con t ro l Sys t ems Wa t e r Me t e rs

4 .3 Dr i p / Tr i ck l e Sys t ems Manua l Sys t ems Pumps
5 . 0 App l i ca t i on and Des i gn Au t oma t i c Sys t ems Pressure Regu l a tors
7. 3 Cont ro l l ers Va l ve Boxes
5 .1 Go l f Course I r r i ga t i on
7. 4 Va l ves P i pe S l eeves / Chases
5 .2 Int er i or P l ant i ngs
Manua l Va l ves Chem i ca l In j ec t i on Dev i ces
5 .3 Ath l e t i c F i e l ds
Au t oma t i c Va l ves 8 . 0 Dr i p I r r i ga t i on (Des i gn Procedure )
5 .4 O t he r App l i ca t i ons
7. 5 P i pe 8 .1 Ca l cu l a t i ons
6 .0 Hydrau l i cs Eng i nee r i ng
Po l yv i ny l Ch l or i de (PVC) P i pe Wa t e r Requ i r emen t of P l ants
6.9 Spr i nk l er Wa t e r Requ i r emen t Po l ye thy l ene (PE) P i pe De t e rm i n i ng t he Numbe r o f Em i t t ers
6.2 P i pe S i z i ng Coppe r P i pe De t e rm i n i ng t he F l owra t e
6.3 Va l ve S i z i ng Ga l van i zed St ee l P i pe 8. 2 Des i gn Procedure
6. 4 F l ow and Fr i c t i on Loss t hrough O t he r Asbes t os Cemen t (AC) P i pe Procedure
Sys t em Componen t s Cas t - I ron P i pe I mpor t an t Cons i dera t i ons
6. 5 Con t ro l W i re and Con t ro l Tub i ng Conc re t e P i pe Re f e rences
S i z i ng 7 .6 Back f l ow Preven tors
7 .0 Spr i nk l er I r r i ga t i on Sys t em (Des i gn An t i s i phon Dev i ces
Procedure ) Back -Pressure Dev i ces
7.1 Spr i nk l er Head Se l ec t i on and Layou t 7 . 7 Supp l emen t a ry Equ i pmen t

i dea l , supp l emen t a l wa t e r may be neces - wa t e r is requ i red , and t hen des i gn i ng i rr i -
1 . 0 I NTRODUCT I ON
sa ry t o ove r come i nc i dences o f p l an t s t ress . ga t i on sys t ems wh i ch app l y t ha t wa t e r w i t h
m i n i mum was t e .
1 .1 Gene r a l Some p l an t i ngs may r equ i r e i r r i ga t i on

I
dur i ng cons t ruc t i on processes , or dur i ng Ef f l uen t wa t e r is be i ng used in many
r r i ga t i on is some t i mes necessa r y t o keep
l andscapes a t an op t i mum f unc t i ona l or and a f t er t ransp l an t a t i on unt i l es t ab l i shed . a r eas as a conse r va t i on measur e , w i t h con-

aes t he t i ca l peak . A l t hough a l l geogr aph - A con t ro l l ed app l i ca t i on o f wa t e r wi l l grea t - s i de rab l e success. (Re f e r t o 2 .4 Ef f l uen t

ic a r eas rece i ve ra i nf a l l suf f i c i ent t o sus t a i n l y i mprove t he ge rm i na t i on ra t e in seeded Wa t e r in th i s sec t i on f or mo r e i n f orma t i on . )

i nd i genous p l an t ma t e r i a l s grow i ng unde r a r eas and wi l l enab l e seed l i ngs t o deve l op

na t ur a lcond i t i ons , s i t ua t i ons i nvo l v i ng t o ma t ur i t y. Tur f grass is used mos t o f t en in 2 . 0 WATER SOURCES
i n t roduced spec i es , or spec i es g row i ng nonna t i ve env i ronmen t s , and even t hough
unde r l ess - t han- i dea l cond i t i ons , o f t en some var i e t i es a re drough t - t o l e r an t , a reg- 2 .1 Mun i c i pa l Wa t e r
requ i re some f orm o f i r r i ga t i on t o ma i n t a i n u l ar schedu l e o f wa t e r is necessa r y t o ma i n -
Mos t l andscape pro j ec t s use po t ab l e wa t e r
hea l t hy p l an t grow t h . t a i n a gr een , hea l t hy tur f .
prov i ded by t he l oca l wa t e r d i st r i c t .

Th i s sec t i on f ocuses on va r i ous t ypes o f Conse r va t i on o f Wa t e r. Resea r ch necessa r y a t t he ou t se t o f an

i r r i ga t i on sys t ems and on means f or se l ec t - i r r i ga t i on pro j ec t i nc l udes :
Conse r va t i on o f wa t e r i s an i mpor t an t eco-
i ng t he mos t econom i ca l sys t em f or any
l og i ca l i ssue . A l ong w i t h wa t e r dep l e t i on , 1 . The poss i b i l i t y o f an a l t e rna t i ve
g i ven s i tua t i on .
common prob l ems i nc l ude sa l t wa t e r i n t ru- sour ce o f wa t e r t ha t wou l d be mo r e
s i on and l and subs i dence . The r i s i ng cos t o f cos t - e f f ec t i ve on a l ong - t e rm bas i s .
1 .2 I mpor t an t Cons i de r a t i ons
wa t e r requ i res e f f i c i ent use and manage -
men t o f a l l wa t e r r esour ces . 2 . A de t e rm i na t i on o f ex i s t i ng st a t i c
P l an t G row t h Requ i r emen t s :
pressure in mun i c i pa l l i nes ( i nc l ud-
The quan t i t y o f wa t e r necessa r y f or hea l t hy Au t oma t i c spr i nk l e r sys t ems are i ng h i gh and l ow t i mes) , o f t he s i ze
p l an t g row t h mus t be de t e rm i ned i n orde r des i gned t o i nc rease t he e f f i c i ency o f l and- o f t he ma i n l i ne i n c l oses t prox i m i t y
t o des i gn an i r r i ga t i on sys t em o f h i ghes t scape wa t e r usage . Ef f i c i ency is accom- t o t he pro j ec t s i te , and o f any l oca l
e f f i c i ency . I f grow t h cond i t i ons a re l ess t han p l i shed by f i rst de t e rm i n i ng wh i ch p l an t codes t ha t may be pe r t i nen t t o t he
ma t e r i a l s requ i re i r r i ga t i on and how much i ns t a l l a t i on o f an i r r i ga t i on sys t em .

Tab l e 750 - 1 . RA I NFALL AND EVAPOTRANSP I RAT I ON DATA ( EXAMPLE )

Massachuse t t s Jan . Feb . Ma r. Ap r. May June Ju l y Aug. Sep t . Oc t . Nov . Dec. Tot a l

Wes t e rn (Pi t tsf i e ld)

RF 3 . 39 2 . 69 3 . 56 3 . 90 4 . 00 3 . 96 4 .41 3 . 73 4. 43 3 . 25 4 . 06 3 .41 44 . 79
EVT 0 . 00 0. 00 0 . 46 1 .51 3 . 33 4 . 78 5 . 77 4 . 93 3 . 05 1 .61 0 . 58 0 . 00 26 .02
n D I FF 3 . 39 2 . 69 3 . 10 2 . 39 0 . 67 - 0 . 82 -1 . 36 - 1 . 20 1 . 38 1 . 64 3 . 48 3 .41 18 . 77
Cen t ra l (Spr i ngf i e l d)
RF 3 . 86 3 . 10 4 . 09 3 . 84 3 . 58 3 .71 3 . 60 3 . 79 3 . 95 3 . 23 4 . 14 3 . 60 44 . 49
EVT 0 . 00 0 . 00 0 . 67 1 . 79 3 . 66 5 . 30 6 . 38 5 . 50 3 . 55 1 . 89 0 . 76 0 . 00 29 . 50
D I FF 3 . 86 3 . 10 3 . 42 2 . 05 - 0 . 08 -1 . 59 - 2 . 78 -1 . 71 0 . 40 1 . 34 3 . 38 3 . 60 14 . 99
r Coas t a l (Bos ton)
RF 4 .04 3 . 37 4 . 19 3 . 86 3 . 23 3 . 17 2 . 85 3 . 85 3 . 64 3 . 33 4 .11 3 .73 43 . 37
EVT 0 . 00 0 . 00 0 . 73 1 .71 3 . 37 4 . 95 6 . 18 5 . 48 3 . 58 2 . 05 0 . 87 0 . 30 29 . 22
0 D I FF 4 . 04 3 . 37 3 . 46 2 . 15 - 0 . 14 - 1 . 78 - 3 . 33 - 1 . 63 0. 06 1 . 28 3 . 24 3 . 43 14 . 15

No t e : RF- ra i nf a l l , EVT- evapo t r ansp i ra t i on rate , D I FF - t he average amoun t of wa t e r needed to be added per
mon t h to sus t a i n hea l thy tur f .
 750 - 3
3. Invest igat ion into mun i c i pa l ocean) , a l though it has seen much greater use for i rr igat ion . There is no reason to be
wa t er and sewer rates, based on use for i rr igat ion of agr i cul tura l f ields and secret i ve about us ing ef f luent for l andscape
wa t er me t er readings . Separate other l and uses in recent years . Many i rr igat ion purposes , but publ i c at tent ion wi l l
wa t er me ters for the i rr igat ion indust r ia l pl ants use the i r own ef f luent to never the l ess be drawn to pract i ces that
system may exc l ude owners f rom i rr igate the i r grounds , and a number of gol f seem potent i a l ly harmfu l .
pay ing a sewer surcharge . courses use ef f luent wa ter for i rr igat ion .
Some new commun i t i es have bui l t net - Assess i ng Wa t er Requ i rements:
2 .2 Lakes , Ponds , Reservo i rs , works of p ipe (separate f rom potab l e wa ter Before an agreement can be s igned wi th a
St reams , and R i vers and sewage l ines) for car ry ing ef f luent mun i c ipa l agency or indust r ia l t reatment
Natura l bod i es of wa ter can be used very wa ter. In such commun i t i es , ef f luent wa ter pl ant to accept ef f luent for i rr igat ion, the
wou l d not be af fected by the possibi l i ty of amount of wa ter requi red to i rr igate the
ef fect ively, depend i ng on the r ipar ian r ights
rat ioning . si te mus t be accurate l y ca l cu l ated .
of that wa ter.
Mos t states in the Un i ted States do not Overcomm i tment s are as prob l emat i c as
Des ign cons iderat ions inc lude : undercomm i tment s .
bar the use of ef f luent to i rr igate tur fgrass-
1 . Pump capabi l i t ies and the power es . Not on l y can the use of ef f luent be a
(usua l ly elect r ic) requi red to operate real a id to tur fgrass ma i ntenance , but it can 3 .0 DES I GN CR I TER I A
the pump . serve to repl eni sh groundwa t er resources .
Tur fgrass wi l l ef fect ive ly remove mos t of 3 .1 C l i ma t i c Cond i t i ons
2 . The qua l i ty of wa ter at di f ferent the impur i t i es in ef f luent , and percol at ion
seasons dur i ng usage ( f i l t rat ion Ra infa l l :
through the soi l wi l l remove the rema i nder .
must usua l l y be prov ided) . The amount of annua l rainfal l in a g i ven
Acqu i s i t ion : area wi l l de termi ne the se l ect ion of pl ant
3 . The possibi l i ty of hav ing to t rans-
por t wa ter f rom one source to a Both mun i c ipa l and indust r ial sewage t reat - mater i a l s as we l l as the type of i rr igat ion
ho l d i ng pond or reservoi r (depend- system most appropr i ate in that area . The
ment pl ants can supp l y ef f luent wa t er for
ing on the wa t er requ i rements) . use in i rr igat ion . The faci l i t ies shou ld be rel - U .S . Wea ther Serv i ce keeps annua l rainfal l
Th i s is espec i a l l y common in gol f da ta for the ent i re Un i ted States but such
at ive ly c lose to the si te requi r ing i rr igat ion,
course appl i cat ions, where even s ince p ip ing l ong d i stances is usua l l y cost - da ta a lone wi l l not de termi ne whe ther or
potab l e ci ty wa ter is used on occa- not an i rr igat ion system is necessary in any
prohibi t i ve . Faci l i t ies wi l l prov ide ef f luent in
sion to ma i nta i n wa ter levels in a vo l umes rang i ng f rom a f ew thousand ga l - par t i cul ar reg ion .
body of wa ter that is ul t imate l y lons to severa l mi l l ion l i ters or ga l lons per Six ma j or factors de termi ne the need to
used for i rr igat ion . day . app l y wa t er in quant i t i es greater than
annua l prec ipi tat ion . These are : (1) the
2 .3 We l l s Ana l ys i s:
l ength of the grow i ng season, (2) the ra in-
H i gh wa ter tabl es are a good source of irri - Ef f luent wa t er ava i l abl e f rom any source fal l or prec ipi tat ion rate (dur ing the grow-
gat ion water , even for sma l l insta l lat ions . shou ld be ana l yzed for i ts sui tabi l i ty as irri- ing season) , (3) the evaporat i on rate, (4)
gat ion wa t er. Not al l ef f luent can be used the type of soi l present , (5) the t ranspi ra-
Des ign cons iderat ions inc lude : on tur fgrasses, for instance . Chemi ca l s that t ion rate of the pl ants to be i rr igated, and
1 . The amount of wa ter ava i l abl e, i .e ., exist in the potab l e wa t er supp l y of a (6) the wa t er requ i rements of the pl ant
how much cons i stent f l ow is real - muni c ipa l i ty wi l l exist in even greater con- mater i a l s . In this regard, the factor of great -
i zed (some t i mes wa ter is ava i l abl e, cent rat ions in i ts ef f luent wa ter (some t i mes est i mpor tance is the wa t er def ici t , i .e ., the
but rep l en i shment is not ach i eved at a level toxi c to plants) ; chemi ca l s such as d i f ference dur i ng the grow i ng season
at a rate adequa te for the system' s boron and sod i um are espec i a l l y i mpor tant be tween natura l prec ipi tat ion and the
demand) . to mon i tor. The sal t levels may not be toxic, amount of wa ter requi red for sat isfactory
but a means may have to be prov ided to growth .
2 . The amount of sand par t i c l es prevent the prob l em of sal t bu i ldup .
pumped wi th the wa t er. Spr ink l er Rainfal l and evapot ransp i rat ion da ta for
heads wi th sma l l or i f ices in the noz- The levels of ni t rogen, phosphorus , and the Un i ted States, Canada , and other par ts
z le may have to be avo i ded . potass i um found in mos t ef f luent are of ten of the wor l d are readi ly ava i l abl e . In the
h igh enough that users may on l y have to Un i ted States, local of f ices of the U .S .
2 .4 Ef f l uent Wa t e r use one- four th as much fer t i l i zer as w i thout Wea ther Serv i ce can prov ide rainfal l da ta .
ef f luent water , or some t i mes none at al l . Da t a on evapot ransp i rat ion are ava i l abl e in
Ef f luent wa ter (a lso refer red to as recyc l ed a repor t by Marv i n E . Jensen (ed .),
water , gray water , sewage ef f luent , waste- Permi ts and Regu l a t i ons : Consumpt i ve Use of Wa t er and I rr igat ion
water , and recyc l ed sewage) is basica l ly l iq- Wa t er Requ i rements (ci ted in the Refere- n
uid sewage f rom a mun i c ipa l sewage pl ant When ef f luent wa t er is used for i rr igat ion, O
permi ts have to be secured f rom appropr i - nces at the end of this sect ion) .
or indust r ial pl ant wh i ch has been t reated
and is ready for di sposa l . Ef f luent wa ter is ate author i t i es . Pol lut ion cont rol agenc i es Tab l e 750-1 is an examp l e of rainfal l and
wi l l be invol ved, as we l l as county hea l th g
more than 99 percent pure wa t er and by evapot ransp i rat ion data for the state of .i
recent federa l legislat ion is t reated in a depar tments . Massachuse t ts .
manner simi lar to dr ink ing wa ter . Pub l i c At tent ion : W i nd:
In the Un i ted States, the vast ma jor i ty of In many jur isdict ions, regul at ions now W i nd wi l l di srupt the un i form dist r ibut ion Lr l
ef f luent wa ter is pumped into r ivers or requi re the ident i f icat ion of ef f luent wa ter of wa t er f rom a convent iona l i rr igat ion sys-
st reams (eventua l l y to end up in the

Time-Saver Standards for Landscape Archi tecture

 t em, caus i ng areas not i n t ended to be For squa re - spaced spr i nk l ers wi th wi l l seek tha t on i on . Whe r e i r r i gat i on is
wa t e red to be i r r i ga ted and caus i ng areas ma t ched fu l l -c i rc l e heads : supp l emen t a l , the des i gns are mor e cr i t i ca l
i n t ended to be wa t e red to deve l op dry because the root s are mor e d i spersed .
spot s . T i mers shou l d be se t to i r r i gate when LPM x 60 Sandy so i l s may requ i re the use of mor e
mlh =
t he w i nd speeds are m i n i ma l , such as in t he (spac i ng) ' em i t t ers and shor t er wa t e r i ng cyc l es .
ear l y morn i ng hours . In add i t i on , spr i nk l er
head spac i ng , arc , and l oca t i on can be 3 . 3 P l an t Ma t e r i a l s
des i gned to compensa t e for preva i l i ng
G PM X 96 .3* A know l edge of p l ant ma t er i a l s is i nva l u-
w i nds . Spr i nk l er heads w i t h l owe r t ra j ec to- f i n /h =
(spac i ng) ' ab l e when des i gn i ng i r r i gat i on sys t ems . Al l
r i es and l arger or i f i ce s i zes can a l so be used .
p l ant s have spec i a l requ i remen t s wh i ch
W i ndy areas a l so have a grea t er evapo- For spr i nk l er heads tha t are not ma t ched have to be me t i f op t i mum hea l th and
ra t i on ra te than do s i mi l ar areas tha t are no t and for l ayout s w i th i r regu l ar spac i ng of phys i ca l appea rance are to be ma i n t a i ned .
w i ndy and t hus may requ i re mor e wa t e r . spr i nk l er heads , an average prec i p i t a t i on For i ns t ance , roses are sub j ec t to powde r y
ra t e can be de t e rm i ned by us i ng the fo l - m i l dew , rust , and o ther d i seases i f sub j ec t -
3 . 2 So i l Cha r ac t e r i s t i cs l ow i ng f ormu l a : ed to wa t e r on the i r l eaves (as are a hos t of
o ther p l ants) , and p l ants l i ke came l l i as , aza-
The perco l a t i on ra te is an i mpor t an t char - l eas, and rhododendrons pre f er to be (and
acter i st i c i nf l uenc i ng t he des i gn of conven- LPM x 60
mlh = l ook the i r bes t when) wa t e red f rom an
t i ona l i r r i ga t i on sys t ems , and cap i l l ary me t ers '
ove rhead sys t em .
ac t i on becomes i mpor t an t when l atera l
movemen t of wa t e r is requ i red (as in dr i p 3 . 4 Ava i l ab l e Wa t e r i ng T i me
sys t ems and fur row f l ood i ng) . In dr i p i r r iga- G PM X 96 .3*
t i on , the area of soi l we t ness is common l y f i n/h = Ava i l ab l e wa t e r i ng t i me is usua l l y a conce rn
( feet ) '
re f er red to as the on i on s i nce a soi l prof i l e on l y when des i gn i ng l arge pro j ec ts , such as
in a l oam soi l wi l l produce a we t area W i t h dr i p i r r i gat i on sys t ems , i t is i mpor - go l f courses . Af t er the wa t e r requ i remen t s
shaped l i ke an on i on . A sandy soi l wi l l pro- t ant to de t e rm i ne the ex t en t o f the root and the numbe r of hours ava i l ab l e to wa t e r
duce a shape s i mi l ar to a car rot . zone to be i r r i gated and t hen to des i gn t he
on i on to enve l op tha t zone . In areas of 96 .3 is a constant based on the fact that 1 ga l =
W i t h a conven t i ona l spr i nk l er sys t em , i n f requen t ra infa l l , whe r e the pr i ma ry 231 in' and there are 144 inz/ f tz ; thus, 231 / 144 =
the ma i n ob j ec t i ve is to app l y wa t e r at a 1 . 604 in/ ( f tz) (gpm) , and 1 . 604 x 60 mi nutes =
source of wa t e r is the dr i p sys t em , the root s 96 .3 in/ ( f t=) (hour )
ra t e tha t the soi l can accept , w i t hou t caus-
i ng runof f . A typ i ca l soi l wi l l accep t abou t 8
mm ( ' / 3 in) of wa t e r per hour be fore runof f
occurs . Some spr i nk l er sys t ems have a pre-
c i p i ta t i on ra te as h i gh as 100 mm (4 in) per C l i ma t e , soi l s, p l ant ma ter i a l s , s i te l ayout and econom i c concerns a l l i nf l uence i r r iga-
hour . St a t i on t i m i ng can be ad j us t ed t i on st ra teg i es .
accord i ng t o t he perco l a t i on ra te o f t he soi l
and the prec i p i t a t i on ra t e of the spr i nk l er . I 1 . The c l i mat i c f ac tor of grea t est i mpor t ance is the wa t er def i c i t , the d i f f erence dur i ng the
O f t en , a repea t cyc l e or add i t i ona l wa t e r i ng grow i ng season be t ween natura l prec i p i tat i on and the amoun t of wa t e r requ i red for
cyc l es of shor t er dura t i on mus t be p l anned sat i sfactory growt h .
in order to preven t runof f . 2 . W i ndy areas have a grea t er evapora t i on ra te and may requ i re mor e wa t er . To avo i d di s-
Prec i p i t a t i on ra t es for spr i nk l ers in mi l l i - rupt i on f rom a i r movemen t , t i mers shou l d be set to i r r igate when the w i nd speeds are
l i ters per hour (m l h) or i nches per hour m i n i ma l , or heads w i th l ower t ra j ector i es and l arger or i f i ce s i zes may be used .
On / h) can be ca l cu l a t ed by us i ng the three 3 . W i t h a convent i ona l spr i nk l er sys t em, the ma i n ob j ec t i ve is to app l y wa t e r at a ra te tha t
f ormu l as be l ow. The f i rst t wo f ormu l as
the soi l can accept , w i thout caus i ng runof f . Sta t i on t i m i ng can be ad j us t ed accord i ng to
app l y on l y to sys t ems us i ng ma t ched pre- the perco l a t i on rate of the soi l and the prec i p i ta t i on ra te of the spr i nk l er . W i t h dr i p i rr i -
c i p i ta t i on heads ( i . e ., a quar t er -c i rc l e head ga t i on sys t ems , i t is i mpor t ant to de t erm i ne the ext ent of the root zone to be i r r igated
em i t s exac t l y one -quar t er tha t of a ful l c i r - and then to des i gn the area of we tness to enve l op tha t zone .
c l e head) .
4 . Ear l y morn i ng hours are usua l l y the best t i me to wa t er because w i nd speeds are typ i -
Prec i p i t a t i on ra t e f ormu l as ( i n / h or ca l l y l ow, evapora t i on is at a m i n i mum , and p l ant l eaves do not rema i n we t for l ong
m l h) : For t r i ang l e -spaced spr i nk l ers w i th per i ods of t i me .
ma t ched ful l -c i rc l e heads :
5 . Mos t sma l l sys t em des i gns t end to use square spac i ng un l ess the area is a f ree- form or
n i r regu l ar shape . Large areas l i ke ath l et i c f i e lds, however , are typ i ca l l y des i gned for t r i -
O angu l ar spac i ng .

6 . Spr i nk l ers shou l d not spray d i rect l y i nto a p l ant , bu i l d i ng or other st ruc tures at c l ose
g
i range because of poss i b l e damage and to prevent a vo i d f rom occur i ng on the oppo-
s i te s i de of the d i srupt i ng ob j ec t .

0 7 . Changes in e l eva t i on wi l l a f fect wa t er pressure , may cause l ow-head dra i nage , and d i s-
rupt the d i st r i but i on of i r r igat ion spray . I r r igat ion des i gn mus t compensa t e for such
occur rences by the se l ec t i on of proper equ i pmen t and appropr i a t e l ayout .
i
 750 - 5
have been de t erm i ned , the pump s i ze can
be de t e rm i ned (or the s i ze of the ma i n l ine
i f connec t i ng to the mun i c i pa l wa t er ) . The
mor e spr i nk l ers tha t are on a t any g i ven
t i me , the grea t er the wa t e r demand wi l l be
and t he l arger the wa t e r source requ i red .

Ear l y morn i ng hours are usua l l y the bes t

t i me to wa t e r because w i nd speeds are t yp-
i ca l l y l ow , evapora t i on is a t a m i n i mum , and
p l ant l eaves do not rema i n we t for l ong
per i ods o f t i me .

3 . 5 Prope r t y S i ze and Shape

In l andscape pro j ec ts , the shapes of the

areas to be i r r i ga ted se l dom l end t hem-
se l ves to an exac t equ i l a t era l t r i angu l ar
spac i ng of spr i nk l ers (as is r ecommended
by spr i nk l er manu f ac turers) . Mos t sma l l
sys t em des i gns t end to use squa re spac i ng
un l ess the area is a f ree - form or i r regu l ar
shape . Large areas l i ke a th l e t i c f i e lds, how-
ever , are typ i ca l l y des i gned for t r i angu l ar
spac i ng .

3 . 6 Loca t i on o f Bu i l d i ngs , Tr ees ,

and O t he r F i xed Ob j ec t s

F i xed ob j ec t s have to be accoun t ed for in

the des i gn of spr i nk l er sys t ems and shou l d
be ma r ked on a p l ot p l an a t the ou t se t of
the pro j ec t . Spr i nk l ers shou l d no t spray
d i rec t l y i nto a t ree or shrub at c l ose range
because of poss i b l e ha rm to the p l ant and
because a vo i d resu l ts on the oppos i t e s i de
of t he d i srupt i ng ob j ec t . Bu i l d i ngs l oca t ed
w i th i n the spr i nk l er pa t t ern cause a was t i ng
of wa t er , crea t e sa tura t ed areas on the
ground , and may cause br i ck and o t he r
t ypes of masonry to e f f l oresce (become
powde ry) , and cause uns i ght l y d i sco l -
ora t i on .
Conce rn shou l d a l so be g i ven to wa l k -
ways and proper t y l ines . Some wa l kway
sys t ems are suf f i c i ent l y comp l ex tha t the
mos t e f f i c i ent des i gn wi l l s i mp l y i gnore the
wa l kways and i nc l ude these areas as par t o f
the pa t t ern . Th i s of t en a l l ows the use o f
l arger rot a t i ng heads i ns t ead of spray
heads . Howeve r , t he use of the wa l kway pe r squa re i nch (ps i ) is an i mpor t an t f ac tor dra i nage ; tha t is, when a va l ve is turned
and loca l codes may prec l ude such e f f i c i en- in an i r r i ga t i on sys t em . Each foot of e l eva- of f , the spr i nk l er a t the l owes t e l eva t i on in
cy. The l i ke l i hood of surpr i sed or annoyed t i on change br i ngs a cor respond i ng change tha t sys t em wi l l con t i nue to dra i n unt i l al l
pedes t r i ans is a l so a cons i dera t i on . in pressure of 2 . 986 kPa (0 . 433 ps i ) . I t is p i pes l oca t ed h i gher t han tha t head are
i mpor t an t tha t t he spr i nk l er pressure rec- vo i d of wa t e r . Th i s may necess i t a t e the use
I f ove r t hrow of wa t e r wi l l occur on n
ommended by the manu f ac t ure r be rea l - of check va l ves or the se l ec t i on of heads
O
ne i ghbor i ng proper t y , the owne rs shou l d i zed . Too l i t t le pressure wi l l a l ter the pa t t ern w i th bu i l t - i n check va l ves . On l arge tur f -
be cont ac t ed be fore proceed i ng w i th the and crea t e dry spot s and wi l l some t i mes grass pro j ec ts , ano t he r so l ut i on may be to cd
des i gn . preven t a rot a t i ng head f rom rot a t i ng . des i gn va l ve- i n-heads , i .e ., heads w i th an
tap
Excess i ve pressure wi l l cause such a tom i za - au toma t i c va l ve bu i l t i nto the un i t or va l ve
3 . 7 E l eva t i on Changes
t i on tha t much of t he wa t e r wi l l be lost to unde r head .
Any s i te w i th s i gn i f i cant e l eva t i on d i f fer - the a t mosphe r e .
On l andscape pro j ec t s w i th bu i l t -up 0
ences wi l l requ i re the use of a topograph i c
Ano t he r prob l em assoc i a t ed w i th s ign i f i - berms , s i mi l ar cons i dera t i ons are i mpor t an t .
map . Pressure in k i l opasca l (kPa) or pounds
cant changes in e l eva t i on is l ow-head Be rms are some t i mes bu i l t f rom an out s i de

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 750 - 6
source of soi l wh i ch may di f fer , in t e rms of
dra i nage charac ter i st i cs , f rom ex i st i ng on-
s i te so i l s . Be rms wi l l a l so dra i n f ast er than
l eve l ground because of s l ope . Be rms are
o f t en i r r i ga ted by a separa t e sta t i on , or ,
a l terna t i ve l y , sys t em l ayout s are des i gned
so tha t be rms wi l l rece i ve mor e wa t e r .
Care fu l a t t ent i on shou l d a l so be g i ven to
the ac tua l l oca t i on of the spr i nk l ers and the
p l ant ma t er i a l s . For examp l e , spr i nk l ers
p l aced a t the bo t t om edge of a mound can
cut i nto the base of p l ants l oca t ed h i gher
up on the mound .

3 . 8 Econom i c Cons i de r a t i ons

The costs o f an i r r i gat i on sys t em are di f f i -
cu l t to de t e rm i ne unt i l a des i gn and a se t of
spec i f i ca t i ons have been comp l e t ed . The
costs a l so vary s i gn i f i cant l y f rom one geo-
graph i c area to ano t he r . On a pr i ce-per -
square - foo t bas i s , l arge tur f areas cos t con-
s i derab l y l ess to i r r i gate t han do areas con-
s i st i ng of sma l l er m i xed p l ant i ngs . Insta l -
l at i on t echn i ques and ma i n t enance prob-
l ems a l so have to be cons i dered . Proper
hydrau l i c eng i neer i ng wi l l preven t cost l y
prob l ems l ater in the l i fe of a sys t em .
The l ong- t erm ma i n t enance expense of
an i r r i gat i on sys t em is an i mpor t an t cons i d-
era t i on . For examp l e , the ini t ia l cos t of a
pop-up spr i nk l er head may exceed tha t of
a s t a t i onary head , but in a l awn area the
sav i ngs are rap i d l y lost to add i t i ona l ma i n-
t enance expenses . Vanda l i sm is a l so an
i ssue espec i a l l y w i th sys t ems tha t i nc l ude
exposed componen t s .

4 . 0 TYPES OF I RR I GAT I ON

4 .1 Spr i nk l e r I r r i ga t i on Sys t ems

Spr i nk l er i r r i gat i on sys t ems re fer to those

w i th spr i nk l er heads . Because these sys t ems
are so w i de l y used , they are g i ven de t a i l ed
cove rage in 6 .0 Hydrau l i cs Eng i neer i ng and
7 .0 Spr i nk l er I r r i ga t i on Sys t ems l ater in th i s
sec t i on .

4 . 2 Qu i ck - Coup l e r Sys t ems

O f t en re f er red to as a snap-va l ve sys t em or
manua l sys t em, a qu i ck coup l er is a va l ve
wh i ch is opened when a qu i ck -coup l er key
is i nser t ed (F i gure 750-1) . As the key is
n rot a t ed , an i ncrease in wa t e r vo l ume is rea l -
O
i zed , much as when turn i ng the hand l e on
a hose b i bb . A hose or spr i nk l er head can
g be a t t ached to t he key to d i st r i but e the
r wa t e r as requ i red . Even on tota l l y au t oma t -
ic sys t em des i gns , qu i ck coup l ers are of t en
d i spersed t hroughou t the des i gn to prov i de
add i t i ona l wa t e r access for ma i n t enance
purposes . On go l f course and o t he r l arge
tur fgrass pro j ec t s , qu i ck coup l ers are

ne-Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 7SO - 7

spaced a t appropr i a t e i nterva l s to accom-

moda t e l arge rot ary heads . For reasons of
wa t e r economy and l ack of cont ro l , how-
ever , t he use of qu i ck coup l ers on l arge tur -
fgrass pro j ec ts is dec l i n i ng in f avor of a fu l l y
au t oma t i c spr i nk l er sys t em .

4 . 3 Dr i p / Tr i ck l e Sys t ems

A l t hough dr i p sys t ems are mos t app l i cab l e

to t ypes of agr i cu l ture in wh i ch the p l ant
ma t er i a l is of the same var i e ty , w i th un i -
f orm s i ze and spac i ng , they are i ncreas i ng-
ly be i ng des i gned i nto l andscape pro j ec t s
because of the i r e f f i c i ency. The or i f i ces of a
dr i p sys t em are sma l l , howeve r , and can
some t i mes become c l ogged i f the sys t em is
i mprope r l y des i gned for t he purpose
i n t ended .

The pr i mary e l emen t of a dr i p sys t em is

the emi t ter , of wh i ch severa l t ypes are
ava i l ab l e (F i gure 750-2) . Some em i t
drop l e t s of wa t er , wh i l e others ( re f er red to
as aeroso l em i t t ers) em i t m i nu t e s t reams o f
wa t e r. Genera l l y , em i t t ers fal l i nto one o f
t wo ca t egor i es : compensa t i ng em i t t ers and
noncompensa t i ng em i t t ers . Noncompensa -
t i ng em i t t ers wi l l re l ease a se t amoun t of
wa t e r at a g i ven pressure (de t erm i ned by
graphs prov i ded by the manu f ac ture r ) ;
grea t er pressures em i t mor e wa t er , and
l owe r pressures em i t l ess wa t e r . Fr i ct i on loss
and e l eva t i on changes have to be care fu l l y
de t e rm i ned when us i ng noncompensa t i ng
em i t t ers .

For max i mum e f f i c i ency in wa t e r use , a l l

sys t ems w i th l ong p i pe runs or s i gn i f i cant
e l eva t i on changes are bes t des i gned w i th
pressure compensa t i ng em i t t ers . These are
des i gned to compensa t e for pressure d i f fer -
ences and wi l l em i t a prede t e rm i ned
amoun t of wa t e r t hrough each em i t t er a t a
un i f orm ra te w i th i n a par t i cu l ar pressure
range .

S i nce c l ogg i ng is some t i mes a prob l em

w i th dr i p i r r i gat i on sys t ems , spec i a l a t t en-
t i on shou l d be g i ven to f i l t rat ion des i gn .
When the wa t e r source for an i r r i gat i on
sys t em is po t ab l e or o therw i se c l ean and
f ree of v i s i b l e par t i cu l a tes , screen f i l ters are Se l ec t i on of the appropr i a t e i r r i gat i on t echn i que is based on the s i ze of the pro j ect , s i te
usua l l y adequa t e to prot ec t t he sys t em cond i t i ons , c l i ma t e , and loca l prac t i ces .
f rom any p i pe breaks ups t ream . Except i ons
occur in some areas when d i a t omaceous 1 . Spr i nk l er sys t ems are the mos t w i de l y used t ype of i r r igat ion . Re f er to 7 .0 Spr i nk l er
n
ske l e ta l rema i ns occur in the f orm o f a s l i me I r r igat ion Sys t em for i nforma t i on on spr i nk l er head se l ec t i on and l ayout .
O
dur i ng cer t a i n seasons (usua l l y l a te summe r
2 . Qu i ck -coup l er sys t ems i nc l ude a va l ve wh i ch is opened when a key is i nser t ed (F i gure
and fa l l ) .
750-1) . A hose or spr i nk l er head can be a t t ached to the key to d i st r i bute the wa t er as
D i a t omaceous s l i me wi l l accumu l a t e requ i red . They are of t en used in comb i na t i on w i th automa t i c sys t ems to prov i de supp l e-
rap i d l y a round the screen f i l ter , caus i ng men t a l wa t er access .
f l ow loss downs t r eam ( f l ow loss is of t en an
3 . Dr i p sys t ems are i ncreas i ng l y be i ng des i gned into l andscape pro j ec ts because of the i r ef f i -
i nd i ca tor of a d i r ty f i l ter) . As pressure bu i l ds
c i ency. The or i f i ces of a dr i p sys t em are sma l l , however , and can some t i mes become
up at the f i l ter , s l i my debr i s is forced c l ogged if the sys t em is i mproper l y des i gned for the purpose i nt ended .
t hrough t he screen and eventua l l y c l ogs the

T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tect ure

 750 - 8
emi t ters . Simi lar prob l ems wi th s l imy ma t e- inter ior pl ant ings wi l l large ly depend on the actua l l y decrease the radius of throw.
rial exist if the pipe is not abso lute l y opaque pl ant mater i a l s invol ved and the mi croc l i - Converse l y , a pressure wh i ch is less than
(i .e ., is sub j ected to sunl ight ) because a lgae mat i c cond i t ions present . Some pl ant ing that l isted in a manufacturer ' s char t wi l l dis-
can grow on the interna l wa l l s of the pipe des igns requi re nozz l es that fog an area ( to tor t the dist r ibut ion pat tern to a point at
and eventua l l y break f ree . Alga l growth can increase the humi d i ty level ) , and some wh i ch it is no longer funct iona l . In the case
be e l iminated by spec i fy ing qua l i ty opaque requi re sprays to keep pl ant l eaves c l ean . of rotat ing heads , some may not rotate .
dr ip hose and by bury i ng al l other p ipe . Some are best wa tered by dr ip systems so The idea l work i ng pressure of a par t i cu-
When s l imy mat ter is encountered in the that an appropr i ate amount of wa t er is
lar spr ink l er head, if not speci f ical ly l isted
source water , a sand f i l ter shou l d be used . de l i vered to each pl ant . by the manufacturer , wi l l usua l l y fal l near
For sma l l systems in wh i ch a sand f i l ter
5 .3 Athl et i c F i e lds the midd l e to h igh end of the pressures l ist-
wou l d not be economi ca l l y pract ica l , the ed . The resul ts ach i eved at this mi dd l e to
ma i nt enance schedu l e shou ld inc lude f re- The component s of i rr igat ion systems for high end psi are a max i mum radius, an
quent f i l ter c l eaning . athlet ic f ields must be as inconsp i cuous as ideal wa t er breakup, and a un i form rotat ion
Fi l ters shou ld be located throughout possibl e, because anyth i ng that proj ects for the rotat ing heads .
l arger dr ip systems so that a p ipe break above ground wi l l become both a safety
near the beg i nn i ng of the syst em wi l l not hazard and subj ect to vanda l i sm . Spr ink l er 6 .2 P i pe S i z i ng
contami na te the ent i re system . Ideal ly, the heads wi th a l ow prof i le are preferabl e .
Severa l types of heads are ava i l abl e that are In any i rr igat ion system, the si z ing and
system shou ld be bur i ed, yet access ibl e . rout ing of p ipe shou ld be done in a ma t ter
F igures 750-3 through 750-7 show typica l des i gned espec i a l l y for athlet ic f ields .
wh i ch is most economi ca l dur ing instal la-
instal lat ions of both single- and mul t i -out - Since athlet ic f ields are standard in mea- t ion, yet wh i ch is a lso durab l e to the extent
let emi t ters . surement , mos t spr ink l er manufac turers that unnecessary l ong- term ma i nt enance
have typica l des igns ava i l abl e on request . and repai r wi l l be avo i ded . The par t i cul ar
5 .0 APPL I CAT I ON AND DES I GN Mos t manufacturers a l so have heads w i th spr ink l er heads se l ected, the nozz l e si zes,
rubber covers, or have rubber cover ki ts and the number of heads runn i ng together
5 .1 Go l f Course I r r igat ion ava i l abl e . de termi ne the requi red f lowrate (ml h or
Spec i a l i zed systems for gol f course i rr iga- 5.4 Other App l i cat ions gpm) .
t ion of ten prov ide funct ions beyond that of The stat ic pressure in a system mus t be
sat isfying the wa t er requ i rements of tur f - Spr ink l er systems are ava i l abl e that are spe- greater than the spr ink l er head requi re-
grasses, a l though that is the i r pr i mary func- cial ly des i gned for dust cont rol , inc luding ment , s ince a cer ta in amount of pressure is
t ion . For instance, there can be prov i ded a some for use dur ing const ruct ion and some a l ways lost to f r ict ion (unl ess there is down-
syr inge cycle, wh i ch is a spr ink l e cyc l e that for c l ay tenni s cour ts, etc . hi l l e l evat ion change or a booster pump
is opera ted f rom the cent ra l cont rol for on l y wh i ch wi l l increase pressure) . The f r ict ion
a f ew minutes , rather than the ful l i rr igat ion 6 .0 HYDRAUL I CS ENG I NEER I NG loss var i es w i th the l ength of pipe, the type
cyc l e . Syr inge cyc l es are used to prov i de of pipe, the pipe si ze, and the quant i ty and
ear l ier pl ay schedu l es by e l iminat ing dew or In al l p iped i rr igat ion systems , des igns wi l l
inc lude ca l cul at ions for hydraul i c pressure speed at wh i ch the wa t er is mov i ng
f rost f rom tees and greens . Dur i ng hot through the p ipe . Pipe f i t t ings a l so con-
af ternoons, a shor t syr inge cyc l e wi l l add (measured in kPa or psi ) , ve loc i ty (mea-
sured in m/ s or fps) , and f l ow (measured in t r ibute to f r ict ion loss, espec i a l l y f i t t ings
humi d i ty to the ai r, wh i ch can reduce st ress (such as 90-degree e l bows) that cause a
on tur fgrasses . ml h or gpm) .
ma j or change in wa t er di rect ion . Th i s is
The desi re for greens and fa i rways that 6 .1 Spr i nk l er Wa t e r Requ i remen t norma l l y signi f icant ; however , it shou ld be
are c lose ly cropped-as we l l as the t raf f ic noted that some p ipe f r ict ion- loss char ts
f rom gol f car ts, heavy mow i ng equ i pment , Spr ink l ers are des i gned by manufacturers account for an average number of f i t t ings
and go l fers-p l aces unusua l st ress on the to emi t a spec i f ic amount of wa t er (ml h or in a system (Tabl e 750-2) . When work i ng
tur fgrasses of mos t gol f courses . gpm) at a spec i f ic pressure (kPa or psi ) . on sma l l areas that requi re many f i t t ings,
Tur fgrasses must be kept in a hea l thy, These da ta wi l l vary by type of head and addi t iona l f r ict ion loss shou ld be ca l cul ated
turgid state if they are to rema i n resi l ient to be tween manufacturers . Mos t manufac tur - by us ing a f i t t ing f r ict ion- loss char t . These
such use . A l though des ign ing the i rr igat ion ers wi l l l ist a range of pressures for a par t ic- are norma l l y inc luded as par t of the da ta
system for gol f courses is not di f f icul t , it is ular head, wi th the cor respond i ng ml (ga l - suppl i ed wi th var ious manufacturers ' char ts
an extens i ve procedure and does requi re a lons) and radius of throw at each pressure for p ipe f r ict ion loss and are not inc luded
good understand i ng of pumps and spec ia l l isted . here .
des ign techn iques . Consu l tat ion wi th i rr iga- Ve loc i ty is a re l evant quot i ent not in The ve loc i ty of wa t er in a system is per -
t ion special ists, gol f course archi tects, and terms of me ters per second ( fps) , but rather haps the most over l ooked aspect of p ipe
n manufacturers of i rr igat ion equ i pment is in terms of radius of throw. Thi s wi l l deter - si z ing . A l though a syst em wi th excess
O recommended . mi ne the spac i ng of the spr ink l er heads . ve loc i t i es wi l l st i l l funct ion, prob l ems of
Spr ink l er char ts wi l l show that the pressure surge pressure and wa t er hammer can be
52 Inter ior Pl ant ings (kPa or psi ) , f lowrate (mlh or gpm) , and
. liap radius of throw are al l relat ive to one
mi n i mi zed by keep i ng the ve loc i t i es
r Inter ior pl ant ings of ten have spec ia l i rr iga- throughout the p ipe at 1 .52 m/ s (5 fps) or
t ion requ i rements that are best accom- another . As one va lue increases, the other less. Thi s ul t imate l y resul ts in less ma i nte-
pl i shed manua l l y. A qu i ck coup l er or a hose two wi l l a l so increase . However , this rela- nance and less chance of pipe breakage .
bib can be located at each p l anted area in t ionship wi l l not ho ld t rue in pressure When compensa t i ng for excess pressures
order to avo id extens i ve dragg i ng of hose ranges that exceed the char t , s ince excess due to h igh stat ic pressure at the source or
l ine . The type of i rr igat ion emp l oyed for atomi zat ion caused by excess pressure wi l l
 750 - 9

Tab l e 750 -2 . FR I CT I ON - LOSS TABLE FOR P I PE ( PVC 1120 - 1220 CLASS 160 I N) "

Loss pe r p i pe l eng t h no t ed , ps i §

GPM t Ve l oc i t y$ 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 130 90 100

1 / 2- i n p i pe , 0 . 720- i n- i ns i de d i ame t e r

1 0 .8 0. 01 0 . 02 0 . 04 0 . 06 0 . 08 0 . 10 0 . 12 0. 14 0 . 16 0 . 18 0 . 20
2 1 .6 0 . 04 0 . 07 0 . 15 0 . 22 0 . 30 0 . 37 0 . 44 0. 52 0 . 59 0 . 67 0 . 74
3 2 .4 0 . 08 0 . 16 0 .31 0 . 47 0 . 62 0 . 78 0 . 94 1 . 09 1 . 25 1 . 40 1 . 56
4 3 .2 0 . 13 0 . 27 0 . 54 0 . 80 1 . 07 1 . 34 1 .61 1 . 88 2 . 14 2 .41 2 . 68
5 4 .0 0 . 20 0. 40 0 .81 1 .21 1 . 62 2 . 02 2 . 42 2 . 83 3 . 23 3 . 64 4 . 04
6 4 .8 0 . 29 0. 58 1 . 15 1 . 73 2 . 30 2 . 88 3 . 46 4 . 03 4 . 61 5 . 18 5 . 76
7 5 .6 0 . 38 0 . 77 1 . 53 2 . 30 3 . 06 3 . 83 4 . 60 5 . 36 6. 13 6 . 89 7. 66
8 6. 4 0 . 49 0 . 98 1 . 96 2 . 93 3 . 91 4 . 89 5 . 87 6 . 85 7 . 82 8 . 80 9. 78

3 / 4- i n p i pe , 0 . 930- i n- i ns i de d i ame t e r

2 0 .9 0 .01 0 . 02 0 . 04 0 . 07 0 . 09 0 .11 0 . 13 0 . 15 0 . 18 0 . 20 0. 22
4 1 .9 0 . 04 0 . 08 0 . 16 0 . 23 0 .31 0 . 39 0 . 47 0 . 55 0 .63 0 . 70 0. 78
6 2 .8 0 . 09 0 . 17 0 . 34 0 . 50 0 . 66 0 . 83 1 . 00 1 . 16 1 . 34 1 . 49 1 , 66
8 3 .8 0 . 14 0 . 28 0 . 56 0 . 85 1 . 14 1 . 42 1 . 70 1 . 99 2 . 27 2 . 56 2 . 84
10 4 .7 0 . 22 0 . 43 0 . 86 1 . 29 1 . 72 2 . 15 2 . 58 3 .01 3 . 45 3 . 87 4 . 30
12 5 .7 0 . 30 0 . 60 1 . 20 1 . 80 2 . 40 3 . 00 3 . 60 4 . 20 4 . 80 5 . 40 6 . 00
14 6 .6 0. 40 0. 80 1 . 60 2 . 40 3 . 20 4 . 00 4 . 80 5 . 60 6 . 40 7 . 20 8 . 00

1- i n p i pe , 1 . 195- i n- i ns i de d i ame t e r

6 1 .7 0 . 03 0 . 05 0 . 10 0 . 15 0 . 20 0 . 24 0 . 29 0 . 34 0 . 39 0 . 44 0 . 48
8 2 .3 0 . 04 0 . 08 0 . 16 0 . 25 0 . 34 0 . 42 0 . 50 0 . 59 0 . 67 0 . 76 0 . 84
10 2 .9 0 . 07 0 . 13 0 . 26 0 . 38 0 . 50 0 . 63 0 . 76 0 . 88 1 . 02 1 . 13 1 . 26
12 3 .4 0 . 09 0 . 18 0 . 36 0 . 53 0.71 0 . 89 1 . 07 1 . 25 1 . 43 1 . 60 1 . 78
14 4 .0 0 . 12 0 . 24 0 . 48 0 .71 0. 94 1 . 18 1 . 42 1 . 65 1 . 89 2 . 12 2 . 36
16 4 .5 0 . 15 0 . 30 0 . 60 0 .91 1 .21 1 . 52 1 . 82 2 . 12 2 .43 2 . 73 3 . 04
18 5 .1 0 . 19 0 . 38 0. 76 1 . 13 1 . 50 1 . 88 2 . 26 2 . 63 3 .01 3 . 38 3 . 76
20 5 .7 0 . 23 0 . 46 0. 92 1 . 37 1 .82 2 . 28 2 . 74 3 . 19 3 .65 4 . 10 4 . 56
22 6 .3 0 . 28 0 . 55 1 . 10 1 . 65 2 . 20 2 . 75 3 . 30 3 . 85 4 . 40 4 . 95 5 . 50
24 6 .8 0 . 38 0 . 65 1 . 30 1 . 94 2 . 58 3 . 23 3 . 88 4 . 52 5 . 23 5 .81 6. 46

Name of p i pe and i ts pressure group i ng. The C va l ue cons t ant used in de t erm i n i ng f r i ct ion l osses , based on re l at i ve
smoo t hness o f t he inter ior of t he p i pe is 150 .
t Ga l l ons pe r m i nu t e f l ow is g i ven in equa l i ncremen t s w i th l og i ca l i ncremen t spac i ng to sat i sfy mos t des i gner needs.
$ Ve l oc i t y of wa t e r t hrough p i pe . In no i ns t ance are f r i ct ion l osses g i ven whe r e the ve l oc i ty exceeds 7 fps as thi s
shou l d be t he ex t r eme l imi t of ve l oc i ty in des i gn .
§ Fr i c t i on l oss of wa t e r through p i pe in i ncremen t s of 10 f t up to 100 f t w i th an add i t i ona l co l umn for 5 ft . Th i s
enab l es rap i d se l ec t i on of l oss in al l l ength p i pe runs ,

to l arge downh i l l e l eva t i on changes , p i pe t he l ast spr i nk l er head . I t is re l at i ve l y com- the st ree t t o t he me t e r . F rom the po i nt of
ve l oc i t i es shou l d con t i nue to be des i gned a t mon to use a va l ve sma l l er than the down - connec t i on , the f r i ct i on loss mus t be ca l cu-
1 .52 m / s (5 fps) or l ess . Excess pressures s t ream p i pe (wh i ch may be l arger to keep l a t ed t hrough the fo l l ow i ng : the ma i n l ine,
shou l d be cont ro l l ed by dev i ces such as t he p i pe ve l oc i t i es unde r 1 .52 m / s (5 fps) . the va l ves , and the back f l ow or ant i s i phon
pressure regu l a tors and pressure regu l a t i ng dev i ce ; any manua l ga t e , g l obe , or ba l l
Va l ve s i zes shou l d be des i gned so tha t
va l ves and by ad j us t i ng the f l ow cont ro l of va l ves in t he l ine ; and o ther spec i a l compo -
t he f l ow ra t es fal l t owa rd the m i dd l e o f the
a va l ve . nent s , such as f i l ters or chem i ca l i n j ec ters .
manu f ac turer ' s f r i c t i on- l oss char t for a par -
Fr i c t i on- l oss char t s are prov i ded by compo -
t i cu l ar va l ve s i ze. Th i s wi l l usua l l y g i ve the
6 . 3 Va l ve S i z i ng nen t manu f ac ture rs and wi l l vary f rom one
bes t pe r f ormance , e f f i c i ency , and economy.
manu f ac t ure r to ano t he r. Un l ess ve l oc i ty
Mos t au toma t i c va l ves w i ths t and ve l oc i t i es n
da t a are g i ven for each componen t , they O
we l l in excess of 1 .52 m / s (5 fps) , and mos t 6 .4 F l ow and Fr i c t i on Loss t hrough
can be t rea t ed as i f t hey we r e va l ves , in
ac tua l l y func t i on be t t er w i th grea t er d i f fer - O t he r Sys t em Componen t s
tha t for a g i ven s i ze , a spec i f i c f r i ct i on loss
ent i a l s be t ween the in l et and out l e t pres- t ap
Al l sys t em componen t s tha t have wa t e r wi l l be rea l i zed a t any f l ow.
sures ( i . e ., a f r i ct i on loss t hrough the va l ve 'i
f l ow i ng t hrough t hem wi l l have some f r ic-
mus t occur in order for mos t au t oma t i c 6 . 5 Con t ro l W i r e and Con t ro l
t i on l oss . I f the po i nt of connec t i on is a
va l ves to opera t e) . The ma i n conce rn when Tub i ng S i z i ng
pot ab l e wa t e r supp l y w i t h a me t er , t he f r ic-
s i z i ng va l ves is to de t e rm i ne how much
t i on loss t hrough t he me t e r mus t be ca l cu-
pressure ( f r i ct ion loss) can be lost wh i l e st i l l Jus t as f r i ct ion l osses occur in p i pe , vo l t age
l ated, a l ong w i th the p i pe f r i ct i on loss f rom
ach i ev i ng t he des i red work i ng pressure at drops occur t hrough e l ect r i ca l w i re . I f a cur -
 750 - 10
rent is i ncreased by star t i ng severa l va l ves
on one sta t i on , t he vo l t age drop wi l l
i ncrease . The numbe r of va l ves tha t can be
Tab l e 750 -3 . MAX I MUM CONTROLLER TO SOLENO I D W I RE LENGTH , FT opera t ed on one st a t i on depend on the s i ze
of the t rans f ormer and the i nrush ampe r -
age requ i remen t of t he so l eno i d (va l ve)
Max i mum numbe r o f so l eno i ds ac t i va t ed
s i mu l t aneous l y by con t ro l l e r = M (Tab l e 750-3) . Th i s i n forma t i on shou l d be
furn i shed by the manu f ac t ure r .
M=1
W i r e no sma l l er t han No . 18 gauge OF
Coppe r w i r e s i ze Con t ro l l e r ou t pu t vo l t age (VAC) (d i rec t bur i a l ) shou l d be used in i r r i gat i on
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 29 sys t ems , no t because a sma l l er -gauge w i re
Con t ro l Common
is i nadequa t e , bu t because sma l l er -gauge
18 225 450 667 890 1112 1335 1557 1780
18 w i re is mor e eas i l y k i nked or broken dur i ng
18 16 273 546 819 1092 1366 1639 1912 2185
707 1061 1415 1768 2122 2476 2829
i nsta l l at i on . Sma l l er gauges are a l so mor e
16 16 354
16 14 431 861 1292 1723 2153 2584 3015 3446 suscept i b l e to n i cks and scrapes because of
14 14 550 1101 1651 2202 2753 3303 3854 4404 a th i nner i nsu l a t i on j acke t . A 0 . 25- ampe re
14 12 677 1353 2029 2706 3382 4058 4735 5411 i nrush so l eno i d and a No . 14 gauge w i re
10 789 1578 2367 3156 3946 4735 5524 6313
14 are idea l for a run o f 2 300 m (7500 f t ) . A
12 12 877 1753 2630 3507 4384 5261 6138 7014
run of 760 m (2500 f t ) cou l d be ach i eved
Con t ro l Common M=2 w i t h a so l eno i d requ i r i ng a 0 . 847- ampe r e
i nrush .
18 18 112 222 333 445 556 667 779 890
18 16 137 273 409 546 683 819 956 1092
For runs l onger t han 2 300 m (7500 f t ) ,
16 16 177 353 530 707 884 1061 1238 1415
16 14 216 430 646 861 1007 1292 1507 1723
w i re gauges l arger t han No . 14 mus t be
14 14 276 550 826 1101 1376 ' 1652 1927 2202 used . In l arge sys t ems w i th cont ro l l ers f ar
14 12 338 676 1014 1353 1691 2029 2367 2706 away f rom the powe r source , or in cen-
14 10 394 789 1183 1578 1973 2367 2762 3156 t ra l / sa te l l i te sys t ems (descr i bed in 7 .3
12 12 439 877 1315 1754 2192 2630 3069 3507
Cont ro l l ers of th i s sec t i on) , the w i re mus t
Con t ro l Common M = 3 be cor rec t l y s i zed f rom the source to t he
cont ro l l er as we l l as f rom the cont ro l l er to
18 18 74 148 222 297 371 445 519 593
the so l eno i d (va l ve) . The manu f ac t ure r
18 16 91 182 273 364 455 546 637 728
16 117 235 353 471 589 707 825 943
shou l d i nd i ca t e the ampe r age requ i remen t s
16
16 14 143 287 430 574 718 861 1005 1148 for va l ves and cont ro l sate l l i tes or shou l d
14 14 183 367 550 734 918 1101 1285 1468 supp l y char t s or formu l as for de t erm i n i ng
226 451 676 902 1127 1353 1578 1804
14 12 the mos t e f f i c i ent w i re s i ze a t var i ous po i nt s
14 10 263 526 789 1052 1315 1578 1841 2104
t hroughou t the pro j ec t .
12 12 293 584 877 1169 1461 1754 2046 2338

In a hydrau l i c sys t em , 5 mm (1/4- in) tub-

" D i v i de d i s t ance i n f ee t by 3 . 28 to conve r t to me t e rs . i ng is the s t andard-s i ze l ine used to cont ro l
" Tab l e is based on so l eno i d consump t i on o f 8 . 5VA (0 . 35 amp ) . va l ves . The l ength f rom the cont ro l l er to
" W i r e s i zes sma l l e r t han no. 14 ( f i rst f our rows) may no t car ry t he UL l i st ing for d i rec t bur i a l app l i ca t i on .
" ' Examp l e : A con t ro l l er is ac t i va t i ng t wo so l eno i ds s i mu l t aneous l y and t he ou t pu t is 25 VAC . Us i ng 14-14
t he va l ves shou l d no t exceed 300 m
w i res , t he max i mum run is 1376 f t (419 m) . 0 000 f t ) .

r
 750 - 11

7 . 0 SPR I NKLER I RR I GAT I ON

SYSTEM (DES I GN

7 .1 Spr i nk l e r Head Se l ec t i on and

Layou t

Spr i nk l er head se l ec t i on and l ayout is t he

mos t di f f i cul t aspec t of spr i nk l er i r r i gat i on
sys t em des i gn . Se l dom wi l l an area l end
i tse l f per f ec t l y to a par t i cu l ar gr i d spac i ng ,
whe t he r t r i angu l ar or square , and se l dom is
an area f ree of ob j ec t s such as t rees , wa l k -
ways , and bu i l d i ngs .

The f i rst s t ep in the se l ec t i on and l ayout

of spr i nk l er heads is to d i v i de the area to be
i r r i ga ted i nto zones tha t have s i mi l ar wa t e r
requ i rement s , e .g ., l awn areas , shrub areas ,
and d i f f erent exposures to the sun . Whe r e
poss i b l e , the use of l arge- rad i us heads
shou l d be cons i dered f i rst , s i nce the i r use
wi l l progress i ve l y decrease t he cos t of the
sys t em on a square - foo t bas i s . Tr i angu l ar
spac i ng is mor e e f f i c i ent t han square spac -
ing, a l t hough many areas l end themse l ves
to squa re spac i ng (such as the sma l l rec t an-
gu l ar areas typ i ca l of mos t res i dent i a l and
sma l l comme rc i a l pro j ec ts) .

The mos t i mpor t an t ob j ec t i ve when l ay-

i ng ou t spr i nk l ers is the even d i st r i but i on of
wa t e r . Spr i nk l ers tha t produce d i f f erent
prec i p i ta t i on ra tes shou l d no t be used in the
same zone . Spr i nk l er - to-spr i nk l er d i men-
s i ons shou l d be based on manu f ac turer ' s
recommenda t i ons , w i th dev i a t i ons for w i nd
ve l oc i t y. Spac i ng for t r i angu l ar and square
pa t t erns var i es w i th brand and mode l .

When des i gn i ng w i th s i ng l e - row spac i ng

t hrough the cent er of an area , on l y abou t
two- th i rds of the rad i us wi l l g i ve e f f ec t i ve

n
O

g
 7SO - 12
par t i cu l ar heads in re l a t i on to ful l -c i rc l e are rea l i zed, f ew manua l sys t ems are now
heads on the same l ine . When the nozz l e des i gned excep t for spec i a l c i rcums t ances .
s i ze is decreased , t he rad i us a l so decreases
and mus t be accoun t ed for in the des i gn . Au t oma t i c Sys t ems :
Unde r such c i rcums t ances , i t is bes t to i so- In theory , au t oma t i c sys t ems are much
l ate heads w i th s i mi l ar arcs in one zone and mor e e f f i c i ent than manua l sys t ems s i nce
to ba l ance t he zones a t the cont ro l l er ; for
opt i ma l wa t e r requ i remen t s can be sat i sf i ed
examp l e , fu l l -head zones wou l d be pro- by progr amm i ng a cont ro l l er. Cont ro l l ers
gr ammed to wa t e r 4 t i mes as l ong as quar - can send s i gna l s to t he va l ves in t wo ways :
t er -head zones . e l ect r i ca l l y t hrough w i res or hydrau l i ca l l y
F l ood and s t ream bubb l ers are o f t en t hrough cont ro l tub i ng (see F i gures 750-15
used to wa t e r sma l l shrub areas and to and 750-16) . Mos t areas of the wor l d pre-
wa t e r p l ant s tha t pre f er dry fo l i age (F i gure dom i nan t l y use e l ect r i c i ty, a l t hough there
750-11) . Bubb l ers em i t wa t e r a t a much are excep t i ons . For reasons of ava i l ab i l i ty ,
f ast er ra te t han the soi l can absorb i t and e l ect r i ca l sys t ems do not i nc l ude t he rmohy -
are used on l y to f l ood an area rap i d l y. drau l i c sys t ems , and hydrau l i c sys t ems do
Bubb l ers do no t wor k we l l on s l op i ng not i nc l ude norma l l y c l osed hydrau l i c sys-
ground . Pressure - compensa t i ng bubb l ers t ems . (These are cont ro l sys t ems once
shou l d be used in areas w i th pot ent i a l pres- ava i l ab l e in who l e produc t , but now ava i l -
sure f l uc tua t i ons or h i gh pressures . ab l e on l y for rep l acemen t .)

Severa l f ea tures of spr i nk l er heads are E l ec t r i ca l sys t ems:

common l y ava i l ab l e wh i ch requ i re cons i d-
The advan t ages of e l ec t r i ca l sys t ems
era t i on by the des i gner :
i nc l ude :
1 . St a t i onary heads versus pop -up
1 . Fas t er response t i me
heads ( i f pop-up , how h i gh?)
2 . Longe r runs be t ween cont ro l l er and
2 . F i l t rat i on
va l ve
3 . Ease o f ma i n t enance
3 . Ease of use w i th so l i d-st a t e con-
4 . Gua ran t ee t ro l l ers

5 . Type o f ma t er i a l (brass , p l ast i c , 4. Una f f ec t ed by e l eva t i on

sta i n l ess stee l , e t c .)
5 . Norma l l y c l osed sys t em ( i f a cont ro l
6 . Pos i t i ve re t rac t i on for pop-ups w i re is severed , t he va l ve wi l l
rema i n c l osed)
7 . Ang l e of t ra j ec tory
The d i sadvan t ages of e l ect r i ca l sys t ems
8 . Exposed sur f ace area
i nc l ude :
9 . Speed of rot a t i on
1 . Suscept i b l e to l i ghtn i ng damage
10 . D i st r i but i on curve 2 . Suscept i b l e to d i r ty wa t e r c l ogg i ng
11 . Ad j us t men t (arc and rad i us) t he or i f i ces wh i ch a l l ow the va l ve to
open and c l ose ( through the use o f
12 . Bu i l t - in check va l ve to preven t con t am i na t i on- res i s t an t va l ves
l ow-head dra i nage wh i ch have t wo noncon t i nua l
b l eed- through or i f i ces tha t make
13 . Vanda l res i st ance
opera t i on l ess suscept i b l e to d i r ty
14 . Gear , i mpac t , cam , or ba l l dr i ves wa t er ) .
15 . Pressure compensa t i on 7 . 3 Con t ro l l e rs
F i gures 750-8 t hrough 750-11 show Cont ro l l ers are progr ammed to de t e rm i ne
typ i ca l examp l es of var i ous t ypes of con-
when to wa t er , how l ong to wa t er , and the
n cove rage . Consequent l y , s i ng l e- row spac i ng vent i ona l spr i nk l ers .
t i me(s) of day to beg i n wa t e r i ng . Many
O shou l d on l y be used in spec i a l c i rcums t ances. opt i ona l f ea tures are ava i l ab l e for con-
7 . 2 Con t ro l Sys t ems
t ro l l ers . Genera l l y , the mor e f ea tures a con-
Many spray heads have ma t ched prec i p-
g i tat i on rates , a l l ow i ng quar t er -c i rc l e heads Manua l Sys t ems: t ro l l er has , the mor e comp l i ca t ed the pro-
r to be used on the same l ine as ha l f - and gr amm i ng becomes .
Manua l sys t ems requ i re an i nd i v i dua l to
ful l -c i rc l e heads . Howeve r , rot ary heads On l arge pro j ec ts , a cent ra l / sa te l l i te sys-
open and c l ose a va l ve by hand . S i nce man -
may not be ma t ched ; consequent l y , wa t e r t em is o f t en used . A cent ra l cont ro l l er sends
ua l sys t ems are rare l y as e f f i c i ent as au to-
d i st r i but i on w i th rot ary heads mus t be ba l - s i gna l s to sate l l i te cont ro l l ers regard i ng the
ma t i c sys t ems and no s i gn i f i cant cost sav i ngs
anced by us i ng a sma l l er nozz l e s i ze for day and st ar t i ng t i me(s) to wa t er , w i th on l y
 7SO - 1 3
the sta t i on ' s run t i me se t a t the sate l l i te .
These sys t ems are a l so ava i l ab l e w i t h many
f ea tures to sat i sfy spec i f i c requ i remen t s .

7 .4 Va l ves
Manua l Va l ves :

Ga t e va l ves are used as eme rgency shutof f

va l ves or as i so l a t i on va l ves and are not
des i gned for regu l ar use (F i gure 750-12) .
S i nce there is no rubbe r sea t or washer , f re-
quen t usage wi l l crea t e wea r and cause the
va l ve to l eak . Ga t e va l ves are used ma i n l y
because they have a l mos t no f r i ct i on l oss .

Ba l l va l ves are s i mi l ar to ga t e va l ves in

tha t l i t t le f r i ct i on l oss ex i sts . Howeve r , ba l l
va l ves are advan t ageous in tha t f requen t
usage is l ess apt to cause l eakage . Ba l l
va l ves are i ncreas i ng l y be i ng used in p l ace
of ga t e va l ves (F i gure 750-12) .

G l obe or ang l e va l ves are used in manu -

a l sys t ems whe r e t he va l ve is used regu l ar -
ly (F i gure 750-13) . L i ke a hose b i bb , a
g l obe va l ve has a rep l aceab l e rubber wash-
er . G l obe va l ves are no t used as i so l a t i on
va l ves s i nce there is cons i derab l y mor e f r i c-
t i on loss than w i th a ba l l or ga t e va l ve . An
ang l e va l ve is s i mp l y a g l obe va l ve whose
in l et is at the bo t t om of the va l ve w i th an
ex i t at t he s i de . Less f r i ct i on loss occurs
w i th an ang l e va l ve t han w i th a st ra i ght
g l obe va l ve . O f t en , an ang l e va l ve wi l l be
connec t ed to an a t mosphe r i c vacuum
breaker as one un i t . Loca l codes wi l l d i c t a t e
such an insta l l at ion, bu t it is usua l l y 150
mm (6 in) above the h i ghes t out l e t .

Au t oma t i c dra i n va l ves are spec i a l va l ves

wh i ch are some t i mes used in geograph i c
reg i ons w i th f reez i ng c l i ma t es (F i gure 750-
14) . Such va l ves dra i n the wa t e r in the l ine
each t i me the sys t em is shut of f . In heavy
soi ls, howeve r , th i s can crea t e a prob l em of
excess i ve we t ness dur i ng seasons when t he
sys t em is in use . To be e f fec t i ve , au t oma t i c
dra i n va l ves shou l d be l oca t ed a t al l the sys-
t em l ow po i nt s . The bes t me t hod for e l i mi -
na t i ng wa t e r in the l ines is phys i ca l l y to
b l ow ou t the sys t em w i th an a i r compressor
be fore heavy f rosts occur .

Gas cocks are spec i a l va l ves o f t en used

by manu f ac ture rs of back f l ow dev i ces and
n
pressure vacuum breakers for t est i ng pur -
O
poses . They are a l so occas i ona l l y used on
l atera l l ines on hi l l y s i tes to reduce excess
pressure on l ong downh i l l runs . g

Check va l ves are used on hi l l y s i tes to r

preven t l ow-head dra i nage .
 750 - 1 4

Au t oma t i c Va l ves : of f t he or i f i ce . Wa t e r is forced t hrough the

or i f i ce f ast er than i t can ent er t hrough the
E l ect r i c va l ves are ac t i va t ed by an e l ect r i c
sma l l er or i f i ce , and the d i aphr agm (or p i s-
cur rent sent f rom a cont ro l l er (F i gure 750 - ton) is pushed up to open the va l ve . Dur i ng
15) . A l t hough e l ect r i c cur rent is i nvo l ved ,
opera t i on , a s t eady s t ream of wa t e r is pass-
hydrau l i c forces ac tua l l y open and c l ose the i ng t hrough both or i f i ces .
va l ve . Ins i de the va l ve is a d i aphr agm (or
p i ston) wh i ch moves up or down to open or El ect r i c va l ves are sub j ec t to c l ogg i ng by
c l ose the va l ve . The d i aphr agm (or p i ston) is d i r ty wa t e r even t hough a f i l ter is usua l l y
des i gned to have a grea t er sur f ace area on i nsta l l ed on the i nt ake or i f i ce (or a me t er i ng
the uppe r chambe r than on t he l owe r area p i n t hrough the or i f i ce) to c l ean the or i f i ce
wh i ch rests on the va l ve sea t . A sma l l or i f i ce each t i me the va l ve opens or c l oses . In
connec t s the uppe r and l owe r por t i ons of some sys t ems t he so l eno i d p l unge r cont ro l s
n the va l ve so tha t pressure is equa l i zed both or i f i ces, thereby e l i m i na t i ng the con-
O be t ween the t wo . The grea t er sur f ace area st ant s t ream of wa t e r pass i ng t hrough the
of the t op por t i on crea t es a mechan i ca l or i f i ce wh i l e the va l ve is on . Howeve r , an
Rf advan t age and causes the va l ve to c l ose . e l ect r i c va l ve is st i l l us i ng sys t em wa t e r to
g
i Another , l arger or i f i ce connec t s the uppe r open and c l ose .
chambe r and the downs t r eam por t i on of
Hydrau l i c va l ves are norma l l y ope ra t ed
the va l ve . A so l eno i d-ac t i va t ed p l unger s i ts
by wa t e r o ther than the i r r i ga t i on wa t e r
over th i s or i f i ce ; when the so l eno i d is ac t i -
(F i gure 750 -16) . There fore , there is no
va t ed by e l ect r i c i ty, an e l ec t romagne t i c f i e ld
sma l l or i f i ce to c l og . The d i aphr agm (or p i s-
is crea t ed w i th i n i t wh i ch l i f ts the p l unger
ton) st i l l has a grea t er sur f ace area in the
 750- 1 5
3 . No t sub j ec t to cor ros i on .

4 . Re l a t i ve l y i nexpens i ve .

5 . Uses ex t erna l so l vent we l d f i t t ings .

6 . F l ex ib i l i ty.
7 . Durab i l i t y.

PVC is ava i l ab l e v i a t wo d i f f erent des i g-

na t i ons : schedu l e p i pe or c l ass p i pe .
Schedu l e PVC p i pe (e .g . , SCH40 and
SCH80) means tha t the wa l l th i ckness is t he
same as in stee l p i pe a t the same schedu l e
and p i pe s i ze . In the des i gn of i r r i gat i on
sys t ems , schedu l e p i pe is used pr i mar i l y for
precut t hreaded n i pp l es for spr i nk l er r i sers
in shrub beds . C l ass PVC p i pe is cus tomar i -
ly des i gna t ed for o ther par ts of t he i r r iga-
t i on sys t em because c l ass p i pe is des i gna t -
ed by pressure ra t i ngs (such as CL160 ,
CL200 , and CL315) .

Po l ye thy l ene (PE) P i pe:

Po l ye thy l ene p i pe is w i de l y used because i t

is eas i l y pu l l ed i nto t he ground w i t h a
v i bra t i ng p l ow (i .e ., i t is very f l ex i b l e) . In
co l d c l i ma t es , po l ye thy l ene p i pe is of t en
used i ns t ead o f PVC for l atera l l ines s i nce i t
is no t near l y as sub j ec t to damage f rom
f reez i ng .

The mos t common c l asses of po l ye thy l -

ene p i pe used are CL80 and CL100 ;
a l though CL120 is some t i mes ava i l ab l e ,
connec t i ng the f i t t i ngs to CL120 is d i f f i cu l t .
uppe r chambe r and uses t he same mechan- Po l ye thy l ene p i pe uses i nterna l , ba rbed f i t -
i ca l advan t age to shut the va l ve . Howeve r , t i ngs wh i ch mus t be secured by sta i n l ess-
the wa t e r used t o cont ro l the va l ve comes stee l c l amps or o ther t i ght en i ng dev i ces .
f rom ano t he r source , poss i b l y a c l ean Because of the i nt erna l f i t t ings, t he f l ow
po t ab l e supp l y , whe r eas the i r r i ga t i on charac t er i st i cs o f po l ye thy l ene p i pe are not
wa t e r may or i g i na t e f rom an a l gae - l aden as good as PVC .
pond .
Coppe r P i pe:
The wa t e r used for t he cont ro l sys t em
shou l d be c l ean and unde r the same or Type K coppe r p i pe is used mos t common -
grea t er pressure than the sys t em wa t e r ly for i r r i gat i on purposes and has the th i ck-
pressure . S i nce on l y a f ew t ab l espoons fu l of est wa l l of al l coppe r p i pe s i zes . Type L and
wa t e r are used each t i me a va l ve is ac t i va t - Type M coppe r p i pe are a l so used occa -
ed , the cos t of pot ab l e wa t e r is not a factor , s i ona l l y.
whe reas i t wou l d be i f pot ab l e wa t e r we r e
Coppe r is common l y used in s i tua t i ons
used for the sys t em . Because there is no whe r e the p i pe wi l l be exposed to sun l i ght ,
or i f i ce to c l og w i th i r r i ga t i on wa t er , norma l - such as when moun t i ng a vacuum breaker
ly open hydrau l i c va l ves are the bes t to use or as a r i ser for shrub heads .
w i th d i r ty wa t e r .
Ga l van i zed St ee l P i pe: n
7 . 5 P i pe O
S i nce ga l van i zed stee l p i pe is h i gh l y suscep-
Po l yv i ny l Ch l or i de (PVC) P i pe : t ib l e to de t er i ora t i on caused by m i nera l s in
the wa t er , i t is se l dom used excep t as r i sers .g
PVC p i pe has become t he s t andard in the i
for shrub heads and in areas w i th a h i gh r
i r r i gat i on i ndus t ry for severa l reasons :
pot ent i a l for vanda l i sm .
1 . Exce l l ent f l ow charac ter i st i cs .
0
2 . Re l a t i ve l y l i ghtwe i ght (easy to wor k
w i th) .
 75 0- 1 6
Asbestos Cemen t (AC) P i pe:
Because asbes tos cemen t p i pe is d i f f i cu l t to Tab l e 750 -4 . PUMP GRAPH : H I GH HEAD
insta l l and not pract i ca l , i t is se l dom used
excep t to repa i r ex i s t i ng sys t ems . D i scha rge pressure Dynam i c suc t i on l ift, ga l l ons pe r m i nu t e

Cast - i ron P i pe: Hp Ps i Fee t Head 5 ft l of t 15 f t 20 f t 25 f t

20 46 .2 47 45 43 40 38
Cas t - i ron p i pe is used a round pump i ng sta- 1 30 69 .3 36 33 31 27 23
t i ons whe r e p i pe is sub j ec t to thrus t . The 40 92 .4 21 16 10 - -
connec t i ons are f l anged and f as t ened w i th 20 46 .2 58 56 54 51 48
1 Yz 30 69 .3 47 44 41 38 34
bo l ts .
40 92 .4 31 27 21 12 -
Thrus t b l ocks are used to d i st r i but e pres- 20 46.2 71 68 66 62 60
2 30 69.3 61 57 55 51 47
sures even l y to f i rm ground a l ong the
40 92 .4 45 40 36 31 26
t rench wa l l . They shou l d be bu i l t in wedge 22 15 - - -
50 115 .5
form, w i th the w i des t area a l ong the so l i d 20 46 .2 78 76 73 71 68
t rench wa l l . A s t andard m i x wou l d cons i st 2h 30 69 .3 67 64 61 58 54
of 1 par t por t l and cemen t , 2 par ts washed 40 92 .4 52 48 44 40 36
sand , and 5 par ts washed grave l (F i gure 50 115 .5 33 28 22 15 -
750-17) .
Concre te P i pe:
Conc re t e p i pe is used pr i mar i l y by wa t e r mm (12 in) , bu t l ess than 750 mm (30 in) , S i nce these dev i ces are mean t to be
above the h i ghes t out l e t . checked annua l l y by a cer t i f i ed tester , they
d i st r i cts for c i ty ma i n l i nes .
shou l d rema i n access i b l e .
Back-Pressure Dev i ces :
7 . 6 Back f l ow Pr even t or s
7 . 7 Supp l emen t a r y Equ i pmen t
Doub l e Check Va l ves : Doub l e check va l ves
As a consequence o f the f edera l C l ean
are no t approved for h i gh-hazard s i tua- Wa t er Me t ers :
Wa t e r Ac t , back f l ow preventors mus t be
t i ons , ye t some l oca l codes a l l ow the i r use
i nsta l l ed when wor k i ng w i th pot ab l e wa t e r A l t hough wa t e r me t e rs are no t used in i rr i -
in i r r i gat i on (F i gure 750-20) . Check va l ves
to prot ec t the pot ab l e supp l y f rom a cross ga t i on sys t ems per se , they are of conce rn
a l l ow wa t e r to f l ow in one d i rec t i on on l y.
connec t i on . Lega l l y , i r r i gat i on sys t ems are to t he des i gner because the me t er , the sta-
The second check va l ve is s i mp l y a sa f e ty
cons i dered to be a h i gh hazard . In mos t t i c pressure , and the f eed l ine f rom the
f ea ture in case t he f i rst check va l ve fa i ls .
cases , l oca l ord i nances wi l l d i c t a t e the t ype st ree t to the me t e r wi l l u l t i ma t e l y de t er -
Doub l e check back f l ow dev i ces do no t
of back f l ow preven tor to be i nsta l l ed . m i ne how much wa t e r is ava i l ab l e for the
have to be moun t ed above the h i ghes t out -
Back f l ow preven tors are ca t egor i zed i nto l et but shou l d be access i b l e for t est i ng pur - i r r i gat i on sys t em . The f r i ct i on l oss t hrough
the me t e r mus t a l so be ca l cu l a t ed when
one of t wo d i st i nc t t ypes : an t i s i phon poses .
dev i ces and back -pressure dev i ces . tot a l i ng al l f r i ct i on l osses .
Reduced-Pressure Back f l ow Dev i ce (RP) :
Reduced-pressure dev i ces are approved for The amoun t of wa t e r ava i l ab l e for an
Ant i s i phon Dev i ces :
h i gh-hazard s i tua t i ons and are genera l l y i r r i gat i on sys t em is de t e rm i ned by t ak i ng a
At mosphe r i c Vacuum Breaker (AVB) : accep t ed as the sures t sa f eguard aga i ns t stat i c pressure read i ng , no t i ng t he me t e r
At mosphe r i c vacuum breakers mus t be back f l ow for i r r i gat i on purposes (F i gure s i ze , and no t i ng t he s i ze and t ype of p i pe
moun t ed downs t r eam of any va l ve and be 750-21) . Reduced-pressure dev i ces are a l so com i ng i nto the me t e r . The fo l l ow i ng three
pos i t i oned in 6 in (150 mm) above the the mos t expens i ve and have t he grea t es t cr i ter i a are t hen addressed ; the mos t cr i t i ca l
h i ghes t out l e t (F i gure 750-18) . An AVB has f r i ct i on loss of al l back f l ow dev i ces . of the three [i . e ., the sma l l es t gpm f i gure]
a f l oa t wh i ch sea l s aga i ns t a sea t unde r wi l l de t e rm i ne the ava i l ab l e wa t e r :
pressure bu t wh i ch wi l l drop down by grav- L i ke doub l e check va l ves , reduced-pres-
sure dev i ces have t wo check va l ves , but the 1. Sevent y- f i ve percent of the sa f e f l ow
i ty when the pressure ceases , t he reby
f i rst va l ve has a s t ronger spr i ng t han the of the me t e r char t shou l d not be
a l l ow i ng a i r to en t er the l ine and break any
second in order to crea t e a pressure d i f fer - exceeded . (Use the me t e r char t .)
vacuum ho l d downs t r eam .
ent i a l be t ween the t wo check va l ves . 2. The pressure loss t hrough the me t e r
Pressure Vacuum Breaker (PVB) : The Shou l d pressure ever vary f rom tha t des i red shou l d never exceed 10 percent of the
on l y func t i ona l d i f f erence be t ween an AVB be t ween the t wo va l ves , a pressure- re l i e f stat i c pressure . (Use the me t e r char t .)
and a PVB is a sma l l spr i ng tha t ass i sts the va l ve wi l l open and dump the wa t e r to the
n force of grav i t y in ge t t i ng the f l oa t to drop a t mosphe r e . No t h i ng shou l d be connec t ed 3. The wa t e r in the serv i ce l ine shou l d
O down a f t er pressure has been r emoved to the re l i ef va l ve . no t exceed 1 .52 m l s (5 fps) t hough i t
(F i gure 750-19) . Al so , ga t e or ba l l va l ves is some t i mes necessary to exceed th i s
and test cocks are added so tha t the un i t To preven t f l ood i ng o f a basemen t or due to f l ow l i mi ta t i ons o f sma l l serv i ce
g
can be t es t ed for re l i abi l i ty . Pressure vacu- area whe r e t he reduced-pressure dev i ce is l ines and the needs of the spr i nk l er
um breakers may be moun t ed ups t ream of l oca t ed , an a i r gap shou l d ex i st be t ween sys t em . I t may be pruden t to spec i f y a
va l ves , and they are usua l l y pre f erab l e to the check va l ve and dra i n l ine to perm i t the new serv i ce l ine i f the ex i s t i ng l ine
a t mosphe r i c vacuum breakers because on l y wa t e r to f l ow to a dra i n . Reduced-pressure supp l i es i nsuf f i c i ent wa t e r due to s i ze
one per source is necessary. Pressure vacu- dev i ces shou l d no t be l oca t ed in a pi t or in or m i nera l bu i l dup .
um breakers mus t be moun t ed a t l east 300 any area tha t m i gh t be subme rged in wa t e r .
 750 - 1 7
Pumps.

Tab l e 750 -5 . CL I MACT I C FACTORS RELATED TO WATER USE I f an ex i st i ng pump is to be the wa t e r

source for an i r r i ga t i on sys t em, the manu -
C l i ma t e Ave r age peak Po t en t i a l fac turer , horsepower , and mode l mus t be
t ype t empe r a t ur e , OF Hum i d i t y use , i n / day
not ed , and a pump curve mus t be l oca t ed
Ve ry coo l 50° -60° Hum i d 0 . 10 so tha t the pressure and f l owra t e ( I /s or
Coo l 70° -80° Med i um- hum i d 0 . 20 gpm) can be i dent i f i ed (F i gure 750 - 22 and
Mode r a t e 80° -90° Med i um- hum i d 0 . 25 Tab l e 750-4) . The t ype o f pump t o use
Ho t 9o° -100° Med i um- hum i d 0 . 30 depends on the numbe r of hours per day
H i gh deser t 90° -100° Dr y 0 . 35
100°+ Dr y 0 . 40
ava i l ab l e for i r r i gat i on ; a pump tha t wi l l sa t -
Low deser t
i sfy th i s requ i remen t dur i ng the mos t cr i t i -
ca l t i me of the year shou l d be used . Be fore
t he sys t em is ac tua l l y des i gned , a ca l cu l a-
Tab l e 750 - 6 . PLANT FACTOR ( RES I STANCE TO STRESS)
t i on has to be made to de t e rm i ne the pre-
P l an t f ac t or Types o f p l an t s c i p i ta t i on ra te of the spr i nk l er heads i nt end-
ed and the numbe r of hours per week tha t
1 .0 Evergreens , f rui t t rees , sma l l shrubs , v i nes , perenn i a l s , and l ush ground cove r
0 . 70 New l y p l an t ed na t i ve p l ant s in sem i ar i d and and reg i ons; ornamen t a l or wa t e r i ng is requ i red . Th i s wi l l de t e rm i ne the
shade t rees and shrubs na t i ve to mor e hum i d areas approx i ma t e numbe r of zones to be i r r igat -
0 . 40 Es t ab l i shed p l ants na t i ve to t he a rea ed and the ave rage s i ze of each zone . The
f l owra t e of an average -s i ze zone p l us 10
percen t wi l l prov i de enough i n forma t i on to
de t e rm i ne t ent a t i ve l y the pump s i ze neces-
Tab l e 750 -7 . sary . When the des i gn is f i n i shed , an exac t
I RR I GAT I ON EFF I C I ENCY pump s i ze can be de t e rm i ned .
C l i ma t e Fac t or In genera l t erms , a pump opera t es by
Hot , dry , and h i gh-deser t 0. 85 sp i nn i ng i ts mo tor -dr i ven i mpe l l er so tha t a
Mode r a t e and ho t 0 . 90 pressure l ess t han a t mosphe r i c pressure is
Coo l and very coo l 0 . 95 crea t ed a t the eye of the i mpe l l er , whe r eby
the a t mosphe r i c pressure exer t ed upon a
body of wa t e r out s i de of the pump forces
the wa t e r up i nto the pump ' s suc t i on l ine .
For th i s to work , t he i mpe l l er mus t be sub-
Tab l e 750 -8 .
me rged in wa t e r (i .e ., pr i med) and the suc-
EM I TTER S I ZES , NUMBERS , AND OPERAT I NG T I MES ( EXAMPLE )
t i on l ine mus t be f i l l ed . Un l ess i t is a se l f -
pr i m i ng pump , a pump wi l l not wor k i f i t
Em i t t e r Em i t t e r Ope r a t i ng
So i l t ype numbe r X t ype , gph X t i me , hr = Gph l oses wa t e r in the suc t i on l ine ( i .e . , l oses
pr i me) ; a se l f -pr i m i ng pump has a reservo i r
C l ay 2 X 1 X 15 = 30
Mode r a t e 2 X 2 X 7 .5 30 in i ts vo l ut e case ( i mpe l l er hous i ng) so tha t
Sandy 5 X 2 X 3 = 30 pr i me canno t be l ost even i f wa t e r does no t
rema i n in the suc t i on l ine . Usua l l y , a foot
va l ve is i nsta l l ed a t the base of t he suc t i on
l ine to prevent l os i ng pr i me.
Tab l e 750 - 9 . I RR I GAT I ON DURAT I ON FOR PLANTS I N CONTA I NERS (M I N )
Because i mpe l l ers do no t crea t e a per f ec t
So i l t ype vacuum and because a t mosphe r i c pressure
Em i t t e r
Con t a i ne r f l ow s i ze , at sea l eve l is abou t 9 .5 m (32 f t ) of wa t er ,
s i ze , ga l Gph Sandy Med i um Heavy Po t t i ng
no pump wi l l func t i on i f p l aced 9 .5 m (32
1 0 .5 3 5 11 2 f t ) above wa t e r l eve l . Cent r i fuga l pumps
2 0 .5 6 10 25 5 shou l d be p l aced as c l ose to wa t e r l eve l as
5 1 .0 8 15 30 6 poss i b l e for max i mum e f f i c i ency. Ef f i c i ency
15 1 .0 25 40 90 20
40 75 150 30
curves on a pump char t re fer to the ne t
25 1 .0
pos i t i ve suc t i on head (NPSH) ; in rea l i ty, th i s
is se l dom ove r 5 .4 to 6 .0 m (18 to 20 f t ) . I f
the wa t e r is much deepe r (as in a we l l ) , a n
Tab l e 750 - 10 . FREQUENCY FOR PLANTS I N CONTA I NERS (DAYS) O
ver t i ca l turb i ne pump is used (wh i ch has a
So i l t ype l ong sha f t and an i mpe l l er or a ser i es of
i mpe l l ers a t t ached a t the end of the sha f t ) ;
C l i ma t e Sandy Med i um Heavy Po t t i ng .
the sha f t runs down the we l l cas i ng and the i
2
L
Ve ry coo l 2 3 8 i mpe l l er l ies in t he wa t e r . Pumps a l ways
Coo l 1h 2 6 1
1
have an eas i er t i me push i ng wa t e r t han
Mode r a t e 1& 2 6
1 suck i ng i t.
Ho t t 2 5
H i gh-deser t 1 l 4 1
Low-dese r t 1 1 3 1
 F i gur e 750 -23 . So i l we t t i ng a r eas
based on so i l t ype .
In regard to pumps , pressure is usua l l y
expressed in t e rms of foot head (FH) , wh i ch
is mu l t i p l i ed by 0 . 433 to conver t to ps i .
Des i gners con f ron t ed w i th l arge uph i l l
e l eva t i on changes or i nsuf f i c i ent stat i c pres-
sure of t en use cent r i fuga l pumps as boos t -
er pumps . The pressure a t a g i ven f l owra t e
on the pump curve can be added to the
ex i s t i ng pressure to ar r i ve a t the new
boos t ed pressure . S i nce a boos t er pump
does not crea t e wa t er , the f l owra t e wi l l
rema i n the same .

Pressure Regu l a tors :

When t he stat i c pressure is grea t er t han
necessary for the spr i nk l er heads of a sys-
t em, a pressure regu l a tor can be used to the spr i nk l er sys t em . For th i s reason , these Pot ent i a l use factor , a l so re f er red to as
l owe r t he pressure . I f t he pressure is exces- dev i ces are mos t e f f ec t i ve w i th dr i p i r r iga- the c l i ma t e f ac tor or the pot ent i a l evapo-
s i ve on l y in cer ta i n areas (due t o e l eva t i on t i on sys t ems . t ransp i ra t i on ra t e (PET) , re f ers to t he
or to the use of heads requ i r i ng l ow pres- amoun t of wa t e r requ i red by the p l ant for
sure) , a pressure regu l a t i ng va l ve can a l so 8 . 0 DR I P I RR I GAT I ON hea l thy grow t h (depend i ng on c l i ma t e) in
be used to r emedy the s i tua t i on . Pressure ( DES I GN PROCEDURE ) cent i me t ers ( i nches) per day (Tab l e 750-5) .
regu l a tors wi l l conver t a h i gh pressure to a
P l an t f ac tor re fers t o the wa t e r requ i re-
l owe r se t pressure and regu l a t e i t regard l ess 8 .1 Ca l cu l a t i ons
of any f l uc tua t i ons tha t may occur on the men t s of p l ant s . P l ant s are c l ass i f i ed
h i gh-pressure s i de of the sys t em . In dr i p i r r igat ion, i t is i mpor t an t to de t er - accord i ng to the i r res i st ance to st ress (Tab l e
m i ne t he amoun t of wa t e r tha t each p l ant 750-6) .
Va l ve Boxes: wi l l use and then to se l ec t the numbe r and I r r i ga t i on e f f i c i ency re f ers to the ab i l i ty
f l ow s i zes of t he em i t t ers tha t wi l l app l y the
of an i r r i gat i on sys t em to de l i ver wa t e r to
Va l ves shou l d no t be bur i ed be l ow ground wa t e r w i th i n a spec i f i ed per i od o f t i me . An p l ant s w i t hou t evapora t i on or o ther means
excep t unde r spec i a l c i rcums t ances . Va l ve i mpor t an t ru l e of t humb regard i ng dr i p i rr i -
of wa t e r l oss (Tab l e 750-7) .
boxes are des i gned to house i r r i ga t i on ga t i on des i gn is to a l ways des i gn wa t e r
va l ves and shou l d rema i n access i b l e for app l i ca t i ons so tha t at l east 50 percent of Examp l e o f ca l cu l a t i on for de t e rm i n i ng
ease of ma i n t enance (see F i gure 750-15) . the p l ant root zone wi l l be we t . t he da i l y wa t e r requ i remen t o f a p l an t :
Boxes are ava i l ab l e in a var i e ty of ma t er i a l s , G i ven a t ree w i th a 15- f t (4 . 6-m) canopy
and some have l ock i ng dev i ces for added Wa t e r Requ i r emen t of P l ant s: d i ame t er in a mode r a t e c l i ma t e ,
secur i ty. A f ormu l a for de t e rm i n i ng t he da i l y wa t e r
requ i remen t of a p l ant in l i ters (ga l l ons) per wa t e r 0 . 623 x
P i pe S l eeves / Chases : requ i remen t (152 x 0 . 7824 x)
day (m l h or gpd) is :
of p l ant 0 .25 x 1 .0
Wheneve r poss i b l e , p i pe s l eeves (chases) Wa t e r 0 . 623 x canopy area
shou l d be i nsta l l ed unde r s i dewa l ks , road- (gpd) 0 . 90
requ i remen t x pot ent i a l use
ways , park i ng lots, e t c ., for ease of sys t em of p l ant = ( i nches pe r day)
i nsta l l at i on and l ater ma i n t enance . P i pe GPD = 30 .5
(gpd) x p l ant f ac tor
n s l eeves shou l d be four p i pe s i zes l arger than De t e rm i n i ng the Numbe r o f Em i t t ers :
O the p i pe tha t wi l l run t hrough the s l eeve . i r r i gat i on e f f i c i ency
F i gure 750-23 shows t he shape and square
Chem i ca l In j ec t i on Dev i ces: Canopy area re f ers to t he square - foo t
g f oo t age (me t ers) of typ i ca l soi l we t t i ng
area or p l an-v i ew s i ze) of the p l ant . To ca l -
areas as a func t i on of soi l t ype . Genera l l y
a. In j ec t i on dev i ces are used to in j ect fer t i l i zer cu l a t e the area , square the d i ame t e r of the
or o ther chem i ca l s i nto the spr i nk l er sys- canopy and mu l t i p l y by 0 . 7854 . For exam- speak i ng , heavy soi l s have a l arger , sha l -
l owe r bu l b than sandy soi l s, wh i ch have a
t em . Such dev i ces are e i ther f l ow- regu l a t ed p l e , a t ree w i th a canopy d i ame t e r o f 3 m
(ventur i pr i nc i p l e) or phys i ca l l y i n j ec t ed by nar rower , l onger bu l b .
(10 f t ) wi l l have an area of 0 . 94 m , (78 . 54
a pump . The e f f ec t i veness of an i n j ec t i on ft') .
sys t em is d i rec t l y re l a t ed to the e f f i c i ency of
 750 - 1 9

The fo l l ow i ng f ormu l a is used to de t er - The t ree in a mode ra t e l y we l l -dra i ned 1 . The l atera l l eng ths shou l d no t
m i ne the numbe r of em i t t ers requ i red for soi l wi l l requ i re t wo 0 . 002- I / s (2-gph) em i t - exceed 60 m (200 f t ) .
any p l ant : ters for a per i od of 7 .5 hours . A sandy soi l
2 . The f l ow shou l d no t exceed 758 I /h
wi l l requ i re f i ve 0 . 002- I / s (2-gph) em i t t ers
Numbe r of em i t t ers = (3 .33 gpm or 200 gph) .
for a per i od of 3 hours . C l ay soi l s are a spe -
50 percent canopy area , f t ' (m l ) c i a l case because one 0 . 002- I / s (2-gph) 3 . The max i mum wor k i ng pressure
em i t t er cou l d cause runof f ; one so l ut i on shou l d be 276 kPa (40 ps i ) [pres-
soi l we t t ed area , f t ' (m2)
m i gh t be to use t wo 0 . 001- I / s (1-gph) sures ove r th i s amoun t shou l d be
Frac t i ona l va l ues for the numbe r of em i t t ers for a per i od of 15 hours . regu l a t ed] .
em i t t ers shou l d be rounded up to t he nex t
The dura t i on of i r r i gat i on can be reduced 4 . The l ine used shou l d be 15 mm ( ' /2
h i ghes t pos i t i ve i nt eger (as i l l ust rated in the
by add i ng mor e em i t t ers . In the t ree exam- in) PVC or po l ye thy l ene t ub i ng.
fo l l ow i ng examp l e ) .
p l e used , t en 0 . 001- I / s (1-gph) em i t t ers
Examp l e o f ca l cu l a t i on for de t e rm i n i ng wou l d sat i sfy the wa t e r requ i remen t s in 3 F i gure 750-24 prov i des a s i mp l i f i ed means
the numbe r o f em i t t ers requ i red (U.S . hours of runn i ng t i me (Tab l e 750-8) . to des i gn a dr i p i r r i gat i on sys t em . Tab l e
750-9 prov i des the dura t i on o f dr i p i r r iga-
un i ts) : G i ven a t ree w i th a 15- f t canopy
d i ame t er , whe r e the canopy area is 176.7 8 . 2 Des i gn Procedur e t i on ( in m i nu t es) for p l ant s grow i ng in con-
ta i ners . Tab l e 750-10 prov i des i n forma t i on
f t2 : The fo l l ow i ng procedure can be used to on t he f requency of wa t e r i ng requ i red for
For a sandy ( i . e ., we l l -dra i ned) soi l ; des i gn and l ay ou t dr i p i r r i ga t i on sys t ems p l ant s grow i ng in cont a i ners .
for sma l l comme rc i a l and res i dent i a l pro-
88 .3 f t ' j ec ts . Th i s procedure and the gu i de l i nes l ist -
Numbe r of em i t t ers = REFERENCES
20 f t ' ed be l ow are based upon the wa rmes t par t
of t he season , w i th i r r i gat i on occur r i ng Jensen , Ma rv i n E . Consump t i ve Use of
4 .4 = 5 em i t t ers Wa t e r & I r r i ga t i on Wa t e r Requ i remen t s ,
every day. Depend i ng on the soi l cond i -
t i ons , t he exposure , and seasona l change , Ame r i can Soc i e t y o f Ci v i l Eng i neers , New
For a mode ra t e l y we l l -dra i ned soi l ;
the f requency of i r r i gat i on may have to be York , 1973 .
88 .3 f t ' a l t ered . Pa i r , C l aude ( ed. ) . I r r i ga t i on , Spr i nk l er
Numbe r of em i t t ers =
60 f t ' Assoc i a t i on , K i mber l y , ID, 1983 .
Procedure :
=1 .5 --- 2 em i t t ers Sarsf i e l d , A . C . Che t t . ABC of Lawn
1 . Make an accura t e map of the area . Spr i nk l er Sys t ems , I r r i ga t i on Techn i ca l
For a heavy ( i . e ., poor l y dra i ned) soi l ; Serv i ces , La f aye t t e , CA , 1966.
2 . Loca t e al l p l ant ma t er i a l s and ind i -
88 .3 f t ' ca t e the i r p l ant c l ass i f i ca t i ons and Wa t k i ns , James A . Tur f I r r i ga t i on Manua l ,
Numbe r of em i t t ers = Te l sco l Wea therma t i c , Da l l as , TX, 1978 .
120 f t ' canopy s i zes .
Young , Vi rg i l E. Spr i nk l er I r r i ga t i on Sys t ems
0 .5 -~ 1 em i t t er 3 . Based on the map of the area , (3d ed .), Cra f t sman Press , Tacoma , WA ,
se l ec t the cor rec t numbe r o f em i t -
1976 .
De t e rm i n i ng t he F l owra t e: ters requ i red for each p l ant .
The fo l l ow i ng f ormu l a can be used to ca l - 4. On the map , l ay out the em i t t er
cu l a t e the F l owra t e and l ength of t i me to l oca t i ons to de t e rm i ne the f i t t ings
opera t e each em i t t er : and var i ous accurac i es requ i red .
l i ters /day (GPD) = numbe r of em i t t ers I mpor t an t Cons i de ra t i ons:
x em i t t er f l owra t e
x dura t i on o f i r r i gat i on The fo l l ow i ng gu i de l i nes wi l l he l p s i mp l i f y
the hydrau l i cs of sma l l i r r i ga t i on sys t ems :

n
O

cIS
g

0
 0
0
00
z
0

Ma t e r i a l s
Sec t i on Ed i tor :
Cha r l es W. Har r i s
Techn i ca l Wr i t e rs:
Tob i as Dayman
Ky l e D. Brown
Re f e rence:
Dr. Ph i l i p J . Cr au l
Au t hor , Urban So i l in Landscape Des i gn
Sen i or Lec turer in Landscape Arch i t ec t ure
Gr adua t e Schoo l o f Des i gn ,
Ha rva rd Un i vers i t y
Pr i or : Pro f essor o f So i l Sc i ence , SUNY ,
Syracuse , NY

Doug l as S . Way , Pro f essor o f LA

Oh i o St a t e Un i vers i t y , Co l umbus , OH

Ne i l Cavanaugh , PE . , Bra i nt ree , MA

Robe r t N. P i ne , P. E. , Wes t Ac t on , MA

CONTENTS
1 . 0 Int roduc t i on 4 .0 Aggr ega t es
1 .1 So i l s 4.1 Re l evan t Proper t i es of Aggrega t es
1 .2 Aggrega t es 4. 2 Common App l i ca t i ons
2 . 0 So i l C l ass i f i ca t i on Sys t ems Agenc i es and Organ i za t i ons s
2 .1 So i l Prof i l e Re f erences
2 .2 C l ass i f i ca t i on o f So i l by Or i g i n
2 .3 USDA Sys t em
2 .4 AASHTO Sys t em L
2 .5 Un i f i ed Sys t em
3 . 0 So i l Proper t i es
3 .1 Phys i ca l proper t i es a
3 .2 Proper t i es Re l a t ed to S i t e Eng i nee r i ng
& Cons t ruc t i on
3 .3 Proper t i es Re l a t ed to Hor t i cu l tura l
s
App l i ca t i ons
 810 - 2
1 .0 I NTRODUCT I ON

1 .1 So i l s

P
hys i ca l and chem i ca l proper t i es of
so i l s are i mpor t an t s i te de t erm i nan t s
i nf l uenc i ng the spat i a l a l l oca t i on of
l and uses , the des i gn and cons t ruc t i on of
st ruc tures , and the se l ec t i on and insta l l a-
t i on of p l ant ma t er i a l s .
Cer t a i n proper t i es of soi l s can be read i l y
deduced f rom know l edge of soi l type ,
wh i l e others can on l y be de t e rm i ned by
care fu l f i e ld and l abora tory test i ng , espe -
c i a l l y urban soi l s wh i ch are not present l y
mapped excep t in rare cases . The proper -
t i es o f a soi l tha t are re l evant to cons i der
depend on t he t ype of l and use and deve l -
opmen t proposed .

1 . 2 Aggr ega t es

In l andscape cons t ruc t i on , t he t e rm aggre -

ga t e typ i ca l l y re fers to crushed rock or
grave l ra ther than to the aggrega t i on of soi l
par t i c l es . In forma t i on on the cho i ce of an
aggrega t e for spec i f i c purposes ( founda -
t i ons , road cons t ruc t i on , e t c .) is present ed
in 4 .0 Aggr ega t es of th i s sec t i on .
In forma t i on on aggrega t es for mak i ng of
aspha l t or concre t e is cove red in Sec t i ons
820 : Aspha l t and 830 : Conc re t e .

2 . 0 SO I L CLASS I F I CAT I ON
SYSTEMS

Th i s sec t i on descr i bes the mos t common 01 Organ i c undecomposed hor i zon
Organ , , decomposed hor i zon
soi l c l ass i f i cat i on sys t ems and the bas i c 02
Al Organ i c accumu l a t i on i n m i nera l soi l hor i zon
proper t i es of soi l s tha t are cr i t i ca l for s i te A2 Leached b l eached hor i zon (e l uv i a ted)

deve l opmen t and hor t i cu l tura l app l i ca t i ons . A3

AB
Trans i t i on hor i zon to 8
Trans i t i on hor i zon be t ween A and B- mo r e l ike A m uppe r par t
Typ i ca l l y , urban soi l s are drast i ca l l y d i s- A&B A2 w i th l ess than 50% of hor i zon occup i ed by spots o f A2

turbed by human act i v i t i es . As a resu l t they AC

B&A
Trans i t i on hor i zon
B w i th l ess than 50% of hor i zon occup i ed by spots of A2
are se l dom c l ass i f i ed because they do no t B Hor i zon w i th accumu l a t i on of c l ay , i ron, ca t i ons , humus : res idua l
concent ra t i on of c l ay: coa t i ngs: or a l terat i ons of or i g i na l ma ter i a l
f i t in w i th t he present USDA c l ass i f i cat i on
f orm i ng c l ay and st ruc ture
sys t em . Present l y they are be i ng s tud i ed by 81 Trans i t i on hor i zon more l ike B t han A
Max i mum express i on o f B hor i zon
the USDA- NRCS and they may soon come 82
B3 Trans i t i ona l hor i zon t o C or R
up w i th a c l ass i f i ca t i on sys t em for t hem . C A l t ered ma t er i a l f rom wh i ch Aand B hor i zons are pr esumed to be formed
R Conso l i da t ed bedrock

s 2 .1 So i l Pro f i l e Subord i na t e Symbo l s

b Bur i ed hor i zon
In the process of na tura l forma t i on , soi l l ay- ca Ca l c i um in hor i zon
cs Gypsum i n hor i zon
ers ( i .e ., hor i zons) deve l op w i th d i f f erent + , Concre t i ons in hor i zon
t extures , m i nera l cont ent s , and chem i ca l f Frozen hor i zon
r K G l eyed hor i zon
makeup . A soi l prof i l e is a ver t i ca l sec t i on Humus in hor i zon
t hrough these hor i zons . A t axonomy has I ron accumu l a t i on in hor i zon

a
~i
m Cemen t ed hor i zon
been deve l oped to des i gna t e each hor i zon p P l owed hor i zon
and zones w i th i n each hor i zon . The ex t ent sa Sa l t accumu l a t i on in hor i zon
si Si l i ca cemen t ed hor i zon
to wh i ch a prof i l e becomes we l l -deve l oped C l ay accumu l a t i on in hor i zon

.0
1
is l arge l y a func t i on of c l i ma t e . Hum i d cl i - x Frag l pan hor i zon
I1, l l l , ly Ll thn l og l c d i scont i nu i t i es
ma t es produce mor e fu l l y deve l oped pro- A' 2 . B' 2 Second sequence m brsr~.ua l suJ
f i l es than ar id c l i ma t es . A typ i ca l prof i l e in a
hum i d c l i ma t e has a we l l -deve l oped A- , B- ,

r
Ill
C- , and some t i mes D-hor i zon . F i gure 810- F i gur e 810 -1 . Hypo t he t i ca l so i l pro f i l e show i ng a l l ma j or so i l hor i zons . No t e
tha t no one so i l has a l l o f these prof i l es.
 810- 3

Tab l e 810 - 1 . SO I L PART I CLE S I ZE CLASS I F I CAT I ON

Ame r i can
Ame r i can Assoc i a t i on Soc i e t y f or
U . S . Deea r t men t o f S t a t e H i ghway Tes t i ng and
Pa r t i c l e S i eve Un i f i ed So i l o f Agr i cu l t ur e O f f i c i a l s So i l Ma t e r i a l s So i l
s i ze , mm s i ze C l ass i f i ca t i on So i l C l ass i f i ca t i on C l ass i f i ca t i on C l ass i f i ca t i on

0 . 001 C l ay Co l l o i ds Co l l o i ds

0 . 002
0 . 003 C l ay C l ay
0 . 004
0 . 006 F i nes (si l t
0 . 008 or c l ay)
0 .01 Si l t

0 . 02 Si l t Si l t
0 . 03
0 . 04
300
0 . 06 Ve ry f i ne
0 . 08 200 sand
0 .1 140

F i ne F i ne F i ne
0 .2 F i ne sand
sand sand sand
0 .3 60
0 .4 Med i um
0 .6 40 sand
0 .8 Coa rse
20 Med i um sand Coa rse Coa rse
1 .0
sand Ve ry coa rse sand sand
2. 0 10 sand _
3. 0
4. 0 Coa r se
sand F i ne
F i ne
4 grave l
grave l
6. 0
8. 0 F i ne
10 grave l
1: " Med i um Grave l
20 grave l
30 Coa rse Coa rse
40 grave l grave l Coa rse
grave l
60 3"
80 Bou l de rs
Cobb l es Cobb l es

`Corps of Eng i neers , Depa r t men t of the Army , and Bureau o f Rec l ama t i on.
Source : Doug l as S . Way , Ter ra i n Ana l ys i s : A Gu i de to Si te Se l ec t i on Us i ng Aer i a l Pho t og r aph i c I n t e rpr e t a t i on , 2d ed . ,
Doug l as S . Way , Co l umbus , Oh i o , 1978 .

Tab l e 810 - 2 . CLASS I F I CAT I ON OF SO I LS BY OR I G I N s

TYPE OR I G I N cCl
Res i dua l Rock wea t he red in p l ace -wacke , l ater i te, podzo l s , res i dua l sands , c l ays, and grave l s
Cumu l ose Organ i c accumu l a t i ons-pea t , muck , swamp soi ls, muskeg , humus , bog soi l s

Transpor t ed :
G l ac i a l Mora i nes , eskers , drum l i ns , kames- t i l l , dr i f t , bou l der c l ay, g l ac i a l sands , and grave l s Q
Al luv i a l F l ood pl a ins, de l tas , ba rs-sed i men t a ry c l ays and si l ts, a l luv i a l sands and grave l s

Aeo l i an W i nd-borne depos i t s -b l ow sands , dune sands , loess , adobe

Co l l uv i a l Grav i t y depos i ts-c l i f f debr i s , ta lus, ava l anches , masses of rock was t e
Vo l can i c Vo l can i c depos i t s -Dako t a benton i t e , vol c l ay, vo l can i c ash, l ava

Fi l l Synthe t i c depos i t s- rang i ng f rom was t e and rubb i sh to bu l t embankmen t s 0

Source: Adapt ed f rom E l wyn E. See lye, Des igr r Data Book for Civi l Engineers, 3d ed ., Wi l ey, New York , 1945, and f rom the Por t l and Cemen t Assoc i at ion, Soi l Cement Laboratory Handbook ,
Skok i e, 11 00
 810 - 4

Tab l e 810 -3 . THE NEW SO I L TAXONOMY ( WORLD SEVENTH APPROX I MAT I ON )

So i l order C l i ma t i c range Na tura l vege t a t i on Parent ma t er i a l s Hor i zon deve l opmen t Dra i nage Co l ors

H igh l y var i abl e . Pr imar i ly f ree-dra ining None , except perhaps Good ; Not
Ent isol Al l c l imates, ar id
to humi d , Forests, grass, a l luv ium and aeol i an, for a thin A hor i zon s lopes not signi f icant
deser t , t idal and low-act i v i ty c lays signi f icant
t ropica l to
po l ar marsh
High-act i v i ty c l ays, B hor i zon common l y Poor; s lopes Bl ack, gray,
Ver t isols Subhum i d to Grasses and
woody shrubs shr ink ing when dry, absent f lat to brown
and wi th we t
swe l l ing when wet , gent l e
and dry
seasons , or wi th montmor i l lon i te
and areas common
sub j ect to
f looding

Incept i sol s Hum i d , f rom Most l y forests, Young soi ls f rom One or more formed Slopes f lat to Light to dark
arct ic to occas iona l l y res i duum, loess, glac ia l wi thout signi f icant modera te l y
t ropica l grass l ands till . Soi ls mo i st . i l luviat ion or steep
e luv i at ion . A
hor i zon very
organ i c

Ar id to semi ar id Sparse grasses Genera l l y a l luv ium Poor hor i zon Slopes f lat to Light to red
Ar idsol s
and other deve l opment and gent l e
deser t very l i tt le organ i c
vegetat ion mat ter . Soi l r ich in
l ime, gypsum, or
sod i um chlor ide .
Ca l i che common

Var i ab l e: loess, a l luv ium, Dist inct hor i zons . Flat to sl ight Med i um to
Mol l i sol s Al p i ne to Grasses , sedges ,
t i l l , res i duum H igh l y organi c A s lopes dark colors
t ropica l ; wi th hardwood
cool , dry forests layer . B and C and poor
seasons, and hor i zons may have dra inage
hot , mo i st secondary l ime
seasons accumu l at i ons

Spodoso l Hum i d regions, Con i ferous Usua l l y si l iceous, granul ar , B hor i zon i l luviated Good Bl ack, brown,
a lp ine to forest , and not very c l ayey wi th organi c redd i sh
t ropi ca l savannah , or mat ter , i ron and
ra in forest a l um i num ox i des

Coo l hum i d to Dec i duous Var i abl e , but genera l l y Thin, highl y organ i c A Poor . Flat to Bl ack , brown ,
Al f isols redd i sh
subhum i d forest , some young; a l luv ium, t i l l , hor i zon . B hor i zon gent l e
w i th seasona l tal l grass l ands loess, or coasta l pl a in . i l luviated wi th c lay, s lopes
rainfal l Ca l careous in cool , organi c mat ter , and
hum i d c l imates i ron ox i de

Ul t isols Hum i d Forest , O l d and st rongl y Th i n A hor i zon wi th Poor to fai r . Var i abl e and
savannah, wea thered res i duum or some humus over Slopes of ten
marsh, or coasta l pla in i l luviated B modera t e mot t l ed
swamp hor i zon. to steep wi th gray,
Approach i ng a ye l low,
later i t ic soi l and red

Trop i cs and Forest to Later i t ic soi ls pr imar i l y Li t t le organ i c soi l Good Reds , browns
Ox i so l s
subt rop i cs savannah f rom bas i c rock deve l opment . Cl ay
wi th we t and res i duum content h igh but
dry seasons format i on porous .
Concent rat i ons of
r i ron and a l um i num
at var ious depths

a Hi stosol s Mo i st to we t Swamp , marsh,

and bog
Organ i c mater i a l s None visible Very poor Gray to b l ack

We l l -dra i ned Gray to bl ack

And i so l s Dry to we t Deser t to forest Vo l can i c ash S mos t unwea t thed ;
texture and compos i t i on
highl y var i abl e w i th
high amount s of a l l ophane ;
may be very fer t i le

Sour ce : Roy E . Hun t , Geo t ec / rmca l t ngmee r rng Inves t i ga t i on Manua l , McGraw-H i l l , New York_ [Or i g i na l source '. US So i l Conse r va t i on Serv i ce , So i l C l ass i f i ca t i on : A Compr ehens i ve Sys t em (7t h
Approx i ma t i on) , Wash i ng t on D- C., 1960 .1
 810 - 5

Tab l e 810 - 4. COMMON TERMS OF

THE USDA SO I L CLASS I F I CAT I ON
SYSTEM

Gene r a l t e rms Bas i c So i l - t ex t ura l

c l ass names

Sandy soi ls, coarse - Sands , l oamy sands

t ex tured so i l s
Loamy so i l s
Mode ra t e l y coarse - Sandy l oam, f i ne
t ex tured so i l s sandy l oam
Med i um- t ex t ur ed Ve ry f i ne sandy
so i l s l oam, l oam, si l t
l oam , si l t
Mode ra t e l y f ine- C l ay l oam , sandy
t ex tured so i l s c l ay l oam, si l ty
c l ay l oam
C l ayey soi l s, f i ne- Sandy c l ay , s i l ty c l ay ,
t ex tured so i l s c l ay

Source: U .S . Depa r t men t o f Agr i cu l ture , Soi l Tax-

onomy , Wash i ng ton , D. C . , 1975 .

Tab l e 810 - 5 . AASHTO SO I L CLASS I F I CAT I ON SYSTEM AND GENERAL RAT I NGS

Gr anu l a r ma t e r i a l s ' S i l t - c l ay ma t e r i a l s t
Gene r a l c l ass i f i ca t i on A
Group c l ass i f i ca t i on* A-2 A-7
p_3 A-4 A-5 A-6
A- 1 - a A- 1 - b A- 2 - 4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A- 2 - 7 A- 7 - 5§ A- 7 - 61

S i eve ana l ys i s :
Pe rcen t pass i ng
No . 10 50 max. - - - - - - - -
No . 40 30 max. 50 max . 51 m i n . - - - - - - - -
No . 200 15 max. 25 max . 10 max . 35 max. 35 max. 35 max . 35 max . 36 m i n . 36 m i n . 36 m i n . 36 m i n .
Charac t er i s t i cs o f
f rac t i on pass i ng
No . 40 s i eve
L i qu i d l i mi t - - - 40 max. 41 m i n . 40 max . 41 m i n . 40 max. 41 m i n . 40 max . 41 max .
P l ast i c i ty i ndex 6 max. 6 max . Nonp l as t i c 10 max. 10 max. 11 m i n . 11 m i n . 10 max. 10 max . 11 m i n , 11 m i n .
Group i ndex 0 ; 0 0 0 0 4 max . 4 max . 8 max. 12 max . 16 max . 20 max .
ar
Usua l t ypes of S t one f ragmen t s : Si l ty so i l s C l ayey so i l s
F i ne sand Si l ty or c l ayey grave l and sand
s i gn i f i cant grave l and sand
cons t i tuent N
r
ma t er i a l s

Gene r a l ra t i ng as
subgr ade
Exce l l ent to good F Fa i r to poor - -> Ve ry poor -
a
' 35% or l ess pass i ng t hrough a No . 200 s i eve.
t Mor e than 35% pass i ng t hrough a No . 200 s i eve . s
tP l ac i ng A-3 be fore A-2 is necessary in t he l e f t - to- r i ght e l i m i na t i on process and does no t i nd i ca t e super i or i t y of
A-3 ove r A-2 . . 0
§Pl ast i c i ty i ndex o f A-7-5 subgroup is equa l to or l ess than the l i qu i d l imi t m i nus 30 .
gP l ast i c i ty i ndex of A-7-6 subgroup is grea t er than l i qu i d l imi t m i nus 30 .
Source : Doug l as S . Way , Ter ra i n Ana l ys i s : A Gu i de to Si te Se l ec t i on Us i ngAer i a l Pho tograph i c Interpre ta t i on , 2d ed . ,
Doug l as S . Way , Co l umbus , Oh i o , 1978 .

00
 810 - 6

Tab l e 810-6. SO I L TYPES AND THE I R PROPERT I ES (UN I F I ED CLASS I F I CAT I ON SYSTEM)

Symbo l s Va l ue as a
f ounda t i on
D i v i s i on Le t t er Co l or So i l descr i pt i on ma t er i a l Dra i nage Dra i nage

Grave l and GW Red We l l -graded grave l , or grave l -sand mixture, l i tt le or no f ines Exce l l ent None Exce l l ent
gravel ly soi ls
GP Red Poor l y graded grave l , or grave l -sand mi xtures, l i tt le or no f ines Good None Exce l l ent

GM Ye l l ow Si l ty gravels, gravel -sand-si l t mi xtures Good Sl ight Poor

GC Ye l l ow Cl ayey-grave ls, grave l -c l ay-sand mi xtures Good Sl ight Poor

Sand and sandy SW Red We l l -graded sands, or grave l ly sands, l i tt le or no f ines Good None Exce l l ent
soi ls
SP Red Poor l y graded sands, or gravel ly sands, l i tt le or no f ines Fai r None Exce l l ent

SM Ye l l ow Si l ty sands, sand-si l t mi xtures Fai r Sl ight Fai r

SC Ye l l ow Cl ayey sands, sand-c l ay mixtures Fai r Med i um Poor

Si l ts and c l ays LL ML Green Inorgani c si l ts, rock f lour , siny or c l ayey f ine sands, or c l ayey Fai r Very high Poor
<50t si l ts wi th sl ight plast ici ty
CL Green inorgani c clays of l ow to med i um plast ici ty, gravel ly clays, Fai r Med i um Imperv ious
si l ty clays, l ean clays
OL Green Organ i c si l t -clays of l ow plast ici ty Poor H i gh Imperv ious

Si l ts and clays LL MH Blue Inorgani c si l ts, mi caceous or d i atomaceous f ine sandy or si l ty Poor Very high Poor
>50 soi ls, elast ic si l ts
CH Bl ue Inorgani c c l ays of high plast ici ty, fat c l ays Very poor Med i um Imperv ious

OH Blue Organ i c clays of med i um to high plast ici ty, organi c si l ts Very poor Med i um Imperv ious

H igh l y organi c Pt Orange Peat and other highly organi c soi ls Not sui table Sl ight Poor
soi ls
` Consu l t soi l engineers and local bui lding codes for a l lowabl e soi l -bear ing capac i t ies .
t LL indicates l iquid l imi t .
Source : Adapted f rom Char l es G. Ramsey and Haro ld R. Sleeper , Archi tectural Craph i c Standards, 7th ed., Rober t T. Packard (ed .), Wi l ey, New York, 1981 .

1 i l lust rates a hypothe t i ca l soi l prof i l e ,

show i ng al l ma j or soi l hor i zons .
A numbe r of soi l c l ass i f i cat ion sys t ems
have been deve l oped for var i ous purposes . A number of soi l c l ass i f i cat ion sys t ems have been deve l oped to descr i be soi l s in
The four mos t common c l ass i f i cat ion sys- t erms of spec i f i c uses such as agr i cu l ture and h i ghway const ruct i on . The cho i ce of
t ems are descr i bed be l ow. Tab l e 810-1 c l ass i f i cat ion syst em depends on the na ture of the pro j ect and ava i l ab l e da t a.
i l lust rates the d i f ferences be tween these
1 . USDA c l assi f i cat ion syst em is based on agr i cul tura l sui tabi l i ty and descr ibes the re l a-
sys t ems in t erms of soi l texture and the i r t ive propor t i on of clay, si l t , and sand par t i c l es wi th i n the soi l (F igure 810-2) .
re l at ionsh ip to st andard Amer i can Soc i e ty
(A for Test i ng and Ma ter i a l s (ASTM) s i eve
4) 2 . USDA c l assi f i cat ion syst em is l imi ted to depths of about 1 m (3 f t .) . Th i s da t a cannot
s i zes . be used in s i tuat ions where i nformat i on about greater depths is needed .

N
2 .2 Cl ass i f i cat ion of Soi l by Or i g i n 3 . The AASHTO syst em is based on h i ghway const ruct ion sui tabi l i ty and classi f ies soi ls
r into t wo ma j or categor i es (Tabl e 810-5) :
Soi l s can be broad l y c l ass i f i ed as e i ther
res idua l soi ls, formed in p l ace through a) Granu l ar mater i a l s (groups A-1 through A-3) that are cons i dered exce l l ent to good
Q wea ther i ng of bedrock and d i s i ntegrat i on as a subgrade .
of organ i c ma t ter , or as t ranspor t ed soi ls, b) Si l t -clay mater i a l s (groups A-4 through A-7) that are cons i dered fai r to very poor
as a subgrade .
s ma ter i a l s tha t have been moved f rom
another p l ace by g l ac i at ion, w i nd , water , or 4. The un i f i ed system was dev i sed for h i ghway eng i neer i ng and d i v ides soi l into three
O grav i ty. Tab l e 810-2 prov i des a c l assi f i ca- bas i c categor i es (F igure 810-3 and Tab l e 810-6) :
t ion of soi ls accord i ng to the i r or igin . a) Coarse-gra i ned soi ls that are exce l l ent to fai r as founda t i on mater i a l .
b) F i ne-gra i ned soi ls that are fai r to very poor as founda t i on mater i a l .
c) Organ i c soi ls that are not sui tabl e as founda t i on mater i a l .
00
 810 - 7

2 . 3 The USDA Sys t em group by a group i ndex va l ue wh i ch is ca l - so l ut i ons . They have been grouped unde r
cu l a t ed f rom an emp i r i ca l f ormu l a . Group three head i ngs : phys i ca l proper t i es , prop-
The New So i l Taxonomy l ists e l even bas i c c l ass i f i cat i on and group i ndex va l ues de t er - er t i es re l a ted to s i te eng i neer i ng and l and-
soi l orders based pr i mar i l y on c l i ma t e , par - m i ne t he re l a t i ve qua l i ty of so i l s for the i r scape cons t ruc t i on and proper t i es re l a ted
ent ma t er i a l , and vege t a t i on (Tab l e 810-3) .
su i tab i l i ty in embankmen t s , subgrades , to hor t i cu l ture .
Th i s c l ass i f i ca t i on sys t em prov i des a f rame - bases , and subbases . So i l s are d i v i ded i nto
wor k for the Un i t ed St a t es Depa r t men t of t wo ma j or groups : (1) granu l ar ma t er i a l s , 3 .1 Phys i ca l Prope r t i es
Agr i cu l ture Na tura l Resource Conserva t i on wh i ch pass l ess t han 35 percen t of ma t er i -
Tex ture: Is a way to c l ass i fy the range of
Serv i ce (USDA) sys t em . a l s t hrough a 0 . 075 mm (No . 200) s i eve ,
par t i c l e s i zes tha t make up soi l . Mos t so i l s
A l so , the USDA Na tura l Resource and (2) s i l t -c l ay ma t er i a l s , wh i ch pass mor e
have severa l d i f f erent s i zes of par t i c l es .
Conserva t i on Serv i ce has deve l oped a c l as- t han 35 percen t of the ma t er i a l t hrough a
F i gure 810-2 shows the 12 t ex ture c l asses
s i f i cat i on sys t em tha t eva l ua t es and c l ass i - 0 . 075 mm (No . 200) s i eve .
deve l oped for use in the Un i t ed St a t es .
f i es soi l s in t e rms of the i r genes i s and mor - Th i s da t a can be ob t a i ned f rom a soi l sur -
2 . 5 The Un i f i ed Sys t em
pho l ogy. Newe r surveys are supe r i mposed vey repor t , by f i e ld de t erm i na t i on or by use
on aer i a l pho t ographs and are supp l emen t - The Un i f i ed So i l C l ass i f i ca t i on Sys t em of ASTMD -422-63 i nc l ud i ng a 300 mesh
ed w i t h i n forma t i on app l i cab l e to l and uses d i v i des so i l s i nto three bas i c ca t egor i es : (1) s i eve .
o ther t han agr i cu l ture . In the USDA sys- coarse -gra i ned soi ls, (2) f i ne-gra i ned soi ls,
t em , i n forma t i on on soi l s is l i mi t ed to Co l or : Co l or is the mos t obv i ous f ea ture
and (3) organ i c so i l s (Tab l e 810-6) . Coarse -
dep t hs of abou t 1 m (3 f t ) . Th i s da t a can- obse rved in a soi l prof i l e . An exper i enced
gra i ned so i l s pass l ess than 50 percent f i nes
not be used to address prob l ems requ i r i ng soi l sc i ent i st or l andscape arch i tec t , civi l
t hrough a No . 200 s i eve , and f i ne-gra i ned
soi l i n forma t i on at grea t er dep t hs . eng i neer , growe r or cont rac tor can de t er -
soi l s pass mor e t han 50 percen t f i nes
m i ne many charac t er i st i cs by mere l y see i ng
F i gure 810-2 shows t he USDA soi l t ex- t hrough a 0 . 075 mm (No . 200) s i eve .
and f ee l i ng the soi l . In order to s t andard i ze
Organ i c soi l s are i dent i f i ed by v i sua l exam-
tura l t r i ang l e , and Tab l e 810-4 l ists com- the use of co l or , the Munse l l co l or not a t i on
mon t e rms used in the USDA c l ass i f i ca t i on i na t i on . Soi l d i v i s i ons are fur ther de l i nea t ed
sys t em has been adop t ed to read each hor i -
by 15 soi l groups based on l iqu id l imi t , g
sys t em . zon . The re l a t i onsh i p be t ween soi l co lor ,
ma j or soi l t extura l f rac t i on , and re l at i ve i
c l i ma t e and soi l ma tur i t y is used to c l ass i fy
2 . 4 The AASHTO Sys t em grada t i on . The un i f i ed sys t em was dev i sed g
soi l s .

a
ma i n l y for h i ghway eng i neer i ng purposes . g
The Ame r i can Assoc i a t i on o f St a t e F i gure 810-3 shows how spec i f i c c l ass i f i ca- Dens i t y : The tota l vo l ume of so l i ds and
H i ghway Transpor t a t i on Of f i c i a l s (AASH- t i ons are de t e rm i ned . vo i ds in soi l is common l y re f er red to as i ts
TO) has deve l oped a soi l c l ass i f i ca t i on sys- bu l k vo l ume or dens i t y . The re l a t i onsh i p
t em based on eng i neer i ng proper t i es of 3 . 0 SO I L PROPERT I ES be t ween bu l k dens i t y and pore space is
so i l s and the i r su i tab i l i ty for h i ghway con- i nverse . O
s t ruc t i on (Tab l e 810-5) . So i l s are c l ass i f i ed Shown and exp l a i ned be l ow are severa l N
i nto seven groups (A-1 t hrough A-7) based Cap i l l ar i t y : Th i s re fers to the upwa rd
ma j or proper t i es of so i l s . These shou l d be
on l abora tory de t erm i na t i on of par t i c l e s i ze movemen t of mo i s ture or wa t e r above the
obse rved and measur ed to he l p gu i de
d i s t r i but i on , l i qu i d l imi t , and p l ast i c i ty prope r s i te p l ann i ng and l andscape des i gn
wa t e r t ab l e as a func t i on of f ine t ex tured r
soi l . C l ay and si l t soi l s have h i gher capi l l ar i -
i ndex . So i l s are eva l ua t ed w i th i n each 00
 810 - 8

Tab l e 810 - 7 . CAP I LLARY ACT I ON I N VAR I OUS SO I L TYPES

Cap i l l a r y R i se Sa t u r a t i on zone

Ft M So i l Type Ft M

>8 2 .4 C l ay >5 1 .5
>8 2 .4 Si l t >5 1 .5
1-2 .4 F i ne sand 1-5 0 . 3-1 .5
3-8
0. 3-1 Coa rse sand 0-1 0 -0 .3
1-3
0 0 Grave l 0 0

6 ft
' Wa t e r r i ses in mos t soi l s by cap i l l ary ac t i on . C l ays and si l ts may become fu l l y sa tura t ed to a l mos t
(2 m) above a wa t e r tab l e , and some wa t e r may r i se mor e t han 11 f t (3 .4 m) . No t e tha t coarse sand may
a l l ow a r i se up to 3 f t (1 m) . No cap i l l ar i ty resu l ts in coarse grave l .
Source: Adap t ed w i th perm i ss i on f rom Ha ro l d B. O l i n , John L. Schm i d t , and Wa l t e r H. Lew i s , Cons t ruc -
1983 .
t i on : Pr i nc i p l es , Ma ter i a l s , and Me thods , U .S. League of Sav i ngs Inst i tut i ons , Ch i cago ,

Tab l e 810 - 8 . PERMEAB I L I TY AND DRA I NAGE CHARACTER I ST I CS OF

VAR I OUS SO I LS

App r ox i ma t e
coe f f i c i en t o f
pe rmeab i l i t y k , D r a i nage
So i l t ype cm pe r sec cha r ac t e r i s t i c

C l ean grave l 5-10 Good

C l ean coarse sand 0 . 4-3 Good
C l ean med i um sand 0 . 05-0 . 15 Good
C l ean f i ne sand 0 . 004-0 . 02 Good
Si l ty sand and grave l 10 -s -0 .01 Poor to good
Si l ty sand 10 - s -10 -4 Poor
Sandy c l ay 10 -6 -10 -5 Poor
10 -6 Poor F i gur e 810 - 5. S t a t es o f f i ne - so i l con -
Si l ty c l ay
C l ay 10 -1 Poor s i s t ency . As wa t e r con t en t i ncreases ,
Co l l o i da l c l ay 10 -9 Poor so i l s become i nc reas i ng l y f l u i d . PI re f ers t o
t he p l as t i c i ndex , PL t o t he p l as t i c l i mi t , LL
Source : Freder i ck S . Mer r i t t , Standard Handbook for Ci v i l Eng i neers , 3d ed . , McGraw-H i l l , New York ,
t o t he l i qu i d l i mi t , and SL t o t he shr i nkage
1983 .
l i m i t.

g
N
r
g

a
blA
F i gur e 810 - 4 . Ar eas o f expans i ve
so i l s i n t he Un i t ed S t a t es . Expans i ve
so i l s a r e mos t w i despr ead i n a r eas l abe l ed
reg i ona l l y abundan t , bu t many l oca t i ons i n
t hese a r eas w i l l have no expans i ve so i l s. In
O t he unshaded por t i ons o f t he map , some
expans i ve so i l s may be f ound , bu t no t i n
0 ma j o r reg i ona l concen t r a t i ons .
r
00
 810 - 9

t y ac t i on than coarse - t ex tured soi l s (Tab l e

810-7) .
Permeab i l i t y : Th i s re fers to t he ab i l i ty o f
a soi l to t ransm i t wa t e r downwa rd due to
grav i ty (Tab l e 810-8) . Permeab i l i t y is a
func t i on of pore space and var i es w i th vo i d
rat io, gra i n s i ze and d i st r i but i on , st ruc ture ,
degree o f cemen t a t i on , degree of sa tura-
t ion, and degree of compac t i on . Coarse -
gra i ned soi l s are typ i ca l l y mor e pe rmeab l e
than f i ne-gra i ned soi l s . Perco l a t i on tests
measur e t he permeab i l i t y of a soi l for
examp l e when des i gn i ng l each i ng f i e l ds for
sept i c sys t ems .
Shr i nkage and swe l l : Shr i nkage and
swe l l ( vo l ume changes ) re f ers to the
bu i l dup and re l ease o f cap i l l ary tens i l e
st resses w i th i n soi l due to wa t e r . Vo l ume
changes are mos t pro f ound among expan-
s i ve soi l s . F i gure 810-4 shows the genera l
d i st r i but i on o f expans i ve soi l s in t he Un i t ed
St a t es . (Re f er to Sec t i on 255 : Na tura l
Haza rds : Expans i ve Soi l s, for mor e i n forma -
t i on on expans i ve so i l s and the i r i mp l i ca-
t i ons in s i te p l ann i ng , des i gn , and eng i neer -
i ng .)

Cohes i on : Cohes i on is the ab i l i ty of a

soi l samp l e to b i nd toge ther when mode r -
a t e l y dry. Cohes i on l ess soi l s (such as dry
beach sand) are easy to excava t e but ver t i -
ca l s i de s l opes canno t be ma i n t a i ned w i th-
ou t suppor t .

3 .2 Prope r t i es Re l a t ed t o S i t e
Eng i nee r i ng and Landscape
Cons t ruc t i on

E l ast i c i ty : El ast i c i ty re fers to the ab i l i ty

of soi l to re turn to i ts or i g i na l shape a f ter
be i ng de f ormed by a l oad . Converse l y , i t
re fers to the compa t i b i l i t y of a soi l . In l and-
scape cons t ruc t i on , the re l at i ve e l ast i c i ty of
soi l s on a s i te may de t e rm i ne whe r e heavy
equ i pmen t can be moved to avo i d undes i r -
s
ab l e compac t i on of so i l s . O
P l ast i c i ty : Pl ast i c i ty re f ers to the ab i l i ty
of soi l to be de f ormed unde r pressure w i th-
out crack i ng or crumb l i ng and to ma i nt a i n r
a de f ormed shape a f ter pressure is re l eased . g
Pl ast i c de f orma t i on is an i mpor t an t f ac tor in
road and f ounda t i on wor k and is mor e s ig-
a
g

n i f i cant unde r i ncreas i ng l oads . G i ven a suf -

f i c i ent l y l arge l oad , a soi l mass can shear
and fai l .
~O
L i qu i d and p l ast i c l i mi t : L i qu i d l imi t N
re fers to the mo i s ture con t en t at wh i ch a F i gur e 810 -7 . Dep t hs o f f ros t pene t r a t i on i n t he Un i t ed St a t es ( i nches) . No t e
soi l passes f rom a l i qu i d to a p l ast i c sta te as tha t depths of f rost pene t ra t i on can vary f rom these averages i n spec i f i c geograph i ca l 0
mo i s ture is r emoved . Pl ast i c l imi t re f ers to l oca t i ons , espec i a l l y in areas of s i gn i f i cant topograph i c change . A l ways check l oca l r
the mo i s ture con t en t when soi l passes f rom sources for mor e prec i se averages .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec tu P

810- 10

F i gur e 810 - 9 . Op t i mum mo i s t ur e

con t en t s ( compac t i on cur ves ) f or
va r i ous so i l t ypes (pe r cen t ) . H i gh
po i n t on curve deno t es op t i mum mo i s ture
con t en t for par t i cu l ar so i l t ype .

of i nsu l a t i on above the f rost -suscept i b l e

ma t er i a l (F i gures 810-6 t hrough 810-8) .

Compress i b i l i t y and compac t i on : Soi l

F i gur e 810 - 8 . So i l s mos t suscep t i b l e t o f ros t heave . can be compac t ed and , thereby , change
the vo l ume and i ts ab i l i ty to suppor t
we i gh t . For l andscape cons t ruc t i on so i l s
Tab l e 810 - 9 . COMPACT I ON TECHN I QUES FOR SO I LS of t en have to be compac t ed to prescr i bed
dens i t i es to mee t prede t e rm i ned per for -
Compac t i on t echn i que mance cr i ter i a . The requ i red compac t i on is
Gene r a l so i l t ypes Compac t i on t echn i que o f f i l l o f na t ur a l f orma t i on bes t ach i eved when so i l s are of fa i r l y spe-
Compac t i on is best when so i l is Vi bra t i on by pi l e dr i v i ng, c i f i c mo i s ture con t en t s . Th i s depends on
Cohes i on l ess soi l
(sand and grave l ) v i bra ted and ro l l ed . Ro l l ing v i brof l ota t i on or dynam i t e the t ype of soi l to be compac t ed . Tab l e
w i th sa tura ted soi l is poss i b l e , 810-9 descr i bes var i ous compac t i on t ech-
but rap i d permeab i l i ty makes n i ques for so i l s and F i gure 810-9 shows
cont i nued saturat i on di f f i cul t . op t i mum mo i s ture con t en t s for compac t i on
Modera t e l y cohes i ve Compac t ed in th in l ayers at Pi l e dr i v i ng above wa t er tabl e of var i ous soi l t ypes .
soi ls (sand and op t i mum mo i s ture cont ent . Mus t l ower wa t e r t ab l e and
si l t) Pneuma t i c rol l ers work best on
use pi l e dr i v i ng to compac t Bea r i ng St rength : Th i s re l ates to the
s l ight l y cohes i ve soi ls, grave l l ower l eve l s ab i l i ty of a soi l to suppor t a l oad w i t hou t
and si l t soi ls, sandy soi ls, and
nonp l ast i c si l t soi l s. Sheeps foot fa i l ure . I t depends upon i nterna l f r i ct ion
rol l ers are bet ter on pl ast i c si l t be t ween soi l par t i c l es and upon cohes i on .
and c l ay so i l s . Bear i ng s t rength is a f f ec t ed by changes in
Cohes i ve soi ls (c l ay Soi l s shou l d be compac t ed in th in Cl ays , organ i c mater i a l , and wa t e r cont ent , ra te and t i me of l oad i ng ,
and c l ay si l t) l ayers at op t i mum mo i s ture l oose si l ts are best
and conf i n i ng pressure . So i l s compac t ed a t
cont ent . Pneuma t i c rol l ers compac t ed by surcharg i ng ,
work best on s l ight l y cohes i ve i .e ., by cover i ng the area op t i ma l mo i s ture con t en t typ i ca l l y exh i b i t
soi ls, grave l and si l t soi ls, sandy w i th suf f i c i ent amoun t s of grea t er shear s t rengths t han we t so i l s .
soi ls, and nonp l ast i c si l t soi ls . f i l l (we i ght ) to a des i red Approx i ma t e bear i ng s t rengths of var i ous
Sheeps foot rol l ers are bet ter on degree of se t t l ement . t ypes of so i l s are shown in Tab l e 810-10 .
pl ast i c si l t and c l ay soi ls .

a p l ast i c to a sem i so l i d sta te as wa t e r is fur - wa t e r t ab l e c l ose to the f rost l ine , and (3)
Dra i nage : So i l dra i nage has three com-
ther r emoved . Pl ast i c i ty i ndex re fers to l iq- soi l charac t er i st i cs f avor i ng rap i d upwa rd
ponen t s : (a) runof f , (b) i nterna l dra i nage ,
u i d l i mi t m i nus p l ast i c l imi t (F i gure 810-5) . movemen t of cap i l l ary wa t e r (i .e . , c l ays and
and (c) permeab i l i t y or poros i t y. Each one
si l ts) .
Frost suscept i b i l i t y : Frost suscept i b i l i ty is in some way i n f l uenced by the o ther t wo .
re fers to the re l at i ve t endency of some soi l Prevent a t i ve ac t i on aga i ns t f rost heave Topograph i c f ea tures (degree of s l ope , e t c .)
to swe l l due to f rost when the mo i s ture in i nc l udes such measures as (a) the remova l i nf l uence t he vo l ume and ra te of runof f .
The s t eeper the s l ope the l ess wa t e r can be
t he soi l f reezes . F i ne -gra i ned soi l s exh i b i t a of the f i ne-gra i ned ma t er i a l and i ts rep l ace-
grea t er t endency to heave unde r co l d t em- men t w i th subbase and base ( typ i ca l l y absorbed i nto the ground . Int erna l
pera tures t han coarse -gra i ned so i l s . The grave l or rock f i l l ) tha t is not suscept i b l e to dra i nage re f ers to the f l ow o f wa t e r
t hrough t he soi l prof i l e . Th i s ra te is a l so
l i ke l i hood of heav i ng is dependen t upon : f rost , (b) the i nt ent i ona l l ower i ng of wa t e r
(1) f reez i ng t empe ra t ures in the soi l , (2) a tab l es , and (c) the i nsta l l a t i on of some f orm
 810 - 1 1

F i gur e 810 -11 . Wa t e r ava i l ab i l i t y i n

so i l s ( for p l an t grow t h ) . Th i s cha r t
shows t he gene r a l re l a t i onsh i p be t ween
so i l mo i s t ur e cha rac t e r i s t i cs and so i l t ex-
t ure . No t e t ha t t he w i l t i ng coe f f i c i en t
i nc r eases as so i l t ex t ur e becomes coa rse r.
These a r e r epr esen t a t i ve cur ves. I nd i v i dua l
so i l s wou l d l i ke l y have va l ues d i f f e ren t
t han t hose shown.

F i gur e 810 - 10 . So i l erod i b i l i t y f ac t or (K) . USDA t ex t ura l t r i ang l e w i t h p l o t t ed K

va l ues to show re l a t i onsh i ps be t ween s i zes o f m i ne r a l pa r t i c l es and so i l e rod i b i l i t y.

e f f ec t ed by the permeab i l i t y o f the soi l on l ands l i des a t t r i but ab l e to var i ous soi l cond i - to t ake r andom or sys t ema t i c prof i l e sam-
the sur f ace and be l ow. t i ons .) p l es to de t e rm i ne wha t are the s i gn i f i cant
t ypes of soi l .
The dep t h and f l uc tua t i on of wa t e r pen- Spa t i a l var i ab i l i ty : Mos t urban s i tes
e t ra t i on , coup l ed w i th the ra te of aera t i on cons i st of mor e t han one soi l t ype bu t these 3 .3 Prope r t i es Re l a t ed t o
and ox i da t i on o f the m i nera l s in the soi l , are se l dom mapped . Depend i ng on the Hor t i cu l t ura l App l i ca t i ons
causes d i st i nct i ve co l or pa t t erns in the soi l pro j ec t ed uses of a s i te i t is of t en necessary
hor i zon ca l l ed " mo t t l i ng " . The L I SDA- Many of the above proper t i es o f soi l s e f f ec t
Na tura l Resource Conserva t i on Serv i ce has no t on l y s i te eng i neer i ng and l andscape
Tab l e 810 -11 . USDA SO I L cons t ruc t i on bu t a l so how p l ant s can or
recogn i zed seven dra i nage c l asses . These
are shown in Tab l e 810-11 . DRA I NAGE CLASSES canno t grow in these so i l s . Tab l e 810-12
Dep t h t o mo t t l i ng So i l Dr a i nage C l ass shows t he genera l su i tab i l i ty of var i ous soi l s
Erod i b i l i ty : Th i s re f ers to the ex t en t to cm ( inches) for hea l thy p l ant growt h . Tab l e 810-13
wh i ch a soi l mass can w i ths t and the forces 15 (6) very poor l y dra i ned i l lust rates the re l a t i onsh i p of soi l t ex ture to
of w i nd or wa t e r eros i on . F i gure 810-10 30 (12) poor l y dra i ned
other soi l charac t er i st i cs .
shows degrees o f erod i b i l i ty for var i ous 51 (20) somewha t poor l y dra i ned
81 (32) modera t e l y we l l dra i ned
t ypes of so i l s . (Re f er to Sec t i on 253 : 107 (42) we l l dra i ned Ava i l ab l e Mo i s t ur e and Adequa t e
Na tura l Haza rds : Lands l i des and Snow 132 (52) somewha t e excess i ve l y dra i ned Dra i nage : The ex i s t ence of soi l mo i s ture
>152 (>60) excess i ve l y dra i ned does not ensure tha t wa t e r wi l l be ava i l ab l e
Ava l anches , for i n forma t i on on process o f
to p l ant s (F i gure 810-11) . Idea l l y , the rat io
of a i r space to wa t e r in t he soi l shou l d be N
1 :1 . P l ant s beg i n to w i l t at the po i nt at
Tab l e 810 - 10 . PRESUMED BEAR I NG CAPAC I TY OF VAR I OUS TYPES OF SO I L
wh i ch t he rema i n i ng soi l mo i s ture is he l d in
t ens i on by hydroscop i c forces . Mos t p l ant s
CaA
So i l t ypes U . S. t ons / f t 2 Me t r i c t ons / M ' canno t not surv i ve i f the soi l is t oo we t , to
We l l -graded , we l l -compac t ed c l ayey sands and grave l s
Grave l s and grave l l y sands , rang i ng f rom l oose to we l l -
10
4 -8
120
45-95
thus adequa t e wa t e r and dra i nage are cru- Q
c i a l to mos t p l ants .
compac t ed
Coarse sands , f rom l oose to we l l -compac t ed 2-4 25-45 So i l pH : Th i s re fers to the re l at i ve ac i d i ty
F ine , si l ty, or c l ayey sands , not we l l -graded , f rom l oose to 1 . 5-3 20-35 or a l ka l i n i ty of a soi l . Tab l e 810-14 and
we l l -compac t ed F i gure 810-12 show how the l eve l s of pH ~O
Homogeneous , nonp l ast i c , i norgan i c c l ays, f rom sof t to 0 . 5-4 5-45
in the soi l e f f ec ts t he ava i l ab i l i ty o f cer t a i n
very st i f f
Inorgan i c , nonp l ast i c si l ts, f rom sof t to very st i f f 0 . 5-3 5-35
nut r i ent s . Because al l p l ants have spec i f i c
to l erances for soi l ac i d i ty or a l ka l ini ty, the
Source: Kev i n Lynch and Gary Hack , Si te P l ann i ng , 3d ed ., M I T Press, Cambr i dge , Mass., 1984 . pH to l erances for proposed p l ant s mus t be
00
 810- 1 2
Tab l e 810 -12 . RELAT I VE SU I TAB I L I TY OF VAR I OUS SO I LS FOR HEALTHY PLANT GROWTH

So i l su i tab i l i ty ra t i ng

I t em a f f ec t i ng use Good Mode r a t e Poor

Key .
Soi l dra i nage c l ass We l l and modera t e l y Somewha t poor l y Poor l y and very
we l l -dra i ned dra i ned poor l y dra i ned Vf s l -very f ine sandy l oam
Loose , f i rm Very f i rm, ext reme l y Fs l - f i ne sandy l oam
Mo i st cons i stence Very f r iable, f r iable
L- l oam
f i rm Si l -s i l t l oam
Textures vfsl , fsl , I, si l , sl cl , scl , Sid, sc s, c, si c 51-sandy l oam
Th i ckness of soi l (above >30 in 20-30 in <20 in CI -c l ay l oam
hard l ayer , wa t er Sc l -sandy c l ay l oam
tabl e , or bedrock) Si c l -s i l ty c l ay l oam
Coarse f ragments <8% 8-15% >15% Sc-sand / c l ay mi xture
(vo l ume) S-sand
>15% C- c l ay
S l ope <8% 8-15% Si c-s i l t /c l ay mi xture

Tab l e 810 - 14 . TERMS FOR

VAR I OUS pH LEVELS

Cha rac t e r i s t i cs pH
Ext reme l y ac i d Be l ow 4 .5
Very st rong l y ac id 4 .5-5 .0
St rong l y ac id 5 .1-5 .5
Med i um ac id 5 .6-6 .0
Sl ight l y ac id 6 .1-6 .5
Neut ra l * 6 .6-7 .3
M i l d l y a l ka l ine 7 .4-7 .8
Modera t e l y a l ka l ine 7 .9-8 .4
St rong l y a l ka l ine 8 .5-9 .0
Very st rong l y a l ka l ine 9 .1 and h i gher

* St r ict neut ra l i ty is pH 7.0, but in f ield work those

soi ls be tween pH 6 .6 and 7 .3 are cons i dered
neut ra l .

F i gur e 810 - 12 . pH l eve l s and nu t r i en t ava i l ab i l i t y . These graphs i l l ust rate t he

e f f ec t o f so i l pH on nut r i ent ava i l ab i l i ty. The grow i ng med i a shou l d be kep t a t a pH l eve l
a t wh i ch a l l essent i a l nut r i ent s are ava i l ab l e for the p l ant i ngs. For mos t p l ants , the opt i -
mum pH l eve l is 6 . 5 in m i nera l so i l s and 5 .8 in pea t s .

Tab l e 810 - 13 . RELAT I ONSH I P OF SO I L TEXTURE TO OTHER Tab l e 810 - 15 . COMPRESS I VE

SO I L CHARACTER I ST I CS STRENGTH OF COMMON ROCK
s
Charac t er i s t i c Sand Loam Si l t Loam C l ay TYPES USED AS AGGREGATES
Ident i f i cat ion Loose Cohes i ve Shows Sh i ny st reak
f ingerpr ints Cha rac t e r i s t i cs pH
r Permeab i l i ty Excess i ve Good Fa i r Fa i r to poor Be l ow 4 .5
Med i um H i gh H i gh to Ext reme l y ac id
Ava i l ab l e wa t er Low Very st rong l y ac i d 4 .5-5 .0
med i um 5 .1-5 .5
St rong l y ac id
Q Ti l labi l i ty
Runof f potent i a l
Easy
Low
Easy
Low to med i um
Modera t e
H i gh
Di f f i cul t
Med i um to h igh Med i um ac id
Sl ight l y ac id
5 .6-6 .0
6 .1-6 .5
Nut r i ent storage capac i ty Low Med i um Med i um H i gh 6 .6-7 .3
Compac tab i l i ty Low Med i um Med i um to h i gh H i gh Neut ra l *
s M i l d l y a l ka l ine 7 .4-7 .8
Sui tabi l i ty H i gh H i gh H i gh to Low 7 .9-8 .4
med i um Modera t e l y a l ka l ine
St rong l y a l ka l ine 8 .5-9 .0
Suscept ib i l i ty to prob l ems Low Med i um Med i um H i gh
to of insuf f i c i ent aerat i on Very st rong l y a l ka l ine 9 .1 and h i gher

0 Source : Phi l l ip J . Craul , Urban Forest Soi ls, Schoo l of Forest ry, State Uni vers i ty of New York , Syracuse ,
* St r ict neut ra l i ty is pH 7.0, but in f ield work those
soi ls be tween pH 6 .6 and 7 .3 are cons i dered
N .Y . (From workbook for conf erence on Urban Forest Soi ls, sponsored by U .S . Forest Serv i ce , U .S . neut ra l .
Nat iona l Park Serv i ce , 1982 .)
00
 810- 1 3
known be fore spec i f y i ng or mod i f y i ng soi l s
Tab l e 810 - 16 . COMMON LOOSE AGGREGATES USED FOR WALKWAYS
for par t i cu l ar l andscape pro j ec ts .

Co l l o i da l Con t en t : Th i s re fers to the

amoun t of c l ay par t i c l es in a soi l samp l e . A Ma t e r i a l Co l or Phys i ca l prope r t i es Cons i de ra t i ons
h i gh c l ay con t en t l imi ts the permeab i l i t y o f Grave l :
t he soi l and a f f ec ts the ab i l i ty of p l ant s to Pea grave l Sa l mon , buf f , Round-shaped (sma l l ) Used for res ident i a l ter races
of f -wh i te and wa l ks
absorb d i sso l ved nut r i ent s in so l ut i on . Easy to ma i nta i n by rak i ng;
Grave l Var i es w i th Dr i es qu i ck l y; washes eas i l y ;
Some c l ays (e .g . , mon tmor i l l on i t e c l ays) exce l l ent base and stands up best when
reg i on
have grea t absorp t i ve capac i t y wh i ch marg i n for s t epp i ng used as a topp i ng over a
means tha t they swe l l enormous l y when stones , t i le, or concre t e more permanent bed
we t and shr i nk and crack when dry. (See pav i ng
Sec t i on 255 : Na tura l Haza rds : Expans i ve Crushed stone :
Gran i te ch i ps Angu l ar shape ; compac t s Stays in p l ace l onger than
So i l s for mor e i n forma t i on .) rounded mater i a l s ; can
(Y,6-1 in) we l l ; par t i c l es i nter l ock
Dep t h : So i l dep t h typ i ca l l y re fers to be manuf ac tured w i th
smoo t h edges; prov i des
dep t h to bedrock , to wa t e r t ab l e or to stab l e sur f ace
unwea t he r ed paren t ma t er i a l s . The re is no Compac t s sol idl y when Simi l ar to redrock ; wears
Decomposed
op t i mum dep t h because i t depends on gran i te dampened and rol l ed bet ter ; costs ±y , mor e
many var i ab l es . Mos t p l ants need suf f i - Co l ored rock Pink , red, Sma l l f ragment s make No t as econom i ca l as other
c i ent dep t h of soi l to a l l ow root grow t h others i mperv i ous bedd i ng grave l s; some co l ored
adv i sab l e rocks on l y ava i l ab l e
coup l ed w i th adequa t e m i nera l s , wa t e r
loca l l y
supp l y and appropr i a t e aera t i on . No l ess Requ i res ext ra care; not
Do l om i t e Stark wh i t e D i sco l ors eas i l y
t han 450 mm (18 i nches) and no mor e expens i ve ; used best in
t han 300 me t e r (36 i nches) is typ i ca l l y nec - sma l l areas
essary for mos t t empe ra t e c l i ma t e p l ant s . Redrock Compac t s sol idl y when Ava i l ab l e under other
dampened and rol l ed ; names
So i l s for Urban P l ant i ng: P l an t ed areas prov i des c l ean, hard,
in urban env i ronmen t s , par t i cu l ar l y paved sur f ace ; sur f ace breaks
areas near st reets and heavy pedes t r i an down into dust over t i me
Crushed br i ck Vene t i an red Fragment s break up and Good accent to p l ant i ng;
t raf f i c , of t en have prob l ems of compac t i on ,
( i ntense) wea r down ; stab l e base not su i tab l e in areas w i th
l i mi ted nut r i ent ava i l ab i l i ty , and po l l ut i on requ i red heavy t raf f ic ; expens i ve
f rom po i sonous e l emen t s . One of t he mos t (10 t i mes the cost of
severe prob l ems is compac t i on of soi l s Sme l t i ng redrock)
wh i ch resu l ts in re t arded wa t e r inf i l t rat ion, byproduc t s :
i ncreased sur f ace runof f , i nh i b i t ed gas
Cher t Med i um to l i ghtwe i ght ;
exchange , an oxygen de f i c i ent env i ron-
compac t s ; crowns and
men t , a reduc t i on in va l uab l e soi l organ- rol ls eas i l y; sof t , crunchy
i sms , severe l y i nh i b i t ed root growth , and sur face
i ncreased therma l conduc t i v i t y . So i l s for al l
Red b l aes Med i um to l i ghtwe i ght ;
urban p l ant i ngs requ i re spec i a l prepara t i on
porous ; ho l ds wa t er
to ensure l ong- t erm hea l thy grow t h of
Leca Simi l ar to L i ghtwe i ght ; absorbs wa t er Exce l l ent for roof
p l ant ma t er i a l s . Af t er cons i derab l e recent
pea grave l l andscapes
s tudy and expe r i men t a t i on spec i a l m i x tures

r _ : t ea: PTT . of coarse to f i ne aggrega t es and organ i ca l -

ly enr i ched so i l s have been deve l oped tha t
are be i ng used as a mor e op t i mum med i a
There are severa l ma j or proper t i es of so i l s wh i ch shou l d be observed and i f necessary to grow p l ant s (par t i cu l ar l y t rees) in harsh s
measured for proper s i te p l ann i ng , des i gn and cons t ruc t i on . These have been urban env i ronmen t s . Reade rs are urged to (1)
grouped under three head i ngs : seek the l atest i n forma t i on for the i r area .

1 . Phys i ca l proper t i es : texture (F i gure 810-2) , co lor , dens i ty , capi l l ar i ty (Tab l e , 810-7) , 4 . 0 AGGREGATES a.
permeab i l i ty (Tab l e 810-8) , shr i nkage and swe l l (F i gure 810-4) , and cohes i on .

a
Aggr ega t es re fer t o granu l ar bJJ
2 . Proper t i es re l ated to si te eng i neer i ng and l andscape const ruc t i on : e last ic i ty, plast ic i ty, i nc l ud i ng such na tura l ma t er i a l s as sand ,
l iquid and pl ast i c l imi ts (F i gure 810-5) , f rost suscept ib i l i ty (F i gure 810-6 -8) , compress- grave l , and crushed s tone to manu f ac t ur ed
ibi l i ty and compac t i on (F i gure 810-9 and Tab l e 810-9) , bear i ng st rength (Tab l e 810-10) , ma t er i a l s such as s l ag , vermi cu l i t e , pum i ce
dra i nage (Tab l e 810-11) , erodibi l i ty (F i gure 810-10) , spat i a l var i abi l i ty. and crushed br i ck , e t c . Aggrega t es have a
w i de range of uses in s i te eng i neer i ng and O
3 . Proper t i es re l a ted to hor t i cu l tura l app l i ca t i ons (Tab l e 810-12 -13) : ava i l ab l e mo i s ture l andscape cons t ruc t i on . On l y t wo are l ist -
(F i gure 810-11) , soi l pH (Tab l e 810-14 & F i gure 810-12) , co l lo ida l cont ent , depth , ed be l ow . O t he rs uses are d i scussed in sev-
and soi l s for urban p l ant i ng . era l o ther sec t i ons t hroughou t the book .
0
 810 - 14

U .S . So i l Conse rva t i on Serv i ce

Depa r t men t of Agr i cu l ture
Wash i ng t on , D . C .
1 . Aggrega t es are graded by s i ze and f requent l y comb i ned in cer ta i n propor t i ons to
produce aggrega t e m i xtures . REFERENCES

2 . The abi l i ty to w i ths t and abras i on f rom pedest r i an and / or veh i cu l ar t raf f i c is an
i mpor t ant character i st i c of aggrega t es (Tab l e 810-15) . Th i s can be ach i eved by us i ng Buo l , S . W , F D . Ho l e , andR .J . McCr acken ,
a we l l -graded coarse aggrega t e comb i ned w i th sand or s imi l ar f i ne aggrega t es to 1989 . So i l Genes i s & Cl ass i f i ca t i on , Ed .
crea t e a t ight wa t er - res i st ant sur f ace and an i nter l ock i ng of aggrega t es to res i st Ed i t i on I owa St a t e Un i v. Press , Ames , 10 ,
shear forces . 446 pp .
Crau l , P. J . 1992 . Urban Soi l in Landscape
3 . Aggrega t es shou l d suppor t l oads (pedest r i an and / or veh i cu l ar ) w i th l i t t le or no Des i gn , l ohn W i l ey , NY 396 pp.
de forma t i on . Th i s can be ach i eved by add i ng some t ype of b i nd i ng ma ter i a l , such as Hun t , Roy E. Geo t echn i ca l Eng i neer i ng
c l ay. Inves t i ga t i on Manua l . McGr aw-H i l l , NY,
1984 .
4 . Dra i nage of sur f ace wa t er is i mpor t ant to prevent excess inf i l t rat ion into the sub-
grade . Schroede r , W L . So i l s in Cons t ruc t i on , 4th
ed . , Prent i ce Ha l l , New York , 1996 .
5 . Aggrega t e sur f aces shou l d a l l ow some upwa rd movemen t of subsur f ace mo i s ture to See l ye , E l wyn E. Des i gn : Da t a Book for
he l p ma i nt a i n a des i rab l e mo i s ture l eve l in the pav i ng . Ci v i l Eng i neers , 3d ed ., W i l ey , New York ,
1960 .
4 .1 Re l evan t Prope r t i es o f used for wa l kways . Aggr ega t e wa l kways So i l Survey D i v i s i on St a f f , 1993 . So i l
Aggr ega t es may be d i f f i cu l t to wa l k on , may l imi t Survey Manua l Handbook No . 18 US Dep t
access i b i l i ty , and t hey requ i re per i od i c o f Agr i cu l ture , Sup t . o f Documen t s , US
C l ean l i ness : Aggrega t es are cons i dered
ma i n t enance and rep l en i shmen t . (Re f er to Gov ' t Pr i n t i ng O f f i ce , Wash i ng t on , DC
c l ean i f f ree o f c l ay , si l t , m i ca , and organ i c Sec t i on 440 : Sur f ac i ng and Pav i ng , and 437 p .
ma t t er . D i v i s i on 900 : De ta i l s and Dev i ces , for mor e So i l Sur vey D i v i s i on St a f f . Key
to So i l s
Soundness : An aggrega t e is phys i ca l l y i n forma t i on .) Taxonomy. Tech . Mono . No . 19, 5th ed .
sound i f i t rema i ns d i mens i ona l l y st ab l e
Veh i cu l ar Roads and Pa rk i ng Ar eas : Agency for Int erna t i ona l Deve l opmen t ,
unde r t empe ra t ure or mo i s ture change and Grave l , c rushed s tone , and o ther t ypes of USDA- NRCS . Pochaon t as Press , I nc .
res i sts wea t he r i ng w i t hou t decompos i t i on . aggrega t es are used for f i n i shed sur f aces of B l acksburg , VA 541 p.
I f exposed aggrega t e is to be used in con- roads , dr i veways , and park i ng areas . These Agency f or I n t e rna t i ona l Deve l opmen t
cre t e , i t may be necessary to conduc t abra-
prov i de re l a t i ve l y i nexpens i ve sur f ac i ng , 1975. So i l s Taxonomy : A Bas i c Sys t em o f
s i on tests to de t e rm i ne i ts durab i l i ty as par t bu t may not be appropr i a t e for some s i tua- Soi l Cl ass i f i ca t i on for Mak i ng & Int erpre t i ng
of t he wea r i ng sur f ace . (Tab l e 810-15) .
t i ons . Dus t f rom veh i cu l ar t raf f i c and f re- So i l Surveys . USDA-So i l Conse r va t i on
Grada t i on : Aggrega t es are gr aded by quen t ma i n t enance may d i scourage i ts use Serv i ce , Wash . , DC 754 pp.
s i ze t hrough progress i ve l y sma l l er s i eves for h i gh- t ra f f i c areas .
U . S. Dep t . o f the Inter ior , Bur eau o f Land
and t hen common l y comb i ned in cer t a i n Rec l ama t i on . Ear th Manua l : A Gu i de to the
propor t i ons to produce aggrega t e m i x tures . AGENC I ES AND ORGAN I ZAT I ONS Use of So i l s as Founda t i ons & as
The aggrega t e compos i t i on is de f i ned by Cons t ruc t i on Ma t er i a l s for Hydrau l i c
the percen t age of the tota l samp l e (by Ame r i can Assoc i a t i on of St a t e H i ghway St ruc tures , 2d ed ., 1974 .
we i gh t ) tha t passes t hrough each s i eve . and Transpor t a t i on Of f i c i a l s (AASHTO)
Urban , l . and P.J . Crau l . 1996 . " Success
Grad i ng is cont ro l l ed by the producer and Wash i ng t on , D . C .
w i t h so i l s i n U rban l andscapes . " Arbor
can be ad j us t ed to mee t the grad i ng Age 16(7) :18, 20, 22
requ i remen t s o f pro j ec t spec i f i ca t i ons . Ame r i can Soc i e t y of Nurse rymen
Wash i ng t on , D . C . Way , Doug l as S. Ter ra i n Ana l ys i s : A Gu i de
4 . 2 Common App l i ca t i ons to Si te Se l ec t i on Us i ng Aer i a l Pho tograph i c
Ame r i can Soc i e t y for Tes t i ng and Ma t er i a l s Int erpre t a t i on , 2d ed ., Dowden , Hu t ch i nson
Aggrega t es are used for a w i de var i e ty of and Ross , S t roudsburg , 1978 .
(ASTM)
purposes in l andscape cons t ruc t i on rang i ng
40 Ph i l ade l ph i a , Pennsy l van i a
f rom a f ounda t i on ma t er i a l to f i n i shed sur -
f aces for wa l kways , dr i veways , and park i ng
410 Eco l og i ca l Serv i ces Labora tory (Urban So i l s
areas . Two of the mos t common uses of

a
410 Research)
l oose aggrega t e are for pedes t r i an wa l k -
Na t i ona l Park Serv i ce
ways and veh i cu l ar roads and park i ng
Wash i ng t on , D . C .
areas . O t he r uses of aggrega t e are d i s-
cussed in o ther sec t i ons o f th i s handbook .
Na t i ona l Crushed St one Assoc i a t i on
Pedes t r i an Wa l kways : In reg i ons whe r e Wash i ng t on , D . C .
aggrega t e ma t er i a l s are read i l y ava i l ab l e ,
aggrega t e wa l kways are i nexpens i ve and Na t i ona l Sand and Grave l Assoc i a t i on
easy to insta l l . Tab l e 810-16 descr i bes the Wash i ng t on , D . C .
charac t er i st i cs of common l oose aggrega t es
00
 SECT I ON

Aspha l t

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
Cha r l es W. Har r i s
Techn i ca l wr i t er :
Tob i as Dayman w i t h
pro f ess i ona l adv i ce and
i npu t s f rom Robe r t H . l oube r t
o f t he Aspha l t Ins t i tut e
Rev i ewe r :
Robe r t H . Jouber t ,
Reg i ona l Represen t a t i ve
Aspha l t Ins t i tut e
Me t huen , Massachuse t t s

CONTENTS

1 . 0 Int roduc t i on 4. 2 Sur f ace Trea t men t s Des i gn Examp l es

1 .1 Gene r a l 4. 3 Aspha l t Pav i ng B l ocks 6. 2 Dr i veways and Pa rk i ng Areas
1 .2 Manu f ac t ur i ng St anda rds 4. 4 Aspha l t -Trea t ed Granu l ar Base 6. 3 B i cyc l e , Pedes t r i an , and Go l f Ca r t
2 . 0 Aspha l t Cemen t or B i nde r Courses Pa t hs
2 .1 Proper t i es o f Aspha l t Cemen t or 4. 5 Less -Common Aspha l t M i x t ures 6 .4 Tenn i s Cour t s
B i nde r 5 .0 Pr i nc i p l es of Aspha l t Pavemen t Des i gn 6 .5 P l aygrounds and Recrea t i ona l Areas
2 .2 Se l ec t i on Cr i t er i a for Aspha l t Cemen t s 5.1 Typ i ca l Pavemen t Sec t i ons 7 . 0 M i sce l l aneous
or B i nde r 5. 2 Pavemen t Func t i ons 7 .1 Aspha l t Curbs and Gu t t ers
3 . 0 Aggr ega t e f or Aspha l t Pavemen t s 5. 3 Aspha l t Pavemen t Cons t ruc t i on 7.2 Aspha l t Unde r l aymen t s
7.3 Co l or ed Aspha l t Pavemen t s
s
3 .1 S i zes of Aggrega t e for Aspha l t Type of Aspha l t Pavemen t
Pavemen t s Cons t ruc t i on 7.4 Recyc l ed Aspha l t Granu l ar Base
3 .2 Aggr ega t e Grada t i ons Expec t ed Pavemen t Li fe Courses

Q
3 .3 Recyc l ed G l ass as Aggrega t e 6 .0 Th i ckness Des i gn of Aspha l t Pavemen t s Agenc i es and Organ i za t i ons
3 . 4 Se l ec t i on Cr i ter i a for Aggrega t es 6.1 Roads Re f e rences
4 .0 Aspha l t Pav i ng M i x t ures Des i gn Fac tors

N
4.1 Aspha l t Conc re t e Th i ckness Des i gn Procedure
 820- 2
1 . 0 I NTRODUCT I ON Tab l e 820 -1 . ASPHALT CEMENT GRAD I NG SYSTEMS

1 .1 Gene r a l
Grades f

T
e thn i ca l l y , the t e rm aspha l t re fers
Ha rd Sof t ,
on l y to aspha l t cemen t or "b i nder , " or > or
the bas i c cement i t i ous ma t er i a l tha t is Grad i ng Sys t em ' th i cker ' th i nner Rema r ks
eventua l l y m i xed w i th aggrega t e to f orm
Pene t ra t i on graded 40-50 60-70 85-100 120-150 200-300 O l der sys t em that measures
pavemen t s . In common usage , howeve r , need l e pene t ra t i on .
t he t e rms aspha l t , aspha l t pavemen t , Aspha l t is samp l ed at
aspha l t concre t e , and b i t um i nous concre t e 77°F (25°C) . St i l l in use
re fer to the many ava i l ab l e m i x tures of in Canada and in some
aspha l t and aggrega t e tha t are used for states .
var i ous purposes in l andscape cons t ruc t i on . Vi scos i ty graded AC-40 AC-30 AC-20 AC-10 AC-5 AC-2 .5 Newe r sys t em i nt roduced in
1972 . Sc i ent i f i ca l l y
Th i s sec t i on focuses exc l us i ve l y on measures v i scos i ty of the
aspha l t at 140 ' F (60°C) .
aspha l t when used for pav i ng , e t c . Mos t states use this
a l t hough aspha l t cemen t or b i nder is a l so sys t em .
common l y used as a sea l ant and as an Vi scos i ty graded on AR-160 AR-20 AR-40 AR-80 AR-10 A var i at ion of the more
adhes i ve (mast i c) . aged res i due st andard v i scos i ty graded
(AR) sys t em . Measures aspha l t
1 . 2 Manu f ac t u r i ng S t anda rds af ter s i mu l a t ed ag i ng .
Used in severa l wes t ern
The Ame r i can Soc i e t y for Tes t i ng and states .
Ma t er i a l s (ASTM) and the Ame r i can
Assoc i a t i on of St a t e H i ghway and Trans- " Consu l t loca l h i ghway depar tment s for cr i ter ia of loca l grad i ng systems . Loca l cr i ter ia are of ten sl ight
mod i f i cat i ons of the above spec i f i cat ions , a l tered to sui t loca l cond i t i ons .
por t a t i on Of f i c i a l s (AASHTO) have es t ab- t The hard-sof t sca l e is used to ind i cate re l at i ve hardness w i th i n each grad i ng syst em and not as a com-
l i shed spec i f i ca t i ons on the manu f ac t ure and par i son of hardness f rom one grad i ng sys t em to another . The grades toward the harder , or thi cker , end
use of aspha l t cemen t or b i nder produc t s , of the spec t rum tend to be used in heav i er t raf f ic cond i t i ons or warmer c l i mates . Coo l er c l i mates or
and aspha l t concre t e m i x tures common l y l ighter loads ut i l i ze grades toward the sof ter end of the spec t rum .
used in the Un i t ed St a t es. These spec i f i ca-
t i ons we r e used as a gu i de for da t a shown in
th i s sec t i on .
be used as a gu i de to t he produc t i on of There are three d i f f erent me t hods for grad i ng
I t shou l d be no t ed tha t in 1994 t he qua l i t y aspha l t pavemen t s w i th i n i ts jur i s- aspha l t cemen t or b i nders used in the Un i t ed
i ndus t ry forma l l y accep t ed and began to d i c t i on . Loca l s t anda rds and prac t i ces St a t es and Canada . Al l three grade aspha l t
i mp l emen t t he resu l ts of a t en year research shou l d a l ways be consu l t ed for t he appro- accord i ng to degree of hardness . Tab l e 820-
e f for t conduc t ed unde r the US Federa l pr i a t e des i gns and spec i f i ca t i ons for any 2 l ists var i ous grades of aspha l t ' s f rom each
St ra t eg i c H i ghway Resea rch Progr am spec i f i c reg i on or area . me t hod tha t are appropr i a t e for roads ,
(SHRP) . Th i s resu l t ed in deve l op i ng a new depend i ng on c l i ma t i c cond i t i ons .
sys t em for the des i gn o f aspha l t pav i ng to 2 . 0 ASPHALT CEMENT OR
be known as Supe rpave . They are in the Wea t he r i ng: The ox i da t i on o f the sur -
B I NDER f ace and the evapora t i on of l i ghter hydro-
process o f i nt roduc i ng a new des i gna t i on
for aspha l t cemen t wh i ch hence - for th is to ca rbons (vo l at i l i zat i on) causes aspha l t to
2 .1 Prope r t i es o f Aspha l t Cemen t
be ca l l ed an " aspha l t i c b i nder . " Th i s b i nder l ose i ts p l ast i c i ty and to become br i t t l e w i th
or B i nde r
wi l l be known as PG (Pe r f ormance Graded) age . Proper l y s l oped subbases and sub-
b i nder and the new spec i f i ca t i ons for th i s Aspha l t cemen t or b i nder has severa l grades , prope r compac t i on of l ayers , and
aspha l t i c b i nder wi l l be shown as a h i gher i mpor t an t proper t i es tha t e f f ec t how th i s t i me l y sea l i ng and sur f ac i ng t rea tmen t s
pos i t i ve numbe r fo l l owed by a nega t i ve ma t er i a l can be used for var i ous purposes keep wea t he r i ng to a m i n i mum .
numbe r as for examp l e PG 64-22 . The f i rst and cond i t i ons .
Inso l vency : Aspha l t is res i st ant to the
numbe r represent s a hot pavemen t des i gn
The rmop l as t i c i t y : Aspha l t cemen t or chem i ca l e f f ec ts of wa t e r and of mos t sa l ts,
cr i ter i a in degrees cen t i grade and the sec- ac i ds , and a l ka l i 's excep t pe t ro l eum-based
b i nder is an adhes i ve wh i ch de f orms unde r
ond numbe r represent s the l ow or co l d l oads or l i que f i es w i th hea t . These proper - ma ter i a l s , such as gaso l i ne and o i l -based
pavemen t des i gn cr i ter i a in degrees cent i - t i es cause i t to be c l ass i f i ed a f l ex i b l e t ype pa i nts i f app l i ed in concen t ra t ed amoun t s .
gr ade. The grades wi l l vary by 6 degree of pavemen t . Tar sea l ers are used on aspha l t sur f aces
i ncremen t s on bo t h the h i gh and l ow ends . whe r e concen t ra t ed sp i l l age is expec t ed .
V i scos i t y and Gr ades : The v i scos i ty of
S i nce these new spec i f i ca t i ons are not aspha l t is d i rec t l y i n f l uenced by t empe ra - Co l or : Aspha l t is na tura l l y b l ack , but
tLS of f i c i a l l y ava i l ab l e a t t he t i me of pub l i ca- ture . A t empera ture / v i scos i t y s l ope can be
h cer t a i n propr i e t ary produc t s or pav i ng
t i on of th i s handbook (1997) , t he U .S .
a readers of th i s Sec t i on are urged to seek
p l ot t ed to de f i ne the t empe ra t ure for m i x- processes can a l ter tha t co l or. (Re f er to 7 .3
i ng and compac t i on . An i ncrease in t em- Co l ored Aspha l t Pavemen t s in th i s sec t i on
Q the l atest de t a i l ed da t a f rom e i ther na t i on- pera ture means a decrease in v i scos i ty. for mor e i n forma t i on .)
al or l oca l sources . Every ma j or gove rn-
men t a l un i t t hroughou t the wor l d has Aspha l t cemen t or b i nder can have grades
N es t ab l i shed a se t of s t andard spec i f i ca t i ons
of hardness or v i scos i ty (Tab l e 820-1) . Each
grade is i n t ended for spec i f i c purposes .
00 for aspha l t i c cemen t or b i nders tha t shou l d

T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 820- 3
macadam cons t ruc t i on . Macadam con-
Tab l e 820 - 2 . TEMPERATURE AND RECOMMENDED ASPHALT CEMENT
s t ruc t i on m i xes aspha l t cemen t w i t h these
GRADES FOR ROADS
aggrega t es to f orm an i nexpens i ve coarse
wea r i ng sur f ace .

Tempe r a t ur e cond i t i on Aspha l t grades " 3 .2 Aggr ega t e Gr ada t i ons

Co l d , mean annua l a i r t empera ture <7°C AC-5 AC-10 Aggrega t e grada t i ons cont a i n a se l ec t ed
(45 - F) t AR-2000 AR-4000 range of aggrega t e s i zes in des i red propor -
120-150 pene t ra t i on 85-100 pene t ra t i on t i ons . Max i mum par t i c l e or s tone s i ze is the
Wa rm , mean annua l ai r t empera ture AC-10 AC-20 sma l l es t s i eve tha t 100 percent o f the
be t ween 7°C (45°F) and 24°C (75°F) AR-4000 AR-8000
85-100 pene t ra t i on 60-70 pene t ra t i on aggrega t es wi l l pass , and nom i na l max i -
Hot , mean annua l a i r t empera ture AC-20 AC-40 mum s i ze is the l argest s i eve tha t re ta i ns
(>24°C (75 ' F) f AR-8000 AR-16000 any of the aggrega t es , bu t genera l l y not
60-70 pene t ra t i on 40-50 pene t ra t i on mor e t han 10 percen t of the l arger -s i ze
" The above recommenda t i ons serve on l y as a gu i de. Consu l t loca l pract i ces and standards to de t erm i ne aggrega t es.
loca l spec i f i cat ions .
Aspha l t m i x t ures a re common l y
t Severe l y co l d t empera tures may requ i re very sof t aspha l ts to m i n i m i ze crack i ng . In very hot c l imates ,
an aspha l t mi xture shou l d be des i gned to resist rut t ing and to ma i nta i n st i f fness . re f er red to by the i r nom i na l max i mum s i ze
Source : The Aspha l t Inst i tute, Th i ckness Des i gn : Aspha l t Pavement s for H i ghways and St reets, MS-1 , Co l - ( re f er r i ng to t he aggr ega t e con t a i ned
l ege Park , Md . there i n) . Four common aggrega t e grada -
t i ons are :

ta i n propor t i ons ( i . e ., grada t i ons) for even- F i ne -Graded Aggr ega t e : Produces a sur -
2 .2 Se l ec t i on Cr i t er i a f or Aspha l t
f ace of f i ner t ex ture and l ess road no i se
Cemen t s tua l use in an aspha l t -aggrega t e m i x ture
(e .g . , aspha l t concre t e ) . (Re f er to 3 .2 t han a coarse aggrega t es .

Many t asks requ i re spec i f i c aspha l t cemen t s Aggrega t e Grada t i ons in th i s sec t i on for Coa rse -Graded Aggrega t e : Produces a
or l iqu id aspha l ts . Tab l e 820-3 l ists var i ous mor e i n forma t i on .) mor e st ab l e pavemen t w i th coarser sur f ace
t ypes and grades of aspha l t cemen t and the i r t ex ture and , there fore , mor e road no i se .
F i ne Aggrega t e : Th i s re fers to aggre -
appropr i a t e uses . In al l cases , loca l s t andards
ga t es tha t pass the 2 . 36 mm (No . 8) s i eve . Dense -Gr aded (We l l -Graded) Aggrega t e :
and prac t i ces shou l d be consu l t ed .
M i nera l dus t re f ers to the por t i on of f i ne Produces a sur f ace tha t is very wa t er t i ght ,
aggrega t e tha t passes the 0 . 075 mm (No . h i gh l y stab l e , and durab l e .
3 .0 ' 200) s i eve , and m i nera l f i l ler re fers to tha t
PAVEMENTS por t i on of f ine aggrega t e tha t passes the Open -Gr aded Aggrega t e : Con t a i ns l i t t le
0 . 60 mm (No . 30) s i eve . M i nera l dus t and or no m i nera l f i l ler , there fore , i ts l arger
m i nera l f i l ler are typ i ca l l y used in prec i se aggrega t es crea t e l arger vo i ds wh i ch inter -
The aggrega t e used in aspha l t pavemen t s
percen t ages to f i l l vo i ds of coarse aggre - l ock and produce a pavemen t w i th good
mus t cons i st of an appropr i a t e grada t i on
s t rength , rough t exture , and h i gh pe rme -
and possess cer ta i n spec i f i c proper t i es i f i t is ga t e to produce a cohes i ve , dense , wa t er -
t i ght aspha l t concre t e m i x ture . ab i l i ty. Th i s pavemen t is su i t ab l e for porous
to produce a s t rong and durab l e pave -
dra i nage pavemen t s l oca t ed in reg i ons f ree
men t . Loca l s t andards and prac t i ces of t en
Coa rse Aggrega t e : Th i s re fers to aggre - of f ros t / thaw cond i t i ons .
re f l ect read i l y ava i l ab l e aggrega t e ma t er i a l s
ga t es re t a i ned on the 2 . 36 mm (No . 8)
and grada t i ons tha t have proved mos t su i t - Tab l e 820-4 shows coarse aggrega t e
s i eve . The i nt er l ock i ng and f r i c t i on of
ab l e and econom i ca l to use in tha t a rea. In grada t i ons used for h i ghway cons t ruc t i on .
coarse aggrega t es prov i de the ma j or s t abof
a l l cases , aggrega t e shou l d be non- When used s i ng l y or in comb i na t i on , such
i ty func t i on in a pavemen t .
absorben t and non- l am i na r. grada t i ons are a l so su i t ab l e for aspha l t
Macadam Aggr ega t e : Th i s re f ers to m i xes . The propor t i ona l d i s t r i but i ons
3 .1 S i zes o f Agg r ega t e f or Aspha l t coarse aggrega t es o f un i f orm s i ze , nom i - shown in the t ab l e can be a l t ered to su i t j ob
Pavemen t s na l l y s i zed be t ween 40 to 65 mm (1 -1 /2 to requ i remen t s and l oca l cond i t i ons . Because
Aggr ega t e is typ i ca l l y c l ass i f i ed accord i ng 2-1 / 2 in) , usua l l y of c rushed s tone , s l ag, or of the i r permeab i l i t y , t hey are rest r i c ted to
grave l . Such aggrega t e is typ i ca l l y used in spec i a l app l i ca t i ons .
to s i ze . The var i ous s i zes are m i xed in cer -

3 . 3 Recyc l ed G l ass as Aggr ega t e

In the Un i t ed States , some Federa l pro j ec t s
requ i re the use of recyc l ed g l ass as aggre -
1 . Loca l s t andards and prac t i ces shou l d be consu l t ed pr ior to se l ec t i ng the appropr i a t e
ga t e w i th i n aspha l t pavemen t . G l ass mus t
grade of aspha l t cemen t or b i nder .
be care fu l l y ground and ro l l ed to m i n i m i ze
sharp edges tha t may become exposed
2 . C l i ma t e is an i mpor t ant f ac tor in se l ec t i ng aspha l t cemen t s . Severe l y co l d t empera -
w i th gradua l wea r i ng . Recyc l ed g l ass wor ks s
tures may requ i re very sof t aspha l t to m i n i m i ze crack i ng , wh i l e very hot c l i ma t es Q.
requ i re harder aspha l t to ma i nt a i n st i f fness and res i st rut t i ng . we l l in aspha l t pavemen t s of heavy use ,
such as roadways , because cons t ant wea r -
i ng cont i nua l l y gr i nds t he g l ass edges .
a
to

3 . Many app l i ca t i ons requ i re spec i f i c aspha l t cemen t s or l iquid aspha l ts (see Tab l e 820-3) .
Howeve r , l i ght er uses , such as b i cyc l e 0
pa ths , can gradua l l y expose t he g l ass , and N
00
 820 - 4

Tab l e 820 - 3 . GU I DE TO USES OF ASPHALT

ASPHALT CEMENTS

V i scos i t y gr aded or i g i na l v i scos i t y gr aded r es i due Pene t r a t i on gr aded l

TYPE OF
CONSTRUCT I ON o o 0 0
0
0 0
0 0 0 `^ o
° 0
° 0 0 0 °
d' N ~' f N .~ cp R N 1 N j O Oo
V
Q
U
Q
UQ V
Q
UQ Q :: cc
Q
0:
Q
Q: :
Q
Q:
Q
01
V
o
Z
rn
co
N
N

Aspha l t - aggrega t e m i x tures

Aspha l t conc re t e and hot - l a i d
p l ant m i x
Pavemen t base and
sur f aces
H i ghways X X X X X' X X X X X' X X X X X,
A i rpor t s X X X X X X X X
Park i ng a reas X X X X X X X X X

Dr i veways X X X X X X
Curbs X X X
Indust r i a l f l oors X X X X X X
B l ocks X X X
Gro i ns X X X X X X
Dam f ac i ngs X X X X X X
Cana l and reservo i r X X X X X X
l i n i ngs
Co l d- l a i d p l ant m i x "
Pavemen t base and
sur f aces
Open -gr aded aggrega t e
We l l -gr aded aggrega t e
Pa t ch i ng , i mmed i a t e use
Pa t ch i ng , s tockp i l e
M i xed in p l ace ( road m i x) ' °
Pavemen t base and
sur f aces
Open -gr aded aggrega t e
We l l -gr aded aggrega t e
Sand X X
Sandy soi l X X
Pa t ch i ng , i mmed i a t e use
Pa t ch i ng , s tockp i l e
Recyc l i ng
Ho t m i x X X X X X X X X X
Co l d m i xr ° X X X
Aspha l t - aggrega t e app l i ca t i ons
Sur f ace t rea tmen t s
S i ng l e sur f ace t rea t men t X X X X
Mu l t i p l e sur f ace X X X X
t rea t men t
Aggrega t e sea l X X X X X
Sand sea l
S l ur ry sea l
Aspha l t app l i ca t i ons
Sur f ace t rea t men t
Fog sea l
Pr i me coa t
Tack coa t
Dus t l ay i ng
Mu l ch
Memb r ane
Cana l and reservo i r X X
h l i n i ngs
Embankmen t enve l opes X X X X X X
Q
Cr ack f i l l ing
Q Aspha l t pavemen t s
Por t l and cemen t conc re t e X° X" X°

0 pavemen t s

N ' M i xed in pr i me on l y. 2D i l ut ed w i th wa t e r ; 3 Sl ur ry m i x . 4Rubbe r aspha l t compounds . 5D i l ut ed w i th wa t er by the manu f ac turer . 6MS-2 on l y .

%For use in co l d c l i ma t es . $Be fore us i ng MCs for spray app l i ca t i ons (other than pr i me coats) , check w i th loca l po l l ut i on cont ro l agency .
00
n - C- o r C f - l nr r l c fnr I - l c r - Gr rh i t pr f i ra
 820 - 5

Emu l s i f i ed aspha l t s 9 Cu t back aspha l t s I I I

An i on i c Ca t i on i c Med i um cu r i ng (MC) B s l ow cu r i ng (SC)

t
N
N h

N L
t U~ ,~ N N t
N ^ rV N ,~
N
ut
lit lit H lit li-, O O O
C C
In
_ V~ Un V U U V U U N 00 ~ ^
O N M
O

x x x x
x x x x x x X x x x X
x x x x x X x
x x x x

x X x x x X x x
X x X X x x x x x
x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x
x x x x

x x x x x x x x x

x x x x
x x x x

x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x

x5 x2 x2 x2 x2
xt ,6 x' xt xi xi xt x x x
x x5 x2 x2 x x2 x2
x2 x2 x2 x2 x x x x x
x2 x2

s
CL
x3 x3 x3 x3
a
0
'Emulsi f ied asphal ts shown are AASHTO and ASTM grades and may not include al l grades produced in al l geographi ca l areas . tnEva luat ion of emulsi f ied aspha l t -aggregate system requi red t
determine the proper grade of emulsi f ied aspha l t to use, "Use of the rapid cure (RC) asphal ts is not shown on this char t since thei r use i s becomi ng rare and is di scouraged for energy and
env i ronmenta l reasons . Use of emulsi f ied asphal ts is encouraged instead . Source The Aspha l t Inst i tute .
N
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 820 - 6

i nc rease t he chances of sha rp edges com i ng . ~_

I_4
t o t he sur f ace .

1 . D i f f erent t ypes of aggr ega t e prov i de va ry i ng degr ees o f su i t ab i l i ty for aspha l t pav i ng
3 . 4 Se l ec t i on Cr i t e r i a f or Aggr ega t es
w i t h rega rd t o ha rdness , res i s t ance to s t r i pp i ng , sur f ace t ex ture , and c rushed shapes
Tab l e 820 - 5 shows f our i mpor t an t cr i ter i a to (see Tab l e 820-5) .
cons i de r when assess i ng t he va l ue o f a pa r - 2. The l arger t he s i ze o f aggr ega t es in a grada t i on , t he grea t e r wi l l be t he s t reng th and
t i cu l ar aggr ega t e f or use i n an aspha l t pave - durab i l i t y o f t he pavemen t .
men t . Each cr i t er i on is desc r i bed be l ow . 3 . Grada t i ons w i t h l arger aggr ega t es resu l t in a roughe r pavemen t (or sur f ace t ex ture)
t han do grada t i ons w i t h f i ner aggr ega t e .
1 . Ha rdness (Toughness ) : is t he ab i l i t y
o f t he aggr ega t e t o w i t hs t and l oads 4. The l arger t he aggrega t es , t he grea t e r wi l l be t he road no i se gene r a t ed by veh i cu l a r
and wea r . t ra f f i c .

5 . The co l or o f a wea t he r ed aspha l t pavemen t is a l so a f unc t i on o f t he co l or o f t he

2. Res i s t ance t o S t r i pp i ng : hydroph i l i c
l arger aggr ega t es.
(wa t e r l ov i ng) aggr ega t es , t end t o
s t r i p away f rom t he aspha l t bond , 6. In t he Un i t ed St a t es , many Fede ra l pro j ec t s requ i re t he use of some pe r cen t age o f
recyc l ed g l ass as aggr ega t e w i t h i n aspha l t pavemen t . Th i s i s bes t f or heavy use
r educ i ng t he s t ab i l i t y and sk i d res i s-
pavemen t s . The g l ass mus t be care fu l l y ground and ro l l ed to m i n i m i ze sha rp edges
t ance o f t he pavemen t . An t i -s t r i p-
tha t may become exposed w i t h gr adua l wea r i ng .
p i ng compounds can be added t o
aspha l t m i x t ur es t o pe rm i t t he use o f

Tab l e 820 - 4 . COARSE AGGREGATE GRADAT I ONS FOR H I GHWAY CONSTRUCT I ON

S i eve s i ze (square open i ngs)

Nom i na l s i ze
Grada t i on of grada t i on , 300um 15oum
squa re 100 mm 90 mm 75 mm 63 mm 50 mm 38 .1 mm 25.0 mm 19 .0 mm 12 .5 mm 9.5 mm 4 . 75 mm 2 . 36 . m 1 . 18 mm (No. (No .
s i ze (3/4" ) (1 /2" ) (3/8" ) (No . 4) (No . 8) (No . 16) 50) 100)
numbe r open i ngs (4" ) (3-1/2" ) (3" ) (2-1/2" ) (2" ) (1-1/2" ) (1" )

1 90 -38 .1 mm 100 90-100 X25-60 0-15 0-5

(3Yf -1 Yz in)
2 63 -38 .1 mm 100 90 - 100 35-70 0-15 0-5
(2Y, -1 Y, in)
24 63 -19 .0 mm 100 90 - 100 25 -60 0-10 0-5
(2Ya- f , in)
3 50 -25 .0 mm 100 90 - 100 35 -70 0-15 0-5
(2-1 in)
357 50-4 . 75 mm 100 95 - 100 35 -70 10-30 0-5
(2 i n-No . 4)
4 38 . 1-19 .0 mm 100 90-100 20-55 0-15 0-5
(1 Ye- f4 in)
467 38 . 1-4 . 75 mm 100 95-100 35 -70 10-30 0-5
( I )k i n-No . 4)
5 25 . 0-12 .5 mm 100 90-100 20-55 0-10 0-5
(1-Yz in)
56 25 . 0-9.5 mm 100 90-100 40-75 15-35 0-15 0-5
(1-16 in)
57 25 . 0-4 . 75 mm 100 1 15-100 25 -60 0-10 0-5
(1 i n-No . 4)
6 19 . 0-9.5 mm 100 90-100 20-55 0-15 0-5
( f. -16 in)
67 19 . 0-4 . 75 mm 100 90-100 20-55 0-10 0-5
(1 : i n-No . 4)
68 19 . 0-2 . 36 mm 100 90-100 30-65 5-25 0-10 0-5
( f. i n-No . 8)
7 12 . 5-4 . 75 mm 100 90-100 40 -70 0-15 0-5
(Y, i n-No . 4)
78 12 . 5-2 . 36 mm 100 90-100 40 -75 5-25 0-10 0-5
(Y, i n-No . 8)
8 9 . 5-2 . 36 mm 100 85 - 100 10-30 0-10 0-5
(16 i n-No . 8)
89 9 . 5-1 . 18 mm 100 90 - 100 20-55 5-30 0-10 0-5
(96 i n-No . 16)
9 4 . 75-1 . 18 mm 100 85-100 10-40 0-10 0-5
(No . 4-No .
16)
s 10 4 . 75 mm (No. 100 85-100 10-30

a
4-0 ' )
(A
" Screen i ngs - No t e tha t some of these grada t i ons are su i tab l e for use in a se l ec t ed aspha l t -concre t e m i x ture (Re f er to Tab l e 820-8) . For granu l ar bases an
granu l ar sur f ace courses , re f er to Tab l e 820-9 and 4 .4 of thi s sec t i on

N
00
 820 - 7
some hydroph i l i c aggrega t es . Check l oca l
Tab l e 820 - 5 . PROPERT I ES OF VAR I OUS AGGREGATE TYPES FOR
prac t i ce .
ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
3 . Sur f ace Tex ture : a rough sur f ace t ex-
Ha rdness , Res i s t ance t o Sur f ace Crushed
ture a i ds in bond i ng and makes t he t oughness s t r i pp i ng t ex t u r e shape
pavemen t mor e st ab l e and res i stant to
abras i on and sk i dd i ng . Igneous
Gran i te Fa i r Fa i r Fa i r Fa i r
4 . Crushed Shape : cub i c , angu l ar , Syen i te Good Fai r Fa i r Fa i r
D ior i te Good Fai r Fa i r Good
c rushed shapes i nt er l ock and g i ve t he Good Good
Basa l t ( t rap rock) Good Good
pavemen t mor e s t rength t han do D i abase ( t rap rock) Good Good Good Good
smoo t h , rounded aggrega t es . Gabbro ( t rap rock) Good Good Good Good
Sed i ment ary
In add i t i on to these four cr i ter i a , a f ew L i mestone , do l omi t e Poor Good Good Fa i r
o ther cr i ter i a mus t be cons i dered when Sands tone Fa i r Good Good Good
se l ec t i ng an aggrega t e for an aspha l t con- Cher t Good Fa i r Poor Good
Sha l e Poor Poor Fa i r Fai r
cre t e m i x ture (see Key Po i nt s - Aggrega t es
Me t amorph i c
for Aspha l t Pavemen t ) . Gne i ss Fa i r Fa i r Good Good
Sch i st Fa i r Fa i r Good Fai r
Sl ate Good Fa i r Fa i r Fai r
4 . 0 ASPHALT PAV I NG M I XTURES Quar t z i t e Good Fa i r Good Good
Marb l e Poor Good Fa i r Fai r
4 .1 Aspha l t Conc r e t e Serpent i ne Good Fa i r Fa i r Fai r

Aspha l t concre t e , t he mos t w i de l y used Source : W. A. Cordon , Proper t i es, Eva luat ion and Cont ro l of Eng ineer ing Mater i a ls, McGraw-H i l l , New

aspha l t pav i ng m i x ture , cons i sts of a dense - York , 1979 .

gr aded aggrega t e hea t ed to approx i ma t e l y
150° C (300° F) , wh i ch is t hen m i xed (at a
p l ant ) w i t h aspha l t cemen t hea t ed to a others do not use aggrega t e a t al l . Var i ous f aces are ava i l ab l e as we l l as exposed
t empe ra t ure of 135° C (275° F) . The hea t - sur f ace t rea tmen t s are descr i bed in Tab l e aggrega t e f i n i shes in co l ors of b l ack ,
ed m i x ture is t aken to t he s i te , p l aced e i ther 820-7 and i l l ust rated in F i gure 820-1 . brown , gray , and t an . Af t er p l acemen t , t he
by pav i ng mach i nes or by hand , compac t - aggrega t e may be fur ther exposed and
ed to ach i eve max i mum dens i t y , and Tab l e 820-8 prov i des i n forma t i on on the g i ven a wea t he r ed e f f ec t by sandb l as t i ng .
a l l owed to coo l . Aspha l t concre t e is typ i ca l - quant i t i es of aspha l t and aggrega t e neces-
ly app l i ed in compac t ed th i cknesses rang- sary for s i ng l e sur f ace t rea tmen t s and sea l Tab l e 820-10 shows th i cknesses and
i ng f rom 20 mm (3 / 4 in) to mor e t han 300 coa t s . Tab l e 820-9 prov i des i n forma t i on on typ i ca l app l i ca t i ons o f aspha l t pav i ng
mm (1 f t ) . The th i ckness of any l ayer of aggrega t e grada t i ons appropr i a t e for sur - b l ocks . F i gure 820-2 shows a f ew s t andard
aspha l t concre t e shou l d a l ways be a t l east f ace t rea tmen t s . Sur f ace t rea tmen t s ex t end shapes tha t are commerc i a l l y ava i l ab l e.
tw i ce the nom i na l max i mum s i ze (or max i - the pavemen t ' s l i fe bu t do no t i ncrease the Spec i a l orders are a l so poss i b l e . B l ock pave -
mum par t i c l e s i ze) of the aggrega t e . Tab l e st ruc tura l s t rength of the pavemen t . men t s requ i re base and subbase courses
820-6 shows the compos i t i on of var i ous and typ i ca l l y requ i re some t ype of edg i ng
aspha l t concre t e m i x tures . 4 . 3 Aspha l t Pav i ng B l ocks for con t a i nmen t . In forma t i on on cons t ruc -
t i on spec i f i ca t i ons and the ava i l ab i l i ty of
Pr emo l ded aspha l t b l ocks are o f t en used
A f i n i shed aspha l t concre t e pavemen t par t i cu l ar th i cknesses , shapes , and co l ors
shou l d cont a i n 2 to 7 percen t vo i ds (a i r ) by for pedes t r i an pav i ng and some veh i cu l ar
can be acqu i red f rom the manu f ac t ure r .
sur f ac i ng . The prec i se m i x ture of aspha l t ,
vo l ume to a l l ow for expans i on of the pave -
men t and to a l l ow for compac t i on of the aggrega t e , and rock dus t var i es in manu-
f ac ture to su i t spec i f i c uses . Smoo t h sur -
aggrega t e ove r t he l i fe of the pavemen t .

4 . 2 Sur f ace Tr ea t men t s

Sur f ace t rea tmen t s re fer to spec i a l aspha l t -

aggrega t e app l i ca t i ons l a id in l ess than 25 - mm 1 . The th i ckness of any l ayer of aspha l t concre t e shou l d a l ways be at l east tw i ce the
(1- i n) th i cknesses on ex i st i ng or new pave - nom i na l max i mum s i ze (or max i mum par t i c l e s i ze) of the aggrega t e .
men t . Sur f ace t rea tmen t s are used for co l or
coa t i ng , sea l i ng , i mprov i ng sk i d res i stance , 2 . A f i n i shed aspha l t concre t e pavemen t shou l d cont a i n 2 to 7 percent vo i ds (a i r ) by
or pro l ong i ng the serv i ce l i fe of a fa i r to vo l ume to a l l ow for expans i on of the pavemen t and compac t i on of the aggrega t e
good pavemen t sur f ace . over t i me.

The app l i ca t i on o f a sur f ace t rea t men t 3 . Sur f ace t rea tment s are used for co l or coa t i ng , sea l i ng, i mprov i ng sk id res i stance , or
i nvo l ves spray i ng hea t ed aspha l t cemen t pro l ong i ng the serv i ce l i fe of a fa i r to good pavemen t sur face , but do not i ncrease i ts
(emu l s i f i ed or cu tback aspha l t ) on t o a sur - st ructura l st rength . s
C.
face , fo l l owed by the des i red aggrega t e .
The app l i ca t i on is then ro l l ed, thereby forc-
i ng the aspha l t and aggrega t e to f i rm l y se t
4 . B l ock pavemen t s requ i re base and subbase courses and typ i ca l l y requ i re some t ype
of edg i ng for con t a i nmen t (consu l t manu f ac turer for const ruc t i on spec i f i cat i ons) .
a
toge ther . Some sur f ace t rea tmen t s have the
aggrega t e and aspha l t prem i xed , wh i l e 5 . Granu l ar ma t er i a l s unsu i t ab l e for base courses can be t rea ted w i th an aspha l t
cemen t to produce a stab i l i zed base course . j
 820- 8
Tab l e 820 - 6 . COMPOS I T I ON OF ASPHALT M I XTURES

Sand s Shee t
Aspha l t concre t e b , c , d , e , f aspha l t aspha l t g'b

M i x des i gna t i on and nom i na l max i mum s i ze of aggrega te '

1 Vz in ~Y. in Yz in No . 4 No . 16'
(37.5 1 in (25 .0 (19.0 (12 .5 Ta in (9 .5 (4 .75 (1 .18
mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm)
Typ i ca l pavemen t courses for cor respond i ng m i x des i gna t i on

Int ermed i a t e
Base courses i or b i nder Sur f ace courses i
courses i

Grad i ng of tota l aggrega t e (coarse p l us f ine , p l us f i l ler i f requ i red)

S i eve s i ze Amoun t s f i ner than each l abora tory s i eve (square open i ng) , we i ght percent "
2 in (50 mm) 100 - - - - - -
1 Vz in (37 .5 mm) 90 to 100 100 - - - - -
1 in (25 .0 mm) - 90 to 100 100 - - - -
14 in (19 .0 mm) 56 to 80 - 90 to 100 100 - - --
Vz in (12 .5 mm) - 56 to 80 - 90 to 100 100 - -
% in (9 .5 mm) - - 56 to 80 - 90 to 100 100 -
No. 4 (4.75 mm) 23 to 53 29 to 59 35 to 65 44 to 74 55 to 85 80 to 100 100
No. 8 (2 .36 mm) 4 15 to 41 19 to 45 23 to 49 28 to 58 32 to 67 65 to 100 95 to 100
No. 16 (1 .18 mm) - - - - - 40 to 80 85 to 100
No. 30 (600 pm) - - - - - 20 to 65 70 to 95
No. 50 (300 Ann) 4 to 16 5 to 17 5 to 19 5 to 21 7 to 23 7 to 40 45 to 75
No . 100 (150 50,um) 31c , 20 20 to 40
No . 200 (75 km) ' 0 to 6 1 to 7 2 to 8 2 to 10 2 to 10 2 to 10 9 to 20
Aspha l t cement , we i ght percent of tota l mi xture

3 t o8 3 t o9 d t o10 I 4toI I
1
5 t o12 6 t o12 I 8 t o12
Sugges t ed coarse aggrega t e s i zes, numbe r*
4 and 67 5 and 7 67 or 68 7 or 78 8
or or 57 or
4 and 68 6 and 8
a
Consu l t loca l standards and pract i ces for compos i t i on mi xes and durabi l i t i es at loca l const ruct ion si tes . These f igures serve as a gu i de on l y .
h Typ i ca l l i fe expec t ancy is about 20 years, at wh i ch t i me resur fac ing operat ions wou l d be needed . Durabi l i ty based upon a number of factors, inc lud ing traf f ic,
env i ronment , ma i nt enance , c l imate , mater i a ls, and const ruct ion of pavement .
`The l arger the max i mum stone si ze, the l ouder the t raf f ic noi se wi l l be .
d Co l or of norma l pavement s (af ter ini t ial wear ) is a funct ion of the co lor of the l arger aggregate . Darker tones are ach i eved by increas ing amounts of f iner sand
and f i l ler .
e M i xtures w i th coarse aggregate have rougher f ini shed sur face texture than mi xtures wi th f ine aggregate .

t The uni t of measures for aspha l t concrete is tons . Common l y , a square yard of aspha l t concrete pavement one inch thi ck we i ghs .055 tons (110 Ibs) . In some
instances, the spec i f i c gravi ty of the aggregate may be h igher or l ower than norma l , thereby a l ter ing this f igure accord ing l y . For mos t jobs up to 1 to 2 acres in
si ze, the f igure ment i oned is adequa t e . Consu l t loca l pract i ces and standards .
g Shee t and sand aspha l t have f iner texture . However , these mi xtures l ack the l arger aggregate that tend to produce stable, dense , st rong pavement s . Whe re
stabi l i ty and f ine texture are i mpor tant factors, ut i l i ze the more common 16- in nomi na l mi x des ignat ion .
h Shee t aspha l t produces a c l ean, re lat ive ly noi se l ess sur face that has been used in many areas for decades . The re lat ive ly h igher aspha l t content and increas ing
amount s of f iner mi nera l dust causes mi xture to be somewha t more expens i ve to produce . An excess in aspha l t cou l d produce an unstab l e sur face , b l eed
aspha l t to sur face, or be sl ick when we t . Shee t aspha l t scuf fs more easi ly than coarser mi xtures.
' The th i ckness of any compac t ed pavement layer shou l d be at least twi ce the nomi na l max i mum s i ze or max i mum stone s i ze (wh i chever term is used) .
I Aspha l t pavement courses typi ca l ly used for the cor respond i ng aspha l t concre te nomi na l mi x des ignat ions . Sur face courses typical ly are 16- in and 8- in mi x
des ignat ion reserved for sur face courses where heav i er duty is expec t ed . See note i above.
k In cons i der i ng the tota l grad ing character i st i cs of an aspha l t pav i ng mi xture , the amoun t pass ing the 2 .36 mm (No . 8) s i eve is a signi f icant and conven i ent f ield
cont rol po int be tween f ine and coarse aggregate . Grad i ngs approach i ng the max i mum amount permi t ted to pass the 2 . 36-mm s i eve wi l l resul t in pavement
sur faces hav i ng comparat i ve l y f ine texture, wh i l e grad ings approach i ng the m i n i mum amount pass ing the 2 . 36-mm s i eve wi l l resul t in sur faces wi th compara-
t ive ly coarse texture .
t The mater i a l s pass ing the 75-gm (No. 200) s i eve may cons i st of f ine par t i c l es of the aggregates or minera l f i l ler, or both . It shal l be f ree of organ i c mat ter and
s c l ay par t i c l es and have a plast ici ty i ndex not greater than 4 when tested in accordance wi th ASTM Me thod D 423 and ASTM Me thod D 424 .
' The quant i ty of aspha l t cement is g i ven in terms of we i ght percent of the total mi xture . The w i de di f ference in the spec i f i c gravi ty of var ious aggregates, as
a
s we l l as a cons i derab l e di f ference in absorpt ion, resul ts in a comparat i ve l y w i de range in the l imi t ing amount of aspha l t cement spec i f i ed . The amount of aspha l t
requ i red for a g i ven mi xture shou l d be de t ermi ned by appropr i ate l aboratory test ing or on the basis of past exper i ence wi th simi l ar mi xtures, or by a comb i na t i on
of both .
0 " Tab l e 820-3 l ists aspha l t cement grades appropr i ate for cer ta in pavement s .
N Refer to Tab l e 820-4 for coarse aggregate gradat ions .
00 Source: Adapt ed f rom ASTM Des i gnat i on 3515, St andard Spec i f i cat ions for Hot -Mi x, Hot -La i d Bi tumi nous Pav ing Mi xtures.
 820- 9

Tab l e 820-7 . SURFACE TREATMENT TYPES AND CHARACTER I ST I CS

Sur f ace t rea tment

t ype i nt ended uses Const i tuent ma ter i a l s Rernarks ",
Pr i me coats (F ig. To wa terproof and prov i de some Heavy appl i cat ion of di lute or thin Penet rates grave l road sur face ~ in,
820-1) st ructura l st rength to unt reated l iquid aspha l t of l ow viscosi ty to more or l ess. Saturates grave l base so
grave l base by penet rat ion grave l base subsequent sur face t reatments wi l l
not be absorbed, Not i ntended to be
app l i ed to paved sur faces . App l i ed
on aggregate bases when aspha l t
pavement s are less than 3 in thi ck .
Dust pa l l iat ive" (Fig . To reduce road dust produced by w i nd Best s low-cur ing cutback aspha l t or Penet rates sur face about g in b ind ing
820-2) or mov i ng vehi c l es di luted (4 :9 wi th water ) s l ow- par t ic les together. Light appl i cat ions
set t ing emu l s i f i ed aspha l t , med i um- are typica l (about 0 .2 ga l /yd2 ) .
cur ing aspha l t or med i um-set t i ng Consu l t local pract i ces and standards .
emul s i f i ed aspha l t Med i um-cur i ng and med i um-se t t i ng
aspha l ts typi ca l ly become br i t t le and
crack , thus thei r use is l imi ted . S l ow-
cur ing cutback aspha l ts endure
longest .
Fog sea l ' (F ig. 820-3) To sea l and fill very sma l l cracks and Slow-set t ing emu l s i f i ed aspha l t di luted App l y onl y on coarse- textured sur face
vo i ds in open-graded pavement s wi th wa ter so fog can be absorbed into sur face .
Do not use on dense smooth
sur faces or sl i ckness wi l l resul t . Over -
appl i cat ions produce a s l ippery
sur face .
Slur ry seaed (Fig . To sea l prev ious l y paved sur faces and Slow-set t ing emu l s i f i ed aspha l t , f ine Prov ides smooth , t ight sur face . Mos t
820-4) f i l l cracks in o ld pavement s that aggregate , minera l f i l ler, and water of ten hand l ed by spec i a l ty
otherw i se are in good cond i t ion cont ractor .
Sand sea l sd, ' (F ig . To fill f ine cracks and to sea l exist ing Low viscosi ty or modera te l y di luted Very low-cost sea l ing t reatment as done
820-5) pavement aspha l t wi th sand aggregate by local l abor , mater i a l , and/or
cont ract . Genera l l y rest r icted to low-
vo l ume rural road ma i nt enance .
Rare l y used in commerc i a l
appl i cat ions .
Singl e-sur face To sea l and waterproof , prov i de a Liquid aspha l t fo l l owed by un i form- Modera t e cost sea l ing and sur face
t reatment ' , ' (chip, wear i ng course , increase sk id s i zed aggregate , % to ~ in most re juvenat ion . Di f f icul t to app l y in
seal , or aggregate res i stance , or prov i de color over common , some t i mes 1,s to F' ,s in sma l l areas such as park i ng lots . More
seal ) (Fig . 820-6) other pavement . common for roads.
Mu l t ip l e sur face To seal and prov i de wear i ng course Two or more sur face t reatments Aggrega te s i zes vary as max i mum-s i zed
t reatment ' ' (F ig. over other pavement s app l i ed on top of one another aggregate of success i ve t reatment is
820-7) usua l ly one-ha l f of the prev ious one .
Di f f icul t to app l y in sma l l areas such
as park i ng lots . More common for
roads .
Consu l t local sources for standards and pract i ces for speci f ic const ruct ion jobs .
b Use of l iquid aspha l ts necessi tates a per iod of ai r ing t i me dur ing wh i ch pavement is unusab l e . Fa i lure to take
precaut ions dur ing appl i cat ion resul ts in t rack ing and improper l y sea l ed pavement .
` Because of thinness, average l i fe expectanc i es for sur face t reatments range f rom 3 to 8 years, based on factors
such as traf f ic, c l imate, env i ronment , and qua l i ty of or iginal pavement . Consu l t local pract i ces and standards for
expec ted durabi l i t ies at local job si tes .
d
App l i ed f rom a prepared mi xture .
e
App l i ed by pl ac ing the l iquid aspha l t on the des i red sur face f irst, then cover ing wi th a layer of aggregate par t icles .
Compac t i on forces the aggregate down , mi x ing wi th the aspha l t .
' Refer to Tab l e 820-3 for informat ion on sur face t reatments and speci f ic l iquid aspha l t grades and viscosi t ies . Refer
to Tab l e 820-8 for the aspha l ts and Tab l e 820-9 for the aggregates used in these sur face t reatments.

Q
O
N
CO
 820- 1 0

5 . 3 Aspha l t Pavemen t Cons t ruc t i on

Aspha l t pavemen t des i gn t ends to be an

emp i r i ca l (or exper i ence -based) t echno l ogy
der i ved f rom loca l prac t i ces and ma t er i a l s .
The i n forma t i on on pavemen t cons t ruc t i on
con t a i ned in th i s sec t i on is a summa r y of
wha t is requ i red to produce a conserva t i ve
des i gn tha t per forms we l l and requ i res l i t t le
or no ma i n t enance for approx i ma t e l y 20
years . Des i gns tha t vary s i gn i f i cant l y f rom
t he ones sugges t ed here i n can be used
whe r e l oca l exper i ence demons t ra t es an
equa l or sa t i s f ac tory pe r f ormance is
assured . Whe r e ranges are shown t hen a
prec i se f i gure for each l ayer shou l d be
based upon l oca l prac t i ce and s t andards . I f
such da t a are no t known , then the h i gher
pavemen t des i gn va l ue shou l d be used .

The m i n i mum tota l th i ckness of the

4 . 4 Aspha l t -Tr ea t ed Gr anu l a r subgrade , or on an aggrega t e base over a comb i ned aspha l t concre t e l ayers in a pave -
Base Cour ses subgr ade or i mproved subgrade , or on an men t des i gned to car ry very l ight l oads
ex i s t i ng pavemen t made o f concre t e , br i ck , (e .g ., p l aygrounds and wa l kways) is 75 mm
Granu l a r ma t er i a l s unsu i t ab l e for base or s tone . F i gure 820-3 shows severa l typ i - (3 in) . to 100 mm (4 in) .
courses (e .g ., because o f poor i nt er l ock i ng ca l pavemen t prof i l es , each des i gned for
ab i l i ty) can be t rea t ed w i th an aspha l t In the Un i t ed Sta tes , t he subgrade and
spec i f i c purposes ( re fer to Sec t i on 440 :
cemen t to produce a stab i l i zed base course base suppor t i ng capac i t i es for f l ex i b l e
Sur f ac i ng and Pav i ng for mor e i n forma t i on
( i . e ., b i tum i nous stab i l i za t i on) . A l t hough pavemen t s are typ i ca l l y measur ed by t he
on pavemen t des i gn) .
th i s is used l ess common l y t han aggrega t e Ca l i forn i a bear i ng rat io (CBR) . Some s t a t es
or aspha l t base courses , i t can prov i de a 5 . 2 Pavemen t Func t i ons use the R-va l ue test , wh i l e others de t er -
su i t ab l e base at l ess cos t in some s i tua t i ons . m i ne subgrade s t rength based on soi l c l as-
The aggrega t e of t he var i ous pavemen t s i f i ca t i on or o t he r l ess - common soi l
4 . 5 Less - Common Aspha l t M i x t ur es l ayers suppor t s the l oads i mposed on i t s t rength tests . Re f er to Sec t i on 810 : So i l s
wh i l e the aspha l t cemen t wa t erproo f s and and Aggrega t es for add i t i ona l i n forma t i on
Comme rc i a l l y ava i l ab l e aspha l t pav i ng m i x- he l ps to b i nd every th i ng toge ther (F i gure on bear i ng s t rength of so i l s .
tures l ess common l y used than those prev i - 820-4) . The wa t e r t i ghtness prevent s mo i s-
ous l y descr i bed are shown in Tab l e 820-11 . Al l subgrades for pavemen t s mus t be
ture f rom ent er i ng and weaken i ng the sub-
grade . For heav i er l oads and weake r sub- s t ab l e and des i gned to m i n i m i ze poss i b l e
5 . 0 PR I NC I PLES OF ASPHALT
a
h grades th i cker l ayers of aspha l t m i x tures heav i ng due to f rost . Al l subgrade l ayers
PAVEMENT DES I GN and / or base and subbase aggrega t es are requ i re adequa t e compac t i on to ensure

a
s max i mum s t rength and bear i ng pot ent i a l .
requ i red to d i st r i bute the l oads and to pre-
5 .1 Typ i ca l Pavemen t Sec t i ons ven t pavemen t fa i l ure . The t op sur f ace Good dra i nage is essent i a l , and subgrades
needs t o be smoo t h , res i stant to wear , d i s- mus t be reasonab l y and un i f orm l y dry so
Aspha l t pavemen t s typ i ca l l y cons i st o f l ay-
tor t i on , and de t er i ora t i on by wea t he r i ng tha t l oca l i zed poor dra i nage does not a f f ec t
N e red aspha l t - aggrega t e m i x tures p l aced
and de i c i ng chem i ca l s .
00 e i ther d i rect l y on a subgrade or i mproved
 820 - 1 1
the i r s t reng t h . Subgr ades shou l d dr a i n pa r - Tab l e 820 - 8 . QUANT I T I ES OF ASPHALT AND AGGREGATE FOR S I NGLE
a l l e l to t he pavemen t sur f ace . SURFACE TREATMENTS AND SEAL COATS '

Types o f Aspha l t Pavemen t Cons t ruc t i on :

Quan t i t y o f Quan t i t y o f
The t wo bas i c t ypes o f aspha l t pavemen t Nom i na l s i ze aggr ega t e kg / aspha l t , L / m=(ga l / Type and g r ade
L i ne o f aggr ega t e mz( Ib/ yd 2) t $ yd 2)t , q o f aspha l t
cons t ruc t i on common l y used in t he Un i t ed
St a t es a r e : (1) f u l l -dep t h des i gn and (2) 1 19 . 0-9 .5 mm 22-27 1 . 6-2 .0 (0 . 35-0 .45) Aspha l t cemen t s
( f<-% in) (40-50) 1 . 8-2 .3 (0 . 40-0 .50) RS-2 , CRS-2
aggr ega t e base des i gn .
2 12 . 5-4 . 75 mm 14-16 0 . 9-1 .4 (0 . 20-0 .30) Aspha l t cemen t s
Fu l l -Dep t h Des i gn :
Th i s re f ers t o an (Y2 i n -No. 4) (25-30) 1 . 4-2 .0 (0 . 30-0 .45) RS-1 , RS-2 ,
CRS-1 , CRS-2
aspha l t conc r e t e or o t he r aspha l t - aggr e -
3 9 . 5-2 . 36 mm 11-14 0 . 7-1 .1 (0 . 15-0. 25) Aspha l t cemen t s
ga t e m i x t ur e t ha t i s p l aced d i rec t l y on a (20-25) 0 . 9-1 .6 (0 . 20-035) RS-1 , RS-2 ,
(46 i n- No . 8)
subgr ade w i t hou t an aggr ega t e base (see CRS-1 , CRS-2
F i gure 820-3) . 4 6. 3-1 . 18 mm 8-11 (15-20) 0 . 7-0 .9 (0 . 15-0. 20) RS-1 , MS-1 ,
(Y< i n- No . 16) CRS-1 , HEMS-1
The subgr ade shou l d be f i n i shed t o un i - 5 Sand 5 -8 (10-15) 0 . 5-0 .7 (0 . 10-0 . 15) RS-1 , CRS-1 ,
f orm gr ade and compac t ed a t or nea r op t i - MS-1 , HFMS-1
mum mo i s t ur e l eve l . The ex i s t ence o f
These quant i t i es o f aspha l t cove r the ave rage range of cond i t i ons tha t i nc l ude pr i med granu l ar bases
unusua l l y we t , p l as t i c so i l requ i res rep l ac i ng and o l d pavemen t sur f aces. The quant i t i es and t ypes of ma t er i a l s may be var i ed accord i ng to loca l con-
t he so i l w i t h 100 mm (4 i n) or mo r e o f d i t i ons and exper i ence .
un t rea t ed , coa rse aggr ega t e ma t e r i a l or t The l ower app l i ca t i on rates of aspha l t shown in t he above t ab l e shou l d be used for aggrega t e hav i ng
consu l t l oca l prac t i ces f or o t he r op t i ons . grada t i ons on t he f i ne s i de of t he spec i f i ed l imi ts . The h i gher app l i ca t i on ra tes shou l d be used for aggre-
ga t e hav i ng grada t i ons on the coarse s i de of the spec i f i ed l imi ts .
Agg r ega t e Base Des i gn : Aggr ega t e base $ The we i gh t of aggrega t e shown in t he tab l e is based on aggrega t e w i th a spec i f i c grav i ty o f 2 . 65 . In
des i gn re f ers t o an aspha l t conc r e t e or case the spec i f i c grav i ty o f the aggrega t e used is l owe r than 2 . 55 or h i gher than 2 .75, t he amoun t shown
in t he t ab l e above shou l d be mu l t i p l i ed by t he rat io that the bu l k spec i f i c grav i ty o f the aggrega t e used
o t he r aspha l t - aggr ega t e m i x t ur e t ha t is
bears to 2 . 65 .
p l aced on an un t r ea t ed aggr ega t e base
§ AC-2 .5, AC-5 ; AR-1000 , AR-2000 ; 200 / 300 pen . , 120 / 150 pen . (No t e : In some areas pers i stent di f f i -
ove r a pr epa r ed subgr ade (see F i gur e 820- cu l t y in re t a i n i ng aggrega t e has been expe r i enced w i th 200-300 pene t ra t i on aspha l t cemen t s. Whe r e
3) . Th i s t ype o f cons t ruc t i on is mos t appro- thi s has occur red , t he use of 200-300 pene t ra t i on aspha l t is no t r ecommended .)
pr i a t e i n a r eas whe r e so i l s a re h i gh l y sus- 4 I t is i mpor t ant to ad j ust t he aspha l t con t en t for the cond i t i on of the road , i ncreas i ng it i f t he road is
cep t i b l e t o f ros t ac t i on . absorbent , bad l y cracked , or coarse , and decreas i ng i t if t he road is " f a t " w i th f l ushed aspha l t .

The pr epa r ed base and subbase aggr e -

Cor r ec t i ons for Sur f ace Cond i t i ons
ga t e l ayer m i n i m i zes f ros t heave and he l ps
d i s t r i but e t he i mposed l oads , a l l ow i ng f or a Tex ture Ga l l ydz
s l i ght l y t h i nne r base course o f aspha l t con-
Bl ack , f l ushed aspha l t - 0 .01 to - 0 . 06
c re t e or aspha l t - aggr ega t e m i x t ur e t han is Smoo t h , nonporous 0. 00
necessa ry in f u l l -dep t h des i gn . Un t r ea t ed Absorben t
aggr ega t e base and subbase shou l d be com- Sl i ght l y porous , ox i d i zed +0 .03
Sl i ght l y pocked , porous , ox i d i zed +0 . 06
pac t ed a t or nea r op t i mum mo i s t ure l eve l s
Bad l y pocked , porous , ox i d i zed +0 . 09
( re f er t o Sec t i on 810: So i l s and Aggr ega t es
f or f ur t he r i n f orma t i on on compac t i on) .

Expec t ed Pavemen t L i f e :

Aspha l t conc r e t e pavemen t s when prope r l y Tab l e 820 - 9. QUANT I T I ES OF ASPHALT AND AGGREGATE FOR S I NGLE
cons t ruc t ed t yp i ca l l y requ i res sur f ace ma i n - SURFACE TREATMENTS AND SEAL COATS "
t enance or resur f ac i ng ove r l ays abou t eve r y
20 yea rs . The durab i l i t y o f t he pavemen t Nom i na l s i ze squa r e open i ngs t
depends upon many f ac tors , i nc l ud i ng t ra f -
f i c vo l ume , qua l i t y o f cons t ruc t i on , f r equen- S i eve s i ze 3/4 to 3/8 1 / 2 t o No . 4 3 / 8 t o No . 8 1 / 4 t o No . 16 Sand
( squa r e
cy o f ma i n t enance , sever i t y o f c l i ma t e , and open i ng) Pe r cen t age pass i ng by we i gh t
t he qua l i t y o f t he ma t e r i a l s i nvo l ved .
1 1100
90-100 100
6 .0 TH I CKNESS DES I GN OF Y2 20-55 90-100 100
ASPHALT PAVEMENTS 0-15 40-70 85-100 100 100
Y. 90-100
No. 4 0 -5 0-15 10-30 60-85 95-100
6 .1 Roads No . 8 0 -5 0-10 0-25
4-1

No . 16 0 -5 0 -5 45-70 h
Des i gn Fac t o r s :
No . 50 5-25
Q
The t h i ckness o f aspha l t conc r e t e for roads No. 100 0-10 s
No . 200 0 -2 0-2 Q
depends on t hr ee f ac tors :
Re f er to Tab l e 820-8 for i n forma t i on on aggrega t e grada t i ons used in sur f ace t rea tment s .
1 . Tra f f i c we i gh t and numbe r o f veh i -
c l es : t he heav i e r and / or mor e nume r -
t In i nches un l ess o therw i se i nd i ca t ed. N
Source : The Aspha l t Inst i tute , Aspha l t Sur f ace Trea tment s-Spec i f i ca t i ons , ES-11 , February , 1982 .
 820- 1 2
ous t he l oad , t he t h i cke r t he pave -
Tab l e 820 - 10 . RECOMMENDED TH I CKNESS OF ASPHALT BLOCKS FOR
men t requ i red .
TYP I CAL APPL I CAT I ONS "
2. Subgr ade suppor t : weake r subgr ades
r equ i r e s t ronge r pavemen t des i gn . Th i ckness o f un i t
The use o f a s t rong aggr ega t e subbase Typ i ca l app l i ca t i ons r ecommended , i n
t o ach i eve des i red s t reng t h is r ecom-
Tra f f i c a i s l es and l oad i ng p l a t forms 1)4 or 2
mended ra ther
t han th i cker and / or P i ers and docks 1 Ya or 2
mo r e l ayers o f aspha l t conc r e t e . Roo f decks -pa r k i ng or s torage 1 )~
Roo f decks and ba l con i es - rec rea t i ona l 1 Y. or 18
3 . Ma t e r i a l s i n t he pavemen t s t ruc t ure : A i rpor t , hangars , runways , aprons 1 Yz, 2, or 212
ho t -m i x aspha l t conc r e t e g i ves mo r e Ramps and br i dge approaches 216 or 3
s t r eng t h and t he aggr ega t e base d i s- St ree ts , roads , br i dges , v i aduc t s 2* or 3
t r i bu t es l oads be t t e r t han a f u l kdep t t i Wa t e rproo f i ng prot ec t i on courses 1 Y4

des i gn . Est a t e , res i dent i a l , and i nst i tut i ona l dr i veways 2, hexagona l or rec t angu l ar
Wa l ks , cour t s , p l azas , and t er races 2 , hexagona l or rec t angu l ar
Th i ckness Des i gn Procedure : Check l oca l prac t i ces and s t andards , manuf ac turers ' spec i f i ca t i ons , or a c i v i l eng i neer to mor e accu-
rate l y de t e rm i ne prope r th i ckness for par t i cu l ar j obs .
The f o l l ow i ng des i gn procedur e is r ecom-
Source : Adap t ed f rom The Aspha l t Inst i tute , The Aspha l t Handbook , 1965 .
mended f or roads in t he Un i t ed St a t es by

Tab l e 820 - 11 . LESS COMMON ASPHALT PAV I NG M I XTURES

Aspha l t m i x t ur e t ype i n t ended use Cons t i t uen t ma t e r i a l s t Rema r ks

Co l d l a i d p l ant m i xes For i mmed i a t e pa t ch i ng or D i f f erent m i x des i gna t i ons ava i l ab l e P l aced by pav i ng mach i nes at amb i en t
Co l d m i xes s tockp i l i ng. Use on s i tes composed of l i qu i d aspha l t s and t empe ra t ures and compac t ed .
Emu l s i f i ed aspha l t f a r - removed f rom aspha l t var i ous aggrega t e grada t i ons in a Requ i res a per i od o f t i me for wa t e r
Emu l s i f i ed sand aspha l t conc re t e p l ant , base , or p l an t -prepared m i x t ure . or so l vent s to evapora t e . Ca r e i s
Emu l s i f i ed shee t aspha l t sur f ace courses . Aggrega t e op t i ons i nc l ude open needed to ensur e prope r cur i ng for
and dense -graded grada t i ons. A des i red s t rength . Fu l l y cured
prepa red and compac t ed s t rength 20 to 30% l ess t han
subgrade aspha l t conc re t e .
De f i c i enc i es in s t rength t yp i ca l l y
r emed i ed by us i ng th i cker l ayers.

Road m i xes m i xed in p l ace For base and sur f ace courses . L i qu i d aspha l t or aspha l t cemen t , M i xed in t rave l i ng p l ant or by graders
Co l d l a i d road m i xes I mmed i a t e pa t ch i ng or open or dense -graded aggrega t e , man i pu l a t i ng l ayers of aspha l t
s tockp i l i ng . Use on sand or sandy soi l ma t er i a l and aggrega t e .
sur f aces f a r - removed f rom No t as prec i se as p l ant m i x i ng.
ho t -m i x p l ant. Add i t i ona l sur f ace t rea tment s may
be added to sea l sur f ace or prov i de
wea r i ng coa t .

Open -gr aded m i xes Typ i ca l l y as an over l ay or Aspha l t cemen t s or emu l s i f i ed As an over l ay , has coarse appea rance
nonsk i d sur f ace aspha l t s . Open -gr aded and t emporar i l y absorbs wa t e r f rom
(some t i mes ca l l ed f r i ct i on aggrega t e , o f t en t oughe r t han l ight ra i ns in pavemen t ' s porous
course ) on con t i nuous o t he r aggrega t e m i xes; h i gh s t ruc ture . Be t t er res i sts t ransf er ra l of
f l ow , h i gh-speed h i ghway degree of i nt er l ock i ng necessa ry re f l ec t i on cracks o f pavemen t
t raf f i c sur f aces unde rnea t h than o t he r m i xes.
Typ i ca l l y , no t used for res i dent i a l
st ree ts and park i ng l ots .

Pene t ra t i on macadam Base courses or sur f ace Macadam aggrega t e nom i na l l y Larger aggrega t e compac t ed on t o
courses o f roads s i zed a t 1 * to 2Y2 in ; aspha l t prepa red subgrade cove r ed w i th
cemen t or emu l s i f i ed aspha l t , aspha l t ma t er i a l tha t seeps and
sea l coa t , and compac t ed and pene t ra t es i nto aggrega t e . Cove r ed
prepa red subgrade by sma l l er aggrega t e and t hen
ent i re ma t er i a l compac t ed . Sea l
coa t app l i ed to sur f ace . App l i ca t i on
requ i res expe r i enced l abor to
produce smoo t h r i d i ng sur f ace .
Rare l y used t oday .
h
Q Consu l t l oca l prac t i ces and sta te spec i f i ca t i ons or an eng i neer for ma t er i a l s and app l i ca t i on gu i de l i nes .
s
Q t See Tab l e 820-3 for spec i f i c aspha l t t ypes of these m i x tures.

N
00
 820- 1 3

F i gur e 820 -3 . Typ i ca l aspha l t pavemen t sec t i ons . These sec t i ons show var i ous
h
courses o f ma t er i a l s t yp i ca l l y used in aspha l t pavemen t cons t ruc t i on . The ac tua l pave - Q

a
men t des i gn used , i nc l ud i ng d i mens i ona l spec i f i ca t i ons , w i l l depend on l oad , subgrade , s
ma t er i a l s , c l i ma t e , and l oca l prac t i ces . Pr i me coa t s are genera l l y no t used on pavemen t s
th i cker t han 3 to 4 i n (75 to 900 mm) ove r aggrega t e , and are rare l y used i n fu l l -depth
pavemen t s . Aspha l t pavemen t s ove r ex i s t i ng concre t e , br i ck , or s tone requ i re spec i a l
over l ay cons t ruc t i on t echn i ques no t cove red in th i s handbook. N
820 - 1 4
The Aspha l t Inst i tute . Loca l pract i ces and Ai rpor ts (ASTM D2940) . The aggre- 1 . Cl ass i fy the Traf f i c: A rura l m i nor col -
s t andards shou l d be i nvest i gated, as loca l ga t e shou l d mee t those requ i rements l ector road is expec t ed to average 10
cond i t i ons may sugges t mod i f i ca t i on . l isted in Tab l e 820-14 . heavy t rucks per day over a 20-year
des i gn per i od . The tota l numbe r of
1 . Cl ass i fy the t raf f i c : se l ect the appro- The subgrade shou l d be compac t ed heavy t rucks wi l l be 10 x 365 x 20 =
pr i ate t raf f ic c l ass i f i cat ion shown in at or near op t i mum mo i s ture cont ent 73 , 000 . Traf f i c Cl ass III is i nd i ca ted
Tab l e 820-12 . to ach i eve max i mum dens i ty . The (Tab l e 820-12) .
bases and subbases shou l d a l so be
2 . Cl ass i fy the subgrade : de t erm i ne compac t ed at op t i mum mo i s ture con- 2. Cl ass i fy the Subgrade : F rom past
the proper subgrade based on the tent to ach i eve a m i n i mum dens i ty of exper i ence and CBR test data , the
cr i ter i a in Tab l e 820-13 . Consu l t a 100 percent max i mum l abora tory subgrade is expec t ed to have a CBR
civi l eng i neer to conf i rm the proper dens i ty. be tween 8 and 10 . A med i um sub-
c l ass i f i cat ion . grade soi l c l ass i f i cat ion is i nd i ca ted
4. De t erm i ne the th i ckness : Tab l e 820- (Tab l e 820-13) . Con f i rm the f i nd i ngs
3 . De t erm i ne the op t i mum aspha l t con- 15 l ists the th i ckness requ i rement s
crete spec i f i cat ions : use the spec i f i ca- w i th an eng i neer i ng study .
for a fu l l -depth aspha l t concre t e
t i ons of the loca l govern i ng author i ty pavemen t . Tab l es 820-16 through 3. De t erm i ne the Op t i mum Aspha l t
respons i b l e for aspha l t pavemen t 820-18 show th i ckness requ i rement s Concre t e Spec i f i cat ions : Two a l terna-
spec i f i cat ions . If these are not ava i l - for an aspha l t concre t e pavemen t t ive pavemen t s are cons i dered : ful l -
abl e , de t erm i ne the op t i mum aspha l t over an unt rea t ed aggrega t e base . depth aspha l t concre t e (Tab l e 820-
cemen t and aggrega t e comb i na t i on , 15) and aspha l t concre t e over a 150-
cons i der i ng the proposed l oad and Des i gn Examp l es : mm (6- in) unt rea t ed aggrega t e base
subgrade . (Tab l e 820-17) .
Two des i gn examp l es are i nc l uded here to
Any unt rea t ed aggrega t e i ncorporat - c l ar i fy the procedure g i ven above . 4 . De t erm i ne the Th i ckness : The f ina l
ed in the des i gn shou l d comp l y w i th th i cknesses for each pavemen t type
Graded Aggrega t e Ma ter i a l for Bases Examp l e A: ( rura l m i nor co l l ector road) :
- - +o , 1 hn l n , -
and Subbases for H i ghways and
ravemenz run-aepcn on unsremea
Tab l e 820-72 . TRAFF I C CLASS I F I CAT I ONS FOR ROADS l ayer des i gn aggrega t e base
Aspha l t 40 mm 40 mm
concre t e (1 .5 in) (1 .5 in)
Approx i ma t e range -numbe r sur face
Traf f i c of heavy t rucks expec t ed
c l ass Type of st reet or h i ghway dur i ng des i gn per i od" t EALt Aspha l t 85 mm 60 mm
I a Park ing lots, dr i veways 7000 5 x 10' concre t e (3 .5 in) (2 .5 in)
Light traf f ic, resident i a l base
st reets
Light traf f ic, farm roads Unt rea t ed 150 mm
II " Res ident i a l st reets 7000-15 , 0004 101 aggrega t e (6.0 in)
Rura l farm and resident ia l base
roads
III " Urban m i nor col l ector 70 , 000-150 , 0004 to , Tota l 125 mm 250 mm
st reets th i ckness (5 .0 in) (10 .0 in)
Rura l mi nor col l ector roads
IV§ m Urban m i nor ar ter ial and 700,000-1,500,000 106 Examp l e B: ( i nterpo l at i on be t ween t raf -
l ight indust r ia l st reets f ic c l ass i f i cat ions) :
Rura l ma j or col l ector and
m i nor ar ter ial h i ghways 1 . Cl ass i fy the Traf f i c : A m i nor ar ter i a l
V§ " Urban f reeways , >2 , 000 , 000 3 X 10 6 st reet is est i ma t ed to average 70
expressways , and other heavy t rucks per day over a 20-year
pr inc ipa l ar ter ial h i ghways per i od . The tota l numbe r of heavy
Rura l interstate and other
pr inc ipa l ar ter ial h i ghways t rucks wi l l be 70 x 365 x 20 =
Urban interstate h i ghways 511 , 000 . Th i s fal ls be tween Traf f i c
Some indust r ia l roads Cl asses III and IV (Tab l e 820-12) .
"Heavy t rucks" refers to two-ax l e , six- t i re t rucks or larger , as we l l as to t rucks wi th heavy-duty , wi de- 2 . Cl ass i fy the Subgrade : O l d soi l - test
based t i res . records i nd i cate that the des i gn CBR
t "Des i gn per iod" refers to the number of years f rom the ini t ial appl i cat ion of traf f ic to the f i rst p l anned va l ue in the area was 7. Thi s fal ls in
ma j or resur fac ing or over l ay . the med i um subgrade soi l c l ass i f i ca-
t "EAL" is the equi va l ent number of 80k N (18,000 lb) single-axle loads . The equi va l ent is the ef fect on t i on (Tab l e 820-13) . Con f i rm the
the pavement of any comb i nat i on of ax l e loads of vary ing magn i tude that equa l s 18,000 Ib (80 k N) .
§ Th i ckness determinat ion wi th increas ing loads becomes very comp l ex . Whenever possible, consul t the f i nd i ngs w i th an eng i neer i ng s tudy.
Aspha l t Inst i tute's manua l MS-1, Th i ckness Des i gn -Aspha l t Pavements for H i ghways and St reets, to 3 . De t erm i ne the Op t i mum Aspha l t
de termi ne proper procedures and recommenda t i ons for c lasses IV and higher . For reasons of comp l ex i ty ,
pavement thi cknesses of class V wi l l not be d i scussed. In these cases, consul t wi th a civi l eng ineer. Concre t e Spec i f i cat i ons : Fu l l -depth
4 When the va lue of t ruck use is be tween two class va lues, propor t ionate l y al ter the thi ckness of the aspha l t concre t e has been se l ec ted
f inished pavement (see Des i gn Examp l e B in the text ) . for the pavemen t st ructure (Tab l e
Source: Adapt ed f rom The Aspha l t Inst i tute, Aspha l t Pavement Th i ckness and Des i gn , IS-181, November 820-15) .
1981 .
T i me-Savor Ctanr fardc fnr 1 anr1c r ana Ar rh i tpr fure
 820 - 1 5
4. De t erm i ne the Th i ckness : Because
Tab l e 820-13 . SUBGRADE CLASS I F I CAT I ONS FOR ROADS
the tota l numbe r of heavy t rucks
(511 , 000) fal ls be t ween Traf f i c
Cl asses III and IV, a tota l th i ckness Res i l i ent
be tween 125 mm (5 .0 in) and 200 modu l us ,
Subgrade c l ass CBR" t MPa (psi )*t R-va l ue " t Rema rks
mm (8 .0 in) mus t be de t erm i ned by
i nterpo l at i on . Poor 3 30 (4500) 6 Poor subgrade soi ls become qui te
sof t and plast ic when we t.
Interpo l at i on ( f rom Tab l e 820-17) : Inc luded are those soi ls hav i ng
Traf f i c Cl ass IV = 200 mm (8 .0 in) tota l apprec i ab l e amount s of c l ay
and f ine si l t . The coarser si l ts
th i ckness and sandy l oams a lso may
Traf f i c Cl ass III = 125 mm (5 .0 in) tota l exhibi t poor bear i ng proper t i es
in areas where f rost
th i ckness penet rat ion into the subgrade
is a factor .
D i f f erence = 75 mm (3 .0 in) Med i um 8 80 (12,000) 20 Med i um subgrade soi ls retain a
Let x equa l that amoun t of th i ckness modera t e degree of f i rmness
under adverse mo i sture
needed to be added to 125 mm (5 in) to
cond i t ions . Inc l uded are such
produce a tota l adequa t e th i ckness for soi ls as loams , si l ty sands, and
511 , 000 t rucks . The numbe r 511 , 000 fal ls sand grave l s conta in ing
be tween 150 , 000 (Cl ass I I I) and 700 , 000 modera t e amount s of c l ay and
(Cl ass IV) . Thus , f ine si l t .
Good to 17 170 (25,000) 43 Good subgrade soi ls reta in a
x 511 , 000 - 150 , 000 exce l l ent substant i a l amount of the i r
load-suppor t ing capac i ty when
75 700 , 000 - 150 , 000 we t . Inc l uded are the c l ean
sands and sand grave l s and
x 361 , 000 soi ls f ree of det r imenta l
75 550 , 000 amount s of plast ic mater i a l s .
Exce l l ent subgrade soi ls are
x 50 mm (2 .0 in) unaf fected by mo i sture or
f rost . They i nc l ude c l ean and
There fore , the tota l des i gn th i ckness sharp sands and grave ls,
necessary wi l l be : par t icular ly those that are we l l -
graded .
50 mm (2 .0 in) + 125 mm (5 .0 in) = 175
* The fol lowing are spec i f i cat ions for the soi l - test ing procedures used . Ca l i forni a Bear ing Rat io (CBR) :
mm (7 .0 in) ASTM Me thod D 1883 (AASHTO Me thod T 193) , compac t samp l es accord ing to ASTM Me thod D 155
T (AASHTO Me thod T 180) , Me thod B or D. Res i stance va lue (R-va lue) : ASTM Me thod D 2844 (AASHTO
Th i s add i t i ona l th i ckness shou l d be Me thod T 190) . Resi l ient modu l us : approx imate l y comput ed f rom CBR by equat ion
added to the aspha l t concre t e base course
rather than in the sur face course . The Mr (MPa) = 10 .342 CBR or
Mr (ps i ) - 1500 CBR
th i ckness of the aspha l t concre t e sur face
course in cases of i nterpo l at i on be t ween or f rom R-va lue by equat i on
t raf f i c c l ass i f i cat ions shou l d be the th i cker
va l ue of the t wo t raf f i c c l asses (i .e ., 50 mm Mr (MPa) = 7.963 + 3 .826 (R-va lue) or
i nstead of 40 mm in Tab l e 820-15) . In the Mr (ps i ) = 1155 + 555 (R-va lue)
case of i nterpo l at i on for the des i gn of Resi l ient modu l us is approx i mated by these equat ions when the expected f igure is 207 MPa (30,000 psi )
pavemen t s on aggrega t e subbase , the or less . Such an approx i mat i on is useful in soi ls classi f ied as CL, CH , ML, SC, SM, and SP (Uni f i ed Soi l
th i ckness of the aggrega t e shou l d a l so be Classi f icat ion, ASTM D 2487). W i th other soi ls, resi l ient modu l us needs to be determi ned by l aboratory
the th i cker va l ue of the t wo t raf f i c c l asses . test ing . The resi l ient modu l us used here and these approx imat ions are not the same as the dynami c
modu l us test now be i ng used by some agenc i es . The lat ter tends to gi ve l ower Mr resul ts . For a more
F ina l th i ckness des i gn : There fore , the comp l e te di scuss ion, consu l t wi th a civi l eng ineer or refer to the Aspha l t Inst i tute's Soi ls Manua l (MS-
10) .
th i ckness des i gn shou l d be :
t The des igner is caut i oned to de termi ne that est imated soi l st rength is accurate and conforms to the
Aspha l t concre t e sur f ace = 50 mm above spec i f i cat ions before ut i l i z ing the tabl e.
(2 .0 in) Source: Adapt ed f rom The Aspha l t Inst i tute, Aspha l t Pavement Thi ckness and Des ign, IS-181, November
1981 .
Aspha l t concre t e base = 125 mm (5 .0 in)
Tota l th i ckness = 175 mm (7 .0 in)

6 .2 Dr i veways and Park i ng Areas

Do l l y whee l s of a parked t ruck t ra i l er wi l l
i ndent aspha l t sur faces un l ess p l anks are
p l aced under each whee l or a concre t e pad
insta l l ed .
820 - 1 6

Tab l e 820 - 14 . UNTREATED AGGREGATE BASE AND SUBBASE QUAL I TY

REQU I REMENTS FOR ASPHALT ROADS ' t

Tes t r equ i r emen t s*

Tes t Subbase Base

CBR , m i n i mum or 20 80
R-va l ue , m i n i mum 55 78
L i qu i d l imi t , max i mum 25 25
P l ast i c i ty i ndex , max i mum , or 6 Nonp l as t i c
Sand equ i va l ent , m i n i mum 25 35
Pass i ng No . 200 s i eve , max i mum 12 7

' Al l bases and subbases shou l d be compac t ed at op t i mum mo i s ture cont ent , p l us or m i nus 1 .5 per -
cen t age po i nts , to ach i eve a m i n i mum of 100% max i mum l abora tory dens i t y as es t ab l i shed by ASTM
Me t hod Tes t D 1557 , Me t hod D (or AASHTO Me t hod T 180) .
t These requ i remen t s app l y to a l l un t rea t ed aggrega t e used in th i s pavemen t des i gn . Such aggrega t e
shou l d comp l y w i th Gr aded Aggrega t e Ma t er i a l for Bases or Subbase for H i ghways and Ai rpor ts , ASTM
spec i f i ca t i on D2940 .
* The uppe r 6 in (150 mm) of un t rea t ed aggrega t e shou l d mee t the requ i remen t s for base ma t er i a l . Ma t e -
r ia l be l ow thi s may mee t subbase requ i remen t s .
Source : Adap t ed f rom The Aspha l t Inst i tute , Aspha l t Pavemen t Th i ckness and Des i gn , IS-181 , Novembe r
1981 .

Tab l e 820 - 15 . ASPHALT CONCRETE TH I CKNESS FOR ROADS -

FULL DEPTH DES I GN ' ," ,`

c l assd Pavemen t sec t i on Fu l l -dep t h aspha l t conc re t e , i n (mm)

Poor Aspha l t conc re t e sur f ace 1 .0 (25) 1 . 0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 .0 (50)

Aspha l t conc re t e base 3 .5 85 4. 0 95 5 . 5(140) 8 .0 205)
Tot a l : 4 .5 (110) 5 . 0 (120) 7 .0 (180) 10 .0 (255)
Med i um Aspha l t conc re t e sur f aces 1 .0 (25) 1 .0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 . 0 (50)
Aspha l t conc re t e base 3 .0 75 3 .0 75 3 .5 85 6. 0 (155)
Tot a l : 4 .0 (100)8 4 .0 (100)8 5. 0 (125) 8 . 0 (205)
Good to
exce l l en t Aspha l t conc re t e sur f ace s 1 .0 (25) 1 .0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 .0 (50)
Aspha l t conc re t e base 3. 0 75 3 .0 75 2 .5 60 4 . 0(105)
Tot a l : 4. 0 (100)8 4. 0 (100)8 4 .0 (100)8 6 .0 (155)

' Consu l t loca l s t andards and prac t i ces for al l pavemen t s . Such spec i f i ca t i ons supe rcede t hose men-
t i oned he re.
b See Tab l e 820-13 for typ i ca l aspha l t m i x tures. The th i ckness o f any aspha l t concre t e l ayer shou l d be a t
l east t w i ce e i ther the nom i na l max i mum s i ze m i x des i gna t i on or the max i mum par t i c l e s i ze of t he m i x
(wh i chever t e rm is used) .
Use fu l l -depth pavemen t s whe r e h i gh l y f ros t -suscept i b l e so i l s or heavy f rost is no t a prob l em . Other -
w i se , use aspha l t concre t e ove r an aggrega t e base .
d See Tab l e 820-13 .
e
See Tab l e 820-12 .
s M i n i mum r ecommended
th i ckness o f aspha l t concre t e sur f ace .
8 M i n i mum r ecommended des i gn .
Source : Adap t ed f rom The Aspha l t Inst i tute , Aspha l t Pavemen t Th i ckness and Des i gn , 1S-181 , Novembe r
1981 .
 820- 1 7

Tab l e 820-16 . PAVEMENT TH I CKNESS FOR ROADS OVER POOR

SUBGRADES - ASPHALT CONCRETE ON AGGREGATE

Tra f f i c c l ass i f i cat ion'

1 11 III IV
Pavemen t sec t i on/ var i ous
aggrega t e base th i ckness . Th i ckness in i nches ( mm)
4- in
Aspha l t concrete sur face 1 .0 (25) 1 .0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 .0 (50)
Aspha l t concrete base 2 .5 (65) 3 .0 (80) 5 .0 (120) 8 .0 (200)
Unt rea ted aggregate base` 4 .0(100) 4 .0(100) 4 .0(100) 4 .0 (100
Tota l : 7 .5 (190) 8 .0 (205) 10 .5 (260) 14 .0 (350)
6- in
Aspha l t concrete sur face 1 .0 (25) 1 .0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 .0 (50)
Aspha l t concrete base 2 .0 (55) 3 .0 (75) 4 .5 (120) . 7 .5 (190)
Unt rea ted aggregate base ' 6 .0(150) 6 .0(150) 6 .0(150) 6 .0(150)
Tota l : 9 .0 (230) 10 .0 (250) 1 12 .0 (310) 15 .5 (390)
8- in
Aspha l t concrete sur face 1 .0 (25) 1 .0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 .0 (50)
Aspha l t concrete base 2 .0 ( 50 ; 3 .0 (75) 4 .0 (105) 7.0 (185)
Unt rea ted aggregate base ' 8 .0(200) 8 .0(200) 8 .0 200 8 .0(200)
Tota l : 11 .0 (275)1 12 .0 (300)1 13 .5 (345) 17 .0 (435)
10- in
Aspha l t concrete sur face 1 .0 (25) 1 .0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 .0 (50)
Aspha l t concrete base 2 .0 (50) 3 .0 (75) 3 .5 (90) 7 .0 (175)
Unt rea ted aggregate base ' 10 .0 250) 10 .0 (250) 10 .0 250 10 .0 250)
Tota l : 13 .0 (325)1 14 .0 (350)1 15 .0 (380) 19 .0 (475)
12- in
Aspha l t concrete sur face 1 .0 (25) 1 .0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 .0 (50)
Aspha l t concrete base 2 .0 (50) 3 .0 (75) 3 .0 (85) 6 .0 (160)
Unt rea ted aggregate base ' 12 .0 300 12 .0 (300) 12 .0 300 12 .0 (300
Tota l : 15 .0 (375) 1 16 .0 (400)1 16 .5 (425) 20 .0 (510)
18- in
Aspha l t concrete sur face 1 .0 (25) 1 .0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 .0 (50)
Aspha l t concrete base 2 .0 (50) 3 .0 (75) 2 .5 (60) 5 .5 (135)
Unt rea ted aggregate base ' 18 .0 450 18 .0 (450 18 .0 450 18 .0 (450)
Tota l : 21 .0 (525) 1 22 .0 (550)1 22 .0 (550)1 25 .5 (635)
a
See Tab l e 820-12 .
b
Depth of unt reated aggregate base is dependent upon depth necessary to mi t igate f rost act ion. Loca l
pract i ce typical ly def ines requi red depths. For aggregate bases greater than 18 in, consul t wi th a civi l
eng ineer .
Refer to Tab l e 820-11 for typica l aspha l t mi xtures . The thi ckness of any aspha l t concrete layer shou ld
be at least twi ce e i ther the nomi na l max i mum si ze mi x des ignat ion or the max i mum par t icle si ze (wh i ch-
ever term is used) .
d Consu l t local standards and pract i ces for al l pavements . Such spec i f i cat ions maysupercede those men-

t ioned here in i f they prov i de the same servi ce l i fe of these des igns .
e The top 6 in of unt reated aggregate shou l d mee t base course qua l i ty requ i rements . Subbase qua l i ty
requ i rements may be used be l ow 6 in .
" M i n i mum th i cknesses of aspha l t concrete over unt reated aggregate base and subbase app l y to these
des igns as fol lows : for traf f ic class I, 3 .0 in (75 mm); for traf f ic class II, 4.0 in (100 mm) ; for traf f ic class III,
4 .0 in (100 mm) ; and for traf f ic class IV, 5 .0 in (125 mm).
Source : Adapt ed f rom The Aspha l t Inst i tute, Aspha l t Pavement Thi ckness and Des ign, IS-181, November
1981 .

CL
a
0
n
co
820- 1 8

a See Tab l e 820-12 .

b
Dep t h of unt rea t ed aggrega t e base is dependen t upon dep t h necessary to mi t i ga t e f rost ac t i on. Loca l
prac t i ce typ i ca l l y de f i nes requ i red dep t h . For aggrega t e bases grea t er t han 18 in, consu l t w i th a c i v i l
eng i nee r .
` Re f er to Tab l e 820-11 for typ i ca l aspha l t m i x tures . The th i ckness of any aspha l t concre t e l ayer shou l d
be at l east tw i ce e i ther t he nom i na l max i mum s i ze m i x des i gna t i on or t he max i mum par t i c l e s i ze (wh i ch-
eve r t e rm is used) .
d Consu l t l oca l s t andards and prac t i ces for a l l pavemen t s . Such spec i f i ca t i ons supe rcede those men-
t i oned here .
e
The t op 6 in o f un t rea t ed aggrega t e shou l d mee t base course qua l i t y requ i remen t s . Subbase qua l i ty
requ i remen t s may be used be l ow 6 in .
(M i n i mum r ecommended th i cknesses of aspha l t concre t e over unt rea t ed aggrega t e base and subbase
app l y to these des i gns as fo l l ows : for t raf f i c c l ass I, 3 .0 in (75 mm); for t raf f i c c l ass I I , 4 .0 in (100 mm) ; for
t raf f i c c l ass I I I , 4. 0 in (100 mm); and for t raf f i c c l ass IV, 5 .0 in (125 mm).
Source : Adap t ed f rom The Aspha l t Inst i tute , Aspha l t Pavemen t Th i ckness and Des i gn , 1S-181 , Novembe r
1981 .
 820- 1 9
Tab l e 820 - 18 . PAVEMENT TH I CKNESS FOR ROADS OVER GOOD
TO EXCELLENT SUBGRADES - ASPHALT CONCRETE
ON AGGREGATE BASE ' ' biQd

Tra f f i c c l ass i f i ca t i ons

1 II 111 IV
Pavemen t sec t i on / va r i ous
aggr ega t e base t h i cknesses Th i ckness i n i nches (mm)

4 in
Aspha l t conc re t e sur f ace 1 . 0 (25) 1 .0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 . 0 (50)
Aspha l t conc re t e base 2 . 0 (50) 3 .0 (75) 2 .5 (60) 3 . 0 (75)
Un t rea t ed aggrega t e base 4 . 0(100) 4 . 0(100) 4 . 0(100) 4. 0(100)
Tot a l : 7. 0 (175) 1 8 .0 (200)1 8 . 0 (200) ' 9. 0 (225) 1
6 in
Aspha l t conc re t e sur f ace 1 . 0 (25) 1 .0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 . 0 (50)
Aspha l t conc re t e base 2 . 0 (50) 3 .0 (75) 2 .5 (60) 3 . 0 (75)
Un t rea t ed aggrega t e base 6 . 0(150) 6 . 0(150) 6 . 0(150) 6. 0(150)
Tot a l : 9 . 0 (225) 1 10 .0 (250)1 10 .0 (250) 1 11 . 0 (275) '
8 in
Aspha l t conc re t e sur f ace 1 . 0 (25) 1 .0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 . 0 (50)
Aspha l t conc re t e base 2 . 0 (50) 3 .0 (75) 2 .5 (60) 3 . 0 (75)
Un t rea t ed aggrega t e base 8 . 0(200) 8 . 0(200) 8 . 0(200) 8 . 0(200)
Tot a l: 11 . 0 (275) ' 12 .0 (300)1 12 .0 (300) 1 13 . 0 (325) '
10 in
Aspha l t conc re t e sur f ace 1 .0 (25) 1 .0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 . 0 (50)
Aspha l t conc re t e base 2 . 0 (50) 3 .0 (75) 2 .5 (60) 3 .0 (75)
Un t rea t ed aggrega t e base 10 . 0 250 10 .0 250 10 .0 250 10 .0 250
Tot a l : 13 .0 (325)1 14 .0 (350)1 14 .0 (350) ' 15 .0 (375) '
12 i n
Aspha l t conc re t e sur f ace 1 .0 (25) 1 .0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 .0 (50)
Aspha l t conc re t e base 2 .0 (50) 3 .0 (75) 2 .5 (60) 3 .0 (75)
Un t rea t ed aggrega t e base 12 .0 300 12 .0 300 12 .0 300 12 .0 300
Tot a l : 15 .0 (375) ' 16 .0 (400) 1 16 .0 (400)1 17 .0 (425)1
18 i n
Aspha l t conc re t e sur f ace 1 .0 (25) 1 . 0 (25) 1 .5 (40) 2 .0 (50)
Aspha l t conc re t e base 2 .0 (50) 3 . 0 (75) 2 .5 (60) 3 .0 (75)
Un t rea t ed aggrega t e base 18 .0 450 18 . 0 450 18 .0 450 18 .0 450
Tot a l : 21 .0 (525) ' 22 . 0 (550) 1 22 .0 (550)1 23 .0 (575)1

a
See Tab l e 820-12 .
b Dep t h of unt rea t ed aggrega t e base is dependen t upon dep t h necessary to mi t i ga t e f rost ac t i on . Loca l
prac t i ce typ i ca l l y de f i nes requ i red dep t h . For aggrega t e bases grea t er than 18 in, consu l t w i th a c i v i l
eng i neer .
Re f e r to Tab l e 820-11 for typ i ca l aspha l t m i x tures . The th i ckness of any aspha l t concre t e l ayer shou l d
be a t l east tw i ce e i ther t he nom i na l max i mum s i ze m i x des i gna t i on or the max i mum par t i c l e s i ze (wh i ch-
ever t erm is used) .
d Consu l t l oca l s t andards and prac t i ces for a l l pavemen t s . Such spec i f i ca t i ons supe rcede those men-
t i oned here .
e
The t op 6 in of unt rea t ed aggrega t e shou l d mee t base course qua l i ty requ i remen t s . Subbase qua l i t y
requ i remen t s may be used be l ow 6 in .
' M i n i mum r ecommended th i cknesses o f aspha l t conc re t e ove r unt rea t ed aggrega t e base and subbase
app l y to t hese des i gns as fo l l ows : for t raf f i c c l ass I, 3 .0 in (75 mm) ; for t raf f i c c l ass I I , 4 .0 in (100 mm) ; for
t raf f i c c l ass I I I , 4 .0 in (100 mm) ; and for t raf f i c c l ass IV, 5 .0 in (125 mm) .
Source : Adap t ed f rom The Aspha l t Inst i tute , Aspha l t Pavemen t Th i ckness and Des i gn , 15-181 , Novembe r
1981 .

s
Q
O
N
00
 820 - 20

1 . Re f e r t o Sec t i on 440: Sur f ac i ng and Pav i ng for add i t i ona l i n f orma t i on on pavemen t des i gn .

2. The aggr ega t e o f pavemen t l ayers suppor t s t he l oads i mposed on i t wh i l e t he aspha l t cemen t wa t e rproo f s and he l ps to b i nd eve ry -
t h i ng t oge t he r .

3. Prec i se t h i ckness f or pav i ng sur f aces , bases and subbases , shou l d be based upon l oca l prac t i ce and s t andards , whe r eve r poss i b l e .

4. Fu l l -depth pavemen t des i gn is common l y used in reg i ons w i t hou t f rost , or on subgr ades tha t a re no t suscep t i b l e to f ros t ac t i on .
Aggr ega t e Base des i gn is mos t appropr i a t e in reg i ons o f heavy f rost , or on f ros t -suscept i b l e subgr ades .

5. The use o f a s t rong aggr ega t e subbase t o ach i eve des i red pavemen t s t reng th is r ecommended ra ther t han th i cker and / or mor e l ayers
o f aspha l t conc re t e .

6. Aspha l t conc re t e pavemen t s , prope r l y cons t ruc t ed , t yp i ca l l y requ i re sur f ace ma i n t enance or resur f ac i ng over l ays abou t eve ry 20 yea rs.

7. Int ens i t y of use , subgr ade suppor t , and pavemen t s t ruc ture d i c t a t e t he th i ckness of aspha l t conc re t e pavemen t s (see Th i ckness Des i gn
Procedur e in Subsec t i on 6 .1 Roads ) .

8. B i kepa t hs and wa l kways t yp i ca l l y ut i l i ze a tota l aspha l t conc re t e t h i ckness of 75 t o 100 mm (3 t o 4 i n) in a fu l l -depth or un t rea t ed
aggr ega t e base des i gn (F i gure 820-5) .

9. Go l f car t pa t hs requ i re a sof t er sur f ace to m i n i m i ze go l f shoe sp i ke wea r . The sur f ace course shou l d be a sand- aspha l t m i x t ur e w i t h an
aspha l t con t en t s l i ght l y h i ghe r t han for norma l h i ghway pav i ng , or an open -gr aded m i x .

10 . Tenn i s cour t s requ i re a sand- aspha l t sur f ace course or propr i e t ary sur f ac i ng to max i m i ze smoo t hness and m i n i m i ze i r regu l ar i t i es .

Tab l e 820 - 19 . TH I CKNESS DES I GN FOR DR I VEWAYS AND PASSENGER CAR PARK I NG AREAS ( NO TRUCKS )

So f t c l ay so i l s , Ave r age c l ay Gr ave l or sandy

p l as t i c when l oam so i l s , so i l s , we l l -
we t no t p l as t i c dr a i ned

Fu l l -dep t h aspha l t conc r e t e*

Sur f ace course , in 1 1 1

hillll~~'Iilll~~l'ih !'llllil!I!IV!~Illl ~~ll Ii Il l l '~i~ SURFACE CONCRE TE Base course , in 4-5 t 3-4 t 2-3 t
Tot a l th i ckness , in 5 -6 4 -5 3-4
I I/I ASPHALT CDNCRET I
BASE COURSE
oC,. ~ ~ i Fgr vADE

I l a` I ~I~I

Aspha l t conc r e t e and aggr ega t e I l l

Sur f ace course , i n 1 1 1

IIII'dl l l l l!111111!!IIII!'~IIIIIIIIII~III'~IIIII'I'!II~ SURFACE COURSE I n t ermed i a t e course , in 2 2 2
Grave l , in 6-8§ 4-6§ 2-4§
I NTERMED I ATE COUR ,
Tot a l th i ckness , in 9-11 7-9 5 -7
DENSE - GRADED
CRUSHED STONE OR
PROCESSED GRAVEL

i l im-
-- l L l ~ l l uu=~ SU f 1GRADE
°111111-=11101110 -- 111111
111111,
MIl lll°_Illi l

a * See Tab l e 820-6 for typ i ca l m i x t ure spec i f i ca t i ons . The th i ckness of any aspha l t concre t e l ayer shou l d be at l east
h t w i ce e i ther t he nom i na l max i mum s i ze m i x des i gna t i on or t he max i mum par t i c l e s i ze of the m i x . Loca l s t andards
Q and prac t i ces supe rcede those men t i oned he re and shou l d be consu l t ed for a l l pavemen t s.

a
s
t Whe r e ranges in aspha l t concre t e th i cknesses a re shown , consu l t l oca l prac t i ce and s t andards for a prec i se va l ue .
I f such know l edge is no t ava i l ab l e , assume t he h i gher va l ue and consu l t a c i v i l eng i neer .
$ Ut i l i ze fu l l -depth pavemen t s whe r e f ros t -suscept i b l e so i l s or heavy f rost is no t a prob l em .
0 § Aggrega t e base course dep t h var i es depend i ng on st rength of subgrade soi l and dep t h of f rost . Check w i th l oca l
N prac t i ces for sa f e ty and app l i cab l e s t andards .
00 Source : Adap t ed f rom The Aspha l t Inst i tute , The Aspha l t Handbook , Ma r ch 1970 .
 820 - 2 1

Tab l e 820-19 can be used to de t e rm i ne Al terna t i ve l y , an open-gr aded m i x may be

pavemen t th i ckness for dr i veways and pas- used as a sur f ace course . Loca l prac t i ces
senge r car park i ng areas (no t rucks) , and shou l d be fo l l owed whe r e app l i cab l e .
Tab l e 820-20 can be used to de t e rm i ne
pavemen t th i ckness for heavy t ruck park i ng 6 . 4 Tenn i s Cour t s
areas . For park i ng areas used by h i gher vo l -
Tenn i s cour t sur f aces requ i re a h i gh degree
umes of heavy t rucks , such as t ruck s tops
of smoo t hness w i th a max i mum i r regu l ar i ty
or t ruck t ermi na l s , t he des i gn r ecommen-
o f 3 mm (1 / 8 in) ove r a 3-m (10- f t ) d i s-
da t i ons out l i ned in 6 .1 Roads of th i s sec t i on
t ance . Th i s can be ach i eved w i th an aspha l t
can be used .
concre t e base of 20 mm (3 / 4 in) o f nom i -
na l max i mum s i ze des i gna t i on cove red
6 . 3 B i cyc l e , Pedes t r i an , and Go l f
Ca r t Pa t hs e i ther w i th sand-aspha l t for the sur f ace
course or w i th propr i e t ary sur f ac i ng (F i gure
B i kepa ths and Wa l kways . These ut i l i ze a 820-6) . The base course is 75 mm (3 in)
tota l aspha l t concre t e th i ckness of 75 to and the sur f ace course is 25 mm (1 in) , cre-
100 mm (3 to 4 in) in a fu l l -depth or a t i ng a m i n i ma l tota l th i ckness of 100 mm
unt rea t ed aggrega t e base des i gn (F i gure (4 in) . For mor e spec i f i c th i ckness des i gn
820-5) . Loca l prac t i ces shou l d be fo l l owed i nforma t i on , espec i a l l y unde r var i ous soi l
whe r e app l i cab l e . and env i ronmen t a l cond i t i ons , re f er t o
Tab l e 820-19 . I f a propr i e t ary m i x ture is
Go l f Ca r t Pa t hs . These requ i re a sof t er
used , fo l l ow t he manu f ac turer ' s recom-
sur f ace to m i n i m i ze go l f shoe sp i ke wea r .
A l t hough the overa l l cons t ruc t i on is s i mi l ar F i gur e 820 -5 . Typ i ca l des i gn f or wa l kways , b i cyc l e t ra i l s , and go l f car t pa t hs .
to b i kepa ths and wa l kways , t he sur f ace Go l f car t pa t hs requ i re a sur f ace course o f a sand- aspha l t m i x t ure w i th an aspha l t con t en t
course shou l d be a sand-aspha l t m i x ture s l i ght l y h i gher than for norma l roadway pavemen t s. Re f er to Tab l e 820-6 for i n forma t i on
w i th an aspha l t con t en t s l i ght l y h i gher than on aspha l t -concre t e m i x tures.
for norma l h i ghway pav i ng (Tab l e 820-3) .

Tab l e 820 - 20 . TH I CKNESS DES I GN FOR PARK I NG AREAS FOR HEAVY TRUCKS AND SERV I CE STAT I ONS "

So f t c l ay so i l s , Ave rage c l ay Grave l or sandy

p l ast i c when l oam so i l s , so i l s , we l l -
we t not p l ast i c dra i ned

Fu l l -dep th aspha l t concre t e t

Sur f ace course , in 1 .5 1 .5 1 .5
Base course , in 6-8$ 5-6$ 3-6$
Tota l th i ckness , in 7 . 5-9 .5 6 . 5-7 .5 4 . 5-6 .5

Aspha l t concre t e and aggrega t e base t " §

Sur f ace course , in 1 .5 1 .5 1 .5
Int ermed i a t e course , in 3 3 3
Grave l , in 6-10q 5-8Q 3-64
Tota l th i ckness , in 10 . 5-14.5 9 . 5-12 .5 7 . 5-10 .5

For areas af fected by h i gher vo l umes of heavy t rucks (such as termina l s) , the recommenda t i ons out l ines in 6 .1 of
this sect i on shou l d be fo l l owed.
t See Tab l e 820-6 for typi ca l mi xture spec i f i cat ions . The th i ckness of any aspha l t concre t e l ayer shou l d be at least et l
tw i ce e i ther the nom i na l max i mum s i ze m i x des i gnat i on or the max i mum par t i c l e s i ze of the m i x . Loca l standards h
and pract i ces supercede those ment i oned here and shou l d be consu l t ed for al l pavement s . t1
$ Whe r e ranges in aspha l t concre t e th i cknesses are shown , consu l t loca l pract i ce and standards for a prec i se va l ue .
I f such know l edge is not ava i l abl e , assume the h i gher va l ue and consu l t a civi l eng i neer . Q
§ Ut i l i ze fu l l -depth pavement s where f rost -suscept ib l e soi ls or heavy f rost is not a prob l em .
4 Aggrega t e base course depth var i es depend i ng on st rength of subgrade soi l and depth of f rost . Check w i th loca l
pract i ces for safety and app l i cab l e standards . N
Source: Adapt ed f rom The Aspha l t Inst i tute, The Aspha l t Handbook , March 1970 .

T i me -Saver Standards for Landscape Arch i tecture

 820 - 22
Traf f i c , oi l , a l kyd , or so l vent -veh i c l e - t ype
pa i nts shou l d not be used .

6 . 5 P l aygrounds and Rec r ea t i ona l

Ar eas

Th i ckness des i gns for p l aygrounds and

o ther recrea t i ona l areas shou l d be the same
as those used for t enn i s cour t s (see F i gure
820-6) .

Aspha l t concre t e can serve as a base for

propr i e t ary produc t s such as sea l ers , co l or
coa ts , res i l i ent sur f ace coa t i ngs , and ar t i f i -
c i a l tur f . The aspha l t concre t e base can be
mo l ded on a prepared subgrade to produce
any des i red grad i ent . Eros i ona l unde rm i n-
i ng of pavemen t edges shou l d be prevent -
ed . I f propr i e t ary sur f ac i ng ma t er i a l s are
used , consu l t the manu f ac turer ' s r ecom-
menda t i ons for pavemen t spec i f i ca t i ons .

Comb i n i ng a sma l l percen t age of cork

w i th aspha l t cemen t , sharp coarse sand ,
and l i mes tone dus t produces a res i l i ent
p l ayground sur f ace (F i gure 820-7) ; the
cork granu l es shou l d have a max i mum
d i ame t e r s i ze of 5 mm ( ' / 4 in) . O t he r i ngre-
d i ent s may a l so be used , such as verm i -
cu l i te and ground rubber f rom o l d t i res .
Many such sur f aces are propr i e t ary prod-
ucts , and t he manu f ac turer ' s spec i f i ca t i ons
F i gure 820 -7 . Typ i ca l aspha l t cor k sur - aspha l t curbs .
shou l d be care fu l l y fo l l owed .
f ace cour se . Recrea t i ona l aspha l t pave -
menda t i on for the sur f ace course and , i f
men t courses of t en cons i st of propr i e t ary
men t i oned , for t he base course as we l l . 7 . 0 M I SCELLANEOUS
produc t s . Consu l t manu f ac turer ' s spec i f i ca-
Per i me t er edg i ng is usua l l y necessary to
t i ons for i n forma t i on on cons t ruc t i on detai ls .
preven t edge fa i l ures . 7 .1 Aspha l t Curbs and Gu t t e r s

I f sand-aspha l t is used , a l a t ex pa i nt of Aspha l t Curbs . These are ava i l ab l e in

m i n i mum th i ckness shou l d be used no var i ous shapes (F i gure 820-8) . A l t hough
soone r than 30 days a f ter cons t ruc t i on . I f a not a f f ec t ed by snow- and i ce-me l t i ng
co l or f i n i sh has been app l i ed , l ines shou l d chem i ca l s , aspha l t curbs can be sheared of f
be pa i nt ed w i th a compa t i b l e ma t er i a l . or de f ormed when s t ruck by heavy l oads .
Curbs shou l d be back- f i l l ed w i th a so l i d
granu l ar ma t er i a l or we l l - compac t ed so i l .
Aspha l t curbs are se t by a curb i ng mach i ne
a t an ave rage ra te o f 610 m (2000 f t ) per
day. They mus t be i nsta l l ed on t op of a
1 . Aspha l t curbs shou l d be back- f i l l ed w i th a sol id granu l ar ma ter i a l or we l l -compac t ed so l id, i mperv i ous pavemen t tha t wi l l not
soi l and mus t be insta l l ed on top of a sol id, i mperv i ous pavemen t tha t wi l l not erode e rode or fai l (F i gure 820-9) . Curbs are
or fai l (F i gure 820-9) . made of spec i a l l y propor t i oned aspha l t -
aggrega t e m i x tures (Tab l e 820-21) .
2 . When us i ng aspha l t as an under l ayment , the manuf ac turer ' s spec i f i ca t i ons for the
Aspha l t concre t e be rms are an a l t erna-
sur f ace produc t shou l d be consu l t ed to ascer t a i n the st rength of the ma ter i a l and
t i ve to aspha l t curbs (F i gure 820-10) .
thus de t erm i ne the appropr i a t e des i gn .
D i v i s i ons 900 : i nc l udes da t a on aspha l t
3 . Ove r t i me , the pavemen t wi l l wea t he r to a gray i sh tone and may revea l the co l or of curb cons t ruc t i on de ta i l s .
the aggrega t e .
Aspha l t Gu t t ers . These can be f ormed
s
Q 4. On l y pa i nts des i gned for use on aspha l t pavemen t s shou l d be used . in a var i e ty of cross sec t i ons . They are
s p l aced mos t l y by hand or on occas i on ( for
Q 5 . Aspha l t b l ock pavemen t s w i th exposed co l ored aggrega t e are commerc i a l l y ava i l ab l e . spec i a l l arge pro j ec ts) by a sma l l pav i ng
mach i ne , spec i a l l y adap t ed to f i t a par t i cu-
6 . Aspha l t pavemen t can be recyc l ed for use as base courses in pavemen t des i gn by l ar j ob (F i gure 820-11) .
N be i ng ground into granu l ar ma t er i a l .
00
 820 - 2 3

7 . 2 Aspha l t Unde r l aymen t s Tab l e 820 - 21 . CURB M I XTURE SPEC I F I CAT I ON

Aspha l t conc r e t e is o f t en used as an unde r - Pass i ng , pe r cen t by we i gh t *, f
S i eve s i ze
l aymen t f or sur f ace courses , i nc l ud i ng
br i ck , s t one b l ock , and propr i e t a ry prod - 19 mm (~'< in) 100
12 .5 m i n (Ya in) 85-100
uc t s . In pr i nc i p l e , t he sur f ace ma t e r i a l can
4 . 75 mm (No. 4) 65-80
prov i de a good wea r i ng sur f ace bu t may or 50-65
2 . 36 mm (No. 8)
may no t con t r i bu t e t o t he overa l l pavemen t 300 , um (No . 50) 18-30
s t reng t h t ha t is necessa r y t o d i s t r i but e t he 75 Am (No . 200) 5-15
l oads . The unde r l aymen t mus t t he r e f or e Aspha l t con t en t : 6 . 0-9 . 0 pe rcen t by we i gh t o f tota l m i x t
ful f i l l t he r ema i n i ng s t reng t h r equ i r emen t s . AC-20 (AR-8000 , 60-70 pen)
Consequen t l y , t he manu f ac t ur e r ' s spec i f i ca -
M i nera l aggrega t e shou l d be c rushed stone , c rushed grave l , c rushed s l ag, na tura l or manu f ac t ured sand ,
t i ons f or t he sur f ace produc t shou l d be con - or a comb i na t i on of these ma t er i a l s . At l east 50% by we i gh t of t he comb i ned aggrega t e , other than
su l t ed t o asce r t a i n t he s t reng t h o f t he na tura l l y occur r i ng rough- t ex tured aggrega t e , shou l d cons i s t of c rushed p i eces.
ma t e r i a l and t hus de t e rm i ne t he appropr i - t The aspha l t con t en t range i nc l udes a 0 . 5-1 . 0% i ncrease ove r sur f ace pav i ng m i x of same grada t i on to
fac i l i tate compac t i on and i ncrease durab i l i ty. The uppe r l imi t may need to be ra i sed when s l ag or other
a t e des i gn f or an unde r l aymen t .
absorpt i ve aggrega t es are used .

7 . 3 Co l or ed Aspha l t Pavemen t s t O t he r grad i ngs may be used i f they have a h i story of sa t i sfac tory pe r f ormance . Consu l t l oca l s t andards
and prac t i ces .
Ove r t i me aspha l t pavemen t w i l l wea t he r Source : Adap t ed f rom The Aspha l t Inst i tute , Cons t ruc t i on Spec i f i ca t i ons for Aspha l t Curbs and Gut ters ,
t o a gr ay i sh t one and in some cases wi l l 4t h ed . , SS-3 , Ma r ch 1978 .
revea l t he co l or o f t he aggr ega t e , espec i a l -
l y i f t hese a r e l a rge par t i c l es . Aspha l t m i x -
t ur es w i t h h i ghe r amoun t s o f f i ner sand and
f i l l er produce da r ke r - t ones . The da r k co l or
he l ps h i de gr ease dr i pp i ngs , acce l e ra t es
me l t i ng o f snow , and prov i des a good
background f or l i ne s t r i p i ng .

Add i t i ona l co l or can be added t hrough

a va r i e t y o f me t hods. These i nc l ude t he fo l -
l ow i ng :

1 . Pa i n t s and app l i ed coa t i ngs a re t yp i -

ca l l y used on t enn i s cour t s , poo l s ,
p l aygrounds , and b i keways . On l y
pa i n t s des i gned f or use on aspha l t
pavemen t s shou l d be used . These
a r e t yp i ca l l y spr ayed on . The pa i n t
and propr i e t a ry sur f ace manu f ac t ur -
er ' s r ecommenda t i ons shou l d be fo l -
l owed . O i l -based pa i n t s shou l d no t
820 - 2 4
2 . Co l ored stone chips can be embed- AGENC I ES AND ORGAN I ZAT I ONS
ded in a singl e or a mul t ipl e sur face
t rea tment procedure . Thi s procedure The Aspha l t Inst i tute .
may requi re much handwork and (Regiona l of f ices throughout the Un i ted
shou ld onl y be done by compe t ent States and in some other count r i es)
spec ia l ists . Precaut ionary measures
U . S . Federa l H i ghway Admini st rat ion,
are necessary to protect nearby
Depar tment of Transpor tat ion .
obj ects f rom the spl at ter of the spray
Wash i ngton , DC, USA
appl i cator. Thi s me thod prov ides a
very coarse sur face texture . Nat iona l Aspha l t Pavement Assoc i at ion .
(In the Un i ted States, many af f i l iated state
3 . Aspha l t concrete can be composed of
pavement assoc i at ions a lso exist .)
se l ected co lored aggrega te and when
the aspha l t f i lm wears of f , there wi l l State H i ghway Depar tments
be exposed the color of the aggre- for each State in USA
ga te . Sma l l er si ze stones [3/8 in (10
mm) ] are standard . REFERENCES
4 . Aspha l t block pavements wi th exposed
colored aggregate are commerc i a l l y Og l esby , C l a r kson H. , and R. Ga r y H i cks.
ava i l abl e . H i ghway Eng ineer ing, 4th ed ., Wi l ey, New
York , 1982.
7 .4 Recyc l ed Aspha l t Granu l ar Base Aspha l t Inst i tute Publ i cat ions . It has a num-
Courses ber of documen t s on many aspects and
uses of aspha l t pav ing, i nc l ud i ng:
Aspha l t pavement can be recyc l ed for use
as base courses in pavement des ign . The Aspha l t in Pavement Ma i nt enance (MS-
used aspha l t pavement is ground into gran- 16) .
ular mater i a l by e i ther an on-s i te gr inder or Aspha l t Over l ays for H i ghway and
at a recyc l ing faci l i ty and t rucked to the St reet Rehabi l i tat ion (MS-17) .
si te . I ts use is simi lar to crushed rock . Mode l Const ruct ion Spec i f i cat ions for
Aspha l t Concre te and Other Pl ant -M i x
Types (SS-1) .
Soi ls Manua l (MS-10) .
Th i ckness Des ign - Aspha l t Pavements
for H i ghways and St reets (MS-1).
 SECT I ON , I

Conc r e t e

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
Cha r l es W. Har r i s
Techn i ca l Wr i t er :
Ky l e D. Brown

Rev i ewe rs :
St even H . Kosma t ka , P.E . , D i rec tor
Cons t ruc t i on I n f orma t i on Serv i ces
Por t l and Cemen t Assoc i a t i on
Skok i e , I l l inoi s

Dave DeAnge l i s , Techn i ca l D i rec tor

Boman i t e Corpora t i on ,
Made r a , CA

Rona l d Ch i a r amon t e ,
Cambr i dge , MA

Pau l D i Bona ,
Wa t e r t own . MA

Robe r t Fager ,
Wa t e r t own , MS

He rman G. Pro toze ,

New t on , MA

CONTENTS

1 .0 Int roduc t i on 4 .2 Sec t i on Cr i ter i a for Adm i x t ur es Loca t i on of Am& ,

1 .1 Gene r a l 4 .3 Types o f Adm i x t ur es Jo i nt F i l l ers
1 . 2 Proper t i es of Conc re t e 5 . 0 Wa t e r 6. 6 F i n i sh i ng Conc re t e
St reng th 5 .1 Wa t e r Qua l i t y Sur f ace F i n i sh i ng
Res i s t ance to Freeze , Thaw , and 5 .2 Wa t e r Quan t i t y Co l or ed Conc re t e
De i c i ng Chem i ca l s 6 . 0 Prepara t i on and P l acemen t of Conc re t e Exposed Aggrega t e F i n i shes
Res i s t ance to Abras i on and Wea r 6 .1 M i x i ng Tes t i ng and Si te Prepara t i on Spec i a l Non-S l i p F i n i shes
Reduc t i on o f Wa t e r Pene t ra t i on for Conc re t e Pa t t erned or S t amped F i n i shes
Con t ro l of Se t t i ng T i me for Conc re t e M i x i ng Conc re t e F i n i sh i ng Too l s
1 . 3 Me t hods o f P l acemen t Tes t i ng Conc re t e Edg i ng
1 . 4 Types of Conc re t e S i t e Prepara t i on For Use o f Conc re t e 6. 7 Cur i ng
2 .0 Cemen t 6 .2 Formwor k for Conc re t e Mo i s t ure Con t ro l
Tempe ra t ure Con t ro l r
2. 1 Proper t i es of Cemen t Bas i c Func t i on V
Process o f Hydra t i on Pa t t ern Mak i ng 6. 8 Sea l ers and G l az i ers n
Hea t o f Hydra t i on 6 .3 Re i n f or cemen t o f Conc re t e 6. 9 Wea t he r i ng I ndexes i n t he
2. 2 Types of Cemen t P l acemen t o f Re i n f or cemen t Un i t ed St a t es V
3 .0 Aggr ega t e for Conc re t e Types of Re i n f or cemen t 6. 10 Res tora t i on and Repa i r o f Conc re t e
3. 1 Types of Aggr ega t e 6 . 4 P l ac i ng and Conso l i da t i ng Conc re t e G l ossa ry
3. 2 Se l ec t i on o f Aggrega t e 6 .5 Jo i nts , Loca t i ons , and F i l l ers Agenc i es and Organ i za t i ons
M
4 .0 Adm i x t ur es for Conc re t e
4. 1 Purposes o f Adm i x t ur es
Purpose o f Jo i nt s
Types of Jo i nt s
Re f erences
00
 830 - 2

1 . 0 I NTRODUCT I ON of concre t e is a func t i on of the t ype of and cracks to preven t l eaks , (3) by add i ng
cemen t and aggrega t e se l ec t ed . Fu l l chem i ca l s and adm i x tures to the concre t e
1 .1 Gene r a l s t rength is reached a f ter abou t 28 days , m i x to reduce wa t e r pene t ra t i on , and (4) by
howeve r the s t rength may con t i nue to app l y i ng a wa t e rproo f sur f ace sea l or com-
Conc re t e is a m i x ture of aggrega t e , por t - i ncrease pas t th i s da t e i f suf f i c i ent mo i s ture pound . Add i ng cer t a i n chem i ca l s and
l and cemen t , wa t er , and some t i mes spec i a l is ava i l ab l e . adm i x tures to reduce wa t e r pene t ra t i on
adm i x t ures . I ts mos t ou t s t and i ng qua l i t i es of t en requ i res add i ng mor e m i x i ng wa t er ,
are s t rength , durab i l i ty , stabi l i ty, ava i l ab i l i ty , Res i s t ance to F r eeze / Thaw and wh i ch may i ncrease the permeab i l i t y of the
adaptab i l i ty , and , in mos t cases , i ts re l at i ve- De i c i ng Chem i ca l s : concre t e .
ly l ow cos t in t erms of cons t ruc t i on and l i fe-
Res i s t ance to f reeze / t haw and de i c i ng Con t ro l o f Se t t i ng T i me for Conc re t e:
t i me ma i n t enance .
chem i ca l s can be i ncreased by t he use of an
1 . 2 Prope r t i es o f Conc r e t e a i r -ent ra i n i ng agen t ( i . e ., an a i r -ent ra i n i ng Cont ro l o f the se t t i ng t i me for concre t e is
adm i x ture ) . Adm i x t ures may reduce , or of t en needed in order to (1) reduce the se t -
The proper t i es of concre t e are de t e rm i ned enhance somewha t , the pot ent i a l s t rength t i ng t i me when t empe ra t ures are l ow
by any one of the fo l l ow i ng severa l f ac tors : o f the conc re t e m i x . (Re f er to 5 .0 enough to cause the wa t e r in the m i x to
(1) the qua l i ty of al l cons t i tuent s , i nc l ud i ng Adm i x t ures for Conc re t e in th i s sec t i on for f reeze , (2) to i ncrease the t i me for wor k i ng
the t ype of cemen t used , the soundness of mor e i n forma t i on .) concre t e dur i ng very hot wea ther , and (3)
the aggrega t es used , the re l a t i ve propor - t o cont ro l b l eed i ng , or the movemen t o f
t i on of coarse and f i ne aggrega t e , the rat io Res i s t ance to Abras i on and Wea r : wa t e r to t he sur f ace of f resh l y p l aced con-
of wa t e r to cemen t , and the t ype and Res i s t ance to abras i on and wea r can be cre t e . A l so , norma l b l eed i ng wi l l be a prob-
amoun t of any chem i ca l s , adm i x tures , and l em i f f i n i sh i ng ( f l oa t i ng , t rowe l i ng , e t c .) is
i ncreased i f the concre t e m i x cont a i ns we l l -
o ther compounds added to the m i x ; and pe r f ormed wh i l e b l eed wa t e r is on the sur -
gr aded s t rong aggrega t e and is we l l -con-
(2) the sk i l ls used in p l ac i ng , conso l i da t i ng , f ace
so l i da t ed when p l aced . For some purposes ,
f i n i sh i ng , and cur i ng the concre t e .
spec i a l aggrega t e and f i n i shes may be
1 . 3 Me t hods o f P l acemen t
F i ve ma j or proper t i es to cons i der when requ i red . F i n i sh i ng procedures are ex t reme -
produc i ng f i n i shed concre t e are descr i bed l y cr i t i ca l for ach i ev i ng abras i on res i st ance . Thr ee bas i c me t hods for p l ac i ng concre t e
be l ow . i nc l ude :
Reduc t i on o f Wa t e r Pene t ra t i on :
St reng th : 1 . Formed and mo l ded (cast in p l ace
Reduc t i on o f wa t e r pene t ra t i on can be or precas t )
St rength is usua l l y the f i rst cons i dera t i on ach i eved by four means : (1) by keep i ng the
for al l concre t e ' s excep t for l i ghtwe i ght or wa t e r / cemen t ra t i o to l ess t han 0 . 50 by 2 . Sprayed or a i r -b l own (shot cre t e)
i nsu l a t i ng concre t es . The re l at i ve s t rength we i ght , (2) by care fu l l y t rea t i ng al l j o i nts
3 . M i xed in p l ace (such as soi l cemen t or
dry-cas t i ng)

The mos t common t echn i que for p l ace-

1 . Ful l s t rength of concre t e is reached af ter abou t 28 days , howeve r the st rength may men t is the f ormed and mo l ded me t hod .
cont i nue to i ncrease pas t thi s age i f suf f i c i ent mo i s ture is ava i l ab l e . The o ther me t hods of f er d i st i nc t advan-
t ages on l y in cer t a i n s i tua t i ons.
2 . Res i st ance to abras i on and wea r can be i ncreased i f the concre t e m i x cont a i ns we l l -
Sprayed concre t e can be app l i ed to very
graded s t rong aggrega t e and is we l l -conso l i da t ed when p l aced .
comp l ex hor i zont a l and ver t i ca l sur f aces ,
3 . Reduc t i on of wa t er pene t ra t i on can be ach i eved by four means : i nc l ud i ng hyperbo l i c f orms . I t can a l so be
(a) by keep i ng the wa t e r / cemen t rat io to l ess than 0 . 50 by we i gh t . app l i ed in re l a t i ve l y th i n cross sec t i ons and
(b) by care fu l l y t rea t i ng al l jo ints and cracks to prevent l eaks . wi l l at ta i n a very h i gh dens i t y and s t rength .
(c) by add i ng chem i ca l s and adm i x tures to the concre t e m i x to reduce Sprayed concre t e is w i de l y used for con-
wa t e r pene t ra t i on . s t ruc t i ng sw i mm i ng poo l s and o ther scu l p-
(d) by app l y i ng a wa t erproo f sur f ace sea l or compound . tured e l emen t s w i th i n t he l andscape and
for repa i r i ng de t er i ora t i ng st ruc tures .
4 . Cont ro l of the set t i ng t i me for concre t e is of t en needed to
(a) reduce the set t i ng t i me when t empera tures are be l ow f reez i ng . M i xed- i n-p l ace or soi l concre t e has been
(b) to i ncrease the t i me for work i ng concre t e dur i ng very hot wea t he r. used for a l ong t i me to crea t e l ow-cos t sta-
(c) to cont ro l b l eed i ng , or the movemen t of wa t er to the sur f ace of f resh l y b i l i zed sur f aces . Th i s typ i ca l l y i nvo l ves m i x-
p l aced concre t e . i ng dry cemen t i nto the ex i s t i ng soi l or sur -
f ace ma t er i a l s , add i ng wa t er , and then
5 . A i r -ent ra i ned concre t e shou l d be used under al l cond i t i ons i nvo l v i ng severe exposure rem i x i ng and compac t i ng .
to f ros t / thaw t empera tures .
r Th i s sec t i on covers on l y f ormed and
V mo l ded concre t e in de t a i l .
n 6 . Pot ab l e wa t e r is typ i ca l l y sat i sfactory for use in concre t e . Wa t e r cont a i n i ng su l fates ,
sa l ts or de l e ter i ous subs t ances shou l d be avo i ded .
1 . 4 Types o f Conc r e t e
V
7 . Wa t e r to cemen t rat ios shou l d be se l ec t ed on the bas i s of s t rength and workab i l i t y The re are many t ypes o f concre t e tha t can
requ i rement s . M i n i mum cemen t cont ent shou l d not be l ess than 470 Ib/ yd 3 . be m i xed for var i ous app l i ca t i ons . The mos t
M
I
CO
 830 - 3

f r equen t l y used t ypes and the i r common

Tab l e 830 - 1 . TYPES OF CONCRETE
uses a re l i sted i n Tab l e 830-1 .

2 . 0 CEMENT Type Desc r i p t i on Typ i ca l Uses

Norma l we i gh t We i gh t o f coarse aggrega t e used

2 .1 Prope r t i es o f Cemen t de t e rm i nes t ype ; we i gh t of
aggrega t e : 135-165 Ib/ f t '
Process o f Hydr a t i on : I i gh twe i gh t -St ruc tura l We i gh t o f coarse aggrega t e used Loadbea r i ng and ex t er i or wa l l s ,
de t e rm i nes t ype ; we i gh t of st ruc tura l f l oors , pres t ressed
When cemen t s a r e m i xed w i t h wa t e r , a
aggrega t e : 85-1151b / f t ' conc re t e
chem i ca l reac t i on ca l l ed hydr a t i on occurs L i gh t we i gh t - I nsu l a t i ng We i gh t o f coarse aggrega t e used Par t i t i ons and pane l wa l l s ,
wh i ch resu l t s in ha rden i ng o f t he cemen t de t e rm i nes t ype ; we i gh t of decks , cas i ng of st ruc tura l
pas t e . aggrega t e : 15- 90 Ib / f0 stee l , roof f i l l
Heavywe i gh t We i gh t o f coarse aggrega t e Wa l l s of spaces cont a i n i ng
Hea t o f Hydr a t i on : de t e rm i nes t ype ; we i gh t of rad i oac t i ve ma t er i a l s ;
aggrega t e : 130 -290 Ib/ f t ' some t i mes as coun t e rwe i gh t
Hea t i s re l eased dur i ng t he hydr a t i on Ce l l u l ar A i r or gas bubb l es , suspended Whe r e t op i nsu l a t i ng proper t i es
process be t ween t he cemen t and wa t e r. in mor t ar , charac t er i ze t ype ; a re requ i red
The amoun t o f hea t re l eased i nc reases w i t h sma l l amoun t s or no coarse
aggrega t e prov i ded
t he t ype o f cemen t , t he mass o f t he con-
Gap-gr aded Om i ss i on o f i n t ermed i a t e s i 7es Whe r e aggrega t e is to be
cre t e , and / or h i ghe r amb i en t t empe r a t ur es .
of coarse aggrega t e exposed ; as i nsu l a t i ng
Hea t shou l d be re t a i ned i n co l d wea t he r charac t er i zes t ype concre t e , espec i a l l y when
and d i ss i pa t ed i n ho t wea t he r t o ma i n t a i n l i ghtwe i ght aggrega t e and / or
i dea l cur i ng t empe r a t ur es . sand is no t ava i l ab l e or
des i rab l e ; as i nexpens i ve
2 .2 Types o f Cemen t conc re t e for f ounda t i ons
Sho t cre t e or gun i t e Me t hod o f p l acemen t Whe r eve r cons t ruc t i on w i t hou t
Al l por t l and cemen t s a re made f rom l i me , charac t er i zes t ype ; pneuma t i c f ormwor k is very des i rab l e ,
s i l i ca , a l um i na , and gypsum . Gypsum is equ i pmen t , us i ng dry or we t as in comp l ex f orms (she l l s ,
used t o s l ow t he se t t i ng t i me o f t he con- me t hod emp l oyed domes , sw i mm i ng poo l s)
Prep l aced Me t hod o f P l acemen t Spec i a l f orms and sur f aces ;
c re t e . F i ve ma j or t ypes o f por t l and cemen t
charac t er i zes t ype ; coa rse e .g ., exposed aggrega t e
a re common l y used and c l ass i f i ed bo t h in aggrega t e is p l aced dry , t hen f i n i shes on cas t - i n-p l ace
t he Un i t ed St a t es and Canada . In t he mor t ar is pumped i nto it concre t e co l umns
Un i t ed St a t es , a l l cemen t shou l d mee t t he Pumped Me t hod o f convey i ng p l ast i c When conc re t e is to be p l aced
Ame r i can Soc i e t y f or Tes t i ng and Ma t e r i a l s conc re t e for p l acemen t h i gh above grade or in
charac t er i zes t ype f ormwor k of comp l ex shape
( ASTM ) s t anda rds f or por t l and cemen t , and
Fe r rocemen t M i x , me t hod o f p l acemen t , and Con t a i ners ; e .g. , b i ns , boa t
in Canada t he cemen t s shou l d mee t t he
re i n f orcemen t prov i ded hu l l s , and other th i n ,
Canad i an S t anda rds Assoc i a t i on (CSA) charac t er i ze t ype ; mor t ar w i th comp l ex shapes
s t anda rds. These a r e l i st ed and br i e f l y l arge amoun t o f l ight gauge
desc r i bed i n Tab l e 830 - 2 . Add i t i ona l t ypes re i nforc i ng is used
o f cemen t a re spec i a l l y f ormu l a t ed f or cer - F i ber Add i t i on o f shor t f i bers to m i x
charac t er i zes t ype ; whe r e
t a i n purposes .
preven t i on of crack i ng is
i mpor t an t ; e .g . , in h i ghways
1 AGGREGATE FOR CONCRETE and br i dges , espec i a l l y for
pavemen t over l ays
The aggr ega t e used t o make conc r e t e per - Na i l i ng Na i l -ho l d i ng s t rength
charac t er i zes t ype ; has h i gh
f orms seve ra l d i f f erent f unc t i ons . I t t yp i ca l l y
i nsu l a t i ng va l ue
cons t i t u t es 60 t o 75 pe r cen t o f t he vo l ume
o f mos t t ypes o f norma l conc r e t e . The mos t Source : Swee t ' s Se l ec t i on Da t a : Cemen t and Concre t e , McGraw-H i l l , New York .
common t ypes o f aggr ega t e used in mak i ng
conc r e t e a r e sand , grave l , and c rushed
s t one . Aggr ega t e i s c l ass i f i ed as f i ne i f t he
par t i c l es a re sma l l e r t han 5 mm (1 / 4 in) , or Tab l e 830 - 2 . APPROX I MATE RELAT I VE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE AS
coa rse i f l arger t han 5 mm (1 / 4 i n) in d i am- AFFECTED BY TYPE OF CEMENT
e t e r. Bo t h t he qua l i t y and t he cos t o f t he
conc r e t e a r e a f f ec t ed by t he t ype o f aggr e - Compr ess i on St reng t h ; Pe r cen t o f St reng t h o f Type I
ga t e used in t he m i x t ur e . O f t en , t he cho i ce Type o f Por t l and Cemen t or Norma l Por t l and Cemen t Conc r e t e
o f an aggr ega t e i s based on i ts l oca l ava i l - ASTM CSA 1 Day 7 Days 28 Days 3 Mon t hs
ab i l i t y. Th i s can g i ve a spec i a l i nd i genous
I Norma l 100 100 100 100 u
lr

n
qua l i t y t o t he conc r e t e m i x i f t he aggr ega t e
II Mode r a t e 75 85 90 100
i s exposed in t he f i na l f i n i sh i ng process . 0
III
IV
H i gh-ear l y-s t reng th
Low-hea t
190
55
120
55
110
75
100
100
V
3 .1 Types o f Agg r ega t e V Su l f a t e- res i s t i ng 65 75 85 100

Va r i ous t ypes o f i gneous , sed i men t a ry , and Source : Por t l and Cemen t Assoc i a t i on , Des i gn and Con t ro l of Conc re t e M i xtures , 11th ed . , Skok i e , III ., M
me t amo rph i c aggr ega t e a r e used in con- 1968.
00
 830 - 4
Cre t e cons t ruc t i on , depend i ng on ava i l ab i l i -
Tab l e 830 -3 . TYPES OF ADM I XTURES
t y and i n t ended use . (Re f er to Sec t i on 810 :
So i l s and Aggrega t es , for a genera l d i scus-
s i on of aggrega t e .)
Types Descr i pt i on
3 . 2 Se l ec t i on o f Aggr ega t e Ai r -ent ra i n i ng i mproves the concre te ' s res i stance to f reeze and thaw damage as we l l as to
sca l i ng due to de i c i ng chem i ca l s .
Se l ec t i on of an aggrega t e shou l d be based Wa t er - reduc i ng Reduces the amoun t of wa t er requ i red for a g i ven cons i st ency of mi x , and
on t he fo l l ow i ng cr i ter i a : may af fect the set t i ng t i me . Some wi l l i ncrease dry i ng shr i nkage . May
ent ra i n some a i r .
1 . Res i s t ance to abras i on i f in a wea r i ng Se t -acce l era t i ng Used to acce l era te the set of concre t e resu l t ing in h i gher ear l y st rength .
sur f ace Some wi l l i ncrease dry shr i nkage of the concre t e dur i ng cur i ng .
Set - retard i ng Used to dece l era te the set of concre t e wh i ch resul ts in l ower ear l y
2 . Pe r f ormance record unde r cond i t i ons st rength .
of s i mi l ar use Pozzo l ans used to reduce the amoun t of cemen t requ i red in a concre t e m i x .
Improves workab i l i ty . St rength is enhanced at l ater ages ; hea t of
3 . Res i s t ance to pop-ou t s or spa l l s caused hydra t i on is reduced .
by f reez i ng or chem i ca l s Superp l ast i c i 7ers A l l ows use of a much l ower wa t er to cemen t rat io in a concre t e mi xture.
Can produce a more f l owab l e concre t e so that i t can be pumped to the
4. Range of aggrega t e s i zes needed for area of p l acement .
the requ i red m i x

5 . Un i t we i gh t of the aggrega t e when

used for l i gh twe i gh t concre t e on
roo f top gardens , p l azas , decks , e t c . 3 . Rough angu l a r - shaped aggrega t e 4 . 0 ADM I XTURES FOR CONCRETE
(such as crushed s tone) wi l l prov i de a
In add i t i on , both t he s i ze and shape of be t t er bond for the cemen t pas t e . 4 .1 Purposes o f Adm i x t ur es
t he aggrega t e used in a concre t e m i x ture Rough angu l ar aggrega t es wi l l no t
are ma j or var i ab l es a f f ec t i ng concre t e prop- howeve r necessar i l y resu l t in a con- Al l subs t ances tha t are added be fore or
er t i es . The fo l l ow i ng ru l es of t humb shou l d cre t e o f grea t er tens i l e and compres - dur i ng the m i x i ng of the concre t e are
be cons i dered : s i ve s t rength than smoo t h , rounded re f er red to as adm i x t ures . They are used to
aggrega t e (e .g ., pebb l es) because the enhance one or mor e proper t i es of t he
1 . The s i ze of aggrega t e shou l d not
angu l a r aggrega t e requ i res mor e resu l t i ng concre t e . Adm i x t ures are of t en
exceed : (a) one- f i f th t he d i mens i on of
wa t e r in concre t e and t he reby some - used for the fo l l ow i ng reasons :
nonre i n forced e l emen t s , (b) three -
four ths the c l ear spac i ng be t ween wha t reduces the u l t i ma t e s t rength of 1 . To i mprove the workab i l i t y o f t he
the concre t e .
re i nforc i ng bars and / or forms , and (c) concre t e m i x ture by m i n i m i z i ng t he
one - th i rd t he dep t h of s l abs . Use of 4 . E l onga t ed or f l at aggrega t e shou l d be separa t i on of coarse and f i ne aggre -
the l argest -s i ze aggrega t e prac t i ca l avo i ded or l i mi t ed t o no mor e t han 15 ga t e wh i l e i t is be i ng cast and / or
wi l l genera l l y reduce shr i nkage and percen t o f the tota l aggrega t e by wor ked
crack i ng of concre t e . we i gh t .
2 . To reduce the wa t e r requ i remen t of
2 . Use of a proper m i x of bo t h l arge concre t e s i gn i f i cant l y and t he reby
(coarse) and sma l l ( f ine) aggrega t es i ncrease i ts s t rength
wi l l reduce the amoun t o f necessary
3 . To ent ra i n a i r in t he m i x ture and
wa t e r in the m i x .
thereby i mprove t he concre t e ' s dura-
bi l i ty and res i st ance to f reeze / thaw
damage , and i ts res i st ance to sca l i ng
caused by de i c i ng chem i ca l s
1 . The cho i ce of an aggrega t e is usua l l y based on i ts loca l ava i l ab i l i ty. Th i s can g i ve a
spec i a l i nd i genous qua l i ty to the concre t e m i x if the aggrega t e is exposed in the f ina l 4 . To acce l era t e or re t ard the ha rden i ng
f i n i sh i ng process . or se t t i ng of concre t e

2 . The s i ze of aggrega t e shou l d no t exceed : 5 . To i ncrease the f l owab i l i ty of concre t e

(a) one- f i f th the d i mens i on of nonre i nforced e l ement s . to a i d in p l acemen t
(b) three- four ths the c l ear spac i ng be t ween re i nforc i ng bars and / or forms .
(c) one- th i rd the dep th of s l abs . Use of the l argest -s i ze aggrega t e pract i ca l wi l l I 4 .2 Se l ec t i on Cr i t er i a f or Adm i x t ur es
genera l l y reduce shr i nkage and crack i ng of concre t e .
Be fore spec i f y i ng an adm i x ture , i t mus t be
de t e rm i ned :
3 . Use of a proper m i x of both l arge (coarse) and sma l l ( f ine) aggrega t es wi l l reduce
r the amoun t of necessary wa t er in the m i x . 1) whe t he r the adm i x t ure wi l l be com-
V pa t i b l e w i th the cemen t , aggrega t e ,
n 4 . Rough angu l ar -shaped aggrega t e (such as crushed s tone) wi l l prov i de a bet ter bond
O and any o ther adm i x tures tha t may
for the cemen t pas t e . Rough angu l ar aggrega t es wi l l not howeve r necessar i l y resu l t
V in a concre t e of grea t er tens i l e and compress i ve s t rength .
be used .
2) whe t he r the adm i x t ure wi l l a f f ec t t he
5 . E l onga t ed or f lat aggrega t e shou l d be avo i ded or l i mi ted to no mor e than 15 percent workab i l i ty , se t t i ng t i me , shr i nkage ,
M of the tota l aggrega t e by we i gh t .
I

ne -Saver S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec t ure

 830 - 5

s t rength , and / or permeab i l i t y of the con- de l i vered and p l aced w i th i n 90 m i nu t es

cre t e . a f t er cemen t has been added to the m i x-
ture . I f concre t e is l ess t han 90 m i nu t es o l d
3) whe t he r the adm i x t ure wi l l ac tua l l y
and has st ar t ed to st i f fen or dry ou t be fore
produce the des i red resu l ts .
i t has been p l aced , i t may st i l l be used but
on l y i f i t can be comp l e t e l y conso l i da t ed
4 .3 Types o f Adm i x t ur es
i nto f orms . Add i ng wa t e r to the concre t e to
Some of the mor e - common t ypes of adm i x- make t he m i x ture mor e workab l e ( re t em-
tures used in concre t e and the i r e f f ec t on per i ng) is no t cons i dered idea l , bu t ASTM
the concre t e are l i sted in Tab l e 830 - 3 . C94 (s t andard for ready -m i xed concre t e )
does a l l ow one re t emper i ng to br i ng the
5 . 0 WATER m i x up to des i gn s l ump requ i remen t s .

5 .1 Wa t e r Qua l i t y Tes t i ng Conc re t e:

The wa t e r used to make concre t e shou l d be A numbe r of cont ro l tests are pe r f ormed on
c l ean and f ree of oi ls, a l ka l i 's, ac i ds , organ- concre t e by i nspec t i on personne l , some of
ic ma ter i a l s , and o ther de l e t er i ous sub- wh i ch are conduc t ed wh i l e the concre t e is
s t ances . Wa t e r cont a i n i ng h i gh concen t ra - f resh, and others wh i l e the concre t e is in a
t i ons o f su l f a t es or sa l ts shou l d a l so be ha rdened st a t e . Some gove rnmen t author -
avo i ded . Po t ab l e wa t e r is typ i ca l l y sa t i sfac- i t ies requ i re cer t i f i cat i on by i nspec t i on per -
tory for use in concre t e . sonne l . Three common tests are t he s l ump ,
a i r cont ent , and cy l i nder tests .
5 . 2 Wa t e r Quan t i t y
S l ump Tes t : The s l ump test de t erm i nes
The quant i t y o f wa t e r needed for a m i x ture the re l at i ve cons i s t ency among ba t ches o f
is a l ways measur ed in re l at i ve propor t i on to concre t e o f the same des i gn by measur i ng
the amoun t of cemen t used . An i ncrease in the amoun t of s l ump for a g i ven-s i ze cone
the amoun t of wa t e r to cemen t wi l l a l ways of concre t e (F i gure 830-1 and Tab l e 830 -
resu l t in concre t e w i th l ess s t rength . For 4) . Changes in s l ump typ i ca l l y re f l ec t
pro t ec t i on aga i ns t f rost damage , a i r changes in the amoun t of wa t e r in the m i x ,
ent ra i ned concre t e shou l d have a max i - but t hey may a l so i nd i ca t e changes in a i r F i gur e 830 -1 . S l ump t es t ( ASTM
mum wa t e r to cemen t ra t i o of 0. 45 . For cont ent , sand cont ent , aggrega t e grada - C143) . S l ump cones are made o f me t a l
prot ec t i on of re i nforc i ng stee l aga i ns t cor - t ion, t empe ra t ure or hydra t i on , and se t t i ng. and are 92 in . h i gh , w i th a 4- i n . -d i ame t er
ros i on , t he wa t e r to cemen t ra t i o shou l d be open i ng a t t he top and a 8- i n . -d i ame t er
A i r Con t es t Tes t : The a i r -cont ent test open i ng a t the bo t t om . The cone is f i l l ed
no mor e t han 0 . 40 .
de t erm i nes the a i r en t ra i nmen t at the t i me w i t h concre t e in three l ayers of equa l vo l -
of use , thereby a l l ow i ng an oppor tun i t y to ume , and each l ayer is rodded 25 t i mes
6 . 0 PREPARAT I ON AND
ad j us t the m i x ture , i f necessary , by add i ng w i t h a st ee l t amp i ng rod. Af t er the cone is
PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE
mor e a i r ent ra i n i ng agen t . An i nsuf f i c i ent f i l l ed and the top sur f ace is smoo t hed , the
amoun t of a i r resu l ts in a concre t e w i th poor s l ump cone is s l ow l y l i f ted ver t i ca l l y and
6 .1 M i x i ng Tes t i ng and S i t e
res i st ance to f reeze / thaw damage , and too the subs i dence (s l ump) is measur ed.
Pr epa r a t i on f or Conc r e t e
much a i r resu l ts in a l ower -s t rength con-
M i x i ng Conc re t e: cre te . The a i r con t en t shou l d be 5 - 8% to
prot ec t concre t e f rost and de i cer damage .
I f ready -m i xed concre t e is ava i l ab l e f rom
l oca l supp l i ers , t hen on-s i t e m i x i ng is se l - Cy l i nder Tes t : The cy l i nder test is used to
dom j ust i f i ed excep t on except i ona l l y l arge de t erm i ne t he compress i ve s t rength of cured
pro j ec t s . Ready -m i xed concre t e shou l d be concre t e (F i gure 830-2) . Th i s test i nvo l ves

Tab l e 830 - 4 . RECOMMENDED SLUMPS FOR VAR I OUS TYPES OF

CONCRETE CONSTRUCT I ON

S l ump , i n

Conc r e t e Cons t ruc t i on Max i mum ' M i n i mum

Re i n f orced f ounda t i on wa l l s and foot i ngs 3 1

P l a i n foot i ngs , ca i ssons , and subs t ruc ture wa l l s 3 1 r
Reams and re i nforced wa l l s 4 1 V
F i gur e 830 -2 . Cy l i nde r t es t ( ASTM
Bu i l d i ng co l umns 4 1 n
Pavemen t s and s l abs C31) . Ca rdboa rd or stee l mo l ds are f i l l ed O
3 1
Mass conc re t e 2 t w i th f resh concre t e in three equa l l ayers , and U
each l ayer is rodded 25 t i mes w i th a '18- in . -
' May be i ncreased 1 in for conso l i da t i on by hand me t hods such as rodd i ng and spad i ng .
Source : C. G. Ramsey and I i . R. S l eeper , Arch i t ec tura l Graph i c St anda rds , 9th ed . , John R. t - loke (ed .),
d i ame t e r t amp i ng rod. Cy l i nders are l aze l ed 0
W i l ey , New York , 1994 .
and cove red w i t h a p l a t e or p l ast i c bag. M
00
 830 - 6

put t i ng concre t e i nto a cy l i ndr i ca l mo l d 152

Tab l e 830 -5 . TYPES AND USES OF FORMWORK mm (6 in) in d i ame t er and 300 mm (12 in)
Rema r ks
h i gh . Af t er the concre t e has cured , the con-
Type Uses
cre t e cy l i nder is prepared and pu t i nto a spe-
Lumbe r Fo rm f ram i ng , f orm f ac i ng , shor i ng c i a l t es t i ng mach i ne and sub j ec t ed to
and brac i ng , edge f orms i ncreas i ng pressure unt i l i t fa i ls . The po i nt of
( co l umns , beams , e t c .)
P l ywood Fo rm f ac i ng fa i lure is recorded as the concre t e ' s s t rength
Ha rdboa rd Fo rm f ac i ng in megapasca l s or pounds per square i nch .
St ee l f o rm f ram i ng , f orm f ac i ng , shor i ng Pa t en t ed pre f abr i ca t ed f orms Typ i ca l l y , cy l i nder tests are conduc t ed a t 7
and brac i ng , pre f abr i ca t ed ava i l ab l e , such as wa f f l e s l abs ,
days and 28 days fo l l ow i ng p l acemen t .
f orms , edge f orms ( co l umns , jo i sts , co l umns
beams , e t c .)
A l um i num Fo rm f ram i ng , f orm f ac i ng , edge I i ght we i gh t ; f ac i l i t a t es hand l i ng
S i te Prepara t i on for Use o f Conc re t e:
f orms ( co l umns , beams , e t c .)
Excep t in ex t reme l y dry , very s t ab l e soi l s,
F i berg l ass Fo rm f ac i ng , f orm l i ners , May be bonded to p l ywood or o t he r
pre f abr i ca t ed f orms f orm f ac i ngs for a smoo t he r mos t l andscape - re l a t ed uses of concre t e
pa t t e rned sur f ace requ i re cons t ruc t i on o f an appropr i a t e
l am i na t ed f i ber Co l umn f orms , vo i ds i n conc r e t e Cr ea t ed to r educe we i gh t o f s t ruc t ure granu l ar subbase ove r a prepa red ( com-
and prov i de passage for duc t wor k , pac t ed) subgr ade . Cons t ruc t i on de ta i l s
r aceways , e t c .
i nvo l v i ng the use of concre t e are shown in
Cor ruga t ed pape r Vo i ds i n s l abs See no t e
me t a l decks F l oor f ram i ng , roo f f r am i ng May prov i de r aceways for powe r and severa l sec t i ons of th i s handbook , i nc l ud i ng
t e l ephone ; may be se l ec t ed for D i v i s i on 900 : De t a i l s and Dev i ces .
compos i t e ac t i on w i t h conc r e t e
The subgrade shou l d be un i form l y com-
No t e : Fo rm l i ners : (1) sandb l as t ed Doug l as f i r or l ong- l ea f ye l l ow p i ne dr essed one s i de away f rom t he
pac t ed , mo i st , and f ree of organ i c ma t t er and
conc r e t e sur f ace; (2) f l ex i b l e s t ee l st r i p f ormwor k adap t ed t o curbed sur f aces (S( hwe l l me r Sys t em) ; ( .3)
res i n-coa t ed , st r i a t ed , or sandb l as t ed p l ywood ; 14) rubbe r ma t s ; (5) t he rmop l as t i c shee t s w i t h h i gh g l ass expans i ve c l ays . Sof t or muddy areas shou l d
or t ex ture l a id ove r s tone , for examp l e ; (6) f ormed p l as t i cs; (7) p l as t er of Par i s mo l ds for scu l p t ured wo r k; be excava t ed , f i l l ed w i th soi l s imi l ar to the
(8) c l ay (scu l p tur i ng and s t a i n i ng conc re t e ) ; (9) ha rdboa rd (sc reen s i de) ; (10) s t anda rd s t ee l f orms ; ( i l )
abut t i ng subgrade (or w i th a granu l ar ma t e -
wood boa rd i ng and reve rsed ba t t ens ; (12) squa r e - edged l umbe r dr essed on one s i de ; (13) r esawn wood
boa rds . Re l ease agen t s : (1) o i l s , pe t ro l eum-based , used on wood , conc re t e , and s t ee l f orms ; (2) sof t r ial such as sand , grave l , or crushed s tone)
sc rubs ; (3) t a l cum ; (4) wh i t ewash used on wood w i t h t ann i n i n con j unc t i on w i t h o i l s ; (5) ca l c i um s t eara t e and t hen compac t ed to the requ i red dens i ty .
powde r ; (6) s i l i cones used on s t ee l f orms ; (7) p l as t i cs used on wood f orms; (8) l acque rs used on p l ywood
and p l as t er f orms ; (9) res i ns used on p l ywood f orms; (10) sod i um s i l i ca t e; (11) memb r ane used ove r any The subbase ma t er i a l be t ween the sub-
f orm ; (12) grease used on p l as t er f orms ; (13) epoxy res i n p l ast i c used on p l ywood .
grade and the concre t e can be composed
Source : Adap t ed f rom Swee t ' s Se l ec t i on Da t a : Cemen t and Conc re t e , McGr aw-H i l l , New Yor k ; a l so
C . G . Ramsey and 11, R . S l eeper , Arch i t ec tura l Gr aph i c St andards , 9th ed ., John R . I j oke (ed .), W i l ey , of a var i e ty of granu l ar ma t er i a l s as l ong as
New York , 1994 . i t is f ree-dra i n i ng , durab l e , and capab l e of
be i ng compac t ed . (Re f er to Sec t i on 810 :
So i l s and Aggrega t es , for mor e i n forma t i on
on soi l s and the use of var i ous t ypes of
aggrega t e in l andscape cons t ruc t i on .)

6 . 2 Fo r mwo r k f or Conc r e t e

Bas i c Func t i on :
Formwor k for concre t e prov i des a cont a i n-
er and suppor t s the concre t e when i t is
be i ng p l aced and wh i l e i t is se t t i ng .
Typ i ca l l y , a des i gner wi l l de t e rm i ne the con-
f i gura t i on of a comp l e t ed work , wh i l e a
cont rac tor or bu i l der wi l l be respons i b l e for
the ac tua l s t rength des i gn of the f orms .

Formwor k may be used on l y once or

reused many t i mes , depend i ng on the t ype
o f f ormwor k . In some cases the f ormwor k
is l ef t in p l ace as e i ther a concea l ed or
exposed par t of t he f ina l des i gn , re f er red to
as a dead f orm) . Tab l e 830-5 descr i bes
N t ypes and uses of f ormwor k .

Curved f ormwor k for t he cons t ruc t i on o f

vr wa l ks , dr i ves , wa l l s , e t c ., can be made f rom
n th i n p l ywood [6 to 13 mm (1 / 4 to 1 / 2 in) ] ,
O
V hardboard , shee t me t a l , or th i cker l umbe r
tha t is saw- ker f ed (F i gure 830-3) .

Sl ip f orms are used whe r e con t i nuous

M p l ac i ng is an advan t age , espec i a l l y for
 830- 7

1 . Ready -m i xed conc re t e shou l d be de l i vered and p l aced w i t h i n 90 m i nu t es a f t er

cemen t has been added t o t he m i x t ur e .

2 . Add i ng wa t e r to t he conc re t e t o make t he m i x t ur e mor e wor kab l e ( re t empe r i ng) is

no t cons i de red i dea l , bu t ASTM C94 (s t anda rd f or r eady -m i xed conc re t e ) does a l l ow
one r e t empe r i ng t o br i ng t he m i x up t o des i gn s l ump r equ i r emen t s .

3 . St ee l bars and we l ded w i re f abr i c prov i de r e i n f or cemen t for conc re t e s t ruc tures and
s l abs. Tens i l e s t reng th requ i red wi l l de t e rm i ne t he s i ze o f ba r or w i r e des i gna t ed
(Tab l e 830-6) .

4. Pl ast i c , g l ass and stee l f i bers can be added to a conc re t e m i x pr i or to pour i ng t o crea t e
t hree -d i mens i ona l seconda r y re i n f orcemen t and t o ac t as mode r a t e i nh i b i tors of cracks .

5 . Pr i or t o pour i ng , t he subgr ade and a l l f orms mus t be mo i s t ened to pr even t ex t rac -

t i on of wa t e r f rom t he conc re t e . Forms shou l d a l so be t rea t ed w i t h a nons t a i n i ng
re l ease agen t for eas i er r emova l .

6. In s l ab cons t ruc t i on , t he p l acemen t o f f resh conc re t e shou l d beg i n a l ong t he pe r i me -

t er of one end , w i t h each success i ve ba t ch p l aced aga i ns t prev i ous l y p l aced conc re t e .

7 . In wa l l cons t ruc t i on , t he p l acemen t shou l d beg i n a t bo t h ends and t hen progress

f rom each end t owa rd t he cen t e r. The conc re t e shou l d be p l aced in hor i zon t a l l ayers
of un i f orm th i ckness , w i t h each l ayer t horough l y conso l i da t ed be f or e p l acemen t of
t he nex t l ayer.

8 . Conc r e t e shou l d no t be moved i nto pos i t i on hor i zont a l l y , f or segrega t i on be t ween

t he mor t a r and coa rse aggr ega t e wi l l resu l t .

9. Conc r e t e m i xes (s l umps) t ha t wi l l be conso l i da t ed by v i bra t i on shou l d be cons i de r -

ab l y st i f fer t han t hose i n t ended f or conso l i da t i on by hand too l s . The propor t i on o f
f i ne aggr ega t e used in a conc re t e m i x can a l so be r educed s i gn i f i cant l y i f v i bra tors
I
a re used .
i

G)

ucr
O
V
- O
M
00
 830 - 8

Sl ip f orms are used whe r e con t i nuous

Tab l e 830 -6 . ASTM STANDARD RE I NFORCE I NG BARS S I ZES -
p l ac i ng is an advan t age , espec i a l l y for
NOM I NAL D I AMETER
pav i ng , curb and gut t er opera t i ons .
Cross -Sec t i ona l
Pa t t ern Mak i ng: We i gh t pe r Foo t D i ame t e r Ar ea Squa r ed
Ba r S i ze
Var i ous pa t t erns can be crea t ed in the sur - in cm
Des i gna t i on Ib kg in cm
f ace o f f i n i shed concre t e by add i ng wood
or p l ast i c st r ips , spec i a l p l ast i c l iners, or 3 0 . 376 0. 171 0. 375 0 . 953 0 .11 0 . 71
4 0 . 668 0. 303 0 . 500 1 . 270 0 . 20 1 . 29
sma l l cones or o ther shapes to t he f aces of
5 1 . 043 0 . 473 0. 625 1 . 588 0 .31 2 . 00
f orms (F i gure 830-4) . Form l iners made of 6 1 . 502 0 . 681 0 . 750 1 . 905 0 . 44 2 . 84
p l ast i c , rubber , or o ther ma t er i a l s can be 7 2 . 044 0 . 927 0 . 875 2 . 223 0 . 60 3 . 87
p l aced be t ween t he form' s f ace and the 8 2 . 670 1 . 211 1 . 000 2 . 540 0 . 79 5 . 10
concre t e to prov i de spec i a l f i n i shes , t ex- 9 3 . 400 1 . 542 1 . 128 2 . 865 1 . 00 6 . 45
tures , and pa t t erns (Re f er to 6 .6 F i n i sh i ng 10 4 . 303 1 . 952 1 . 270 3 . 226 1 . 27 8 . 19
11 5 . 313 2 . 410 1 . 410 3 . 581 1 . 56 10 . 07
Concre t e , in th i s sec t i on and to Tab l e 830- 14 7 . 650 3 . 470 1 . 693 4 . 300 2 . 25 14 . 52
9 for mor e i n forma t i on .) . 18 13 . 600 6 . 169 2 . 257 5 . 733 4 . 00 25 .81

6 . 3 Re i n f or cemen t o f Conc r e t e Source : C. G. Ramsey and H . R. S l eeper , Arch i t ec tura l Graph i c St andards , 9th ed . , John R . Hoke (ed .),
W i l ey , New York , 1994 .
P l acemen t o f Re i n f orcemen t :

Re i n f orcemen t is used to g i ve concre t e

s t ruc tures and s l abs grea t er tens i l e s t rength Stee l re i nforc i ng can be ga l van i zed or be t ween the mor t a r and coarse aggrega t e
coa t ed w i th pa i nts , p l ast i c , or epoxy coa t - wi l l resu l t .
and a l so to cont ro l crack i ng . F i gure 830-5
shows the typ i ca l p l acemen t of stee l or w i re ings , e t c . Some t ype of coa t i ng is essent i a l
whe r e h i gh cor ros i on is a f ac tor , such as for In wa l l cons t ruc t i on , the p l acemen t
mesh re i n forcemen t w i th i n a concre t e s l ab shou l d beg i n a t bo t h ends and t hen
or beam . br i dges , wa t er f ron t seawa l l s , docks , and
progress f rom each end t owa rd the cent er .
s i mi l ar s t ruc tures .
The concre t e shou l d be p l aced in hor i zont a l
Types o f Re i n f orcemen t :
Seconda ry Re i n f orcemen t : Pl ast i c f i bers l ayers of un i f orm th i ckness , w i th each l ayer
Two t ypes of re i n f orcemen t common l y can be added to a concre t e m i x pr i or to thorough l y conso l i da t ed be fore p l acemen t
used in l andscape - re l a t ed concre t e are pour i ng to crea t e three -d i mens i ona l sec- of the nex t l ayer. The l ayers shou l d be 150
we l ded w i re f abr i c and re i nforc i ng bars . onda ry re i n forcemen t and to ac t as mode r - to 500 mm (6 to 20 in) th i ck for re i nforced
Pl ast i c , g l ass , or stee l f i bers are a l so used as a t e i nh i b i tors of p l ast i c shr i nkage cracks . membe r s , and 380 to 500 mm (15 to 20 in)
seconda ry re i n forcemen t in concre t e m i xes . They are l i ghtwe i ght , noncor ros i ve , and th i ck for mass wor k . Conc re t e moved hor i -
iner t to a l ka l i a t t ack . They can be used for zont a l l y i nto pos i t i on shou l d be kept to an
We l ded W i r e Fabr i c ( WWF ) : We l ded
precas t as we l l as cas t - i n-p l ace concre t e . abso l ut e m i n i mum to preven t segrega t i on
w i re fabr i c , a l so ca l l ed mesh , cons i sts of e l ec-
Manu f ac t ure rs of th i s produc t have s l i ght l y of mor t a r and coarse aggrega t e .
t r i ca l l y we l ded gr i ds of stee l w i re w i th or
d i f f erent requ i remen t s for use , howeve r
w i thou t ga l van i zed coa t i ng or epoxy t reat - The conso l i da t i on of concre t e is accom-
mos t spec i f i ca t i ons ca l l for 0 . 884 kg of f i ber
men t . Mesh is typ i ca l l y ava i l ab l e f rom manu- p l i shed e i ther by hand too l s or by v i bra tors .
per cub i c me t e r (1 -1 /2 Ib/ yd3) o f concre t e .
f ac turers in rol ls or f l at shee t s . Var i ous gauges Conc re t e m i xes (s l umps) tha t wi l l be con-
Some manu f ac ture rs make the i r f i ber in
of w i re and gr i d spac i ng are ava i l ab l e . WWF so l i da t ed by v i bra t i on can be cons i derab l y
l engths f rom 20 to 65 mm (3 / 4 to 2-1 / 2 in)
s i zes are re f er red to by a sys t em of four num- st i f fer than those i n t ended for conso l i da -
to mee t t he needs of concre t e w i th d i f fer -
bers , such as : 6 x 6 x W1 .4 x W1 .4 . The f i rst en t s i zes of aggrega t e . Stee l f i bers are a l so t i on by hand too l s . The propor t i on of f i ne
numbe r is the l ong i tud i na l spac i ng of the aggrega t e used in a concre t e m i x can a l so
ava i l ab l e for use when the concre t e wi l l not
w i res , and the second numbe r is the t rans- be reduced s i gn i f i cant l y i f v i bra tors are
be exposed to the e l emen t s .
verse spac i ng. The th i rd and four th numbe rs used . Var i ous t ypes of v i bra tors i nc l ude
i nd i ca t e the respec t i ve w i re s i zes . i mme rs i on- t ype ( i nterna l ) v i bra tors , f orm
6 . 4 P l ac i ng and Conso l i da t i ng
Conc r e t e v i bra tors , and v i bra t i ng screeds . Hand
Re i n forc i ng Bars : Re i n forc i ng bars have me t hods i nc l ude the use of spades or pud-
i r regu l ar i t i es or embossmen t s ca l l ed de for - Once the subgr ade is compac t ed and d l i ng st i cks or o f var i ous t ypes of t ampe rs .
ma t i ons wh i ch keep t he bars f rom s l i pp i ng mo i s t ened , the f orms erec t ed , and the re i n-
w i th i n the concre t e (F i gure 830-6) . The bar forc i ng stee l se t in p l ace , the concre t e can 6 . 5 Jo i n t s , Loca t i ons , and F i l l ers
s i ze is i nd i ca t ed by a numbe r wh i ch , when be p l aced . The subgrade and al l f orms mus t
mu l t i p l i ed by 3 mm (1 / 8 in) , g i ves t he be mo i s t ened to preven t ex t rac t i on o f Purpose o f Jo i n t s :
a) nom i na l d i ame t e r of t he bar in i nches ; for wa t e r f rom the concre t e . Forms shou l d be Jo i nts are needed in mos t t ypes of concre t e
examp l e , a No . 4 bar has an a rea equa l to t rea t ed w i th a re l ease agen t for eas i er
r a bar of 13 - mm (1/2- i n) d i ame t e r (See cons t ruc t i on to m i n i m i ze or cont ro l t he
U remova l . poss i b l y damag i ng e f f ec ts of expans i on and
n Tab l e 830-6 .) .
cont rac t i on in the concre t e due to t empe r -
O In s l ab cons t ruc t i on , the p l acemen t of
F i gure 830-7 shows re i nforc i ng bar i den- f resh concre t e shou l d beg i n a l ong the a ture var i a t i ons and the presence of mo i s-
V
t i f i cat ion . The m i n i mum th i ckness of con- per i me t er of one end , w i th each success i ve ture . Conc re t e cont rac t s a f ter the cur i ng
cre t e needed to cover me t a l re i n forcemen t ba t ch p l aced aga i ns t prev i ous l y p l aced con- per i od as a resu l t o f dry i ng , and i t wi l l a l so
for cor ros i on prot ec t i on is shown in Tab l e cre t e . Conc re t e shou l d not be moved i nto expand or cont rac t w i th var i a t i ons in t em-
M
830-7 . pos i t i on hor i zont a l l y , for segrega t i on pera ture . Con t rac t i on is mos t drama t i c dur -
 830- 9

Tab l e 830 -7 . M I N I MUM CONCRETE

COVER FOR RE I NFORCEMENT.
k' . . IN -
s 7t

M i n i mum concre t e cove r for re i n f orcemen t 1 . Iso l at ion, or expans i on jo ints ex t end the ful l dep t h of the concre t e and prov i de for
(except for ex t reme l y cor ros i ve a t mos - l atera l movemen t be t ween s l abs or other f i xed st ruc tures .
pheres , o ther severe exposures , or f i re pro-
t ec t i on) sha l l be as fo l l ows : 2 . Cont ro l , or cont rac t i on j o i nts are des i gned to rest r i ct the crack i ng of the concre t e to
prede t erm i ned l oca t i ons .
M i n . cove r
( i nches ) 3 . Cont ro l jo ints shou l d be too l ed or sawed to a dep th of at l east 1 /4 to 1 /3 the th i ck-
S l abs and j o i n t s
ness of the concre t e . I f too l ed , thi s is done dur i ng the f i n i sh i ng of the concre t e sur -
Top and bo t t om bars for f ace . I f sawed , thi s is done when the sur f ace of the concre t e is f i rm enough not to
dry cond i t i ons be damaged by the saw i ng process , norma l l y 12 to 24 hours a f ter f i n i sh i ng .
#11 bars and sma l l er 3 / 4 in .
#14 and #18 bars 1 1 / 2 in .
4 . Cons t ruc t i on jo ints prov i de p l aces whe re cast i ng of concre t e can be s topped . They
Formed conc re t e sur f aces exposed to may cont a i n t i e bars , sl ip dowe l s , and / or keyways for l oad t ransf er .
ear th , wa t e r or wea t he r ; in con t ac t w i t h
sewage and for bo t t oms bear i ng on wor k
ma t s or s l abs suppor t i ng ear th cove r : 5 . Spac i ng of i so l at ion or cont ro l jo ints in pavemen t s shou l d f orm square pane l s whe re
#5 Bars and sma l l er 1 1 / 2 in . poss i b l e (See Tab l e 830-8 for spac i ng requ i rement s) .
#6 t hrough #18 bars 2 in .

Ba r s and co l umns ( f o rmed )

6 . Al l Jo i nts except cont ro l jo ints shou l d be f i l led w i th f iber , wood , meta l , or other
For dry cond i t i ons : ma t er i a l s to prov i de a smoo t h and sa f e wear i ng sur f ace .
St i r rups and t i es 1 1 / 2 on .
Pr i nc i pa l re i n f orcemen t 2 in .
7 . In c l i ma t es whe r e f reez i ng and t haw i ng occurs , i t is des i rab l e to cau l k or sea l cont ro l
Exposed ear th , wa t er , sewage
or wea t he r :
jo ints in concre t e s l abs , espec i a l l y i f they have been saw-cut .
St i r rups and t i es 2 in .
Pr i nc i pa l re i n f orcemen t 2 1 / 2 in .
process , norma l l y 12 to 24 hours a f t er cre t e . Shr i nkage is i n f l uenced by we t ness of
Wa l l s f i n i sh i ng . I f saw i ng is de l ayed t oo t he m i x and the max i mum s i ze of the
For dry cond i t i ons:
#11 bars and sma l l er 3/4 in .
l ong , the concre t e may crack be fore i t aggrega t e . Tab l e 830-8 l ists sugges t ed
#14 and #18 bars 1 1 / 2 in . is sawn or may star t crack i ng j ust spac i ng o f cont ro l j o i nts .
ahead of the saw . Saw cut t i ng is inef -
Foo t i ngs and base s l abs Jo i n t F i l l ers:
Formed sur f aces and bo t t oms 2 in .
f ec t i ve un l ess al l of the re i nforc i ng is
bea r i ng on concre t e wor k ma t s . a l so cut . Typ i ca l l y , al l j o i nts excep t cont ro l j o i nts are
Pre f ormed sur f aces and bo t t oms f i l l ed w i th some spec i a l ma t er i a l and sea l ed .
3 . Cons t ruc t i on j o i nt s : these j o i nts pro-
i n (3 in .) con t ac t w i th t he ear th Such ma t er i a l s may be manu f ac t ur ed and
v i de p l aces whe r e cas t i ng of concre t e
Ove r t op o f p i l es 2 in .
can be s t opped . They may cont a i n t i e pre f ormed , ready to insta l l pr i or to the p l ac-
Source. ACI #301 bars , s l ip dowe l s , and / or keyways for i ng of the concre t e. O t he rs may be i nsta l l ed
l oad t rans f er . or app l i ed a f t er the concre t e has been
p l aced . Three of the mos t common t ypes of
F i gures 830-8 t hrough 830-10 show d i f - j o i nt f i l l ers are :
i ng the f i rst f ew mon t hs , but i t may cont i n- f erent t ypes al l three k i nds of j o i nts.
ue for a year or mor e . 1 . F i ber f i l l er : these are boa rds or st r ips
Loca t i on o f Jo i nt s: made w i th or w i thou t aspha l t i mpreg-
Types o f Jo i nt s: na t i on . Those w i t hou t aspha l t nor -
Loca t i ons of j o i nts in concre t e wa l ks , dr i ves ,
ma l l y requ i re a j o i nt sea l ant to keep
Three t ypes of j o i nts typ i ca l l y used in con- l arge paved ter races , e t c ., are shown in ou t mo i s ture .
cre t e cons t ruc t i on i nc l ude : F i gure 830-11 . For wa l ks and dr i ves , the con-
t rol jo ints shou l d be spaced a t i nterva l s abou t 2 . Wood d i v i ders : these are made o f
1 . Iso l a t i on , or expans i on , j o i nts . These
equa l to the i r w i d ths. Idea l l y, concre t e s l abs pressure - t rea t ed or decay- res i s t an t
j o i nts ex t end the ful l dep t h of t he
100 mm (4 in) th i ck or mor e shou l d have wood l ef t in t he concre t e a f ter i t has
conc re t e and prov i de for l atera l
cont ro l jo ints abou t 2400-3000 mm (8 to 10 been cas t .
movemen t be t ween s l abs or o ther
f t ) apar t , but never mor e than 6000 mm (20
f i xed st ruc tures , such as bu i l d i ngs or 3 . P l ast i cs , rubber , cork , or me t a l : These
f t ) apar t in any d i rec t i on . Whe r e poss i b l e ,
re t a i n i ng wa l l s , st eps , and pos t s . ma t er i a l s are a l so used to f i l l and sea l
these pane l s shou l d be approx i ma t e l y
j o i nts . They are ava i l ab l e in a w i de
2 . Cont ro l , or cont rac t i on , j o i nts . These square . I f spaced w i der t han 3000-3600 mm
var i e ty o f forms , f rom s i mp l e st r ips to
j o i nts are des i gned to rest r i ct t he (10 to 12 f t ) , then cont ro l jo ints down the
comp l ex shapes .
crack i ng of the concre t e to prede t er - cent er of the pane l shou l d be used . Pane l s
m i ned l oca t i ons . Jo i nt s shou l d be w i th acut e -ang l ed corners shou l d be avo i d- Severa l o ther t ypes of ma t er i a l s can be r
too l ed or sawn to a dep t h of at l east ed , as these corners t end to break of f and ini - used as j o i nt f i l lers, i nc l ud i ng c l osed ce l l
u
n
one - four th to one - th i rd t he th i ckness t i ate crack i ng . po l yure thane , sponge or regu l ar rubber , O
of the concre t e . I f too l ed , th i s is done
Con t ro l j o i nts shou l d be con t i nuous , not
cork , spec i a l p l ast i cs , and me t a l expans i on- V
dur i ng t he f i n i sh i ng o f the concre t e j o i nt sys t ems .
s t aggered or of fse t . The spac i ng of cont ro l
sur f ace . I f sawn , th i s is done when the
j o i nts is a func t i on of the s l ab' s th i ckness Jo i nt sea l ant s are used to preven t f i l l er
0
sur f ace of the concre t e is f i rm enough
and the expec t ed shr i nkage of the con- ma t er i a l f rom b l eed i ng or be i ng squeezed M
not to be damaged by the saw i ng

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 830- 1 0
up , to keep ou t sand and o ther debr i s , and d i f f erent ways to f in i sh the concre t e . Tab l e
to he l p keep wa t e r out of the j o i nts in cl i - 830-9 shows severa l common t ypes of con-
ma t es whe r e f reez i ng occurs . The sea l ant cre t e f i n i shes .
mus t be compa t i b l e w i th the j o i nt f i l ler
Two o f the mos t common t ypes of
ma t er i a l , t he concre t e , and other ma t er i a l s
concre t e f i n i shes are : F l oa t ed f in i sh is used
in cont ac t . Jo i nt sea l ant s are ava i l ab l e in a
when concre t e has been p l aced , conso l i -
var i e ty of co l ors . Bacher rods or bond
da t ed , s t ruck of f , l eve l ed , and when the
break i ng ma t er i a l s may be r ecommended
wa t e r sheen has d i sappeared and the sur -
be t ween t he j o i nt f i l l er and sea l ant to pre-
f ace has s t i f f ened enough to perm i t f l oat -
vent three -s i ded adhes i on of sea l ant .
i ng . F l oa t i ng can be done w i th a hand f loat ,
In c l i ma t es whe r e f reez i ng and t haw i ng powe r t rowe l equ i pped w i th f l oa t shoes , or
occurs , it is des i rab l e to cau l k or sea l cont ro l w i th a powe r ed t rowe l d i sc f l oa t . Dur i ng
j o i nts in concre t e s l abs , espec i a l l y if t hey and a f ter the f i rst f l oa t i ng , the evenness of
have been saw- cu t . the sur f ace shou l d be checked w i th a 10- f t
s t ra i ght -edge app l i ed to no l ess t han t wo
6 . 6 F i n i sh i ng Conc r e t e d i f f erent ang l es . When the sur f ace has me t
the des i red s l ope to l erance , the s l ab shou l d
Sur f ace F i n i sh i ng: be re f l oa t ed i mmed i a t e l y to a un i f orm
F l oa t i ng and t rowe l i ng can beg i n as soon as sandy t ex ture .
the concre t e star ts to st i f fen . The t i me Trowe l ed f i n i sh may be used a f ter the
requ i red for concre t e to st i f fen depends on
sur f ace has been f l oa t f i n i shed as descr i bed
the w i nd , t empera ture , re l at i ve hum i d i t y , above . Typ i ca l l y , the sur f ace is f i rst powe r
and t ype of concre t e used . F i n i sh i ng shou l d
t rowe l ed to make i t smoo t h . Then , when i t
no t beg i n unt i l b l eed wa t e r (wh i ch is of t en has ha rdened enough to cause a r i ng i ng
present on the sur f ace of t he new concre t e)
sound when the t rowe l is moved ove r the
has evapora t ed . sur f ace , a hand t rowe l is used to make the
The f ormwor k can be used to g i ve d i f - sur f ace f ree of t rowe l ma r ks and un i f orm in
f erent pa t t erns to t he sur f aces of precas t t ex ture and appea rance . Trowe l ed f i n i shes
e l emen t s or ver t i ca l st ruc tures , such as the shou l d no t be used ou t doors because they
exposed f aces of re t a i n i ng or f rees t and i ng are too s l i ppery.
concre t e wa l l s . St r i ps of wood , me t a l , p l as-
t i c or rubber l iners can be used to ach i eve
d i f f erent e f f ects . F or hor i zont a l sur f aces ,
such as pave d wa l ks , there are a numbe r o f

1 . F i n i sh i ng shou l d not beg i n unt i l b l eed wa t er (wh i ch is of t en present on the sur f ace
of the new concre t e) has been reabsorbed by the concre t e .

2 . Var i ous cast i ng, abras i ve , chem i ca l , and mechan i ca l processes can be used to crea t e
f in i sh concre t e (Tab l e 830-9) . D i f f erent too l s wi l l y i e ld drama t i ca l l y d i f ferent f i n i shes
(Tab l e 830-11) .

3 . Co l or i ng is typ i ca l l y ach i eved through co l or p i gmen t s i nt egra t ed into the concre t e

mi x , the dry-shake me t hod of spr i nk l i ng p i gment s on t o the sur f ace , or through
sta i ns and pa i nts used on hardened or ex i st i ng sur f aces .

4 . Exposed aggrega t e f i n i shes are usua l l y ach i eved by hos i ng or ac id wash i ng and
brush i ng the sur f ace a f ter it beg i ns to set . The seed i ng me t hod of fers an a l terna t i ve
to thi s t echn i que , whe re aggrega t e is spr i nk l ed over f resh l y p l aced concre t e and
pounded into the sur f ace .

5 . Nons l i p f in i shes can be ach i eved by hand- too l i ng w i th f loats, t rowe l s , or brooms , or
by dry-shak i ng abras i ve gra i ns on t o the sur f ace .
r
V 6 . Pa t t erned or s t amped f i n i shes can be produced on f resh l y p l aced concre t e sur f aces
n through the use of spec i a l i mpr i nt i ng too l s (F i gure 830-12) . A range of typ i ca l pa t -
O
V I
t erns is shown in F i gure 830-13 .

0 7 . I f re tarder is used for exposed aggrega t e f ini shes, then edg i ng is not feas i b l e
M because the re tarder wi l l not a l l ow a smoo t h edge to be crea t ed .

00
 830-11

F i gur e 830 - 10 . Types o f cons t ruc t i on j o i n t s .

Co l ored Conc re t e : edg i ng , and groov i ng . Th i s t echn i que

requ i res the ski l l of a prof ess i ona l
Co l or i ng is typ i ca l l y ach i eved in three d i f -
cemen t f i n i sher to ach i eve un i f orm
f erent ways .
co l ors. Spec i a l e f f ec ts can be ach i eved
1 . Co l or p i gmen t s can be added to the by add i ng co l or p i gmen t to the m i x ,
concre t e by e i ther a one - or t wo- and t hen us i ng the dry-shake me t hod
course me t hod . The one - course a f ter the concre t e is p l aced . The dry- ora t i on . In mos t cases , a be t t er so l ut i on
me t hod i nvo l ves m i x i ng spec i a l p i g- shake me t hod a l l ows a w i de range of i nvo l ves the app l i ca t i on o f a wax -based
men t s i nto the concre t e m i x be fore it dark and i nt ense co l ors . cur i ng compound tha t is c l ear or the exac t
is p l aced . Wh i t e cemen t is bes t for the 3 . St a i ns and pa i nt s are typ i ca l l y used same co l or as the co l orant . I t is d i f f i cu l t to
l i ghtest co l ors , but common Type I on l y when an ex i st i ng s l ab of concre t e s t ee l - t rowe l t he sur f ace of co l ored concre t e
bu f f cemen t is used mos t f requent l y. w i t hou t caus i ng var i a t i ons or d i sco l -
has to be co l ored . Pa i nt s wea r of f and
The t wo- course me t hod i nvo l ves a have to be reapp l i ed ove r t i me , ora t i ons .
f i rst course o f regu l ar concre t e , whose t
whe r eas st a i ns or dyes pene p t ra t e i nto Tab l e 830-10 l ists the range o f co l ors
sur f ace is l ef t rough , and t hen a top or the sur f ace . I t is di f f i cul t to ach i eve r
f in i sh course of 12 to 25 mm (1/2 to and agen t s used to make co l ored concre t e . V
un i form co l ors w i th some sta ins , and n
1 in) o f co l ored concre t e . mos t st a i ns eventua l l y f ade in sun l i ght . Exposed Aggr ega t e F i n i shes :
2 . The dry -shake me t hod cons i s t s of
V
The se l ec t i on of a prope r cur i ng me t hod Exposed aggrega t e f i n i shes are w i de l y used
spr i nk l i ng spec i a l dry p i gmen t s on the
sur f ace of the new l y cas t concre t e
is i mpor t an t when cur i ng co l ored concre t e . because they of f er a w i de range of co l ors 0
a f t er i t has had a pre l i m i nary f l oa t i ng ,
Wa t e rproo f pape r or p l ast i c shee t s shou l d and t extures as we l l as prov i de res i st ance to M
not be used because t hey wi l l cause d i sco l - s l i pp i ng and heavy wea r . Three common
 830 - 1 2
me t hods used to crea t e an exposed aggre -
Tab l e 830 - 8 . SPAC I NG OF CONTROL JO I NTS
ga t e f in i sh i nc l ude the one -course , t wo-
course , and seed i ng me t hods . Larger Than 3/4" S l ump Less Than
S l ab Less Than 3/4"
Th i ckness , Aggrega t e Spac i ng , Aggrega t e Spac i ng , 4" Spac i ng ,
1 . The one -course , or i ntegra l , me t hod in ft
i nvo l ves a s i ng l e cas t of concre t e . The 5 __ 1
13 - 1 .5
m i x mus t cont a i n a very h i gh propor -
6 12 15 18
t i on of coarse to f i ne aggrega t e . The 21
7 14 18
coarse aggrega t e t o be l ef t exposed 8 16 20 24
shou l d be of un i f orm s i ze , spec i a l l y 9 18 23 27
se l ec t ed for durab i l i ty , and of con- 10 20 25 30
t rast i ng co l or to the concre t e pas t e .
G i ven spac i ngs a l so app l y to the d i stance f rom cont ro l joints to para l l e l i sol at ion joints or para l le l con-
The concre t e is f i n i shed in t he usua l
st ruct ion joints . Spac i ngs greater than 15 f t (5 m) show a marked l oss in ef fect i veness of aggrega te inter -
way v i a f l oa t i ng , e t c . , unt i l i t beg i ns to l ock to prov i de l oad t ransfer across the joint .
se t ; t hen the aggrega t e is ready for Source : Por t l and Cemen t Assoc i at i on, Concre t e F l oors on Ground , 2d ed ., Skok i e , I IL, 1983 .
exposure by hos i ng or ac i d wash i ng
and brush i ng (or l ater by gr i nd i ng , as
w i t h t er razzo) . A sur f ace re t ard i ng zo , s i mi l ar to exposed aggrega t e concre t e , m i xed w i th co l or ) , and t hen i mpr i nt ed w i th
agen t is some t i mes app l i ed , to cont ro l is ava i l ab l e f rom t er razzo cont rac tors . too l s used to crea t e the des i red pa t t erns .
t he t i me of exposure .
Spec i a l Non-S l i p F i n i shes : Severa l compan i es make i mpr i n t i ng
2 . The t wo- course me t hod i nvo l ves a too l s , and a f ew have deve l oped t rade-
base course of conven t i ona l concre t e , Non-s l i p f i n i shes can be ach i eved by hand- ma r ked t echn i ques for i nsta l l at i on . The
over wh i ch is promp t l y p l aced a 12- too l i ng w i th f loats , t rowe l s , or brooms , or i mpr i nt i ng too l s are e i ther open- f aced , w i th
to 25 - mm (1 / 2- to 1- i n) concre t e top- by dry-shak i ng abras i ve gra i ns on t o the on l y the pa t t ern par t t ouch i ng t he con-
p i ng w i th spec i a l aggrega t e . The sur f ace . The t wo mos t w i de l y used abra - crete , or so l i d- f aced , w i th tota l con t ac t
same t echn i que of f i n i sh i ng and s i ves are s i l i con carb i de and a l um i num made w i th the f resh concre t e . Rubber -
expos i ng the aggrega t e is used in the ox i de . Such abras i ves are app l i ed in the f aced stee l ro l l ers are a l so used for t extur -
t wo- course me t hod as is used in the same way as the dry-shake me t hod for co l - i ng concre t e sur f aces . A range of typ i ca l
one - course me t hod . or i ng concre t e . pa t t erns is shown in F i gure 830-13 .
3 . The seed i ng me t hod i nvo l ves spr i n- Pa t t erned or S t amped F i n i shes : F i n i sh i ng Too l s:
k l i ng spec i a l l y se l ec t ed aggrega t e ove r
a f resh l y p l aced and rough- f i n i shed or These f i n i shes can be produced on f resh l y To ach i eve a des i red f in i sh on concre t e , a
screeded concre t e base and pound i ng p l aced concre t e sur f aces t hrough t he use of des i gner wi l l of t en i nd i ca t e wh i ch too l
i t i nto the sur f ace wh i l e f l oa t i ng the spec i a l i mpr i nt i ng too l s (F i gure 830-12) . shou l d be used . Tab l e 830-11 descr i bes
concre t e . Th i s me t hod requ i res much Typ i ca l l y , these me t hods are used for hor i - typ i ca l concre t e f i n i sh i ng too l s .
mor e work i ng t i me , but a spec i a l retar - zont a l sur f aces , but t hey can be used for
dan t can be used to prov i de the ex t ra precas t t i l t -up wa l l s , e t c . These pa t t erns can Edg i ng:
t i me needed to per form th i s me t hod . be ach i eved on the sur f ace o f any f resh
Edg i ng the concre t e prov i des rounded
Th i s me t hod requ i res sk i l l ed l abor to concre t e , whe t he r tha t of a mono l i th i c s l ab
edges tha t preven t ch i pp i ng or o ther dam-
ach i eve un i form i t y of appea rance . or a th i n t opcoa t of concre t e [w i th a m i n i -
age when f orms are r emoved . A l so , edg i ng
mum th i ckness of 12 to 75 mm (1 / 2 to 3
he l ps compac t and ha rden the sur f ace con-
The use of ground or po l i shed t er razzo in) ] ove r an ex i st i ng s l ab o f concre t e . The
cre t e nex t to the form, whe r e f l oats and
for ext er i or pav i ng is no t r ecommended f resh concre t e is screeded to the prope r
t rowe l s are norma l l y l ess e f f ec t i ve . Edg i ng
because of the dange r of pedes t r i ans s l ip- grade , wood- f l oa t ed , co l ored ( i f not pre-
may have to be done severa l t i mes dur i ng
p i ng when i t becomes we t . A rust i c ter raz -
the f i n i sh i ng opera t i on to produce a c l ean ,
smoo t h , un i form edge .

6 . 7 Cur i ng
1 . The mos t common me t hods for re ta i n i ng the mo i s ture in concre t e for proper cur i ng
are we t cover i ng , wa t erproo f paper or pl ast i c shee ts , spr i nk l i ng or pond i ng of wa t er , The durab i l i ty of concre t e cont i nues to
and cur i ng compounds . i mprove s i gn i f i cant l y up to 28 days and for
severa l mon t hs beyond , as l ong as (1)
2 . Favorab l e t empera tures for cur i ng are those above 10° C (50° F) and be l ow 29° C mo i s ture is present and (2) t empera tures
(85 ° F) are f avorab l e . Conc re t e shou l d be prot ec t -
U ed f rom rap i d dry i ng and f rom f reez i ng
t
U 3 . Concre t e shou l d be prot ec t ed f rom f reez i ng wea t he r dur i ng insta l l at ion, and for a t empera tures par t i cu l ar l y dur i ng t he f i rst
L_
U per i od of 7 days to 2 weeks a f ter p l acemen t un l ess spec i a l m i xes such as Type I I I week a f ter i t is p l aced and f i n i shed . Severa l
n (H i gh Ear l y St rength Cement ) , a l ow wa t e r / cemen t rat io, or acce l era tor adm i x tures me t hods and ma t er i a l s are used to ach i eve
O are used . prope r cur i ng (Tab l e 830-12) .
V
4. Wa t erproo f paper or p l ast i c shee ts shou l d not be used dur i ng the cur i ng process on Mo i s t ure Con t ro l :
co l ored concre t e because they wi l l cause d i sco l ora t i on . A wax-based cur i ng com-
Four o f the mos t common me t hods for
M pound tha t is c l ear or the exac t same co l or as the co l orant shou l d be used .
re t a i n i ng t he mo i s ture in concre t e for prop-
00
r i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 830- 1 3
Tab l e 830 - 9 . TYPES OF CONCRETE F I N I SHES
Ca t egory F i n i sh Co l or Forms Cr i t i ca l Deta i l s
Cast i ng Processes
Rema i ns as is af ter form Cemen t f i rst inf luence , f ine W i de range of S l ump = 2&-3Y, in ; joinery
remova l ' aggrega te second opt ions ' of forms ; proper re l ease
i nf l uence agent ; po i nt form joints
to avo i d marks
Abras i ve Processes
Brush blast Un i form scour c l ean i ng Cemen t and f ine aggrega te Al l smooth Scour i ng af ter 7 days ; s l ump
have equa l i nf l uence = 26z-3Y, in
Light b l ast Sandb l ast to expose f ine and F i ne aggrega te pr imary , Al l smooth 100% more coarse aggrega te ;
some coarse aggrega te coarse aggrega te and s l ump = 2Y2-314 in ;
cemen t secondary bl ast ing be tween 7 and
45 days
Med i um exposed Sandb l aster ) to expose coarse Coarse aggrega te Al l smooth H i gher than norma l coarse
aggrega te2 aggrega te aggrega te ; s l ump = 2-3
in ; blast be fore 7 days
Heavy exposed Sandb l ast ed to expose coarse Coarse aggrega te Al l smooth Spec i a l m i x coarse
aggrega t e , aggrega te; 80 94, v i ab l e aggrega te ; s l ump = 0-2
in ; blast wi th in 24 hr; use
h igh f requency v ibrator
Chem i ca l Processes
Retardat i on of Chem i ca l s expose aggrega te Coarse aggrega te and cemen t G l ass f iber best Grade of chem i ca l
sur face set and al l de termi nes depth of
smooth etch ; St r ipp ing schedu l ed
Hardeners and Aggrega t e can be adhered to to prevent l ong dry i ng
coat ings ' sur face per i od be tween st r ipping
and washof f
Mechan i ca l Processes
Sur f ace f ractur ing, Var i ed Cemen t ; f ine and coarse Textured Aggrega t e par t i c l es 4e in for
sca l ing, bush aggrega te sca l ing and too l ing;
hammer i ng , aggrega te par t i c l es
j ack
hammer i ng ,
tool ing'
Comb i na t i on Processes
St r i ated/abras i ve b l asted/ The sha l l ower the sur face , Wood or rubber Depends on type of f inish
i r regul ar pat tern ; the more i nf l uence st r ips, des i red ; wood f lute
cor ruga ted/ abras i ve ; aggrega te f ines and cor ruga ted ker fed and na i l ed loose l y
ver t i ca l rust i cated / abras i ve cemen t have shee t meta l ,
b l asted ; needed and bush gl ass f iber , or
harnnwn ~l : reeded and asbestos
h . ernmer r r l cemen t

' Form l i ners- rubber mats , plast ic pane l s, wood boards (unf in i shed sheath i ng l umber or tongue-and-groove lumber ) , p l ywood , wood siding, and wood st r ips :
used for wa l l s and wa l l pane l s ; secured to sur faces, e i ther hor i zonta l or ver t ical , aga inst wh i ch concrete is poured ; joints be tween plast ic pane l s may have to
be spec i a l l y t reated (Among other ways , the gra in of the wood in p l ywood can be exposed by wi re-brush ing or sandb l ast ing or in other ways)
Form l i ners- pl aster -of -par is forms , wood forms , mo l ded f ibergl ass forms: a l so used for wa l l s and pane l s ; repet i t ive e l ements used to a l low mu l t ip l e use of
formwork . Wood forms may be protected wi th sprayed-on f ibergl ass
D i mp l ed : used for wa l l pane l s; s i ze of aggregate bed aga inst wh i ch concre te is cast and th i ckness of pl ast i c f i lm cover i ng wi l l inf luence pat tern
2 Exposed aggrega t e-marb l e chips, crushed rock , glass f ragments , f l agstone, grave l : Used for wa l l s and wa l l pane l s, wa l ks and ter races ; l arge-si ze aggregates
and f l agstone are genera l l y used when pane l s are cast exposed face down; aggregate t ransfer is used in ver t ica l ly cast wa l l pane l s
Exposed aggregate- - ground or po l i shed : used for f loors, f loor t i le, and stai r t reads, and for wa l l fac ing pane l s ; a sur face sea l er is recommended for f loors, f loor
t i le, and stai r t reads, not recommended for outdoor pav i ng if pavement can become we t f rom rainfal l or other sources of wa ter
' Hardeners i nc l ude l iquid ones for sea l ing sur faces of poor l y f ini shed concrete pav i ng in order to prevent dust ing . Penet rat ing sur face coat ings are for water -
proof ing ver t ica l sur faces . F i l m- formi ng and c l ear or p i gment ed sur face coat ings are for waterproof i ng and sea l ing hor i zonta l and ver t ica l sur faces .
Types of mechan i ca l processes inc lude :
a Rubb i ng , gr inding, ac i d etch ing, soundb l ast i ng, and bushhammer i ng for remov i ng i mper fec t i ons on exposed concre te sur faces af ter forms are st r ipped .
Sur face texture wi l l be changed to vary i ng degrees depend i ng on process used .
m Screed i ng or st r i ke-of f for sur faces not exposed to wea ther , wear , or v i ew, e .g ., foot ings and top sur faces of base course in two-course const ruct i on . r
May be f loated to cor rect i r regul ar i t i es and l eve l the sur face . V
v F loat , t rowe l , or broomed swi r l for hor i zonta l sur faces, such as wa l ks , ramps , and ter races, where s l ip- res i stance is requ i red and appearance is
i mpor tant .
n Bur l ap drag for l arge sur faces, such as pavement s and dr i veways , where s l ip- res i stance is requ i red and appearance is of secondary i mpor t ance .
. Stee l - t rowe l ed for hor i zonta l sur faces exposed to wear , such as resident i a l , commerc i a l , and l ight indust r i a l f loors . U
" Shake-on aggrega te stee l - t rowe l ed for hor i zonta l sur faces, such as heavy indust r i a l and warehouse f loors, that are exposed to severe wear .
" Traver t i ne for wa l ks and ter races . The f inish coat is of wh i te cemen t and ye l l ow p i gment is genera l l y added .
" Rock sal t for wa l ks and ter races ; not recommended in f reeze- thaw c l i mates .
. St amped pat tern for wa l ks and ter races ; many var i et i es of s t amp i ng tool s are ava i l ab l e . M
Source : C. G . Ramsey and H . R . Sl eeper , Archi tectura l Graph i c Standards, 9th ed ., John R . I loke (ed .), Wi l ey , New York , 1994 .

T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture

 830 - 14
Cre t e sur f aces . I t can be app l i ed on
Tab l e 830 - 10 . COLOR I NG AGENTS FOR CONCRETE damp concre t e or used on f resh con-
Ingred i ent s cre t e as a non fug i t i ve cur i ng com-
Co l or
pound tha t wi l l prov i de con t i nuous
Wh i t e Wh i t e por t l and cement , wh i t e sand prot ec t i on .
Buf f Buf f por t l and cement , sma l l quant i ty of b l ack i ron ox i de ,
magnes i um b l ack , Ge rman t own l ampb l ack 2 . G l azer -sea l er : th i s is a compound tha t
Brown Burnt umber , brown i ron ox i de , ye l l ow ox i de of i ron to obta i r br i ngs ou t the na tura l co l or of s l ate ,
mod i f i ca t i on
br i ck , s tone , and concre t e . I t is r ecom-
Ye l l ow Ye l l ow ox i de of i ron
Ye l l ow ochre , ye l l ow ox i de of i ron, red ox i de of i ron may be mended for ext er i or paved sur f aces
Buf f
used in sma l l quant i ty and wa l l s .
Cr eam Sma l l quant i ty of ye l l ow ox i de of i ron
P i nk Sma l l quant i ty of red ox i de of i ron 3 . Deck coa t i ng : th i s is a t wo- coa t sea l er
Rose Red ox i de of i ron for concre t e s l abs and decks wh i ch
Green Chrom i um ox i de , ye l l ow ox i de of i ron may be added repor t ed l y a l l ows wa t e r vapor t o
B l ue Phtha l ocyan i ne b l ue evapora t e bu t b l ocks pene t ra t i on of
B l ack Powde red carbon b l ack mo i s ture and ch l or i des . The f i rst coa t
Source : Adapt ed f rom Amer i can Concre t e Inst i tute, Sl abs on Concre te , Det roi t , 1982 . o f o l i gomer i c a l koxys i l ane chem i ca l l y
bonds to the subs t ra t e , pene t ra t i ng
t he concre t e sur f ace abou t 6 mm (1 / 4
er cur i ng are we t cover i ng , wa t e rproo f At l ow t empera tures , s l i ght l y l ess wa t e r is in) . The second coa t cures to a
pape r or p l ast i c shee ts , spr i nk l i ng or pond- needed to crea t e a workab l e m i x . Conc re t e brea th i ng f i l m tha t reduces wa t e r
i ng of wa t er , and cur i ng compounds . shou l d be prot ec t ed f rom f reez i ng wea t he r absorp t i on bu t perm i t s escape of
dur i ng insta l l at ion, and for a per i od of 7 wa t e r vapor . I t is res i st ant to de t er i o-
1 . We t cover i ng : i nvo l ves p l ac i ng bur l ap days to 2 weeks a f t er p l acemen t to ma i nt a i n ra t i on f rom u l t rav i o l e t l i ght and wi l l
or o t he r mo i s ture - re t a i n i ng f abr i c test s t rength . Th i s can be accomp l i shed by no t turn a ye l l ow co l or. I t shou l d not
ove r the we t concre t e and keep i ng i t cover i ng the concre t e w i th p l ast i c shee t s be app l i ed unt i l the concre t e has thor -
we t . The use of cover i ngs tha t may and us i ng por t ab l e hea t ers or i nsu l a t i ng ough l y dr i ed .
sta i n the concre t e sur f ace shou l d be b l anke t s , by s t eam cur i ng , or by us i ng spe-
avo i ded . cial m i xes such as Type III (h i gh ear l y 6 . 9 Wea t he r i ng I ndexes in t he
Un i t ed St a t es
2 . Wa t e rproo f pape r or p l ast i c shee t s : s t rength cemen t ) , a l ow wa t e r / cemen t
these can be used to preven t rap i d rat io, or acce l era tor - t ype adm i x tures . F i gure 830-14 shows wea t he r i ng i ndexes for
l oss of mo i s ture f rom the concre t e . the Un i t ed States , tha t are de t e rm i ned by
The edges o f ma t er i a l s mus t be 6 . 8 Sea l e rs and G l az i e rs the produc t of the ave rage numbe r of f reez -
l apped or sea l ed , and i f exposed to Spec i a l compounds are some t i mes used to i ng-cyc l e days and the ave rage annua l
w i nd , secured in p l ace . Sur f aces sea l or g l aze concre t e . They are typ i ca l l y amoun t of w i n t er ra infa l l , de f i ned as fo l l ows :
shou l d be we t t ed be fore be i ng cov- used on new or o l d concre t e to prov i de a A f reez i ng-cyc l e day is any day dur i ng
ered . wa t e rproo f sea l er wh i ch preven t s or wh i ch t he a i r t empe ra t ure passes e i ther
reduces mo i s ture and ch l or i de pene t ra t i on .
3 . Spr i nk l i ng or pond i ng of wa t e r : th i s is above or be l ow 0° C (32° F) . The ave rage
Some are a l so used to br i ng ou t na tura l co l -
very e f f ec t i ve bu t of t en expens i ve and numbe r of f reez i ng-cyc l e days in a yea r
ors in the aggrega t e or the co l ors of the
d i f f i cu l t t o superv i se . Pond i ng requ i res may be t aken to equa l the d i f f erence
concre t e .
sand or ear th be rms wh i ch have to be be t ween the mean numbe r of days dur i ng
r emoved l a ter and may l eave sta i ns . Var i ous manu f ac ture rs have the i r own wh i ch t he m i n i mum t empe ra t ure was 0° C
t ypes and assoc i a t ed t rade names for these (32° F) or be l ow and the mean numbe r of
4 . Cur i ng compounds : t hese can be
sea l ers and g l az i ers . Three common t ypes days dur i ng wh i ch the max i mum t empe ra -
used to he l p sust a i n cur i ng a f t er
i nc l ude : ture was 0° C (32 ° F) or above .
remova l o f the f orms or prot ec t i ve
cover i ngs . Some cur i ng compounds 1 . Sea l er and cur i ng compound : th i s W i n t e r ra infa l l is the sum , in cen t i me t ers
shou l d no t be used when wa t erproo f - compound is su i t ab l e for use on con- (or i nches) , of the mean mon t h l y cor rec t ed
ing, sea l ers , g l az i ers , or o ther th i n se t
t ype coa t i ngs are t o be added l ater
because they are no t compa t i b l e w i th
coa t i ng compounds . Bo t h ma t er i a l s
shou l d be compa t i b l e , or an ac i d so l u- 1 . Sea l er and cur i ng compound can be app l i ed on damp concre t e or used on f resh
t i on shou l d be used to r emove the concre t e as a nonfug i t i ve cur i ng compound tha t wi l l prov i de con t i nuous prot ec t i on
t cur i ng compound be fore app l y i ng the f rom mo i s ture .
a)
r wa t e rproo f i ng or coa t i ng compound . I
V 2 . G l az i er -sea l er is a compound tha t br i ngs out the na tura l co l or of s l ate , br i ck , stone ,
n Tempe ra t ure Con t ro l : and concre t e wh i l e prov i d i ng mo i s ture and ch l or i de protec t i on .
O
V Favorab l e t empera tures for cur i ng are those 3 . Deck coa t i ng a l l ows wa t er vapor to evapora t e but b l ocks pene t ra t i on of mo i s ture
above 10°C (50° F) and be l ow 29° C (85° F) . and ch l or i des . I t is res i stant to de ter i ora t i on f rom u l t rav io l et l ight and wi l l not turn a
Tempe ra t ure a f fects the ra te of se t t i ng . ye l l ow co l or . I t shou l d not be app l i ed unt i l the concre t e has thorough l y dr i ed .
M H i gher t empera tures cause qu i cker se t t i ng .
00
 830 - 1 5

GLOSSARY the mo l d is r emoved .

Precas t concre t e. Conc re t e componen t s
Acce l era tor . An adm i x ture added to con- wh i ch are cas t and cured of f -s i te or in
a f ac tory be fore be i ng p l aced i nto
cre t e to has t en i ts se t and i ncrease the
ra te of s t rength ga i n ( the oppos i t e o f the i r f ina l pos i t i on .
Pres t ressed concre t e . Conc re t e sub j ec t ed
re t arder ) .
to compress i ve forces by t he pre-
Adm i x t ur e . A ma t er i a l (other t han por t l and
s t re t ch i ng (or st ress i ng) o f re i nforc i ng
cemen t , wa t e r or aggrega t e ) added to
bars or cab l es w i th i n , thereby deve l -
concre t e to a l ter i ts proper t i es ( i . e .,
op i ng grea t er s t rength , st i f fness , and
acce l era tors , re tarders , a i r ent ra i n i ng
crack res i st ance in t he concre t e .
agent s) .
Aggrega t e . Norma l l y , a hard , i ner t ma t er i a l Pudd l i ng . Compac t i ng concre t e w i th a
spade , rod , or o ther too l .
m i xed w i th cemen t and wa t e r to f orm
concre t e . Ready -m i xed concre t e . Conc re t e m i xed a t
a cent ra l p l ant or in t rucks enrou t e to
Bag (of cemen t ) . A quant i t y o f cemen t tha t
the j ob and de l i vered ready to be
we i ghs 94 Ib in the Un i t ed Sta tes , 40
p l aced .
kg in Canada , and 50 kg in mos t o ther
Re i n forc i ng . St ee l p l aced in concre t e to
count r i es us i ng t he me t r i c sys t em .
F i gure 830 - 12 . I mpr i n t i ng or Pa t t e rn t ake tens i l e st resses .
B l eed i ng . Appea r ance of excess wa t e r r is-
S t amp i ng Too l . Laborers s t ep f rom pad to Re t arder . An adm i x t ure added to concre t e
i ng to the sur f ace shor t l y a f ter t he
pad , s t amp i ng the des i gn to a dep t h o f to re t ard the speed of i ts set .
p l ac i ng of concre t e .
abou t 1 in. (25mm) . Sca l i ng . Break i ng away of t he ha rdened
Cemen t . A b i nd i ng agen t ( i .e . , g l ue) capa -
concre t e sur f ace of a s l ab [ to a dep t h
b l e of un i t i ng d i ss i mi l ar ma t er i a l s i nto
of abou t 1 .6 to 4 .8 mm (1 / 16 to 3 / 16
a compos i t e who l e .
prec i p i t a t i on ( ra infa l l ) occur r i ng dur i ng the in )], usua l l y occur r i ng at an ear l y age
Conc re t e . A compos i t e ma t er i a l made of
per i od be t ween , and i nc l ud i ng , the norma l of the s l ab .
cemen t , wa t er , aggrega t es , and some -
da t e of t he f i rst k i l l ing f rost in t he fal l and Scor i ng . Par t i a l cut t i ng of concre t e to con-
the norma l da t e of the l ast k i l l ing f rost in t i mes spec i a l adm i x tures .
t rol shr i nkage and crack i ng . A l so used
Cons i s t ency. Un i f orm i t y o f m i xes or ba t ch-
the spr i ng . The w i n t er ra infa l l for any per i - to deno t e the roughen i ng of a base
od is equa l to the tota l prec i p i t a t i on l ess es as measur ed by the s l ump test .
s l ab to deve l op a s t ronger mechan i ca l
Craz i ng . Nume rous f i ne ha i r cracks in the
one - t en th of the tota l fal l of snow , s l eet , bond w i th a f i n i sh s l ab , e t c .
and ha i l . Ra i nf a l l for a por t i on of a mon t h is sur f ace of a new l y ha rdened s l ab .
Segrega t i on . Separa t i on of heav i er coarse
Dus t i ng. Appea rance of a powde ry ma ter i a l at
prora t ed . aggrega t es f rom the mor t a r or of the
the sur f ace of a ha rdened concre t e s l ab,
wa t er f rom the other i ngred i ents of a
The wea ther i ng i ndex shows genera l areas probab l y caused by i mproper cur i ng .
concre t e m i x dur i ng hand l i ng or p l ac i ng .
whe r e concre t e is sub j ec t to wea ther i ng . Formwor k St ruc ture erec t ed to t emporar i l y
Shr i nkage . Dec rease in t he ini t ia l vo l ume
cont a i n t he concre t e dur i ng i ts p l ac i ng
6 . 10 Res t or a t i on and Repa i r o f and ini t ia l ha rden i ng . due to the remova l o f mo i s ture f rom
Conc r e t e f resh concre t e . A l so , i t may re fer to a
Gr aded aggrega t e . Aggr ega t e con t a i n i ng
decrease in vo l ume due to subsequen t
gradua t ed par t i c l e s i zes f rom the f i nest
Res tora t i on and repa i r of concre t e i nvo l ves decreases in t empe ra t ure or mo i s ture
f i ne aggrega t e s i ze to the max i mum
the fo l l ow i ng procedure : con t en t .
s i ze of coarse aggrega t e .
1 . Remova l of al l damaged and spa l l i ng Spa l l s . F ragmen t s of concre t e d i s l odged
Gr aded sand . Sand cont a i n i ng un i form l y
concre t e and c l ean i ng of ex i st i ng con- gradua t ed par t i c l e s i zes f rom very f i ne f rom the sur f ace of concre t e .
Subbase . A l ayer of ma t er i a l , aggrega t e , or
cre t e to r emove l oose ma t er i a l and up to 6 mm (1 / 4 in) .
dus t . coa rse -graded concre t e be t ween the
Grou t . A f lu id m i x ture o f cemen t , wa t e r
subgr ade (soi l , e t c .) and t he t op
and sand o f cast i ng cons i s t ency.
2 . Conc re t e or grou t is m i xed in sma l l course of the pav i ng.
Hea t of hydra t i on . Hea t crea t ed dur i ng the
amoun t s . Subgr ade . Compac t ed f i l l or ear th sur f ace
ha rden i ng process o f concre t e .
upon wh i ch subbase is p l aced .
3 . Af t er c l ean i ng , the damaged area is Hydra t i on . The chem i ca l reac t i on o f wa t e r
and cemen t tha t produces a ha rdened Swa l e . A l ow, f l at depress i on to dra i n away
sa tura t ed w i t h wa t e r and a nea t
s t orm wa t e r .
cemen t s l ur ry or bond i ng agen t is concre t e .
Hydrau l i c cemen t . A cemen t tha t can se t or Wa t e r / cemen t ra t i o . The amoun t of wa t e r
app l i ed to the ent i re base . Grou t m i x
( l i ters or ga l l ons) used per un i t of
shou l d compr i se 1 to 1 .5 par ts of ha rden wh i l e unde r wa t e r.
cemen t in mak i ng concre t e , of t en
cemen t to concre t e sand by we i gh t or Iner t . Hav i ng i nac t i ve chem i ca l proper t i es .
expressed as a pure numbe r rat io, such (1)
vo l ume and be m i xed damp (crumb l y Mono l i t h i c concre t e . Conc re t e p l aced in
dry) to t he t ouch . one con t i nuous cast w i thou t j o i nts .
as pound of wa t e r per pound of
cemen t . I t is an i ndex to st rength , dura -
L
un
Nea t cemen t . A m i x ture of cemen t and
4 . The new concre t e is f i n i shed to ma t ch bi l i ty, wa t er t i ghtness , and workab i l i t y .
wa t e r (no aggrega t e ) . O
the ex i s t i ng ad j acent sur f aces . Workab i l i t y. Re l a t i ve ease or d i f f i cu l ty w i t h
P l ac i ng . The ac t of put t i ng concre t e in pos i -
wh i ch concre t e can be p l aced and V
5 . The concre t e is mo i s ture -cured to pre- t i on (some t i mes i ncor rec t l y re f er red to
as pour i ng) . wor ked i nto i ts f ina l pos i t i on w i th i n
ven t shr i nkage and crack i ng .
forms , a round re i nforc i ng , e t c .
P l ast i c concre t e . Eas i l y mo l ded concre t e
M
tha t wi l l change i ts f orm s l ow l y on l y i f
00
T i me -Saver St andards for Landscape Arch i t ec ture
 830- 1 6
Tab l e 830 -11 . CONCRETE F I N I SH I NG TOOLS .

Too l Descr i pt i on
St ra ight -edge (screeds) :
Wood (6-16 ft Icng) Used to st r ike of f concre te to the
Magnes i um (6-14 ft long) requ i red e l evat ion
Vibrat ing st ra ightedges
(up to 80- f t spans)

Tampers ( j i t terbug) : Used to push down coarse

Flat gr i l l aggregates to just be l ow the
Rol l er gr i l l sur face . Used on l y on very
Power compac tors st i f f concre te mi xtures
(subgrades and i mmed i a t e l y af ter st r ik ing of f
subbases) the sur face (st ra ightedging)

Bul l f loats: Used to smooth the sur face

Wood (42-60 in w i de) fo l lowing st ra ightedg ing ( to
Magnes i um (42 60 in get r id of h igh and l ow spots) .
w i de) Genera l l y , wood bul l f loats
per form bet ter except on ai r-
ent ra i ned and l ightwe ight
concretes

Darb i es :
Shor t darb i es (wood or Used for the same purpose as
magnes i um) bul l f loats ( to get r id of h i gh
Long-hand l ed darb i es and l ow spots)
(wood or magnes i um)

F loats :
Wood Used to make sur faces t rue .
Magnes i um Wood f loats are best for non-
Power f loats ( rotary) a i r -ent ra ined concre t e and for
h i gh-s l ump concre te .
Magnes i um is used for l ow-
s l ump, a i r -ent ra ined, and
l ightwe ight concre tes

Trowe l s :
Spr i ng stee l (var ious Makes the sur face hard and
si zes) dense . Done af ter f loat ing
Power t rowe l ers ( rotary)

Fresno :
Spr ing stee l A l ong-hand l ed t rowe l , used as a
t rowe l , not a bul l f loat , where
speed of t rowe l i ng is
i mpor tant

0
V
O
M
00
 830- 1 7
Tab l e 830 -11 . CONCRETE F I N I SH I NG TOOLS .

Too l Desc r i p t i on

Edg i ng Too l s :
Shor t edge r s Used t o round of f edges so t hey
Long edge r s a re l ess l i ke l y to ch i p . Done
Corne r t oo l s a f t er t he s l ab has been bu l l
Wa l k i ng edge r s f l oa t ed and da rb i ed

Jo i n t ers (Groove rs ) :
Used t o make con t rac t i on j o i nt s
in s l abs , abou t one - f our t h t he
t h i ckness o f t he s l ab

Spec i a l too l s :
too l s t o spr ead conc r e t e :
Squa r e -nose shove l
Conc r e t e rake
Come - a l ong
Too l s t o t ex t ure t he
sur f ace :
W i r e comb t ex ture
b r oom ( for nons l i p
sur f aces , 3 5 f t w i de )
Sha l l ow groove rs
( " chea t e rs " )

V i bra t ors :
Int erna l v i bra tors Used t o conso l i da t e conc r e t e .
Ex t erna l v i bra tors
Fo rm v i bra tors
Sur f ace v i bra tors
(v i bra t i ng sc reeds)

Powe r F l oa t s and Trowe l s :

" Pony " t rowe l s Used for bo t h f l oa t i ng and
Heavy d i sk - t ype f l oa t s t rowe l i ng . Ke l l y f l oa ts a re used
( " Ke l l y f l oa t " ) t o compac t and f l oa t heavy -
La rge r i d i ng mach i nes du t y f l oor t opp i ngs n . ade w i t h
ve ry l ow- s l ump conc r e t e .
r
V

M
00
 830- 1 8

aU

uc
0
V
O F i gur e 830 -13 . Typ i ca l s t amped pa t t e rn f or conc r e t e . Cr ack con t ro l and an a t t rac t i ve appea r ance a r e ob t a i ned by or i en t i ng bond
M l i nes ac ross t he shor t d i mens i on o f t he pavemen t for cobb l es t one and a l l runn i ng bond pa t t e rns . D i mens i ons a r e cen t e r l i ne t o cen t e r l i ne .
00 Dr aw i ngs a re no t i n sca l e w i t h each o t he r.

T i me -Save r S t anda rds f or Landscape Arch i t ec ture

830 - 19
Tab l e 830 - 12 . CUR I NG TABLES AND TECHN I QUES .

Re ma rks I ndus t ry Assoc i a t i ons i n t he Un i t ed St a t es

Type Uses --
Wa t e r pond i ng: w i t h f or a l l hor i zont a l sur f aces , such as : Th i s wi l l a l so ma i n t a i n Ame r i can Conc r e t e Ins t i tut e (ACI )
sand or ea r t h pavemen t s , wa l ks , f l oors , hor i zont a l l y un i f orm Fa rm i ng t on H i l l s , M i ch i gan
dykes to con t a i n cast pane l s t empe ra t ure in
wa t e r concre t e . Conc r e t e Re i n f or c i ng St ee l
Con t i nuous For hor i zont a l and ver t i ca l sur f aces : Use f i ne spray Ins t i tut e (CRS I )
spr i nk l i ng pavemen t s , wa l ks , f l oors , wa l l s , cemen t t hrough nozz l es or
Na t i ona l Headqua r t e r s
p l aster , s t ucxo so i l -soaker hose .
Schaumbu rg , I l l ino i s
We t cove r i ngs : For hor i zont a l and curved sur f aces : We t sand , ear th ,
bur l ap , co t t on pavemen t s , wa l ks , f l oors , she l l roofs , st raw, or hay cou l d
Conc r e t e Saw i ng and Dr i l l i ng
ma t s hor i zont a l l y cast pane l s a l so be used .
Shou l d con f orm to Assoc i a t i on (CSDA)
Wa t e rproo f pape r For hor i zont a l sur f aces : pavemen t s , wa l ks ,
f l oors , hor i zont a l l y cast pane l s ASTM C171 . Dub l i n , Oh i o
P l ast i c shee t s For hor i zont a l sur f aces and comp l ex shapes : Shou l d con f orm to
Na t i ona l Pr ecas t Conc r e t e
pavemen t s , wa l ks , f l oors , she l l roofs , ASTM C171 .
hor i zont a l l y cast pane l s Assoc i a t i on ( NPCA)
Forms l ef t in p l ace For ver t i ca l sur f aces Mus t be kep we t I nd i anapo l i s , I nd i ana
us i ng spray or soi l
soake r hose . Na t i ona l Ready - M i xed Conc r e t e
S t eam cur i ng For: cas t - i n-p l ace , p l ant cast un i t s Enc l osure for i t ems to Assoc i a t i on ( NRMCA)
be cur ed is S i l ver Spr i ng , Ma r y l and
requ i red .
Cur i ng compounds: For a l l hor i zont a l and ver t i ca l sur f aces Shou l d con f orm to Na t i ona l Aggr ega t es Assoc i a t i on
c l ear , wh i t e ASTM C 309 . S i l ver Spr i ng , Ma r y l and
p i gmen t ed , l i ght -
gray p i gmen t ed , Por t l and Cemen t Assoc i a t i on (PCA)
b l ack Skok i e , I l l ino i s

Source : Swee t ' s Se l ec t i on Da t a : Cemen t and Concre t e , McGraw-H i l l , New York . W i r e Re i n f or cemen t Ins t i tut e (WR I )
F i nd l ay , Oh i o

Ins t i tut es and Agenc i es

Cons t ruc t i on Spec i f i ca t i ons

Ins t i tut e (CSI )
Wash i ng t on , D . C .

Na t i ona l Bur eau o f S t anda rds (NBS)

U .S . Depa r t men t o f Comme r ce
Wash i ng t on , D . C .

Na t i ona l Ins t i tut e o f Bu i l d i ng

Sc i ences (N I BS)
Wash i ng t on , D . C .

Na t i ona l Techn i ca l I n f orma t i on

Se rv i ce (NT I S)
U .S . Depa r t men t o f Comme r ce
Spr i ng f i e l d , V i rg i n i a

U .S . Depa r t men t o f Ene rgy ( DOE )

Ene rgy Resea r ch and Deve l opmen t
Adm i n i s t r a t i on
Wash i ng t on , D . C .

F i gur e 830 - 14 . Wea t he r i ng i ndexes i n t he Un i t ed S t a t es . Th i s i ndex shows gen- REFERENCES

era l a r eas whe r e conc r e t e i s sub j ec t t o seve re , mode r a t e , and neg l i g i b l e wea t he r i ng . Da t a
Gene r a l
needed t o de t e rm i ne t he wea t he r i ng i ndex f or any l oca l i t y i n t he Un i t ed St a t es may be
f ound or es t i ma t ed f rom t ab l es o f l oca l c l i ma t o l og i ca l da t a , pub l i shed by t he U . S. McGr aw- H i l l I n f orma t i on Sys t ems. Swee t ' s
Wea t he r Bur eau , U . S . Depa r t men t o f Comme r ce , Wash i ng t on , D . C . Se l ec t i on Da t a : Cemen t and Conc r e t e ,
McGr aw-H i l l , New York , annua l .

O l i n , Ha ro l d , John L . Schm i d t , and Wa l t e r

H. Lew i s , Cons t ruc t i on : Pr i nc i p l es , Ma t e r i a l s
and Me t hods , 3d ed . The Ins t i tu t e o f
F i nanc i a l Educa t i on , Ch i cago , I L1983 .
 830-21
I n t e rna t i ona l Con f e r ence o f Bu i l d i ng
Of f i c i a l s , Wh i t t i e r , CA 1997 .

Wadde l l , Joseph l . Conc r e t e Cons t ruc t i on

Handbook , 2d ed . , McGr aw-H i l l , New York ,
1974.

Pub l i ca t i ons by Trade Assoc i a t i ons

Ame r i can Conc r e t e Ins t i tut e (AC / )
Manua l of Conc r e t e Prac t i ce
Conc r e t e Saw i ng and Dr i l l i ng Assoc i a t i on
(CSDA) :
Conc r e t e Saw i ng - Wha t Cho i ce Jo i n t s

Por t l and Cemen t Assoc i a t i on (PCA) :

Des i gn and Con t ro l of Conc r e t e M i x t ur es
Co l or and Tex t ur e in Arch i t ec tura l
Conc r e t e

F i n i sh i ng Conc r e t e S l abs w i t h Co l or
and Tex t ur e

Concre t e F loors on
Ground
Cemen t Mason ' s Gu i de

W i r e Re i n f or cemen t Ins t i tu t e (WR I )

We l ded W i r e Fabr i c

U
r
U
n
O
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 SECT I ON

Masonr y

Sec t i on Ed i tor :
Cha r l es W. Har r i s
Techn i ca l Wr i t e r :
Dav i d C l ough
Rev i ewe rs:
R i cha rd Lakut i s , L . A
Land t ech Assoc i a t es

Lex i ng t on , Massachuse t t s
St even H. Kosma t ka , P.E . , D i
Cons t ruc t i on I n f orma t i on Se i
Por t l and Cemen t Assoc i a t i on
Skok i e , I l l inoi s

V i ncen t P. R i co , L . A .
Sasak i Assoc i a t es
Wa t e r t own , Massachuse t t s and
R i co Assoc i a t es , Shr ewsbury , MA

Br i an Tr i mb l e , Sr . Engi l
Techn i ca l Serv i ces
Br i ck Ins t i tut e of Ame i
Res t on , V i rg i n i a

Int erna t i ona l Mason r y Ins t i tut e

Wash i ng t on , DC

CONTENTS
1 .0 I n t roduc t i on Pl ast i c Proper t i es
2 . 0 C l ay Masonr y 3 . 5 Conc re t e Pave rs Ha rdened Proper t i es
2 .1 Gene ra l C l ass i f i ca t i on and Proper t i es 3 . 6 Jo i nt i ng Co l or Add i t i ves
So l i d Masonr y Un i t s (Br i ck) 3 . 7 Typ i ca l Uses o f Concre t e Masonr y Un i t s 5 .2 Re i n f or cemen t
Proper t i es of C l ay Masonr y Un i t s
4 .0 S t one Masonr y 6. 0 C l ean i ng Masonr y
2 .2 Br i ck
Bu i l d i ng Br i ck 4.1 Gene ra l C l ass i f i ca t i on and Proper t i es G l ossa ry
Indus t ry Assoc i a t i ons and Agenc i es C
Fac i ng Br i ck 4. 2 Common Types o f S t one
Re f erences 0
2 .3 Arch i t ec tura l Ter ra -Cot t a 4. 3 Common F i n i shes for St one
2 .4 Br i ck Un i t Pos i t i ons Masonr y Un i t s
2 .5 Jo i nt i ng 4. 4 Jo i nt i ng
4. 5 Typ i ca l Uses o f S t one Masonr y Un i t s
3 . 0 Conc re t e Masonr y
5 .0 Mor t a r and Re i n f or cemen t
3 .1 Gene r a l C l ass i f i ca t i on and Proper t i es
3 .2 Conc re t e Br i ck (So l i d) 5.1 Mor t a r
3 .3 Conc re t e B l ock Sand Grada t i on L i mi ts for Mor t a r

8
 840-2
shapes , s i zes , f i n i shes , produc t and insta l l a- So l i d Masonr y Un i t s (Br i ck) :
1 . 0 I NTRODUCT I ON
t i on spec i f i ca t i ons , e t c .

C
A masonry un i t is c l ass i f i ed as so l i d i f the
l ay, concre t e , and s tone masonry
vo i d area does no t exceed 25 percen t of
produc t s are used ex t ens i ve l y in 2 . 0 CLAY MASONRY
l andscape cons t ruc t i on for a var i e ty the tota l cross-sec t i ona l area of the un i t .
2 .1 Gene r a l C l ass i f i ca t i on and So l i d masonry un i ts typ i ca l l y i nc l ude bu i l d-
of purposes . The i r modu l a r charac ter i st i cs ,
t exture , and co l or , as we l l as the i r proper - Prope r t i es : i ng br i ck ( ASTM C62) , f ac i ng br i ck ( ASTM
t i es of durab i l i ty , compress i ve s t rength , and C216) , ceram i c g l azed f ac i ng br i ck ( ASTM
C l ay masonry is typ i ca l l y c l ass i f i ed i nto C126) , ho l l ow br i ck ( ASTM C652) , and
res i st ance to mo i s ture , a l l ow t hem to be
three groups : so l id masonry un i ts , ho l l ow pav i ng br i ck (ASTM C902) .
used in a w i de range of app l i ca t i ons .
masonr y un i ts , and arch i t ec tura l t er ra-
Severa l o t he r sec t i ons of th i s handbook cot t a . Ind i v i dua l produc t s w i th i n t hese Proper t i es o f C l ay Masonr y Un i t s:
cont a i n mor e t echn i ca l da t a and s t andards groups are fur ther c l ass i f i ed by s i ze , grade , The charac ter i st i cs of the r aw c l ay ma t er i a l
show i ng how one or mor e of these mason- type , co lor , and t ex ture . When in doub t or as we l l as the manu f ac t ur i ng process i tse l f
ry ma t er i a l s can be used for var i e ty of spe - when t he ma t er i a l is is be ob t a i ned and de t e rm i ne t he proper t i es of f i n i shed c l ay
c i f ic purposes . For i ns t ance , see Sec t i ons : used out s i de of the USA , then the manu -
masonry un i ts . Tab l e 840-1 l ists these bas i c
410 : Re t a i n i ng Wa l l s and Dev i ces , 440 : f ac turers for the t ypes o f c l ay ma t er i a l s or
proper t i es .
Sur f ac i ng and Pav i ng , 450 : Fences , Screens produc t s be i ng cons i dered shou l d be con-
and Wa l l s , and 530 : Poo l s and Foun t a i ns . su l t ed to seek the i r sugges t i ons on how to Compr ess i ve St rength : Measur ed by the
A l so , manu f ac t ur es for each t ype of use one or mor e of the i r s t andard , new or amoun t of st ress p l aced perpend i cu l ar l y to
masonry ma t er i a l or produc t shou l d be cus t om made produc t s . Typ l i ca l l y , they the l oad i ng p l ane . Br i cks can be c l ass i f i ed
consu l t ed to seek the i r sugges t i ons on how of f er da t a on the range of shapes , s i zes , by compress i ve s t rength when such va l ues
to use one or mor e of the i r ma t er i a l s or f i n i shes , produc t and i nsta l l at i on spec i f i ca- are above those used in the graded c l ass i f i -
s t andard , new or cus t om produc t s . t ions , e t c . ca t i on . (Tab l e 840-1)
Typ l i ca l l y , they of f er da t a on the range of

Tab l e 840 - 1 . BAS I C PROPERT I ES OF CLAY MASONRY

Prope r t i es and Tes t Me t hods '

Compr ess i ve Modu l us o f Wa t e r Dens i t y , ~i Ma t e r i a l

St reng t h , ps i Rup t ure , ps i t Absorp t i on , % pc f Spec i f i ca t i ons

C l ay - So l i d Masonr y Un i t s (Br i ck)#

Bu i l d i ng and f ac i ng ASTM C62-84

(bu i l d i ng br i (k)
3000 17 ASTM C216-84
Gr ade SW
( f ac i ng br i (k)
Gr ade MW 2500 22
Gr ade NW 1500
3000 ASTM C126-82
G l azed f ac i ng
ASTM (902-79a )
Pav i ng
Gr ade SX 8000 8
Gr ade MX 3000 14
Gr ade NX 3000 no l imi t
j ASTM C652-81
Ho l l ow
Gr ade SW 3000 1
Gr ade MW 2500 22

Ho l l ow Masonr y Un i t s (Ti l e)
ASTM C W62
Load-bea r i ng wa l l t i le
( reapproved
1975)
1400 18 52
Type LBX
1000 25 52
Type LB
ASTM C212-6(1
Fac i ng t i le
( reapproved
1981)
i
1400 7 48
St andard
25(1(1 13 48
Spec i a l du t y
Sand l i me br i ck
4500 650 7-10 ASTM C73-75
Gr ade SW
Gr ade MW 2500 4501 7-10

s t Dens i ty , pc f = 103-145 .
' For me t hods of t est i ng c l ay br i ck , see ASTM C67-83 .
t Modu l us of rupture is a measur e of f l exura l st rength , Source : Swee t ' S Se l ec t i on Da t a : Some and Masonry , McGraw-H i l l , New York .
00
 840 - 3
Wa t e r Absorp t i on : The ini t ia l ra te of
absorp t i on ( IRA) or suc t i on a f f ec ts the
bond be t ween br i ck and mor t a r . (Tab l e
840-1) Un i t s w i th ra tes grea t er t han 110
I pm / 760 mm2 (30 gpm / 30 in2) have t oo
rap i d an I RA and shou l d be we t t ed thor -
ough l y 3 to 24 hours be fore p l acemen t .
The absorp t i on (percent ) is t he amoun t of
wa t e r absorbed by the un i t . A l ower per -
cen t age i nd i ca t es l ess wa t e r absorp t i on and
cont r i but es to be t t er wea t he r i ng charac t er -
i st i cs in exposed , ext er i or cond i t i ons .

Durab i l i t y : The comb i ned f ac tors of

compress i ve s t rength and absorp t i on con-
st i tute a measure of durab i l i ty . Durab i l i ty is
a l so re f l ec t ed in suscept i b i l i ty to wea ther -
i ng , wh i ch is expressed by var i ous grades .
Wea t he r i ng , pr i mar i l y caused by a l t erna t e
f reez i ng and t haw i ng in the presence of
mo i s ture , var i es by c l i ma t i c reg i ons (F i gure
840-1) . Res i s t ance to abras i on and sta i n-
i ng , par t i cu l ar l y i mpor t an t when us i ng
pav i ng br i ck , is demons t ra t ed by the dense r
ha rd-burned br i ck tha t exh i b i t s l ow absorp- 2 . Scored f i n i sh : grooved as i t comes 8 . Po l ychrome f i n i sh : t wo or mor e co l -
t i on . Loca l prac t i ces shou l d be i nves t i ga t ed f rom the d i e in order to i ncrease ors app l i ed and burned separa t e l y
to ascer t a i n the i mpac t of wea t he r i ng on bond i ng
var i ous grades o f br i ck . S i ze Var i a t i on : Shr i nkage in c l ays var i es
3 . Combed f i n i sh : a l tered by para l l e l f rom 4 .5 to 15 percent dur i ng the process
Texture , Co l ors , and F i n i shes : Common l y groov i ng a f ter manu f ac t ure for t ex- of dry i ng and f i r i ng and i ncreases w i th
spec i f i ed br i ck t ex tures i nc l ude smoo t h , ture or to i ncrease bond i ng h i ghe r t empe ra t ures . Some var i a t i on
ma t t e , rugs , barks , st i pp l ed , sandmo l d , be t ween dark and l ight un i ts is i nev i t ab l e .
wa t ers t ruck , and sands t ruck . Common l y 4 . Roughened f i n i sh : sur f ace ent i re l y There fore , i ndus t ry spec i f i ca t i ons i nc l ude
ava i l ab l e c l ay masonry co l ors i nc l ude buf f , roughened by w i re cut t i ng or o ther to l erances in s i ze and co l or .
cream, purp l e , ma roon , b l ack , pear l gray , means for t ex ture or to i ncrease
and var i ous shades of red . Use of g l azes or bond i ng 2 . 2 Br i ck
spec i a l k i ln t echn i ques can produce an inf i -
5 . C l ear g l aze : t ransparen t coa t i ng Ove r centur i es and in d i f f erent par ts of the
n i te range of co l or opt i ons . F i n i shes com-
fused to sur f ace wor l d br i ck s i zes have var i ed . Mor e recent -
mon l y app l i ed to c l ay masonry un i ts i nc l ude :
6 . Non l us t rous g l aze : t ransparent coa t - ly there has begun to deve l op some com-
1 . Smoo t h f i n i sh : f ormed by the d i e in mon nomenc l a t ure and d i mens i ons for var -
i ng w i t h a ma t t e f in i sh
manu f ac t ur i ng i ous par ts of the wor l d . For i ns t ance , s i nce
7 . Ce ram i c co l or g l aze : so l id or mo t t l ed 1993 br i ck manu f ac t ures in t he USA have
w i th g l oss or ma t t e f in i sh ; w i de range adop t ed s t andard nomenc l a t ure for br i ck to
of co l ors cover rough l y 90 percent of al l s i zes cur -
rent l y manu f ac t ured in the USA . These are
shown in Tab l e 840-2 . Users of br i ck out -
s i de of t he USA shou l d seek i n forma t i on on
wha t are the loca l s t andards and nomenc l a -
1 . Br i cks are graded based on the i r suscept ib i l i ty to wea ther i ng . Loca l pract i ces shou l d
ture for br i ck and o ther c l ay produc t s .
be i nvest i ga t ed to ascer ta i n the i mpac t of wea ther i ng on spec i f i c grades of br i ck .
Bu i l d i ng Br i ck ( ASTM C62) :
2 . Bu i l d i ng ( common) br i ck is the s t andard c l ay masonry un i t used in const ruc t i on , and
mos t s i zes con f orm to a modu l e based upon 100 mm (4 in) (Tab l e 840-2) . Bu i l d i ng ( common) br i ck is the s t andard c l ay
masonr y un i t used in br i ck masonry con-
3 . Fac i ng br i ck is used whe r e an exposed br i ck f ace is des i red . The d i mens i ons of f ac i ng s t ruc t i on . Mos t s i zes con f orm to a modu l e
br i ck are the same as for bu i l d i ng br i ck (see Tab l e 840-2) . based upon 100 mm (4 in) (Tab l e 840-2) .

4 . Pav i ng br i ck is manu f ac tured w i th h i gh compress i ve st rength and l ow absorpt i on , Fac i ng Br i ck (ASTM C216) :
thereby const i tut i ng a durab l e br i ck ma ter i a l su i tab l e for pav i ng . Pav i ng br i cks are Fac i ng br i ck is manu f ac t ur ed w i th s t r i ngent
ava i l ab l e in a var i ety of s i zes, grades and co l ors (Tab l e 840-3 and Tab l e 840-4 .
to l erances for s i ze , wa rpage , ch i ppage , and
co l or and is used whe r e an exposed br i ck
5 . Jo ints shou l d be compressed and too l ed to force the mor t ar t ight l y i nto the jo int and
f ace is des i red . The d i mens i ons of f ac i ng
ensure i mpermeab i l i t y. Jo ints shou l d not a l l ow for the co l l ect i on of wa t er .
br i ck are the same as for bu i l d i ng br i ck (see
Tab l e 840-2) .
 840 -4

A l t hough t he cor i ng t ypes shown are typ i ca l for so l i d un i ts , they do no t necessar i l y app l y to t he spec i f i c t ypes of
un i ts w i th wh i ch they are shown above. Types wi l l vary be t ween manu f ac turers . Va l ues shown in paren theses a re
me t r i c d i mens i ons .
t l " =2 . 54 cm
rr 1 , =0 . 3m
$ Nom i na l d i mens i ons re f er to the manu f ac t ured w i d t h of a un i t p l us t he w i d t h of a mor t ared jo int .
§ Reg. U .S . Pa t ent Of f i ce , SCPI (BIA) .
Source : Mod i f i ed f rom da t a prov i ded by the Br i ck Ins i l lul e of Ame r i c , i , Rcs l on , VA .
 840 - 5

Tab l e 840 -3 . S I ZES BR I CK PAVER UN I TS '

Face D i mens i ons

(Ac tua l S i ze)
Pave r Face Pave r Un i t s ,
Wi dth, in Leng t h , in Th i ckness , i n Area , ( i n ' ) pe r f t '

4 8 The un i t th i ckness of br i ck 32 .0 4 .5
33/4 8 pavers var i es . The mos t 30 .0 4 .8
3 5/8 7 5/8 i popu l a r th i cknesses are 27 .6 5 .2
3 7/8 8Y 2Y. and 1 5/8 . The range 32 .0 4 .5
3 7/87 3/4 of th i ckness is genera l l y 30 .0 4 .8
33/4 7 1 / 2 f rom 3/4-2 1/2 28 .2 5 .1
3 3/4 73/4 29 .1 5 .0
3 5/8 11 5/8 42 .1 3 .4
3 5/8 8 29 .0 5 .0
3 5/8 11 3/4 42 .6 3 .4
3 9 / 16 8 28 .5 5 .1
3 1/2 73/4 27 .1 5 .3
3 1/2 7 1/2 26 .3 5 .5
3 3/87 1/2 25 .3 5 .7
4 4 16 .0 9 .0
6 6 36 .0 4 .0
7 5/8 7 5/8 58 .1 2 .5
7 3/4 71: 60 .1 2 .4
8 8 64 .0 2 .3
8 16 128 .0 1 .1
12 12 144 .0 1 .0
16 16 256. 0 0. 6
6 6 hexagon 31 .2 4 .6
8 8 hexagon 55 .4 2 .6
12 12 hexagon 124 .7 1 .2

" Th i s t ab l e does not i nc l ude prov i s i ons for was t e . A l l ow at l east 5% for was t e and breakage . A l so , it is
no t a comp l e t e l ist but does prov i de t hose s i zes mos t common l y ava i l ab l e . Consu l t manu f ac turers for
ava i l ab i l i ty of s i zes and co l ors .
Source : Br i ck Inst i tute of Amer i ca , "Br i ck F l oors and Pavemen t s , Par t I I , " Techn i ca l No t e 14A, 1975 .

00
 840 - 6

Tab l e 840-4. GRADES AND TYPES Tab l e 840-5. STANDARD SHAPES AND SI ZES OF ARCH I TECTURAL TERRA-
OF PAV I NG BR I CK (ASTM C902-79a )
Mach i ne -Made Ext ruded Ter ra-Cot ta W i dth He i ght Th i ckness
Grade ' Use 2 ft 0 In 31/2 In
TYPE- T ADHESION
5.75 in
For use where br i ck is expec ted NOTOVER 77, in 2 ft 0 in 31/2 in
to be f rozen wh i l e saturated 111: in in 0 ft 2 3Yl in
Sx wi th wa ter 1114! 1
in .75 2 1ft in 2 ft 2 31/2 in
H in .75 3 1ft in 2 ft 2 in 31/2
For exter ior use where res i stance in .75 5 ft 1 in 2 ft 2 in 31/2
Mx to f reez ing is not a factor ANCHOR
TYPE - NOT
For inter ior use and when a LE55 THAN
sea l er or coat ing wi l l be w
app l i ed to prevent inf i l t rat ion RETURN
Nx of di rt
Type t Use ADHESION T in .75 5 2 ft 0 in 1 Y4 in
TYPE - NOT
7y. i n 2 ft 0 in 1 Y. in
OVER
For use when exposed to 1 114 In 2 ft 0 In 1 Y4 in
extens i ve abras ion, such as in in .75 2 1ft in 2 ft 2 14 in
I dr i veways and ent ranceways H
in .75 3 1ft in 2 ft 2 in .25 1
1v4 " in .75 5 1ft in 2 ft 2 in .25 1
For use when intermed i ate l eve ls
of t raf f ic are expected, such as ANCHOR
II in wa l kways , etc . TYPE - NOT
LE55 THAN
W
For use when l ow l eve ls of t raf f ic f - -~
are expected, such as in ASHLAR

III pat ios, ter races, etc .

Handmade Ter ra-Cot ta Th i ckness and Web D i mens i ons
- Based on aurammy .
t Based on traf f ic .
Source : Adapt ed f rom ASTM , Des ignat ion C902,
Phi l ade lphi a, Pa ., as repr inted in Br i ck Inst i tute of
Amer i ca , " ASTM Standard Spec i f i cat ions for Br i ck
and App l i cab l e Test ing Me thods for Uni ts and BIA
Standard Spec i f i cat ion for Por t l and Cemen t -
Li me Mor tar for Br ick Masonry , BIA Des ignat ion
MI -72, " July 1981 .

r
s
 840 - 7

Un f i red " green " br i ck tha t can be and mach i ne -made shapes and s i zes of
ob t a i ned f rom the br i ck manu f ac t ure r and arch i tec tura l t er ra-cot t a .
used t o crea t e bas- re l i e fs on wa l l s , paved
sur f aces or f ree -s t and i ng scu l ptures . The 2 . 4 Br i ck Un i t Pos i t i ons
carv i ng is done on the unf i red " green "
Spec i f i c t e rms are g i ven to br i ck un i ts ,
br i ck wh i ch may be of any s t andard or spe- depend i ng on the i r pos i t i on in a wa l l st ruc-
c i a l s i ze . Some br i ck compan i es have
ture (F i gure 840-2) .
deve l oped spec i a l c l ay un i ts for crea t i ng
such scu l ptures . Af t er the carv i ng is done , 2 . 5 Jo i n t i ng
each br i ck is numbe r ed on t he back and
then pu t t hrough t he regu l ar br i ck dry i ng Jo i nts tha t exh i b i t the h i ghes t degree of
and f i r ing processes . The f i n i shed produc t s wa t er t i ghtness are those tha t are com-
are t hen packaged to be t aken to the s i te pressed and too l ed , thereby forc i ng t he
for i nsta l l at i on . mor t a r t i ght l y i nto the j o i nt . Jo i nts tha t are
made w i th a sma l l she l f on the l ower edge
Pav i ng Br i ck ( ASTM C902) and Pav i ng or w i th pro t rud i ng mor t ar shou l d be avo i d-
Ti l e for Pedes t r i an and L i ght Tra f f i c ed because t hey t end to co l l ec t wa t e r and
Pav i ng br i ck and pav i ng t i le are manu - are mor e pe rmeab l e (F i gure 840-3) . F i gure
f ac tured w i th h i gh compress i ve s t rength 840-4 i l lust rates t he var i ous t e rms app l i ed
and l ow absorpt i on , mak i ng t hem a durab l e to j o i nts in the cons t ruc t i on of br i ck wa l l s .
ma t er i a l su i t ab l e for var i e ty of t ypes and
pa t t erns of pav i ng . Some of the s t andard 3 . 0 CONCRETE MASONRY
forma t s and d i mens i ons for pav i ng br i ck
3 .1 Gene r a l C l ass i f i ca t i on and
and t i le are g i ven in Tab l e 840-3 . Tab l e
840-4 shows the grad i ng sys t em used for Prope r t i es : are su i t ab l e for genera l use , such as exter i -
or wa l l s , for be l ow- or aboveground wor k
pav i ng br i ck and t i l e . Mo l ded concre t e masonry un i ts are typ i ca l - tha t may be exposed to mo i s ture pene t ra -
ly c l ass i f i ed i nto three groups : concre t e t i on or wea ther i ng , and for i nter i or and
2 . 3 Arch i t ec t ura l Te r r a -Co t t a br i ck (sol id) , concre t e b l ock (so l i d and ho l -
(Ce r am i c Venee r ) backup wa l l s . Un i t s c l ass i f i ed as grade S are
l ow) , and spec i a l un i ts . Manu f ac t ure rs for l i mi t ed to use above -grade , in ext er i or wa l l s
Ter ra-cot t a is used as an ext er i or venee r . each t ype o f concre t e ma t er i a l or produc t
w i th wea t he r prot ec t i ve coa t i ngs , and in
Mode rn ce ram i c venee r re f ers t o a shou l d be consu l t ed to seek the i r sugges - wa l l s not exposed to t he wea t he r . Grades
mach i ne -made produc t shaped by ex t rud- t i ons on how t o use one or mor e o f the i r are fur ther c l ass i f i ed by t ype .
i ng p l ast i c c l ay t hrough d i es (Tab l e 840-5) . ma t er i a l s or s t andard , new or cus t om prod-
uc ts . Typ l i ca l l y , they of f er da t a on the Types : Type re f ers to l oad-bear i ng and
Handmade t er ra-cot t a is mo l ded or
pressed . Bo t h are cus t om-made produc t s , range of shapes , s i zes, f i n i shes , produc t and non- l oad-bea r i ng un i ts manu f ac t ur ed to
ava i l ab l e in a w i de var i e ty of co l ors and i nsta l l at i on spec i f i ca t i ons , e t c . ASTM spec i f i ed l imi ts of mo i s ture con t en t .
manu f ac t ur ed to con f orm to j ob spec i f i ca- Type I un i ts are rest r i ct i ve in t e rms of max -
Gr ades : Al l l oad-bea r i ng conc re t e i mum mo i s t ure con t en t and pot ent i a l
t i ons . Tab l e 840-5 shows bo t h handmade masonry un i ts are c l ass i f i ed i nto one of t wo shr i nkage . Un i t s not rest r i c ted to mo i s ture
grades (ASTM) . Un i t s c l ass i f i ed as grade N
con t en t are des i gna t ed t ype II .
The phys i ca l proper t i es o f concre t e
masonry un i ts are de t e rm i ned by t he hard-
ened cemen t pas t e and t he t ype and gra-
1 . Mo l ded concre t e masonry un i ts are c l ass i f i ed i nto ASTM grades based on the i r res i s-
t ance to wea ther i ng , and t ypes based on mo i s ture cont ent and potent i a l shr i nkage . da t i on of aggrega t e used in the i r manu f ac -
ture .
2 . Al l un i ts i nt ended for exposed , exter i or wa l l s shou l d have l ow wa t er absorpt i on Compr ess i ve St reng th : Measur ed by the
proper t i es , and mor t ar jo ints shou l d be too l ed for wa t er t i ghtness . amoun t o f st ress p l aced perpend i cu l ar l y to
3 . Concre t e bu i l d i ng br i ck (ASTM C55) is manu f ac tured as a so l id uni t , of t en w i th a
f rog to prov i de a s t ronger bond w i th the mor t ar.

4 . Concre t e b l ock is ava i l ab l e as l oad-bear i ng un i ts (sol id or ho l l ow) and non- l oad-

bear i ng un i ts (ho l l ow) .

5 . Spec i a l uni ts, such as sp l i t - face b l ocks , f aced b l ocks , and decora t i ve b l ocks are ava i l -
ab l e to prov i de at t ract i ve sur f ac i ng for concre t e masonry st ruc tures .
O
s
6 . Concre t e pavers are ava i l ab l e in a var i ety of co lors , shapes and si zes, and i nc l ude a
i nter l ock i ng and tur fb l ock pavers (F i gure 840-12 and F i gure 840-13) .

7 . Jo i nts shou l d be compressed and too l ed to force the mor t ar t ight l y i nto the j o i nt and
ensure i mpermeab i l i t y. Jo i nts shou l d not a l l ow for the co l l ec t i on of wa t er .

110
 840 - 8

c
0
a

F i gur e 840 - 8 . S t anda rd shapes and s i zes o f ho l l ow

conc r e t e b l ock

8
 840- 9
the l oad i ng p l ane , based on gross bear i ng
area , i nc l ud i ng core spaces .

Wa t e r Absorp t i on : A measur e of the

dens i t y (pores and pore st ruc ture) of con-
cre t e . Al l un i ts i n t ended for exposed , ex t e-
r ior wa l l s shou l d have l ow wa t e r absorp t i on
proper t i es , and mor t a r j o i nts shou l d be
too l ed for wa t er t i ghtness .

Vo l ume Changes (The rma l Expans i on

Coe f f i c i ent ) : Vo l ume changes are of t en due
to changes in mo i s ture ( i .e ., un i ts expand
when we t and cont rac t when dry) . Th i s
prob l em ar i ses when i mproper l y cured un i ts
are used , but i t can be reduced by us i ng
h i gh-pressure s t eam cur i ng in the manu f ac -
tur i ng process and by ad j us t i ng the mo i s -
ture con t en t o f the un i t in response to the
re l at i ve hum i d i t y a t the j ob s i te . Vo l ume
changes are a l so due in par t to changes in
t empera ture , wh i ch pr i mar i l y a f f ec ts the
aggrega t e used .

Tex t ure : Tex tures r ange f rom ve ry

smoo t h to rough and uneven . Open sur - and web th i ckness con f orm to spec i f i c the proper t rans f er of l oads t hrough a
f ace t extures he l p to absorb sound . d i mens i ons . A nom i na l modu l a r d i mens i on of pavemen t sur f ace .
200 mm x200 mm x400 mm (8 in x 8 i n x
Co l or : A w i de range of co l ors is poss i b l e Common l y used co l ors o f concre t e
16 in) is produced w i th 9 . 5-mm (3/8- i n)
by m i x i ng pure m i nera l ox i de p i gmen t s pavers are gray , red and brown . O t he r co l -
mor t ar j o i nts . Ha l f - l ength and ha l f -he i ght
w i th the concre t e be fore mo l d i ng it i nto ors i nc l ude b l ues , greens , and o ther br i ght
un i ts are a l so ava i l ab l e . F i gure 840-8 shows
var i ous un i ts . co l ors , bu t these t end to f ade w i th age .
s t andard forma t s and d i mens i ons o f ho l l ow
Beve l ed edges he l p to h i de i r regu l ar i t i es in
l oad-bear i ng concre t e un i ts .
3 . 2 Conc r e t e Br i ck (So l i d) sur f ace and to preven t suck i ng o f sand
3 . 4 Spec i a l Un i t s f rom j o i nts .
Conc re t e bu i l d i ng br i ck ( ASTM C55) is
Sp l i t - f ace b l ocks are so l i d or ho l l ow un i ts F i gure 840-12 shows typ i ca l forma t s and
manu f ac t ured as a so l id un i t w i th or w i th-
d i mens i ons of concre t e pavers , some of
ou t a sha l l ow depress i on ca l l ed a f rog tha t are spl i t l eng thw i se to produce a rough
wh i ch are re f er red to as i nt er l ock i ng pavers .
(F i gure 840-5) . The f rog reduces t he t ex ture . Un i t s are l a id w i th the spl i t f ace
exposed . F i gure 840-9 shows s t andard for - F i gure 840-13 shows t wo t ypes of gr i d
we i gh t o f the br i ck and produces a be t t er
ma t s and d i mens i ons of sp l i t - face b l ocks . pav i ng tha t a l l ow vege t a t i ve growt h to
mechan i ca l bond when l a id in mor t a r .
occur in t he interst i t i a l spaces .
Modu l a r d i mens i ons typ i ca l l y are 100 mm
Faced b l ocks are un i ts w i th ceram i c
(4 in) in w i d t h and 200 mm (8 in) in l ength ,
g l azed , pl ast i c , po l i shed , or ground f aces . 3 . 6 Jo i n t i ng
a l l ow i ng for 9 . 5-mm (3/8- i n) mor t a r j o i nts .
The f ac i ng is produced dur i ng a separa t e
The typ i ca l j o i nts and wea ther t i gh tness of
S l ump br i cks and b l ocks are i r regu l ar l y opera t i on a f t er the b l ocks are produced .
br i ck masonry is app l i cab l e to j o i nts used in
f aced un i ts wh i ch va ry cons i derab l y in
Decora t i ve b l ocks are manu f ac t ured in concre t e masonry cons t ruc t i on .
he i ght , sur f ace t exture , and gene ra l d i f f erent f orms w i t h beve l ed f ace-she l l
appea rance (F i gure 840-6) . A un i que i r reg- 3 . 7 Typ i ca l Uses o f Conc r e t e
recesses tha t produce decora t i ve e f f ec ts on
u l ar wa l l sur f ace is a t t a i ned by us i ng these wa l l sur f aces (F i gure 840-10) . F i gure 840- Mason r y Un i t s
un i ts .
11 shows var i ous t ypes o f screen wa l l un i ts . Typ i ca l uses for concre t e masonr y un i ts are
3 . 3 Conc r e t e B l ock 3 . 5 Conc r e t e Pave r s
out l i ned in Tab l e 840-7 .

Conc re t e b l ock is manu f ac t ur ed in three

Conc re t e pavers are un i ts of var i ous shapes 4 . 0 STONE MASONRY
c l asses : so l id l oad-bear i ng un i ts , ho l l ow and s i zes used for pav i ng (F i gure 840-12) .
l oad-bear i ng un i ts , and ho l l ow non- l oad- 4 .1 Gene r a l C l ass i f i ca t i on and
These pavers possess l ow absorpt i on and
bear i ng un i ts . Prope r t i es :
h i gh compress i ve s t rength charac t er i st i cs in
n
So l i d Load-Bea r i ng Un i t s : ( ASTM orde r to res i st breakage f rom f reeze / t haw
St one is common l y c l ass i f i ed i nto a numbe r O
C145) re fer to those un i ts w i t h a t l east 75 cyc l es and to w i t hs t and l oad i ng f rom of ca t egor i es based on appea rance and use :
percent ne t area in cross sec t i on . F i gure pedes t r i an and l ight veh i cu l ar t raf f i c (Tab l e
840-7 g i ves f orma t s and d i mens i ons of 840-6) . D i mens i ona l to l erances in un i ts of 1 . F i e l ds tone : na tura l l y f rac tured and
so l i d l oad-bear i ng masonry un i ts . the same pa t t ern mus t fal l w i th i n 1 .6 mm wea t he red masses of vary i ng shapes and
(1 / 16 in) of t he approved un i t pa t t ern st an- s i zes . 0
Ho l l ow Load-Bea r i ng Un i t s : ( ASTM dard because a proper f i t is necessary for
C90) re fer to ho l l ow un i ts whose f ace she l l
 840- 1 0

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8
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2 . Rubb l e s tone : i r regu l ar s tone f rag- 4 . Monumen t a l s t one : e i ther rough or 7 . St one dus t or powde r : gr aded par t i -
men t s w i th a t l east one good face , f rom f i n i shed ; used for monumen t s , grave - c l es f rom a crush i ng process [ l ess than 6
quar ry i ng opera t i ons . Usua l l y w i th i n d i men- stones , e t c . mm (1 / 4 in) in d i ame t er ] . Common l y used
s i ons of 300 mm x 600 mm (1 f t x 2 f t ) . as a sur f ac i ng or as a bedd i ng ma t er i a l for
5 . F l ags tone : f l at th i n s tones [25 to 50
pavers , e t c .
3 . D i mens i on s t one: (cut stone , ash l ar ) : mm (1 to 2 in) th i ck] , i r regu l ar or cut to
cut a t the quar ry or mi l l to spec i f i ed d i men- d i mens i on . Common l y used for pav i ng. Proper t i es o f S t one Masonr y Un i t s :
s i ons and f i n i shed . Ash l ar is a sma l l er rec-
6 . Crushed and broken s tone (graded and The phys i ca l proper t i es of common t ypes o f
t angu l ar d i mens i on s tone w i th f l at f aces
s i zed) : Crushed s tone usua l l y var i es f rom 6 s tone are out l i ned in Tab l e 840-8 .
and sawn edges .
to 54 mm (1/4 to 2-1 / 4 in) in d i ame t er and
cons i sts of one t ype of rock . Used a l one or as 4 .2 Common Types o f S t one
an aggrega t e in concre t e or aspha l t .
Tab l e 840-9 l ists var i ous t ypes o f s tone
,t ., __ common l y used in cons t ruc t i on and the i r
charac ter i st i cs . Manu f ac t ure rs or supp l i ers
for each t ype of s tone ma t er i a l or produc t
1 . Gran i t e is di f f i cul t to f in i sh and re l at i ve l y expens i ve . Typ i ca l uses i nc l ude bu i l d i ng shou l d be consu l t ed to seek the i r sugges-
veneer , pavers , curb i ng , crushed stone , and gran i t e dus t . t i ons on how t o use one or mor e o f the i r
ma t er i a l s or s t andard , new or cus t om prod-
2 . L i mes tone is chem i ca l l y reac t i ve and shou l d not be used in areas of indust r i a l fumes , uc t s . Typ l i ca l l y , t hey of f er da t a on the
smoke , ac ids , areas whe r e hard i mpac t s may occur , or in p l aces whe r e oi l and grease range of shapes , s i zes , f i n i shes , produc t and
may cont ac t and read i l y be absorbed by the l i mes tone . I t shou l d be wa t erproo f ed
i nsta l l at i on spec i f i ca t i ons , e t c .
or i so l ated by a wa t erproo f membr ane if i t touches the ground to prevent sta i n i ng .
Typ i ca l uses i nc l ude bu i l d i ng veneer , ash l ar or f l ags tone wa l l s , pavers , crushed aggre - St andard forma t s , d i mens i ons , grades ,
ga te , and l i mes tone dus t . and typ i ca l f i n i shes for each t ype are
descr i bed be l ow .
3 . Ma rb l e is ava i l ab l e in four qua l i ty grades , based on f l aws and work i ng di f f i cul t i es . I t
is chem i ca l l y react i ve and shou l d not be used in areas of indust r i a l fumes , ac ids , or i Gran i t e . I t is a hard , st rong , durab l e ,
a i r po l l ut i on or whe r e severe wea ther can be expec t ed . Typ i ca l uses i nc l ude veneer , i mperv i ous , i gneous rock w i th a f i ne- ,
monumen t s , and crushed aggrega t e . med i um- , or coarse -gra i ned appea rance .
Gran i t e is very d i f f i cu l t to f in i sh and the
4 . Sands tone serves we l l as a nons l i p wa l k i ng sur f ace . Typ i ca l uses i nc l ude veneer , costs can be h i gh . Typ i ca l uses i nc l ude
pavers , cut stone , and rubb l e . bu i l d i ng veneer , pavers , curb i ng , crushed
s tone , and gran i t e dus t . Grades and d i men-
5 . S l a te is s t rong and durab l e , w i th h i gh tens i l e st rength , and is typ i ca l l y ava i l ab l e in s i ons o f gran i t e masonry un i ts are g i ven in
n
co l ors of red, purp l e , green , b l ack , and gray. Typ i ca l uses are f l agstones for pav i ng or Tab l e 840-10 .
O
wa l l s , and roof i ng s l ate . s
L i mes t one . The proper t i es of l i mes tone
6 . F i ne or po l i shed stone sur f aces may be sl ick in we t cond i t i ons i f used as a pav i ng mater i a l . are h i gh l y var i ab l e , depend i ng on the t ype
of cemen t i ng agen t . L i mes t one is chem i ca l -
7 . Jo i nts shou l d be compressed and too l ed to force the mor t ar t ight l y into the jo int and ly reac t i ve and shou l d not be used in areas
ensure i mpermeab i l i t y. Jo ints shou l d not a l l ow for the co l l ec t i on of wa t er . of i ndust r i a l fumes , smoke , or ac i ds , in areas
whe r e hard i mpac t s may occur , or in p l aces
8
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F i gur e 840 - 12 . Typ i ca l conc r e t e pave r s . Typ i ca l th i cknesses i nc l ude 22 / 3 i n. 3 118 i n .

0 and 4 in . Manu f ac t ure rs shou l d be consu l t ed for o t he r shapes and s i zes , spec i f i ca t i ons
for i nsta l l a t i on , and produc t spec i f i ca t i ons .
 840 - 1 3

Tab l e 840 - 6 . SPEC I F I CAT I ONS FOR CONCRETE PAVERS ( ASTM 938 - 82 )

M i n i mum Absorp t i on o f
Compr ess i ve Ave r age Absorp t i on Ind i v i dua l Un i t
Ave r age St reng t h o f ( Increase i n B l ock ( I nc rease in B l ock
Compr ess i ve Ind i v i dua l We i gh t Af t e r We i gh t Af t e r
St reng t h , ps i Un i t , ps i i mme rs i on) I mme r s i on)

8000 7200 No t grea t er t han 5% No t grea t er than 7%

Source: Ame r i can Soc i e t y for Tes t i ng and Ma t er i a l s , Annua l Book of ASTM Standards, Ph i l ade l ph i a , Penn-
sy l van i a .

Tab l e 840 - 7 . TYP I CAL USES OF CONCRETE MASONRY UN I TS

Func t i on o f Wa l l s

Load-
Conc r e t e Re t a i n i ng Founda t i on Re i n f or ced Bea r i ng Non -Load -Bea r i ng

Br i ck
Common
Face
B l ock
So l i d
Ho l l ow l oad-bear i ng . . e
Ho l l ow non- l oad-bea r i ng
Sc reen
G l azed
Pre f ab pane l s

Source : Swee t s Se l ec t i on Da t a : Stone and Masonry , McGraw-H i l l , New York .

Tab l e 840 - 8. I MPORTANT PROPERT I ES OF COMMON STONE TYPES

Proper t i es

Absorp t i on Compr ess i ve Compr ess i ve Modu l us of Abras i on

by We i gh t , Dens i t y , St rength , St rength , Rup t ure , Res i s t ance ,
Max i mum , M i n i mum M i n i mum , M i n i mum , M i n i mum , M i n i mum ,
Ib/ f t ' ° ps i " ps i ` ps i " Ha " ASTM Spec i f i ca t i ons

Gran i t e , al l grades 0 .4 160 19 , 000 20 , 000-36 , 000 1500 NA8

ASTM C615-80 St andard Spec i f i ca t i on
for Gran i t e Bu i l d i ng St one
L i mes t one
Ca t egory I - l ow dens i t y 12 110 1 , 800 2 , 600 400 ASTM C568-79 St andard Spec i f i ca t i on
for L i mes t one Bu i l d i ng St one
Ca t egory 11-med i um 7 .5 135 4 , 000 to 500 10
dens i t y
Ca t egory I I I -h i gh dens i t y 3 160 8 , 000 20 , 000 1000
Marb l e
Group A 0 .75 144 8 , 000 10 ASTM C503-79 St andard Spec i f i ca t i on
to 7 , 500 to 1000 for Ma rb l e Bu i l d i ng Stone
Groups B, C, and D 175 23 , 000
Sands t one
St anda rd- sands t one 20 140 2 , 000 3 , 000 300 ASTM C616-80 St andard Spec i f i ca t i on
for Sands t one Bu i l d i ng St one
Qua r t z i t e - quar t z i t i c 3 150 10 , 000 to 1000 8
sands tone
B l ues tone -qua r t z i t e 1 160 20 , 000 20 , 000 2000
S l a t e-s t ruc tura l
Exter i or 0 .25 10 , 000 9000 ASTM C629-80 St andard Spec i f i ca t i on
NA to across 8 for S l a te Bu i l d i ng St one n
gra i n
Inter i or 0 .45 15 , 000 7200 a l ong s
gra i n
a When tested in accordance w i th ASTM C97. ' Ha refers to the abras i ve hardness va l ue wh i ch is the rec i proca l of the vo l ume of
n Range when tested in accordance w i th ASTM C170. mater i a l abraded mu l t i p l i ed by 10.

Common range of ava i l ab l e stones . f When tested in accordance w i th ASTM C241 .

a No t ava i l ab l e or not est ab l i shed in c i ted ASTM St andard Spec i f i ca t i ons .
^ Range when tested in accordance w i th ASTM C99 , excep t for s l ate ,
wh i ch is tested in accordance w i th ASTM C120 . Source : Swee t ' s Se l ec t i on Da t a : Stone and Masonry , McGraw-H i l l , New York .
 840 - 14

Tab l e 840 - 9 . TYPES OF STONE USED I N CONSTRUCT I ON

Charac t er i s t i cs
Common Type o f - -
Name S t one Tex t ur e Appea r ance Co l or

B l ack gran i t e I gneous F i ne to coarse -gra i ned , Gene ra l l y un i f orm B l ack

( t raprock) po l i shed
B l ues t one Sed i men t a ry Smoo t h to rough Un i f orm B l ue -gray
Gran i t e I gneous F i ne to coarse -gra i ned , Gene ra l l y un i f orm; some co l ors have W i de range of co l ors ; wh i t e and
po l i shed spots , ve i ns , and var i a t i ons in b l ack
gra i n
L i mes t one Sed i men t a ry F i ne -gra i ned Un i f orm i n co l or Buf f -gray
Ma rb l e Me t amorph i c F i ne -gra i ned , po l i shed Un i f orm or w i th w i de var i a t i ons of W i de range of co l ors ; wh i t e and
ve i n i ng and co l ors b l ack
Sands t one Sed i men t a ry Rough Gene ra l l y un i f orm Wh i t e , gray , ye l l ow , brown , red
Slate Me t amorph i c Smoo t h to rough Gene ra l l y un i f orm B l ue , gray , green , redd i sh
Soaps t one Me t amorph i c Smoo t h to rough Gene ra l l y un i f orm Gray , green , b l ue
Traver t i ne Sed i men t a ry Smoo t h t o rough , a l so I r regu l ar l y shaped pores Gray , wh i t e , buf f
po l i shed

Source: Ca l eb Hombos t e l , Cons t ruc t i on Ma ter i a l s , John W i l ey & Sons , New York , 1981 .

Tab l e 840 - 10 . GRADES AND D I MENS I ONS OF STONE MASONRY UN I TS

Rubb l e , Chunk Ash l a r Pane l s ' F l ags , Pave rs*

El i
Face
D i mens i ons Face Max i mum
(S .F. ) Face D i mens i ons , Face Ar ea
Th i ckness Ave r age Th i ckness I D i mens i ons R i se Range , Th i ckness Common Th i ckness (S .F. )
Range , i n Range Range , in Range in Range , i n Limi ts, f t t Range , in Range

Gran i t e , a l l grades Y 1
1/2
1/2 2 4 - 12 0. 5-10 f t ' 4-13 , 1 1/2 in 1 Y-4 and 4 X 10 i 1 :i,_3 4 16
i ncremen t s over

L i mes t one
Ca t egory I - - l ow I
dens i t y /16 3 2
7/8 4
7 1/2
Ca t egory I I -med i um
m S-4 1-5 -6 .5 3 Leng t h : 1.5 2Y. 5 X 14 . 75 1 1-6
dens i t y 10-36 in 2Y. 2Y2
5 3
Ca t egory I I I -h i gh .75 7
dens i t y

Ma rb l e
Group A$ 2
Y-3 k -4 . 5-2 0 5 1/2 2 6X 7 to 1 2
Groups B, C, and D§ .75 7 1

Sands t one
S t anda rd- sands t one 1 1 / 2-5 4 He i gh t : 21 : -4 1 1/2 3 1 4
7; 14 i n
Quar t z i t e - - -quar t z i t i c 1-4 Leng t h: 4 X 10
sands t one 8-48 in
B l ues t one -qua r t z i t e ~1 4-~ 4-12 2Y. , 5, 7 3/4
l 1/2 2 2 1 10
I
n S l a te - st ruc tura l
r
Ext er i or and i nter i or 1 11/2 4 X8 Y. 2 Ove r 4
s
S i zes and th i cknesses shown are on l y i nd i ca t i ve of some of the s i zes and th i cknesses genera l l y used and do not
i mp l y s i ze and / or th i ckness l i mi tat i ons In t ended use and s i ze wi l l genera l l y d i c t a t e m i n i mum th i ckness In al l
i ns t ances consu l t i ndust ry assoc i a t i ons or i nd i v i dua l manu f ac turers be fore mak i ng f ina l dec i s i ons .
t Larger s i zes may be ava i l ab l e .
t Un i f orm and good work i ng qua l i ty ; ext er i or or i nter i or use
Grades w i th i ncreas i ng amoun t s of faul ts and mor e uncer t a i n work i ng qua l i ty ; ma i n l y for inter ior use

100 Source Swee t s Se l ec t i on Da t a Stone and Masonry , McGraw-H i l l , New York .

 840 - 1 5
whe r e oi l and grease may cont ac t and read-
i ly soi l the l i mes tone . Typ i ca l uses i nc l ude
bu i l d i ng veneer , ash l ar or f l ags tone wa l l s ,
1 . Mor t ars are produced in var i ous types , each composed of a un i que comb i na t i on of
pavers , crushed aggrega t e , and l i mes tone
i ngred i ents and used for a spec i f i c masonry task (see Tab l e 840-14) .
dus t . Grades and d i mens i ons of l i mes tone
masonry un i ts are g i ven in Tab l e 840-10 . 2 . Bond st rength is the mos t i mpor t ant proper t y of hardened mor t ar and is a f f ec t ed
Ma rb l e : I t is a me t amorphosed l i me- as fo l l ows :
s tone tha t can be po l i shed and is re l a t i ve l y a) As the a i r cont ent is i ncreased , the bond s t rength decreases .
b) As the f l ow i ncreases , the bond s t rength i ncreases .
expens i ve . Grades range f rom a un i form
c) As the l apsed t i me be t ween the spread i ng of mor t ar and the l ay i ng of un i ts
ma t er i a l w i th a m i n i ma l numbe r of de f ec t s
i ncreases , the bond s t rength decreases .
and var i a t i ons (grade A) to grades w i th
i ncreas i ng numbe r s of f l aws and wor k i ng
3 . Mor t ar is co l ored e i ther by the use of co l ored aggrega t e or by p i gmen t s . Organ i c
d i f f i cu l t i es (grades B, C, and D) . Desp i t e the
co l ors , such as Pruss i an b l ue , cadm i um , l i thopone , z inc chroma t e , and l ead chroma t e
f l aws , grade D of t en has the mos t beaut i fu l
shou l d be avo i ded because of the i r potent i a l tox i c i ty .
co l ors . Ma rb l e is chem i ca l l y reac t i ve and
shou l d no t be used in areas o f i ndust r i a l 4 . The max i mum permi ss