PDT122 MATERIAL SCIENCE

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL SCIENCE

 CONTENT
1) Classification of Materials

2) Relationship between Structure, Properties, Processing Method, and

Performance of Materials

3) Atomic Structure, Arrangement, and Bonding

4) Metallic Crystal Structures

5) Imperfection in Solids
 1.1 Classification of Materials
The students will learn about:

1) Material structure.
2) How structure dictates properties.
3) How processing can change structure.

This course will help the students to:

1) Use materials properly.

2) Realize new design opportunities with materials.
 1.1 Classification of Materials
Introduction

Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic

categories:

1) Metals Ferous and Non-ferous

2) Ceramics Traditional and Engineering
3) Polymers Thermoset and Thermoplastic

There are other types of materials which are:

1) Composites Engineered combination of two or more different

materials.
2) Advanced Materials Semiconductors, Biomaterials, Smart
Materials and Nonengineered Materials.
 1.1 Classification of Materials
Examples of application of metals, ceramics and polymers:

Common objects that are made of metals.

 1.1 Classification of Materials

Common objects that are made of ceramics.

 1.1 Classification of Materials

Common objects that are made of polymers.

 1.1 Classification of Materials
1) Metals

Composed of one or more metallic elements

(e.g., iron, aluminium, copper, titanium, gold
and nickel) and often also nonmetallic
elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen and oxygen)
in relatively small amounts.

Atoms in metals are arranged in a very

orderly manner as compared to ceramics
and polymers.

Metals are relatively stiff and strong, yet are

ductile, and are resistant to fracture.

Metals are extremely good conductors of

electricity and heat, and are not transparent Aluminium tubes.
to visible light. Some of the metals have
desirable magnetic properties.
 1.1 Classification of Materials
2) Ceramics

Compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements

(oxides, nitrides, and carbides).

For examples; aluminium oxide (or alumina, Al2O3),

silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), and silicon nitride (Si3N4).

Ceramics are relatively stiff and strong stiffnesses and

strengths are comparable to those of the metals.

Historically, have exhibited extreme brittleness (lack of

ductility) and are highly susceptible to fracture.
However, newer ceramics are being engineered to have
improved resistance to fracture (for cookware, cutlery,
and even automobile engine parts). Ceramic vase.

Ceramics are typically insulative to the passage of heat

and electricity, and are more resistant to high
temperatures than metals and polymers.
 1.1 Classification of Materials
3) Polymers

Many of polymers are organic compounds that are chemically

based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements.

Polymers have very large molecular structures, often chainlike

in nature, that often have a backbone of carbon atoms.

Common polymers are polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly(vinyl

chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC) and silicon rubber.

Polymers have low densities, whereas their mechanical

characteristics are generally dissimilar to the metallic and
ceramic materials they are not stiff nor as strong as these
other material types.

Polymers are extremely ductile and pliable, which means they

Plastic bottle.
are easily formed into complex shapes. Drawback: Tend to
soften and/or decompose at modest temperatures, low
electrical conductivities and are nonmagnetic.
 1.1 Classification of Materials
4) Composites

A composite is composed of two (or more)

individual materials that come from the
categories previously discussed metals,
ceramics, and polymers.

The design goal of a composite is to achieve a

combination of properties that is not displayed by
any single material and also to incorporate the
best characteristics of each of the component
materials.

One of the most common and familiar

composites is fiberglass, in which small glass
Fiberglass.
fibers are embedded within a polymeric material
(normally an epoxy or polyester).

The glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff (but

also brittle), whereas the polymer is more flexible.
 1.1 Classification of Materials
Comparison of Different Types of Material

Material Bonding Microstructure Advantages Disadvantages

Strong, stiff &

Metals &
ductile
Fracture
Metallic Crystal grains
Alloy
Conductive
Fatigue

Low cost, light Low strength

Covalent & Chain
Polymers
Secondary molecules
weight Low stiffness
Resist corrosion Creep
Strong, stiff, hard
Ceramics & Ionic- Crystal grains Resist high Brittleness
Glass Covalent amorphous temperature
Resist corrosion
Matrix & fibers, Strong, stiff High cost,
Composites Various
etc. Light weight delaminating
 1.1 Classification of Materials
Comparison of Different Types of Material

Metals Polymers Ceramics Composite

1) Ferrous 1) Thermoplastic 1) Traditional 1) Combination of
Alloy (Steel) (PP, PE, PET, (Bricks, two or more
2) Non PVC) Porcelain, materials
Ferrous 2) Thermoset Glass) 2) PMC, CMC,
Alloy (Epoxy) 2) Technical MMC
(Aluminum, 3) Elastomer (AlO, MgO,
Magnesium, SiO3)
Titanium,
Copper)
 1.2 Relationship between Structure, Properties, Processing Method,
and Performance of Materials

The science and engineering of materials involves four interrelated

components: processing, structure, properties, and performance.

Structure

MATERIALS

Properties Processing
 1.2 Relationship between Structure, Properties, Processing Method, and
Performance of Materials

As example, processing/structure/properties/performance topic timelines for

steels.
 1.3 Atomic Structure, Arrangement, and Bonding

Atomic Structure

1) Fundamental Concepts

An important reason to have an understanding of interatomic bonding in solids

is that in some instances, the type of bond allows us to explain a materials
properties.

Some of the important properties of solid materials depend on geometric atomic

arrangements and also the interactions that exist among constituent atoms or
molecules.

Each atom consists of a very small nucleus composed of protons and neutrons
and is encircled by moving electrons.

Each chemical element is characterized by the number of protons in the

nucleus, or the atomic number (Z).

The atomic weight (A) of a specific atom may be expressed as the sum of the
masses of protons and neutrons within the nucleus.
 1.3 Atomic Structure, Arrangement, and Bonding

Atomic Number (Z)

o Number of Proton in Nucleus
o Number of Proton = Number of Electron

Atomic Weight (A)

o Number of Proton + Number of Neutron

Z A

Symbol
Name

Atomic number and weight of Aluminium.

 1.3 Atomic Structure, Arrangement, and Bonding

2) Electrons in Atoms

Electrons are assumed to revolve

around the atomic nucleus in
discrete orbitals, and the position
of any particular electron is more
or less well defined in terms of its
orbital.

Valence Electron:
o Electrons that occupy the
outermost orbit of an atom.
o Participate in bonding between
atoms.
o Determine many physical and
chemical properties of solids.
 1.3 Atomic Structure, Arrangement, and Bonding

3) The Periodic Table

All the elements have been classified according to electron configuration in the
periodic table.

Here, the elements are situated, with increasing atomic number, in seven
horizontal rows called periods.

The arrangement is such that all elements arrayed in a given column or group
have similar valence electron structures, as well as chemical and physical
properties.

Most of the elements really come under the metal classification.

These are sometimes termed electropositive elements, indicating that they are
capable of giving up their few valence electrons to become positively charged
ions. Furthermore, the elements situated on the right side of the table are
electronegative that is, they readily accept electrons to form negatively
charged ions, or sometimes they share electrons with other atoms.
1.3 Atomic Structure, Arrangement, and Bonding

The periodic table of the elements.

 1.3 Atomic Structure, Arrangement, and Bonding

4) Atomic Bonding in Solids

The bonding between atoms can be classified into two types:

a) Primary bond
b) Secondary bond

Secondary Bond
No. Primary Bond
(Van der Waals)
1 An interatomic bond that hold the atoms An intermolecular bond in
together. Three types of primary bond are which weak forces hold the
ionic, covalent, metallic bonds. molecules together.

2 Strong and more stable. Weak and less stables.

Comparison between primary and secondary bonds.

 1.3 Atomic Structure, Arrangement, and Bonding

Primary Bond

1) Ionic Bonding

One or more electrons are

transferred from one atoms to the
other.
Atoms which loss electron becomes
positively charged (cation), while the
other is negatively (anion).
Occur between metallic and
nonmetallic elements.
Metallic atoms tend to release
electron to nonmetallic.
Examples: NaCl and MgO.
The attractive bonding forces are
coulombic that is, positive and
negative ions, by virtue of their net Schematic representations of the ionic
electrical charge, attract one bonding in sodium chloride (NaCl).
another.
 1.3 Atomic Structure, Arrangement, and Bonding

2) Covalent Bonding

Produced from sharing of

electrons between
adjacent atoms.

At least one atoms

donating one electron to
be shared with adjacent
atoms.

Bonding force produced

from attraction between
shared electrons.

Examples: CH4, H2, Cl2,

and SiC.

Schematic representation of covalent bonding

in a molecule of CH4.
 1.3 Atomic Structure, Arrangement, and Bonding

3) Metallic Bonding

Formed in metals and their alloys.

Atoms arranged closed to each
other.
Each atoms supplies one or more
electrons that drift throughout
entire metals.
Valence electron are not tied to
any particular atoms, they belong
to all atoms.
Free movement of valence forms
sea of electrons or electron
cloud.
Sea of electrons acts together as
glue to hold ion cores together.
Free valence electrons in metal
are good conductors of electricity
and heat. Schematic illustration
of metallic bonding.
 1.3 Atomic Structure, Arrangement, and Bonding

Secondary Bond

Secondary bond involves attraction forces between

molecular or intermolecular forces. Therefore, these
bonding are weaker than primary bonds.
Atom
There are three forms of secondary bonding:
1) Dipole Forces
2) London Forces
3) Hydrogen Bonding

Dipole forces and London forces are often referred to

as van der Waals forces. Molecules

Dipole forces arise in a molecule comprised of two

atoms that have equal and opposite electrical charges.
Each molecule therefore forms a dipole.

London forces involve attractive forces between

nonpolar molecules (atoms all share electrons equally).
 1.3 Atomic Structure, Arrangement, and Bonding

Hydrogen bonding occurs in molecules containing hydrogen atoms that are

covalently bonded to another atom. Because the electrons needed to complete
the shell of the hydrogen atom are aligned on one side of its nucleus, the
opposite side has a net positive charge that attracts the electrons of atoms in
neighboring molecules.

(a) Dipole Forces (b) London Forces (c) Hydrogen Bonding

 1.4 Metallic Crystal Structures
Introduction

Solid materials may be classified according to the

regularity with which atoms or ions are arranged with
respect to one another.

A crystalline material is one in which the atoms are

situated in a repeating or periodic array over large atomic
distances that is, long-range order exists, such that
upon solidification, the atoms will position themselves in a Crystalline structure
repetitive three-dimensional pattern, in which each atom is
bonded to its nearest neighbor atoms.

There is an extremely large number of different crystal

structures all having long-range atomic order; these vary
from relatively simple structures for metals to exceedingly
complex ones.

The term lattice is used in the context of crystal Non-crystalline structure

structures; in this sense lattice means a three-dimensional
array of points coinciding with atom positions (or sphere
centers).
 1.4 Metallic Crystal Structures
Common Terminologies

Crystalline Structure
A solid composed of atoms, ions or molecules
arranged in an orderly and repeated pattern in three
dimensions. Generally, all metals form crystalline Unit cell
structures under normal solidification process.

Non-Crystalline/Amorphous Materials
Lack systematic and regular arrangements of atoms.
Atomic distribution is random and disorderedly
manner. Usually found at materials which undergone
super cool process.

Crystal Structure/Lattice
Arrangement of structural unit into an orderly array. Lattice
Formed by stacking up together identical portion of
crystal. Lattice point

Unit Cell
The smallest repeating unit of crystal. It composed of
atoms, molecules or ion arranged in a definite way.
 1.4 Metallic Crystal Structures
An Example of Crystal Structure: Face-Centered Cubic

For the face-centered cubic crystal structure,

(a) a hard-sphere unit cell representation, (b) a reduced sphere unit cell, and (c) an aggregate
of many atoms.
 1.4 Metallic Crystal Structures
Metallic Crystal Structure

For metals, there are minimal restrictions as to the number and position of
nearest-neighbor atoms; this leads to relatively large numbers of nearest
neighbors and dense atomic packings for most metallic crystal structures.

For metals, when we use the hard-sphere model for the crystal structure, each
sphere represents an ion core.

Three relatively simple crystal structures are found for most of the common
metals:
1) Face-centered cubic (FCC)
2) Body-centered cubic (BCC)
3) Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
Metallic crystal
structure
 1.4 Metallic Crystal Structures
1) Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)

The crystal structure found for many metals has a unit cell of cubic geometry,
with atoms located at each of the corners and the centers of all the cube faces.

Examples: Aluminium (Al), Copper (Cu),

Gold (Au), Lead (Pb) and Nickel (Ni).

For the face-centered cubic crystal structure,

(a) a hard-sphere unit cell representation, (b) a reduced sphere unit cell, and (c) an aggregate of
many atoms.
 1.4 Metallic Crystal Structures
The spheres or ion cores touch one another across a face diagonal; the cube
edge length, a and the atomic radius, R are related through,

a 2R 2

The number of atoms per unit cell, N, can be computed using the following
formula:
Nf Nc
N Ni
2 8
2a
where, Ni = the number of interior atoms,
Nf = the number of face atoms, and
Nc = the number of corner atoms a

Another important characteristic of a crystal structure is the atomic packing

factor (APF). The APF is the sum of the sphere volumes of all atoms within a
unit cell divided by the unit cell volume, that is,
Volume of atoms in a unit cell Vs
APF
Total unit cell volume Vc
 Example 1.1
Determine the number of atoms per unit cell for a Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)
crystal structure.

Solution

By using the formula,

Nf Nc
N Ni
2 8

Since Ni = 0, Nf = 6 and Nc = 8, thus, the number of atoms (N) per unit cell is,

6 8
N 0
2 8
4
 Example 1.2
Determine the atomic packing factor for a Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) crystal
structure.

Solution

The atomic packing factor (APF) for a FCC crystal structure is,

Volume of atoms in a unit cell,Vs nVa

APF
Total unit cell volume, Vc Vc

4 43 R 3
a3

4 43 R 3

2R 2 3

0.74
4 R 2a
Thus, 74% of the unit cell space is packed with atoms.
a 2R 2
 1.4 Metallic Crystal Structures
2) Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)

Another common metallic crystal structure which has a cubic unit cell with
atoms located at all eight corners and a single atom at the cube center.

Examples: Chromium (Cr), Iron (Fe), Tantalum (Ta) and Tungsten (W).

For the body-centered cubic crystal structure,

(a) a hard-sphere unit cell representation, (b) a reduced sphere
unit cell, and (c) an aggregate of many atoms.
 1.4 Metallic Crystal Structures
Center and corner atoms touch one another along
cube diagonals, and unit cell length a and atomic
radius R are related through,
4R
a
3
Each BCC unit cell has eight corner atoms and a R
single center atom, which is wholly contained within its a
cell; therefore, the number of atoms per BCC unit cell
is,
NfNc 3a
N Ni
2 8 a

The atomic packing factor (APF) for a BCC unit cell is, 2a

Volume of atoms in a unit cell Vs

APF
Total unit cell volume Vc
 Example 1.3
Determine the number of atoms per unit cell for a Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)
crystal structure.

Solution

By using the formula,

Nf Nc
N Ni
2 8

Since Ni = 1, Nf = 0 and Nc = 8, thus, the number of atoms (N) per unit cell is,

0 8
N 1
2 8
2
 Example 1.4
Determine the atomic packing factor for a Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) crystal
structure.

Solution

The atomic packing factor (APF) for a BCC crystal structure is,

Volume of atoms in a unit cell,Vs nVa

APF
Total unit cell volume, Vc Vc

2 43 R 3
a3

2 43 R 3
4R 3 3

0.68 4 R 3a
Thus, 68% of the unit cell space is packed with atoms. 4R
a
3
 1.4 Metallic Crystal Structures
3) Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)

Not all metals have unit cells with cubic symmetry; the final common metallic
crystal structure to be discussed has a unit cell that is hexagonal.

For the hexagonal close-packed crystal structure, (a) a reduced-sphere unit cell (a and c represent the short
and long edge lengths, respectively), and (b) an aggregate of many atoms.
 1.4 Metallic Crystal Structures
Examples: Magnesium (Mg), Titanium (Ti) and Zinc (Zn).

The top and bottom faces of the unit cell consist of six atoms that form regular
hexagons and surround a single atom in the center. Another plane that provides
three additional atoms to the unit cell is situated between the top and bottom
planes.

The number of atoms per unit cell for the HCP crystal structure is,

NfNc
N Ni
2 6

The atomic packing factor (APF) for the HCP crystal structure is,

Volume of atoms in a unit cell Vs

APF
Total unit cell volume Vc
 Example 1.5
Determine the number of atoms per unit cell for a Hexagonal Close-Packed
(HCP) crystal structure.

Solution

By using the formula,

Nf Nc
N Ni
2 6

Since Ni = 3, Nf = 2 and Nc = 12, thus, the number of atoms (N) per unit cell is,

2 12
N 3
2 6
6
 Example 1.6
Determine the atomic packing factor for a Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)
crystal structure.

Solution

The atomic packing factor (APF) for a HCP crystal structure is,
Volume of atoms in a unit cell, Vs nVa
APF
Total unit cell volume, Vc Vc

6 4 R 3
3

3 3a 2 c
2

6 4 R 3
3

3 3 1.633 2r 3
2
0.74
Thus, 74% of the unit cell space is packed with atoms.
 1.4 Metallic Crystal Structures
Density Computations

A knowledge of the crystal structure of a metallic solid permits computation of

its theoretical density, through the relationship,

nA

VC N A

where n = number of atoms associated with each unit cell

A = atomic weight
VC = volume of the unit cell
NA = Avogadros number (6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol)
 Example 1.7
Copper has an atomic radius of 0.128 nm, an FCC crystal structure, and an atomic
weight of 63.5 g/mol. Compute its theoretical density.

Solution

Because the crystal structure is FCC, n, the number of atoms per unit cell, is 4.
Furthermore, the atomic weight ACu is given as 63.5 g/mol. The atomic radius, R is
0.128 nm.

Thus, nA

VC N A

4 atoms unit cell63.5 g mol
2R
3
2 unit cell 6.022 1023 atoms mol

4 atoms unit cell63.5 g mol
21.28 10 8

3
cm 2 unit cell 6.022 1023 atoms mol
8.89 g cm3
 1.4 Metallic Crystal Structures
Polymorphism and Allotropy

Some metals, as well as nonmetals,

may have more than one crystal
structure, a phenomenon known as
polymorphism.

When found in elemental solids, the

condition is often termed allotropy.
Carbon
One familiar example is found in
carbon: graphite is the stable
polymorph at ambient conditions,
whereas diamond is formed at
extremely high pressures.

Also, pure iron has a BCC crystal

structure at room temperature, which
changes to FCC iron at 912oC.
Pure iron
 1.4 Imperfections in Solids
Introduction

Before this, we have assumed that crystalline solid is in a perfect order

throughout the material on an atomic scale, where in reality it is not.

The properties of some materials are influenced by the presence of

imperfections.

This affects many of their important physical and mechanical properties such as
the cold formability of alloys, the electronic conductivity of semiconductors and
etc.

Crystal lattice imperfections are classified according to their geometry and

shape:
1) Point defects (zero-dimension)
2) Linear defects (one-dimension)
3) Interfacial defects (two-dimension)
4) Bulk or volume defects (three-dimension)
 1.4 Imperfections in Solids
1) Point Defects

Vacancy (Metals)

The simplest of the point defects is a vacancy, or vacant lattice site, one
normally occupied from which an atom is missing.

All crystalline solids contain vacancies and, in fact, it is not possible to create
such a material that is free of these defects. It is produced during solidification
or by atomic rearrangements.

The necessity of the existence of vacancies is explained using principles of

thermodynamics; in essence, the presence of vacancies increases the entropy
(i.e., the randomness) of the crystal.

Vacancy
Distortion
of planes

Vacant atomic sites in a structure.

 1.4 Imperfections in Solids
Self-Interstitial (Metals)

An atom in a crystal occupied that

is crowded into an interstitial site,
a small void that under ordinary
circumstances is not occupied.

In metals, a self-interstitial
introduces relatively large
distortions in the surrounding
lattice because the atom is
substantially larger than the
interstitial position in which it is
situated. Consequently, the
formation of this defect is not
highly probable.

Self interstitial exists in very small

concentrations, compared with Two-dimensional representations of a
vacancies. vacancy and a self-interstitial.
 1.4 Imperfections in Solids
Impurities in Solids (Alloys)

A pure metal consisting of only one type of atom just isnt possible; impurity or
foreign atoms will always be present, and some will exist as crystalline point
defects.

Most familiar metals are not highly pure, rather, they are alloys, in which
impurity atoms have been added intentionally to impart specific characteristics
to the material.

The addition of impurity atoms to a metal will result in the formation of a solid
solution.

Impurity point defects are found in solid solutions, of which there are two types:
substitutional and interstitial.

A solid solution forms when, as the solute atoms are added to the host material
(solvent). A solid solution is also compositionally homogeneous; the impurity
atoms are randomly and uniformly dispersed within the solid.
 1.4 Imperfections in Solids
No. Substitutional Solid Solutions Interstitial Solid Solutions
1 Solute or impurity atoms replace or Impurity atoms fill the voids or
substitute for the host atoms. interstices among the host atoms
(concentration <10%).
2 Examples: Copper in nickel. Examples: Carbon in iron.

Two-dimensional
schematic representations
of substitutional and
interstitial impurity atoms.
 1.4 Imperfections in Solids
Several features of the solute atoms dissolves in the solvent atoms:

1) Atomic Size Factor

Appreciable quantities of a solute may be accommodated in this type of solid
solution only when the difference in atomic radii between the two atom types is
less than about 15%. Otherwise, the solute atoms create substantial lattice
distortions and a new phase forms.

2) Crystal Structure
For appreciable solid solubility, the crystal structures for metals of both atom
types must be the same.

3) Electronegativity Factor
The more electropositive one element and the more electronegative the other,
the greater the likelihood that they will form an intermetallic compound instead
of a substitutional solid solution.

4) Valences
Other factors being equal, a metal has more of a tendency to dissolve another
metal of higher valency than to dissolve one of a lower valency.
 1.4 Imperfections in Solids
2) Linear Defects

A dislocation is a linear or one-dimensional defect around which some of the

atoms are misaligned.

The atoms move under the action of a shear stress, .

The motion involves bonds breaking and reforming, but only along the
dislocation line at any point in time, not along the whole plane at once.

Net result of dislocation moving across a crystal plane is same as if whole plane
moved, but less energy is needed to break a single row of bonds.

There are three types of dislocation:

a) Edge dislocation
b) Screw dislocation
c) Mixed dislocation
 1.4 Imperfections in Solids
Edge Dislocation

Termination of an extra portion of

a plane of atoms, or half-plane
within the crystal structure.

Linear defect that centers around

the line that is defined along the
end of the extra half-plane of
atoms called dislocation line.

The atoms above the dislocation

line are squeezed together, and
those below are pulled apart.

Reflected in the slight curvature

for the vertical planes of atoms as The atom positions around an edge
they bend around this extra half dislocation; extra half-plane of atoms
plane. shown in perspective.
 1.4 Imperfections in Solids
Screw Dislocation

Formed by a shear stress that is

applied to produce the distortion.

This dislocation derives its name

from the spiral or helical path or
ramp that is traced around the
dislocation line by the atomic
planes of atoms.

Upper front region of the crystal is

shifted one atomic distance to the
right relative to the bottom portion.

(a) A screw dislocation within a crystal. (b) The

screw dislocation in (a) as viewed from above.
The dislocation line extends along line AB. Atom
positions above the slip plane are designated by
open circles, those below by solid circles.
 1.4 Imperfections in Solids
Mixed Dislocation

Most dislocations found in crystalline

materials are probably neither pure edge
nor pure screw, but exhibit components of
both types called mixed dislocation.

Lattice distortion that is produced away

from the two faces is mixed, having varying
degrees of screw and edge character.

The magnitude and direction of the lattice

distortion associated with a dislocation is
expressed in terms of a Burgers vector,
denoted by b.

(a) Schematic representation of a dislocation that has edge, screw,

and mixed character. (b) Top view, where open circles denote atom
positions above the slip plane, and solid circles, atom positions
below. At point A, the dislocation is pure screw, while at point B, it
is pure edge. For regions in between where there is curvature in
the dislocation line, the character is mixed edge and screw.
 1.4 Imperfections in Solids
3) Interfacial Defects

Interfacial defects are boundaries that have two dimensions and normally
separate regions of the materials that have different crystal structures and/or
crystallographic orientations.

These imperfections include external surfaces, grain boundaries, phase

boundaries, twin boundaries, and stacking faults.

Grain boundary is boundary separating two small grains or crystals having

different crystallographic orientations in polycrystalline materials.

Within the boundary region, which is probably just several atom distances wide,
there is some atomic mismatch in a transition from the crystalline orientation
of one grain to that of an adjacent one.

Various degrees of crystallographic misalignment between adjacent grains are

possible.
 1.4 Imperfections in Solids
When this orientation
mismatch is slight, on the
order of a few degrees, then
the term small- (or low-) angle
grain boundary is used.

The magnitude of grain

boundary energy is a function
of the degree of
misorientation, being larger for
high-angle boundaries and
vice versa.

Impurity atoms often

preferentially segregate along
these boundaries because of
their higher energy state.
Schematic diagram showing small and high-
Grain boundaries are more angle grain boundaries and the adjacent
susceptible to etching. atom positions.
 1.4 Imperfections in Solids
4) Bulk or Volume Defects

This defect is much larger than previous defects that have been discussed.

Normally introduced during processing and fabrication steps.

Examples of bulk defects:

a) Pores
b) Cracks
c) Foreign inclusions
d) Other phases

Voids are small regions where there are no atoms, and can be
thought of as clusters of vacancies.