Laurent

LAURENT SERIES AND SINGULARITIES
1. Introduction So far we have studied analytic functions. Locally, such functions are represented by power series. Globally, the bounded ones are constant, the ones that get large as their inputs get large are polynomials, and the ones that behave wildly as their inputs get large are transcendental. That is, nonconstant analytic functions diverge tamely or wildly at innity. But the Cauchy integral representation formula involves integrands that diverge at a point inside the contour of integration. So next we will study how functions can diverge at a point in the plane. The result will be that they can diverge tamely or wildly at nite points as well. The functions that diverge tamely are called meromorphic. 2. Some Handy Formulas let a and b be complex numbers. If |a| > |b| then 1 1 1 = , ab a 1 b/a and so (1) If |a| < |b| then 1 1 = , ab ba and so (2) Since 1 1 = , a+b a (b) we also have the formulas (3) and (4) 1 an bn = (1)n n+1 = (1)n n+1 , a + b n=0 b a n=1
1
1 bn an = = , a b n=0 an+1 bn+1 n=1
|a| > |b|.
1 an bn = = , ab bn+1 an+1 n=0 n=1
|a| < |b|.
1 bn an = (1)n n+1 = (1)n n+1 , a + b n=0 a b n=1
|a| > |b|,
|a| < |b|.
3. Derivation of Laurent Series Consider an annulus in the plane, A = {z C : R1 < |z c| < R2 }, and consider an analytic function on the annulus, f : A C. Even though the centerpoint c doesnt lie in the annulus, f has an expansion in powers of z c. To see this, consider any point z A. Then z lies between two circles, 1 = { : | c| = r1 } where R1 < r1 < |z c|, and 2 = { : | c| = r2 } where |z c| < r2 < R2 . Since f is analytic on and between the circles, Cauchys formula gives 1 f ( ) d f ( ) d 1 f (z ) = = [I2 I1 ] , 2i 2 z 2i 1 z where I2 =
2
0 R1 < R 2 ,
f ( ) d ( c) (z c)
and
f ( ) d . ( c) (z c) 1 On 2 we have | c| > |z c| and so the handy formula (1) gives I1 =
I2 =
n=0 2
f ( ) d (z c)n . ( c)n+1
On 1 we have | c| < |z c| and so the handy formula (2) gives
I1 =
n=1 1
f ( ) d (z c)n . ( c)n+1
(To see clearly that the sum passes through the integral in this case, take its other form from (2), pass that through the integral instead by citing the uniform convergence of geometric series on compacta, and only then change the variable of summation.) Note that in these last two formulas, the integrand is analytic on the entire annulus since the point of singularity has been shifted to the centerpoint c. So the circles of integration can deform to any loop in the annulus that winds once counterclockwise about the centerpoint. Thus the Laurent series expansion of f about c is
f (z ) =
n=
an (z c)n ,
an =
1 2i
f ( ) d . ( c)n+1
Note that these extend the formulas arising from power series representation. The only dierence is that now n can be a negative integer as well. The Laurent expansion of f is unique, for if also
f (z ) =
n=
bn (z c)n ,
then for any m Z,
2ibm =
n=
bn
d = ( c)mn+1
n n= bn ( c) m +1 ( c)
f ( ) d ( c)m+1
= 2iam . 4. An Example Before continuing to develop the general theory, it may be helpful to compute some Laurent series by hand. The handy formulas are more relevant here than the integral formula for the coecients. Consider the function f (z ) = By partial fractions, this is f (z ) = 1 1 1 . z1 z2 z z1 z z2 1 , (z z1 )(z z2 ) 0 < |z1 | < |z2 |.
(In general, the basic partial fractions formula is that for distinct z1 , . . . , zn , 1 = ( z zj ) j =1
n n n
j =1
aj z zj
where
aj =
k=j
1 . (zj zk )
To verify this, it suces to show that

n
1=
j =1
aj
k=j
(z zk ) =
j =1 k=j
z zk . zj zk
This is a polymial equation in z of degree at most n 1, and it is satised by the n distinct values z1 , . . . , zn , so it holds identically for all z .) Returning to the example, if |z | < |z1 | then formula (2) gives 1 zn = , z z1 z n+1 n=0 1 while if |z | > |z1 | then formula (1) gives 1 zn = . z z1 z n+1 n=1 1 Virtually identical calculations apply to the other term 1/(z z2 ). In sum, 1 1 n+1 + n+1 z n if |z | < |z1 |, z1 z2 n=0 n z zn 1 if |z1 | < |z | < |z2 |, f (z ) = n+1 + n+1 z1 z1 z1 z2 n = 1 n =0 1 1 z n if |z2 | < |z |. n+1 n+1 z z
n=1 1 2
These are the Laurent series expansions of f in powers of z .
We can also consider powers of z z1 . One term of f (z ) is already expanded suitably. The other is 1 1 = . z z2 (z z1 ) (z2 z1 ) If |z z1 | < |z2 z1 | then formula (2) gives (z z1 )n 1 = , z z2 (z2 z1 )n+1 n=0 but if |z z1 | > |z2 z1 | then formula (1) gives (z z1 )n 1 (z z1 )n 1 = = + , n +1 z z2 (z2 z1 ) z z1 n=2 (z2 z1 )n+1 n=1 In sum, 1 z1 z2 1 z z1

f (z ) =
(z z1 )n , if |z z1 | < |z2 z1 |, (z2 z1 )n+1 n=0 if |z2 z1 | < |z z1 |.
(z z1 )n (z2 z1 )n+1 n=2
These are the Laurent series expansions of f in powers of z z1 . The analysis for powers of z z2 is virtually identical. 5. Classification of Singularities Now that Laurent series are familiar, we study the consequences of their existence. Let f : C be analytic. Let c / be a point in the complement of such that some punctured disk B (c, r) {c} lies in . Then f has an isolated singularity at c. For example, f (z ) = 1/z has an isolated singularity at 0. As usual, the Laurent series of f at c is
f (z ) =
n=
an (z c)n ,
0 < |z c| < r.
The negatively-indexed terms of the Laurent series are its principal part,
1
pp(z ) =
n=
an (z c)n .
(Note: principal, not principle.) There are three possibilities for the principal part of the Laurent series: The principal part is zero, i.e., an = 0 for all n < 0. In this case the Laurent series is a power series, and so f extends analytically to f (c) = a0 . The singularity of f at c is removable. The principal part is nonzero but has only nitely many terms. That is, for some positive integer N , an = 0 for all n < N , and aN a1 pp(z ) = + + , aN = 0. (z c)N zc In this case, the singularity of f at c is a pole of order N , and (z c)N f (z ) has a removable singularity at c, and (z c)N is the smallest power of z c
that cancels the pole, making the singularity removable. The function f is meromorphic at c. By convention, f extends to f (c) = . If the original f is viewed as a map to the Riemann sphere rather than the complex plane, then under suitable denitions this extension is continuous and dierentiable. The principal part has innitely many nonzero terms. That is, an = 0 for innitely many n < 0. The singularity of f at c is essential. For no N does (z c)N f (z ) extend analytically to c, and there is no sensible way to extend f to a value at c. For example, the rational function z z2 , z C {0} z has Laurent expansion 1 z about 0 and hence its singularity at 0 is removable. Dening f (0) = 1 extends f to f (z ) = 1 z on all of C. Similarly, the function 1 5 f (z ) = + + 12 + 15(z 1) 2 (z 1) z1 f (z ) = has a pole of order 2 at c = 1, and so we dene f (1) = . But the function 1 1 1 e1/z = 1 + + 2 + + z 2z 3!z 3 has an essential singularity at 0, and no denition of f (0) makes sense. In general, if the function f is analytic on a punctured disk about c and its Laurent series at c is
f (z ) =
n=N
an (z c)n
(aN = 0),
then N is the order of vanishing (or just the order) of f at c, ordc (f ) = N. Note that if f has a pole of order N at c then the order of f at c is not N but N . The order of the zero function is dened as +. If g behaves similarly at z then ordc (f g ) = ordc (f ) + ordc (g ). Especially, ordc (1/f ) = ordc (f ). (This relation will do most of problems 5(a) and 5(b) on the homework. For 5(b), just study c = 0 and cite periodicity for other c C where f is singular.) This discussion applies only to isolated singularities. A nonisolated singularity is classied as such with no further elaboration.

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LAURENT SERIES AND SINGULARITIES

1 bn an = = , a b n=0 an+1 bn+1 n=1

|a| > |b|.

1 an bn = = , ab bn+1 an+1 n=0 n=1

|a| < |b|.

1 bn an = (1)n n+1 = (1)n n+1 , a + b n=0 a b n=1

|a| > |b|,

|a| < |b|.

LAURENT SERIES AND SINGULARITIES

f ( ) d . ( c) (z c) 1 On 2 we have | c| > |z c| and so the handy formula (1) gives I1 =

On 1 we have | c| < |z c| and so the handy formula (2) gives

LAURENT SERIES AND SINGULARITIES

then for any m Z,

To verify this, it suces to show that

These are the Laurent series expansions of f in powers of z .

LAURENT SERIES AND SINGULARITIES

(z z1 )n , if |z z1 | < |z2 z1 |, (z2 z1 )n+1 n=0 if |z2 z1 | < |z z1 |.

(z z1 )n (z2 z1 )n+1 n=2

LAURENT SERIES AND SINGULARITIES

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