Archaeology - July-August 2016 US

England: Stronghold of the Kings in the North
archaeology.org A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America July/August

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July/August 2016
Volume 69, Number 4
CONTENTS
features
26 Rites of the Scythians

Spectacular new discoveries from the
Caucasus set the stage for a dramatic
hilltop ritual
BY ANDREW CURRY
33 Timelines
Tracking when humans, Neander-
thals, and Denisovans crossed
pathsand what became of their
offspring
BY ZACH ZORICH
36 Franklins Last Voyage

After 170 years and countless searches,
archaeologists have discovered a
famed wreck in the frigid Arctic
BY ALLAN WOODS
42 Children of Giza

Finds from a cemetery near the
pyramids are illuminating the Egyp-
tian view of youth and the afterlife
BY DANIEL WEISS
44 The Bard at Home

Renovations, entertainment, and grief
at New Place, Shakespeares manor
in Stratford-upon-Avon
BY KATE RAVILIOUS
48 Vietnams First City

At the site of Co Loa, researchers are
examining the foundations of power
in Southeast Asia
BY LAUREN HILGERS
Cover: Griffins attack a stag on a 2,400-

year-old gold vessel from Russia.
36 Canadian military divers extract an PHOTO: Igor KozhevnIKov/Courtesy
ice block to access the wreck of the Andrey BelInsKI
19th-century exploration ship Erebus.
1
SM
2015 United Airlines, Inc. All rights reserved. Flight schedule subject to change.
America
Latin
friendly
united.com
Daily nonstop service to Santiago.
12
departments
4 Editors Letter
6 From the President
8 Letters
20 Debating Perus Band of Holes, cuneiform kudos, and
the Dark Knight digs
9 From the Trenches

Vasco da Gamas lost vessel, tracking 3.66-million-year-
old footprints, tiny weapons of a war god, an Etruscan
word puzzle, and the cursing business in Athens
24 World Roundup
Pirates of the Caribbean, evidence for the oldest
Irishman, Iron Age Swiss cheese, Indias cannabis
18
frescoes, and the Silk Road route to Nepal
55 Letter from England

Excavations at one of Britains most majestic castles help
tell the story of an Anglo-Saxon kingdom
BY ERIC A. POWELL
68 Artifact

How an Old World horseshoe tells an unexpected
New World story
on the web archaeology.org

More from the Issue To see artifacts from Erebus, Archaeological News Each day, we bring you
go to archaeology.org/erebus. For images from the Scythian headlines from around the world. And sign up for our
site of Sengileevskoe-2 go to archaeology.org/scythians. e-Update so you dont miss a thing.
Interactive Digs Read about the latest discoveries Stay in Touch Visit Facebook and like Archaeology
at the Minoan site of Zominthos in central Crete; Johnsons or follow us on Twitter at @archaeologymag.
Island, a Civil War site in Ohio; and Achill Island in Ireland at
interactivedigs.com.
archaeology.org 3
EDITORS LETTER
This Mortal Coil

Editor in Chief
Claudia Valentino
Executive Editor Deputy Editor
Jarrett A. Lobell Samir S. Patel
Online Editor Senior Editor
Eric A. Powell Daniel Weiss
Editorial Assistant
Malin Grunberg Banyasz
Creative Director
Richard Bleiweiss
ites of the Scythians (page 26), by contributing editor Andrew Curry, covers the
R extraordinary discovery, at a site in the Caucasus Mountains called Sengileevskoe-2,

of a stunning set of skillfully and artfully embossed gold bowls, and valuable jew-
elry. The artifacts were likely commissioned some 2,400 years ago from Greek master
Contributing Editors
Roger Atwood, Paul Bahn, Bob Brier,
Andrew Curry, Blake Edgar, Brian Fagan,
David Freidel, Tom Gidwitz, Andrew Lawler,
goldsmiths by members of the nomadic tribes whom Herodotus had dubbed Scythians, Stephen H. Lekson, Jerald T. Milanich,
Heather Pringle, Neil Asher Silberman,
who ranged broadly across the steppes and grasslands of Eurasia. The vessels are believed Julian Smith, Nikhil Swaminathan,
to have had ritual, and possibly historical, significance. Jason Urbanus, Zach Zorich
On Egypts Giza Plateau, just a short distance from
the Great Pyramid and the Sphinx, archaeologists
Correspondents
Athens: Yannis N. Stavrakakis
working at a cemetery are discovering that people of Bangkok: Karen Coates
modest means took special care with the burial of their Islamabad: Massoud Ansari
Israel: Mati Milstein
children during the 26th Dynasty and again during the Naples: Marco Merola
early Roman period. In Children of Giza (page 42), by Paris: Bernadette Arnaud
Rome: Roberto Bartoloni,
senior editor Daniel Weiss, we learn that young people Giovanni Lattanzi
were believed to have an afterlife, and that steps were Washington, D.C.: Sandra Scham
taken to secure their safe passage to it.
Publisher
Scythian belt clasp Franklins Last Voyage (page 36), by reporter Allan Kevin Quinlan
Woods, takes us onboard the Canadian Coast Guard ship Sir Wilfrid Laurier as a team Director of Circulation and Fulfillment
surveys the Arctic territory of Nunavut searching for ships from the ill-fated expedition Kevin Mullen
Director of Integrated Sales
of Sir John Franklin in the 1840s. By employing modern technology and the 1869 report Gerry Moss
of an Inuit elder who had reported visiting an icebound boat, one of Franklins ships has Account Manager
at last come to light. Karina Casines

Advertising Assistant
Science now tells us that the earliest hominins considered part of the genus Homo evolved Kiesha Graham
in Africa at least 2.2 million years ago. We now also understand that Homo sapiensmodern Account Manager
humansinterbred with both Neanderthals and another hominin group, Denisovans. Jeff Posner
PRI Communications Inc.
Timelines (page 33), by contributing editor Zach Zorich, offers the latest genetic evidence Jeff@pricommunicationsinc.com
of these encounters and what it can tell us about what it means to be human. 516-594-2820 x11
This year marks the 400th anniversary of William Shakespeares death, and while much Circulation Consultant
Greg Wolfe, Circulation Specialists, Inc.
can be gleaned from his works about his view of human nature, surprisingly little has been Newsstand Consultant
known about his private life. In The Bard at Home (page 44), journalist Kate Ravilious T.J. Montilli
reports on fresh excavations at Shakespeares Stratford-upon-Avon manor that reveal much Pro Circ Retail Solutions
Office Manager
about the man himself and how he dealt with both success and grief. Malin Grunberg Banyasz
And dont miss Letter from England, which comes to us from the northeastern coast For production questions
of the country. Stronghold of the Kings in the North (page 55), by online editor Eric A. contact production@archaeology.org
Powell, illuminates a few of the shadowy corners of the Dark Ages. Editorial Advisory Board
James P. Delgado, Ellen Herscher,
Ronald Hicks, Jean-Jacques Hublin,
Mark Lehner, Roderick J. McIntosh,
Susan Pollock, Kenneth B. Tankersley
Archaeology Magazine
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Subscription questions and address

changes should be sent to Archaeology,
Subscription Services,
Claudia Valentino P.O. Box 433091 Palm Coast, FL 32143
toll free (877) ARKY-SUB (275-9782)
Editor in Chief or subscriptions@archaeology.org
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FROM THE PRESIDENT Archaeological
Institute of America
Museum Discoveries
Located at Boston University
OFFICERS
A
ll great international museums have their most iconic objects on display where President
visitors, pressed for time, and perhaps on a first visit, can discover and admire Andrew Moore
them. Often, however, rich examples of the human record of activity and First Vice President
Jodi Magness
achievement sit waiting to be discovered in galleries somewhat off the beaten path in
Vice President for Outreach and Education
these same museums. A recent visit with an AIA tour to the great Hermitage Museum Deborah Gangloff
in Saint Petersburg, Russia, illustrates this point. Vice President for Research and Academic Affairs
Hermitage Museum
The Hermitage is housed in the superbly Carla Antonaccio
restored Winter Palace of the czars, built in Vice President for Cultural Heritage
Laetitia La Follette
the 1700s, and in several adjacent buildings. Its Treasurer
collections, acquired over centuries, represent David Ackert
one of the most comprehensive overviews of Vice President for Societies
Ann Santen
world art and culture to be seen anywhere. The
Executive Director
tour taken by many visitors proceeds through Ann Benbow
sumptuous galleries that illustrate the glories of Chief Operating Officer
the Winter Palace itself and highlights of the Kevin Quinlan
collections: art from the European Renaissance, GOVERNING BOARD

paintings by the French Impressionists and Elie Abemayor
their successors, rooms filled with arms and armor, the Malachite Room, and impressive David Adam
Andrea Berlin
collections of Oriental art. Fine things, indeed. David Boochever
My friends and I, however, wanted to see a very special collection, the exquisite objects Bruce Campbell
Arthur Cassanos
recovered from the burial mounds at Pazyryk in the Altai Mountains of Central Asia. With Derek Counts
museum plan in hand, we set off up and down staircases and along lengthy corridors until, in Sheila Dillon, ex officio
Ronald Greenberg
a remote section of the building, we found the galleries that display these astonishing finds. Michael Hoff
Dating from the fourth through the third centuries b.c., the contents of these princely tombs James Jansson
Lynne Lancaster
are astonishingly well-preserved, because they spent millennia in a freezing mountain climate. Mark Lawall
Among the most striking objects were carved wooden furnishings, a carriage with Deborah Lehr
Thomas Levy
four spoked wheels, and saddlery made of fine leather. Many were decorated in a Kathleen Lynch
semiabstract animal style highly distinctive of this culture and time. The textiles were Richard C. MacDonald
Bruce McEver
even more amazing: fine woven cloth and felt made into clothes, saddle blankets, and Barbara Meyer
tent furnishings. The felt pieces were decorated with appliqud designs of birds, felines, Meg Morden
Sarah Parcak
griffins, and plants. There was also a wonderful multicolored pile carpet, the oldest known J. Theodore Pea
to survive from prehistoric times. Silks from China found their way into the Pazyryk Robert Rothberg
Ethel Scully
mounds, and were incorporated in the clothing and saddle gear. Most breathtaking of all David Seigle
was the preserved corpse of a man with sophisticated tattoos in exuberant semiabstract Monica L. Smith
Charles Steinmetz
animal designs. This outstanding collection testifies to the artistic originality and skill Claudia Valentino, ex officio
of these Siberian nomads and their extensive worldview. P. Gregory Warden
Michael Wiseman
Next time you visit one of the worlds great museums, take time to seek out the more John Yarmick
remote galleries. You may be astonished at what you will find there. Past President
Elizabeth Bartman
Trustees Emeriti
Brian Heidtke
Norma Kershaw
Charles S. La Follette
Legal Counsel
Mitchell Eitel, Esq.
Sullivan & Cromwell, LLP
Andrew Moore Archaeological Institute of America

President, Archaeological Institute of America 656 Beacon Street Boston, MA 02215-2006
www.archaeological.org

ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE AMERICA
The Trustees and staff of the ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA extend our deepest appreciation to the
following sponsors for their support of the 2016 Spring Benet Evening, which honored COLIN RENFREW
with the Bandelier Award on May 5, 2016.
Thank you!
Christopher Thornton Marina de Franceschini
Piers Davies John R. Hale
Todd Nielsen Tom Guderjan
Nena Komarica Jim Delgado & Ann Goodhart
Carolyn Roumeguere Lorri Thomas
Chen Shen G.E. Masana
Deborah Gangloff Tom Field
Ian Tattersall Ian MacGregor
Sibel Alpaslan
dklStudios
LETTERS
The Best Defense for the settlement. I wonder if ancient puzzles me: the tablet containing a
We received a number of letters suggesting armaments might be present at the recipe for stew. Why would such an
alternative interpretations of the Band of ends of the band or on march-paths everyday thing be copied down? From
Holes (An Overlooked Inca Wonder, May/ toward the settlement. If so, it would what I have read, most cooks would
June 2016). Below is one example and a suggest a completely different purpose have been illiterate.
reply from the archaeologists. for the band than that envisioned by Grace Ojala
Stanish and Tantalen. Colorado Springs, CO
Several online sources discuss the Jay L. Stern
holes in Perus Pisco Valley. These North Hills, CA I very much enjoyed your informative
references describe the remains of a article The Worlds Oldest Writing.
nearby settlement. Given the amount Archaeologists Charles Stanish and It is an excellent survey of the most
of effort it would take to create them, Henry Tantalen respond: dramatic cuneiform inscriptions and
it seems improbable that the holes We are very gratified by the large obviously took a great amount of work
were used for storage of any kind. One response to our work. Suggestions for to bring together and clearly present.
thing is certainit would have been the holes purpose have included some Edwin Hustead
difficult to walk across them. In fact, use in making brandy, as fog collectors Alexandria, VA
much as moats, ditches, tank traps, and for agriculture, and for defense. We
cattle crossing guards have been used can rule out the first two. And while a I loved your article on cuneiform (The
to restrict passage, these depressions defensive function cant be ruled out, Worlds Oldest Writing). I only wish
could have been a protection measure the data at this time are against it. The it were 10 times as long. Even my four-
best evidence in favor of a defensive and five-year-old children thought the
interpretation is comparative. In Iron script looked really cool.
Age Europe, somewhat similar bands Randy L. Barnes
are known as hulbaelte. Hulbaelte were Phoenix, AZ
smaller and some have been found
with spikes. They are located adjacent Superhero Status
to villages to defend against attack. In I have enjoyed reading your magazine for
Monte Sierpe, there is no settlement years and I always read it cover to cover.
to defend. The closest one of any Something weird popped out at me in
sizeTambo Coloradois four miles your May/June 2016 issue. In the article
away and isnt fortified. There are no Let a Turtle Be Your Psychopomp,
defensive structures around other Inca Jason Urbanus casually comments that
sites in the valley and no historical evi- the team was led by a graduate of Batman
dence for the use of this feature. Most University. Its obviously very impressive
significantly, the precise numerical that the alumnus in question, Glriz
ordering does not make sense for a Kozbe, could be so interdisciplinary
ARCHAEOLOGY welcomes mail from defensive structure. as to mix his superhero training with
readers. Please address your comments archaeology. I think the real story here is
to ARCHAEOLOGY, 36-36 33rd Street, More than Words that there is a Batman University, and it is
Long Island City, NY 11106, fax 718-472-
3051, or e-mail letters@archaeology.org.
I read with much interest the article cited in your magazine with a completely
The editors reserve the right to edit about cuneiform writing in the last straight face. Bravo.
submitted material. Volume precludes issue (The Worlds Oldest Writing, Jon Strommen Campbell
our acknowledging individual letters. May/June 2016). However, one thing Bloomington, MN
and Canadian subscriptions, $38.95; includes all government taxes (130277692-

RT). Canadian Publication Agreement #1373161. Allow six weeks for processing
new subscriptions. Send manuscripts and books for review to 36-36 33rd Street,
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ArchAeology (ISSN 0003-8113) is published bimonthly for $23.95 by the reviewed by experts. Advertisements should be sent to the Advertising Director,
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Periodicals postage paid at Long Island City, NY, and additional mailing offices. archaeology.org. We are not responsible for unsolicited manuscripts and photo-
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Subscriptions should be addressed to Archaeology, Subscription Services, reflect the policy of the AIA or Archaeology.
P.O. 433091, Palm Coast, FL 32143, toll-free (877) ARKY-SUB (275-9782),
subscription@archaeology.org. $23.95 per volume. Single numbers, $5.99. Foreign 2016 The Archaeological Institute of America

LATE-BREAKING NEWS AND NOTES FROM THE WORLD OF ARCHAEOLOGY
Is it Esmeralda?
Divers excavate a
wreck thought to be
Esmeralda, Oman
I
n 1498, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama created search of conquest and the rich plunder of Muslim ships.
shock waves in Europe when he reached and returned In 1503, Esmeralda and its crew, including Sodr, were lost
from the Indian coastand its valuable spicesby in a storm off the coast of present-day Oman.
sailing all the way around Africa, a 24,000-mile journey. Da For five hundred years, Esmeralda remained a footnote to
Gama found both success and hostility in the Indian Ocean, the Age of Discoveryuntil divers discovered its possible
so when Portuguese king Manuel I dispatched him to the wreck site in 1998, on the island of Al Hallaniyah, 25 miles
Indies again, in 1502, he went equipped with an armada of south of the Omani coast. Over the past three years, an
20 ships and instructions not only to acquire spices, but archaeological project led by the Oman Ministry of Heritage
also to harass and destroy the Muslim shipping industry and Culture and Blue Water Recoveries Ltd. has investigated
that had monopolized the spice trade. One of these ships, the early sixteenth-century shipwreck. More than 2,800
Esmeralda, was captained by da Gamas uncle, Vicente Sodr. artifacts have been recovered by archaeologists, including
Though the infamously brutal Sodr was directed by da elements of the ships rigging, ceramics, coins, artillery,
Gama to patrol the Indian coast and protect Portuguese firearms, munitions, and trade goods. These objects are not
interests, he opted to sail toward the Arabian Peninsula in only helping to confirm the ships identity, but are also provid-
archaeology.org 9
FROM THE TRENCHES
ing valuable information about 3-D scan of ndio coin too brittle to be separated. The image
early Portuguese explora- revealed the presence of a Portuguese
tion. As the earliest Ship ing technology to gather ndio coin, one of the rarest coins in
of Discovery ever to be information invisible existence. The silver ndioof which
found and excavated to the naked eye or there is only one other surviving
by archaeologists, says that would require examplewas minted by Manuel I in
project director David destructive techniques 1499 after da Gamas first return from
Mearns, we knew that to obtain. A CT scan of the East, and was designed specifically
virtually every artifact the ships bell allowed for trade with India. Because it was
recovered could provide some of its faded letter- only minted for a short time (it was
new insights into how the ing to be read. Thus far, the replaced in 1504), this discovery has
Portuguese conducted navigation, numbers 498 and the letter M been a useful tool in helping both date
trade, and naval warfare during this have been identified, which experts and identify the shipwreck. Even at
historically important period. believe may be part of the inscribed this relatively early stage in the archae-
Because the ships cargo had year 1498 and, perhaps, the name ological assessment of the wreck site,
remained underwater for more than Esmeralda. says Mearns, the evidence strongly
five centuries, many of the artifacts Another CT scan was performed on indicates that the wreckage we found
were badly corroded and difficult to a clump of 24 silver coins, which had is from Sodrs Esmeralda.
analyze. Researchers relied on imag- corroded into a large mass and were Jason UrbanUs
The installation of a new heating ern tunnels and galleries extend below While youre there
system in the 1970s revealed a rich, the building to provide visitors with History permeates Genevas Old Town,
millennia-old archaeological site access to a variety of stratigraphic which surrounds the cathedral with a
under the famous Saint Pierre Ca- layers. The earliest artifacts go back warren of cobblestone streets, historic
thedral in the Old Town of Geneva, to the Neolithic, when people first buildings, sidewalk cafes, and views of
Switzerland. After 30 years of exca- began to settle on the shores of Lake Lake Geneva that have drawn people
vation by the Cantonal Department Geneva, and include an 1150 b.c. burial for millennia. Nearby are Bourg-de-
of Archaeology, the site was opened mound. Geneva later became a forti- Four Square, where visitors can shop
to the public, revealing what Michel fied settlement of the Gallic Allobro- and admire medieval fountains where
Etter, president of Thematis, which gian tribe, and the well-preserved there was once a Roman marketplace,
created the visitor experience, says grave of an Allobrogian chieftain, dat- and Maison Tavel, the oldest house
is one of the most remarkable places ing to around 100 b.c., can be found in Geneva, now home to a museum
in Europe. It was a place of worship in situ below the cathedral choir. The dedicated to the citys history.
well before the birth of Christianity, Romans gradually occupied the town Malin GrunberG banyasz
and Geneva was so central to the and built a variety of structures on the
development of the religionJohn site, including a large edifice that was
Saint Pierre Cathedral,
Calvin preached from Saint Pierre in probably an official building. By the
Geneva, Switzerland
the sixteenth centurythat it is often fourth century a.d., the sites future
called the Protestant Rome. was decided as a complex of episco-
pal buildingsmonks cells, baptis-
The site teries, and cathedralstook root.
Completely covered and protected by Centuries of near-constant develop-
the cathedral, the site encompasses ment culminated in the construction
more than 30,000 square feet. Mod- of a single, large cathedral in a.d. 1000,
and then the existing Gothic
cathedral in the twelfth
century. Remnants of many
of these older buildings can
be seen in the underground
galleries, and illustrate how
church architecture adapted
to changes in ceremonies
and habits. Among the
sights are elaborate plumb-
ing, mosaics, and decorative
elements depicting birds,
Mosaic floor
angels, and grapes.

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FROM THE TRENCHES
New Dates for the Oldest Cave Paintings

Lions, Chauvet Cave, France
T
he World Heritage site of around 21,000 years ago. But the first 88 radiocarbon dates has further refined
Chauvet Cave in southern radiocarbon dates showed that Chauvet the caves chronology. Humans used the
France is famousand a source Cave had been occupied twice starting cave from 37,000 to 33,500 years ago
of both wonder and controversyfor about 35,000 years ago. The Aurignacian and again from 31,000 to 28,000 years
having the worlds oldest cave paint- people, among the first Homo sapiens to ago, the research has found. A series of
ings. When the cave was discovered in live in Europe, brought to the cave a fully chlorine isotope dates shows that the
1994, many scholars initially assumed formed artistic tradition that used a vari- caves entrance was sealed by a rock fall
that they must have been made around ety of techniques involving charcoal and a around the time of its last use.
the same time as those at Lascaux, type of red pigment. Now, a new batch of Zach Zorich
Fact-Checking Lawrence of Arabia

S
ome scholars have accused Brit- that he led an ambush on a Turkish
Site of Bedouin
ambush, Hallat ish military officer T.E. Law- military train. While surveying the site
Ammar, Jordan rence, later known as Lawrence of that attack, the team found a spent
of Arabia, of exaggerating his experi- bullet that was fired from a Colt 1911
ence fighting with Bedouin guerillas automatic pistol, a weapon that would
during the 19161918 Arab Revolt have been extremely rare in the Middle
against the Ottoman Empire. Now East at the timeand that Lawrence is
archaeologists working in the Arabian known to have carried. You can never
Desert in Jordan can place him at the be 100 percent sure, says University
scene of one of the most dramatic of Bristol archaeologist Nick Saunders,
moments described in his autobi- but we are confident this bullet was
ography, Seven Pillars of Wisdom. fired from Lawrences gun.
In the account, Lawrence records Eric a. PowEll
12 Spent Colt 1911 bullet ARCHAEOLOGY July/August 2016

Etruscan Code Uncracked
A
n inscribed stone slab divided into words by means
unearthed at an Etrus- of three vertically aligned dots,
can site in Tuscany is so its possible to identify some
proving to contain one of the of the word forms in the text,
most difficult texts to decipher. Wallace says. Unfortunately,
It was believed that the sixth- most of the words that have
century b.c. stela would shed been identified, apart from the
light on the still-mysterious numeral ki, three, appear to be
Etruscan language, but so far it new additions to the Etruscan
remains a puzzle. To be honest, lexicon and we cant yet pin-
Im not yet sure what type of point the meanings, he adds.
text was incised on the stela, One of antiquitys great enig-
says Rex Wallace, professor of mas, the Etruscans began to
Stela inscribed in Etruscan
classics at the University of flourish around 900 b.c., and
Massachusetts. Inscribed with vertical dots and at least 70 dominated much of Italy for five centuries. By around 300 to
legible letters, the four-foot-tall and two-foot-wide slab had 100 b.c., they were absorbed into the Roman Empire. Their
been buried for more than 2,500 years in the foundations non-Indo-European language eventually died out, and much of
of a monumental temple at Poggio Colla, some 22 miles what we know comes from short funerary inscriptions. Now
northeast of Florence in the Mugello Valley. Archaeologists we are adding another example to the inventory of texts that
speculate that the text, written right to left, may refer to a arent short and formulaic, Wallace explains. However, this
goddess who was worshiped at the site, but so far no name means it will be very difficult to interpret, for that very reason.
of any god or goddess has been found. The inscription is rossElla lorEnZi
archaeology.org 13
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departed on March 25 but missed
February 22March 3, 2017 a planned stop in Hawaii on April
5. A thorough sea and air search
The Maori World found nothing, and the fate of the
Scholars: ship was unknown until last year,
Vincent Malcolm-Buchanan, Ph.D. when researchers from the National
(Maori) Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
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FROM THE TRENCHES
Skeletons from Roman graveyard in Guildhall, York, England
Off with Their
Heads
D
NA testing on the skeletons of men
buried in a graveyard in Yorkonce one
of the largest settlements in Roman Brit-
ainsuggests that even the far-flung fringes of the
Roman Empire were diverse places. While most
of the skeletons had genetic signatures resembling
people living in modern-day Wales, one of the men
came from thousands of miles away. His genes
match those of modern-day Syrians, and chemical
analysis of his teeth shows he grew up in a desert
climate. Its confirmation of the idea that there
was a lot of migration inside the Roman Empire,
says Dan Bradley, a geneticist at Trinity College
Dublin who led the work.
But what happened to their heads? All the men
in the cemetery had been decapitated, and many
were buried with their detached skulls nearby.
Bradley suggests they may have been Roman sol-
diers or gladiators, but University of St. Andrews
archaeologist Jon Coulston calls the idea that they
had been gladiators wishful thinking. Beheading
wasnt common for gladiatorsor criminals, for
that matter. Coulston says, I see no clear con-
nection between decapitation and gladiatorial
displays. The mystery remains.
andrEw cUrry
Cursing the Competition

I
n a fourth-century b.c. cemetery near Athens, a team led if not desperate, ritual undertaking, says Lamont. The tablets
by archaeologist Maria Petritaki recently discovered a were likely interred with the womans remains because graves
cache of five lead tablets pierced with iron nails in a grave were seen as conduits to the gods.
holding a womans cremated remains. Four of the tablets were Eric a. PowEll
inscribed with text that Yale classicist Jessica Lamont recently
translated. She found they contain nearly identical ritual
curses that beseech the gods Hecate, Artemis, and Hermes
to punish several sets of husband-and-wife business owners,
probably tavern keepers. According to Lamont, it is difficult to
know exactly why the person who commissioned the tablets
targeted the couples, but they were likely involved in some
kind of commercial rivalry. It is possible that this cache was
commissioned in connection with a court case, she says.
Lamont also notes that the style of the curse texts, which
were well-written in clean, beautiful script, complete with a
Lead tablet
phrase from Homer, suggests that some sort of professional
inscribed with
scribe or magician, well versed in the supernatural, was paid curse
a considerable amount to write them. This was an elaborate,

Proof in the 3-D scans of the overlapping footprints these individuals worked at a level of effi-
Prints
and isolate one set. They estimate that the ciency similar to that of modern humans.
individual who left these was around five This debate has raged for 40 years based
feet tall, and walked at approximately the on the gait of one individual representing
an entire species, Bennett adds. Now,
I
same pace as the individual who left the
n 1976, paleoanthropologist Mary undisturbed prints. Team leader Matthew at least, were making the debate on the
Leakey discovered the oldest known Bennett says that comparison of the two basis of two individuals.
hominin footprints. The footprints, sets of footprints suggests that the feet of daniEl wEiss
in Laetoli, Tanzania, have been dated to
around 3.66 million years ago and are
thought to have been left by members
of the species Australopithecus afarensis.
They consist of two parallel tracks: JOURNEY INTO THE HEART OF HISTORY
undisturbed prints from a single indi-
vidual and a set of overlapping prints Since 1983, Far Horizons has been
SICILY
from at least two ancient primates. designing unique itineraries led With Dr. Thomas F.X. Noble
In the decades since the discovery, by renowned scholars for small September 12 26, 2016
attention has focused on the undisturbed groups of sophisticated travelers
BULGARIA
prints, in part because the overlapping who desire a deeper knowledge With Dr. Andrew Poulter
ones have been considered too fragmen- of both past and living cultures. September 17 October 3, 2016
ETHIOPIA & OMO VALLEY
With Dr. Cinzia Perlingieri
September 23 October 7, 2016
SPAIN & MOROCCO:
In the Path of the Moors
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CHINAS MARITIME SILK ROAD
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With Dr. Andrew R. Wilson
October 14 30, 2016
Digital models of hominin footprints INDIAS GUJARAT
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tary to study. Experts have estimated that With Dr. Jennifer Rose
the individual who left the undisturbed F E AT U R E D February 4 20, 2017
prints stood just over four feet, three JOURNEYS
SUDAN
inches, and walked at around 1.4 miles per MYANMAR With Dr. Bob Brier
hour. However, there has been extended Galloway
With Charlotte January 29 February 11, 2017
debate over how efficiently this indi- January 9 23, 20
17
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viduals feet worked compared with those YPT
of modern humans. Formulating answers MAJESTY OF EG With Dr. Sidsel Millerstrom
With Dr. Bob Brier February 5 16, 2017
to this question has been complicated by , 2016
November 5 18 and much more!
the limited sample sizea single track
Jordan Sri Lanka Greece Iran
from just one individual. Scotland Wales Ireland Bolivia
But now, a team at Bournemouth Uni- Georgia and Armenia Italy Turkey
versity in England has developed a soft- Maya World Cambodia and Laos
ware package called DigTrace and created Peru Central Asia Scandinavia
a digital model of the footprints left by one
of the other individuals. The team used
the software, which is also being applied
to modern crime scene analysis, to create
1-800-552-4575 www.farhorizons.com
archaeology.org 17
Make Room for FROM THE TRENCHES
the Memories.
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gers, 50 arrowheads, and five bows, are too small to have been used in combat and
were, explains project director Guillaume Gernez, perhaps intended as offerings
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FROM THE TRENCHES
A Life Story
P
eruvian archaeologists have found the 4,600-year-old Ruth Shady Sols. The brooches in particular, carved into
remains of a woman decked out in finery, including bird and monkey designs, point to a woman of prestige.
a shell necklace, bone brooches, and blankets made The necklaces shells must have been brought from Perus
of cotton and woven reeds. The bones were discovered at far north coast and the Amazon lowlands, both hundreds of
spero, a major site of the north-coast Caral civilization, miles away, further proof of her high status. Despite the fancy
the oldest known urban society in the Americas, which dates accessories, the woman, who was between 40 and 50 years
to four millennia before the Inca. We can interpret that, old when she died, saw trauma in life. She had three major
some 4,600 years before the present, women had already bone fractures, likely caused by a fall, and a skull deformation.
reached significant positions in society, says archaeologist rogEr atwood
Burial bundle
Bone
brooch
spero, Peru

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FROM THE TRENCHES
A Villa under the Garden

A
rchaeologists from Historic cluded that the mosaic was part of a
England and the Salisbury large Roman villa complex that was
Museum were called to inves- built between a.d. 175 and 220. Due
tigate a well-preserved Roman mosaic to its size and state of preservation, the
discovered near Tisbury in Wiltshire, villas discovery is being characterized
England. The red, white, and blue as unprecedented in recent years.
ancient floor was found just 18 inches The walls of the ground floor, which
belowground when a local resident contained as many as 25 rooms, were
Mosaic
was installing an electrical cable in his preserved to a height of five feet. The
garden. After a week of geophysical double-courtyard villa is believed to have rivaled the most opulent Roman
survey and excavation, experts con- have stood three stories high, and may villas in England. In the brief investiga-
tion, archaeologists uncovered evidence
of the ancient familys wealth, including
coins, jewelry, and even discarded oyster
shellsthe shellfish would have been
transported from the coast 45 miles
away in buckets of salt water.
Occupation of the site lasted until
the seventh century, and researchers are
hoping that further investigation can
reveal more about the comparatively
little-known historical period between
the collapse of Roman Britain and the
Excavation of Roman villa,
Wiltshire, England beginning of the Anglo-Saxon era.
Jason UrbanUs
Icelands Young Migrant

T
he remains of the Woman in Blue, discovered in period. Radiocarbon dating of one of her teeth suggests
1938 in eastern Iceland, have been subjected to a that she was born around a.d. 900, while settlement is
battery of tests that have revealed new details about thought to have begun around a.d. 871. Isotopic analyses
her origins and life history. Chief among these is that the of the same tooth indicate that, at around age five, her diet
woman, named after a blue-dyed apron she was buried in, shifted from one composed primarily of land animals to one
appears to have come to Iceland during its early settlement including a mix of seafood and land animals. This implies
that she moved to Iceland some time
after the age of five, says Joe Walser
of the National Museum of Iceland.
The analyses suggest that she spent
the early part of her life in southern
Denmark or the British Isles.
Fragments of the womans apron and
another garment show an amalgam of Nordic
and Celtic weaving and spinning techniques using
wool that appears to have been sourced locally. She was
also buried with grave goods including Scandinavian-style
copper-alloy brooches, an imported soapstone spindle
whorl, and an iron tool with a bone handle.
Textile remains from apron daniEl wEiss

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WORLD ROUNDUP
CANADA: Using a IRELAND: In 1902 scientists found
modern reproduc- the kneecap of a brown bear in Alice
tion of a Springfield and Gwendoline Cave in County Clare
Model 1795 .69-cal- and noted knife marks on it. The find
iber smoothbore joined the collection of the National
flintlock musket, Museum of Ireland in the 1920s, and
and a tray of pork it remained there for around 90
belly, shoulder, and chops (together comprising years before it drew the attention of SWITZERLAND: Big wheels of
proxy buttocks), archaeologists conducted an a cave archaeologist, intrigued by sweet, nutty Gruyre, Comt,
experiment to determine what injuries from buck- evidence of human-bear interaction. Appenzeller, and Raclette: The
shot should look like in the archaeological record. Radiocarbon dating shows the patella long history of Alpine Swiss
Based on their results, they determined that bone dates back 12,500 years, making it cheese has just gotten longer.
damage on remains from the War of 1812s Battle the oldest Residues on pots found at six
of Stoney Creek were caused by these smaller lead known sign sites show that people there were
pelletsthe first archaeological identification of of human heating milk as part of the cheese-
buckshot injuries. presence in making process in the mountains
Ireland by as far back as the first millennium
2,500 years. b.c. This is the earliest known evi-
dence of Alpine dairying, which
likely arose as pressure on lowland
farming areas drove herders to
higher-elevation pastures.
FLORIDA: The period between

1645 and 1715corresponding
roughly to the Golden Age of
Piracywas light on Caribbean
hurricanes, according to a new
study that brought together
shipwrecks, trees, and sunspots.
An inventory of shipwrecks was
combined with tree rings, which
reflect the annual growth of trees
(slower in years with hurricanes),
to suggest a 75 percent reduction
in hurricane frequency around
that time. The period is known BURKINA FASO: Shea butter is a common component of cosmetics and
as the Maunder Minimum, a time lotions, and in West Africa it is used primarily for cooking (and a variety
of cooler temperatures in the of other uses, such as waterproofing). It comes from the hard nuts of the
Northern Hemisphere correlated shea tree, which are cracked, crushed, roasted, ground, and separated
with low sunspot activity. This to make a Crisco-like product. Study of charred nutshells from house
work might provide insight into sites shows that shea has been harvested and processed since a.d. 100,
how hurricanes will respond to a millennium earlier than was once thought. The trees were apparently
climate change. protected and maintained as surrounding land was farmed.

By Samir S. Patel
ITALY: There are a few ways to keep food NEPAL: In the Samdzong tomb
from sticking to pans, including modern complex in Upper Mustang,
nonstick coatings, generous use of oil, or beside a gold and silver funer-
well-seasoned cast iron. Written sources ary mask, were several tex-
state that ancient Romans used cook- tiles that are the subject of
ware called Cumanae testae for making a new analysis. They include
stews, but it has never been known for separate pieces made of wool
sure what that pottery was. At a site near and horsehair, as well as silk,
Naples, archaeologists think they found colored with a variety of organic dyes. Most intrigu-
the answer in the extensive dump of an ing was that silk wasnt produced locally at the time,
ancient pottery factory that coated the around 1,500 years ago, which suggests that the area
inside of its cookware with a distinctive was not isolated as once thought, but had connections
thick red slip that would have done the with the Silk Road, and that locals ably combined local
jobmade in quanti- products with imports from India and China. HONG KONG: Despite
ties large enough World War II and the citys
to be exported celebrated modern devel-
across the empire. opment, a few fragments of
old Hong Kong still survive,
such as a recently identified
stone marker. It is engraved
B.O. No. 4, which refers to
the Board of Ordnance,
the British military group
responsible for mapping
prior to 1855. The position
of the stone, in a resort
village that was once the
site of the British barracks,
was confirmed on an 1845
map. It dates to the earliest
years of British occupation
following the First Opium
War (18391842).
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES:

On Marawah Island, excava-
tors have uncovered what
they believe is one of the
earliest known examples of INDIA: At Ellora Caves, a complex of more
stone-built architecture in than 30 rock-carved temples in Maharashtra,
the Arabian Gulf, at 7,500 years old. The site, which among countless surviving statues and reliefs,
appears to have been a house that later became a are the remains of frescoes on some walls and
tomb (a single person was buried inside a partially ceilings. Theyve survived more than 1,500
collapsed room), comes from a time when the Gulf years in part, the authors of a new study
region was far wetter and greener than it is today. believe, because hempcannabis, known as bhang in Indiawas mixed with the
Other finds include stone tools, projectile points, and plaster. The composite material, called hempcrete, can provide strength, thermal
beads, as well as bones from both turtle and dugongs. insulation, fire resistance, pest resistance, and sound absorption.
archaeology.org 25
RITES OF THE
Spectacular new discoveries from the Caucasus set the stage for a dramatic
One of two 2,400-year-

old gold vessels found
under a mound at the site
of Sengileevskoe-2 in
southern Russia depicts
griffins attacking a stag.

SCYTHIANS
hilltop ritual by Andrew Curry
R
ussian archaeologist andrey Belinski wasnt sure what to
expect when he found himself facing a small mound in a farmers
field at the foot of the Caucasus Mountains. To the untrained eye,
the 12-foot feature looked like little more than a hillock. To Belin-
ski, who was charged with excavating the area to make way for new
power lines, it looked like a type of ancient burial mound called a
kurgan. He considered the job of excavating and analyzing the kurgan, which might
be damaged by the construction work, fairly routine. Basically, we planned to dig
so we could understand how it was built, Belinski says. As he and his team began
to slice into the mound, located 30 miles east of Stavropol, it became apparent that
they werent the first people to take an interest. In fact, looters had long
Beneath the pair ago ravaged some sections. The central part was destroyed, probably in
of gold vessels,
the nineteenth century, Belinski says. Hopes of finding a burial chamber
archaeologists also
discovered gold or artifacts inside began to fade.
armbands (above) It took nearly a month of digging to reach the bottom. There, Belin-
and a gold ring ski ran into a layer of thick clay that, at first glance, looked like a natural
(below, right) at feature of the landscape, not the result of human activity. He uncovered a
Sengileevskoe-2,
stone box, a foot or so deep, containing a few finger and rib bones from a
thought to be
a ritual site teenager. But that wasnt all. Nested one inside the other in the box were
associated with the two gold vessels of unsurpassed workmanship. Beneath these lay three gold
Scythian culture. armbands, a heavy ring, and three smaller bell-shaped gold cups. It was a
huge surprise for us, Belinski says. Somehow, the people who plundered
the rest didnt locate these artifacts.
As he continued to excavate the area surrounding the kurgan, he spotted postholes
near the stone box, as though tree trunks had once been sunk in the earth
to support a pavilion or roof. Belinski and Anton Gass of the Prussian
Cultural Heritage Foundation in Berlin, whom Belinski had invited
to participate in the excavation, realized that they had found
something far beyond a simple burial mound. In fact, some
scholars think the site may have been the location of an
intense ritual and subsequent burial rite performed by some
of the ancient worlds most fearsome warriors.
archaeology.org 27
F
rom aBout 900 to 100 B.c., nomadic Scythians, who were known as great
tribes dominated the steppes and horsemen and warriors, are portrayed on
a variety of artifacts, including this
grasslands of Eurasia, from
gold comb dating to the late 5th
what is today western China all to early 4th century b.c. found in
the way east to the Danube. All a royal tomb at Solokha, eastern
across this vast expanse, archaeo- Ukraine.
logical evidence shows that people
shared core cultural practices. mare milkers and drunks,
They were all nomads, they and the Scythians nomadic
were heavily socially strati- lifestyle must have seemed
fied, they had monumental strange and threatening in
burial structures and rich grave contrast to their own settled
goods, says Hermann Parzinger, urban one. And the Greeks
head of Berlins Prussian Cultural werent the only ancient power
Heritage Foundation and former the steppe nomads encountered
head of the German Archaeological and sometimes clashed with. The
Institute. Today, archaeologists refer Scythians periodically crossed the
to the members of this interconnect- Caucasus Mountains to terrorize
ed world as Scythians, a name used the mighty Assyrians and Medes
by the Greek historian Herodotus. to the south. There is even textual
Although the Scythians were unit- evidence from Persian and Egyptian
ed by their nomadic, horse-centered sources that they vanquished Assyria,
lifestyle, historians and archaeologists pushed west into modern-day Syria,
do not think they were ever a single plundered Palestine, and made it as
political entity. Based on regional far south as Egypts borders, where a
differences in their art, artifacts, and cowed pharaoh paid them to back off
burial practices, scholars posit that in the sixth century B.c.
they were, rather, a collection of tribes who spoke related lan-
T
guages and had a broadly shared artistic and material culture. hough the caucasus is dotted with Scythian burial
They had no written language and their nomadic lifestyle has mounds, the region has long been ignored in favor of
left relatively little in terms of settlements for archaeologists more monumental kurgans farther west, or better-
to uncover. Thus, modern scholars have had to rely heavily on preserved tombs many hundreds of miles to the east. In fact,
the accounts of ancient historians to interpret the archaeologi- over the last few decades, Parzinger and others have uncovered
cal evidence. Archaeological finds are, by their nature, mute, Scythian tombs in the Altai Mountains, where Russia, China,
says Askold Ivantchik, director of the Centre for Comparative Mongolia, and Kazakhstan meet today, preserved by perma-
Studies of Ancient Civilizations at the Russian Academy of frost and ice. The bodies and grave goods in these burials have
Sciences in Moscow. The main source we have is texts from added to what was already known about Scythian culture from
other cultures, primarily the Greeks and Romans. earlier excavations in western Russia and Ukraine, some of
The historians accounts are rarely complimentary. The which yielded fantastic gold artifacts. But the site excavated
ancient Greeks dismissed their neighbors to the west as by Belinski, dubbed Sengileevskoe-2, is the first such golden
treasure to be uncovered in the Caucasus. This is one
of the most outstanding archaeological discov-
eries of Scythian artifacts in recent years,
says Parzinger. They are sensational.
The find was so remarkable, Belin-
ski says, that when he showed the
objects to Scythian experts in St.
Petersburg, they initially suspected
foul play. Some scientists from
Both vessels from Sengileevskoe-2

are pierced, a common feature
of similar artifacts found in graves
across the Scythian world, though most
other examples are made of bronze and
none are as ornately decorated.

Images of Scythians can be found on monumental architecture, including this relief from a wall in the Apadana, or audience hall,
of the Persian ruler Darius I at the site of Persepolis in modern Iran.
the Hermitage said that it was unbelievable, he says. At first, Before cleaning the gold, Belinski asked the crime lab in
they claimed it was fake, until they heard that everything was Stavropol to take samples for analysis. The results came back
found in situ, at an excavation. If the artifacts had emerged positive for opium. Looking at the residue under a microscope,
from the black market, they would certainly have been dis- experts identified cannabis particles as well. The residue seems
missed as modern forgeries. Adds Gass, This sort of thing to confirm stories told by ancient authors, Herodotus among
comes along once every 50 years. The quality of these objects, them, that the Scythians marked important occasions with
their craftsmanship, is nearly unique. drug-fueled rituals. A dish is placed upon the ground, into
Though undeniably authentic, the discovery still raises which they put a number of red-hot stones, and then add
other questions about the objects and what they can tell some hemp-seed, the Greek historian writes. Immediately
archaeologists about the warrior-nomads who left them it smokes, and gives out such a vapor as no Grecian vapor-bath
behind. The vessels are likely not the product of the Scythians can exceed; the Scyths, delighted, shout for joy. Hemp seeds
themselves, but of ancient Greek craftsmen working on com- and small metal pipes have been found in frozen tombs far to
mission somewhere close, such as on the northern Black Sea the east, but it was never clear how they were used, and some
coast. Its not only solid gold, says Gass. It took the highest archaeologists have argued the plants were medicinal. The
art of the Greek world to produce work like this. residue on these gold vessels appears to be evidence of a more
meaningful ritual. Theres no sign of charring or burning, so
T
he first mystery is what the artifacts might Belinski thinks the opium was consumed as a con-
have been used for. Small cup- or bell- centrated drink, perhaps while cannabis was
shaped vessels with holes in the burning nearby. That both drugs were
bottom (or top) are common in Scyth- being used simultaneously is beyond
ian graves. They are often made doubt, he says.
of bronze and, rarely, of gold or The results of the residue
silver. Archaeologists have sug- analysis provide more than just
gested they functioned as dec- titillating evidence that the
orative ornaments, originally ancient Scyths were enthu-
hung from horses bridles. siastic about the
At first, Belinski mind-bending
thought the two power of certain
large, elaborately plants. It has long
decorated arti- been known that
facts from Sengile- in cultures around
evskoe-2, each of which the world, drugs wereand
also has a hole, were simply often still areat the center
oversized examples of these of religious rituals. The drink
common horse trappings. itself may have had a holy aspect,
But there was something odd like an embodiment of the divine.
about the vessels. When he pulled
them out of the ground 2,400 years An early 5th-century b.c. Greek red-figure
after they had been buried, he noticed kylix, or drinking cup, shows a Scythian
crusty patches of sticky black residue on both. horseman examining his arrows.
archaeology.org 29
Griffins assault a horse (left) and trees are shown dead and bare (right) in two artfully rendered scenes hammered into the
pail-like gold vessel from Sengileevskoe-2.
Both Gass and Belinski suggest that the small cups, which insights into the Scythian worldviewand perhaps provide
are not much bigger than a thimble, were worn or carried the even more confirmation of Herodotus histories?
way Christians wear crosses today. If theyre correct, it could The two vessels were nested together, and it seems clear
help explain ritual practices all across the Scythian world. that they were intended as a matched set: One has a flat bot-
These conical objects with holes are known from other tom, as would a bucket; the other is more rounded, like a bowl,
assemblages, but interpretation has always been with a smaller flat surface on the bottom. Overturned,
a problem, says Ivantchik. We now know the bowl covers the bucket like a lid. The decora-
the purpose was preparation of opium or tions also give clues as to their orientation: The
a narcotic substance for sacred rites. lower vessels figures are upright when the
Cultic connections with such rare vessel is sitting on its base, while the upper
substances are very important. That one is intended to be displayed with the
Belinski detected the use of these opening facing down.
substances is another proof the On one side, the flat-bottomed
objects have cultic character. vessel displays two griffins ripping
the flesh from a rearing stag; on
T
he collection of the other, a pair of griffins savages
this very particu- a struggling horse. The ground
lar type of artifact beneath their hooves and
in this location may also claws is bare, the trees in the
provide a strong clue as background, dead. The bowl-
to what may have been shaped upper vessel is deco-
happening on that hilltop rated with detailed images of
with its majestic view six men engaged in combat
of the valley below in and two menone behead-
400 B.c. If the vessels ed and scalpeddead on
were holy chalices for a
powerful narcotic, were The second, bowl-shaped,
Sengileevskoe-2 vessel depicts
the stunning decorations
violent instances of combat,
on their outsides packed with including one showing an old man
meaning as well? Do their motifs, stabbing a younger warrior in the neck.
as Belinski and Gass wonder, reveal In this world, the trees thrive.

the ground. There is grass beneath the warriors feet, and trees the gold vessels could be a representation of how the Scythians
bearing leaves separate the scenes. The vessels fantastical saw the universe. Theres an underworld of fantastical crea-
animals echo images of real-world creatures tattooed on well- tures and death, and an upper world of the living and of heroes,
preserved Scythian bodies found thousands of miles away, in where we are, he says. However, when they were buried under
the highlands of Russia and Mongolia. More strikingly, they the kurgan, the bowl-shaped vessel was nested inside the pail-
are nearly identical versions of mythological creatures depicted shaped one and both were placed with their openings down.
on gold objects from tombs near the Black Sea, a few hundred Thats unlikely to be accidental, says Gass. The original order
miles to the west. The warriors, too, resonate in other finds, was upended, probably intentionally. That the vessels were
although Gass and Belinski emphasize that the fine detail on overturned shows the world sinking into chaos.
the Sengileevskoe-2 vessels is unparalleled.
H
Though the fearsome griffins on the lower vessel are spec- erodotus lengthy descriptions of the Scythians
tacular, it is the fighters on the upper bowl that intrigue the lifestyle and rituals may come from personal experi-
archaeologists the most, for they recall Herodotus claims of ence. The early historian probably traveled to Greek
having firsthand experience visiting the nomads. The histo- colonies on the Black Sea coast, outposts near the mouth of
rians lengthy discussion of Scythian history, rituals, and burial the Dnieper River where Greek traders would have come into
practices begins with an odd story: The Scythians spent decades contact with the farthest-flung outskirts of Scythian culture.
waging war and invading their settled neighbors to the south. Scholars say the Sengileevskoe-2 gold ties the Scythians of the
They left their lonely wives behind, and...events transpired. The Caucasus to these Greek colonies in a way previous finds havent.
Scythian women, when they saw that time went on, and their That connection is significant because some of the most
husbands did not come back, had intermarried with their slaves, sensational Scythian gold artifacts, such as the Tolstaya Mogila
Herodotus reports. Returning home after a 28-year absence, the pectoral uncovered in 1971, have emerged from kurgans in the
warriors found that their wives had done more than marry the plains north of the Black Sea. Made of 24-karat gold, the pectoral
slaves they left behindthey had had children, who were now is a foot across and weighs 2.5 pounds. Although the artifacts were
young men. In what Gass calls the Bastard Wars, the return- discovered nearly 300 miles apart, the pectorals intricate gold fig-
ing Scythians supposedly battled their illegitimate rivals. He is uresincluding griffins, horses, and kneeling warriorsso closely
intrigued by the possibility that the upper vessels victorious resemble the decorations on the Sengileevskoe-2 vessels that they
warrior, old, bearded, and wrinkled, and the younger man he is might be from the same goldsmiths hand. These similarities are
slaying are a reference to the wars Herodotus chronicles. Per- helping archaeologists demonstrate that the Scythian world was
haps, he suggests, the scene on the upper bowl commemorates deeply interconnected, even over vast distances.
this victory of age over youth.
T
Appealing as the literary and historical parallels might he golden vessels, the human
be, according to Ivantchik, the Greek artisans who remainswhich, for now at least,
likely made the vessels were probably thinking in archaeologists are interpreting as a
more symbolic terms. Its very rare to see rep- human sacrifice rather than a full burial
resentations of historical events in Greek and the remains of a substantial con-
art, he says. The imagery on the vessels struction perched on top of the mound
is very interesting and important, but are likely indications that this was
interpretation is a delicate problem. some sort of altar or ritual spot,
Belinski agrees, and considers Gass and had once probably been used
theory a stretch. Why would for an important ceremony,
this not particularly sacred saga perhaps of the kind Herodotus
be on sacred vessels? he asks. describes. There could have
Instead, he posits that the old been some type of a roof
man slaying a younger warrior construction, and there may
is more likely a metaphor, or have been hanging banners
a depiction of an unknown or standards with flags as
ritual. Until we find writ- well, says Gass. Were
ten sources, we cant say for not sure, but there was
sure, he adds. something major there.
While they disagree on After the ritual, the kur-
the specifics, both Belin-
ski and Gass agree that the An act of warfare is
portrayed on the other
vessels were intended to fit
side of the bowl-shaped
together, with the flat-bottomed vessel. A Scythian warrior fires
one on the bottom and the curved an arrow at a foe, while another
one on top. Seen that way, Belinski thinks lies dead and beheaded at his feet.
archaeology.org 31
The solid gold Tolstaya Mogila pectoral was
uncovered at a Scythian burial site about
300 miles from Sengileevskoe-2. Much of its
workmanship and imagery, which illustrates
daily life, nature, and mythology, resembles
the decoration of the Sengileevskoe-2
vessels, suggesting that they may have been
created by the same goldsmiths.
gan was built on top. Since most kurgans are clearly tombs, kurgan, which is a complex network of ditches, rings, and other
archaeologists say there are few parallels for a construction like earthworks Belinski and Gass located during geophysical sur-
this. Parzinger suggests that empty kurgans were rarely reported veys. Their colleagues are eagerly awaiting their results. This
or written about in the past, and might be more common than new work could potentially tell us even more about the rituals
once thought. Gass and Belinski think the Sengileevskoe-2 kurgan and performance involved in erecting these huge kurgans than
was a cenotaph, a symbolic burial built to mark some tremendous this hoard alone can, says Sren Stark, an archaeologist at
upheaval in the Scythian world, perhaps the death of a king who the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World at New York
was buried elsewhere. Something important happened, Gass University. We thought the kurgan was it, but its becoming
says. But what? clear that theres much more. n
Today the gold from the Sengileevskoe-2 kurgan sits in a
museum safe in Pyatigorsk. The next phase of research involves Andrew Curry is a contributing editor at Archaeology.
continuing to analyze and understand the landscape around the To see images from the excavation, go to archaeology.org/scythians

Timelines
Tracking when humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans
crossed pathsand what became of their offspring
by Zach Zorich
I
n 1856, quarry workers in Germanys improved so rapidly that we are now able to
Neander Valley discovered the bones of ask questions that were simply unimaginable
what appeared to have been a strange- before. How did interbreeding affect humans,
looking man. This was three years before Neanderthals, and Denisovans? What genetic
Charles Darwin published On the Origin debt do modern humans owe to their ancient
of Species and 15 years before The Descent hominin cousins? What, at a genetic level, makes
of Man, so there was very little notion at the time us human? A flurry of new studies in this fast-
that there had ever existed humans who were not moving field has begun to provide some insight.
exactly us. Valley is tal in German, and the find
T
became known as Neanderthal man. Since then, he earliest hominins that are part of
countless Neanderthal sites have been found across the genus Homo evolved in Africa at least
Eurasia, and countless questions have been asked 2.2 million years ago. Some of them, early
about the relationship between these extinct hom- members of the species Homo erectus, left the
inins and modern humans. For every continent around two million years
one of these questions that has been While skull models ago. Over time, hominins in different
answered through archaeologyand, of a modern places began to evolve into separate
human (left) and a
in particular, via the retrieval, sequenc- Neanderthal (right)
species and subspecies. Neanderthals
ing, and analysis of ancient and modern look very different, became a distinct group in Europe
DNAseveral more arise. ancient DNA from around 250,000
In 2010, for example, both subspecies years ago, Homo
scientists confirmed reveals a history sapiens contin-
of interbreeding
the existence of though it does not
ued to evolve
another extinct hom- appear to have had in Africa, and
inin, closely related many benefits. Denisovans
to Neanderthals, in probably arose
Denisova Cave in Siberia, and from what may have been
dubbed them Denisovans. The a group of Neanderthals
same year, the surprising news isolated in Asia. The pre-
broke that our species, Homo sapiens, had inter- vailing wisdom has been that Homo sapiensmod-
bred with both Neanderthals and Denisovans ern humansand Neanderthals didnt interbreed
tens of thousands of years ago. Around 1 to 4 until around 50,000 or 60,000 years ago, accord-
percent of the genome of modern humans (save ing to genetic research. At some point, as modern
for that of sub-Saharan Africans, who never humans spread through Asia, they encountered
interacted with Neanderthals) comes from these and interbred with Denisovans there as well. The
archaic hominins. Since then, the technology evidence of this interbreeding appears in our
and methods used to study ancient DNA have genomebut not in that of Neanderthals who
archaeology.org 33
R
Excavations at Denisova Cave in Siberia have uncovered remains
ecently, additional studies have been looking at
from both Neanderthals and a related subspecies of hominins,
which were dubbed Denisovans and likely evolved from a group what interbreeding meant, in terms of evolutionary
of Neanderthals that had become isolated in Asia. fitness, for both Neanderthals and modern humans.
Genetic evidence shows that Neanderthals and Denisovans
lived in Europe and the Middle East or in that of Denisovans may have lived in small, isolated populations. Scientists have
which suggests that the hybrid offspring of those interbreeding found that complete genome sequences from a Neanderthal
events became part of the Homo sapiens population. and a Denisovan from Siberia, and partial genome sequences
Adam Siepel, a population geneticist at the University of from Neanderthals in Europe, all seem to show high levels of
California, Santa Cruz, and John Capra of Vanderbilt Univer- inbreeding, which is an indicator that they lived in small popu-
sitys Genetics Institute recently led a multinational team of lations and probably had few options for finding mates. The
scientists on a project that has considerably complicated this migrating Homo sapiens who encountered Neanderthals in the
picture. Their work, which involved analysis of Neanderthal Levant 100,000 years ago were probably also a small group.
remains found alongside the Denisovans in Siberia, has shown Genes mutate with each new generation. Some of these
that Neanderthals had split into two genetically distinct popu- mutations are beneficial to survival, but most are not. Small
lations, a western group that lived in Europe and the Middle populations are at particular risk of passing on genetic deficien-
East, and an eastern group that lived deeper in Asia. cies or abnormalities; without a larger genetic pool from which
The geneticists found genes that had been inherited from to draw, these harmful mutations can accumulate over time,
Homo sapiens in the Siberian eastern Neanderthal genome, decreasing the fitness of a population. Because of this, Siepel
and determined that this new, distinct case of interbreeding believes that Neanderthals may have been teetering on the
had occurred 100,000 years ago, tens of thousands of years brink of extinction for much of their existence. Neanderthals
earlier than interbreeding with western Neanderthals was were carrying many deleterious mutations precisely because
believed to have occurred. Our initial thought was that there their populations were so small, he says.
was some sort of a mistake, Siepel says, but we turned knobs It might seem, therefore, that an infusion of fresh genetic
and adjusted this and that, and we couldnt get the signal to go diversity from Homo sapiens would have helped this problem,
away. He believes that, in this case, a small group of Homo sapi- but it may have made it worse. During hundreds of thou-
ens migrated to the Levant 100,000 years agoarchaeological sands of years of geographical separation, the subspecies had
deposits confirm that both modern humans and Neanderthals drifted apart geneticallyit appears that Homo sapiens and
lived in the area around that timeand interbred with Nean- Neanderthal genes had grown increasingly incompatible. Sie-
derthals there. The modern human population returned to pels work shows that the hybrid children would have carried
Africa or died out, while these hybrid children stayed with the more slightly disadvantageous mutations than either purebred
Neanderthals who moved farther east into Asia. Neanderthals or Homo sapiens.

fact, Neanderthals had no access to tobacco, which is native
to the Americas, but that particular gene might have another,
as-yet-unidentified function.
The ins and outs of evolution, such as which traits are
advantageous, are sometimes a matter of context. It is possible
that genes that cause problems today may have been beneficial
50,000 years ago. The gene that Capras group identified as
contributing to a clotting disorder known as hypercoagulation
was likely part of a suite of mutations that would have given
modern humanNeanderthal hybrids an advantage in wound
healing. At the time, wounds were probably a much more sig-
nificant risk than blood clots. Similarly, the genes that cause
allergies, or overactive immune responses, might have helped
fight disease in the distant past.
Taken together, the research appears to show that evolution
has not been kind to Neanderthal genes. Rasmus Nielsen of
the University of California, Berkeley, is coauthor of a forth-
coming study that shows that natural selection, over the years,
has removed many Neanderthal contributions to the modern
human genome. In some sense, he
says, we merged to become one spe-
cies, but the Neanderthal DNA has
subsequently been purged by selection.
All that is left is that 1 to 4 percent.
N
DNA from a toe bone from
eanderthals have been
Denisova Cave shows that modern
humans and Neanderthals interbred extinct for some 40,000 years,
far earlier than was once thought. but the presence or absence
of their genetic material in the modern
For example, a separate study of the Neanderthal Y chro- human genome today is one way to begin to understand what,
mosome, the one carried only by males, shows that Neander- genetically, makes us who we are. Joshua Akey, of the Univer-
thal genes may have provoked an immune response in Homo sity of Washington, is currently studying the regions of the
sapiens females during gestation. The researchers speculate that modern human genome that completely lack the archaic genes
this may have led to high rates of miscarriage and stillbirth. inherited from Neanderthals or Denisovans. These genomic
The study also shows that the Neanderthal Y chromosome regions tend to be very large, he says, and some include 200
does not exist within modern humans, suggesting that natural genes or more. They evolved solely in Homo sapiens, and were
selection weeded it out of our gene pool. unaffected by any interbreeding events. One region he is
The Homo sapiens contribution to the Neanderthal gene particularly interested in is a gene named FOXP2, which is
pool 100,000 years ago provided few genetic benefits, and that involved with speech and language. Modern humans, Nean-
also appears to have been the case when Neanderthals contrib- derthals, and Denisovans all carry (or carried) this gene, but
uted DNA to the modern human gene pool 50,000 or 60,000 the DNA that regulates when the gene is turned on or off is
years ago. According to Capra, modern humans inherited 10 different in Neanderthals and Denisovans than it is in Homo
to 20 times more slightly disadvantageous mutations than sapiens. What this means is not yet clear, but it points to a suite
beneficial ones from Neanderthals, though he cautions that of distinctive differences between evolutionary cousinsa
his study used genes identified in a medical database, so they signpost of modern humanity.
were more likely to find genes associated with disease than Akey hopes to uncover and catalogue more such regions,
they were to find advantageous mutations. Capras research with the idea of creating a map of when and from whom mod-
team identified Neanderthal-inherited genes that make modern humans received genesand how that has influenced the
ern people slightly more prone to depression, nicotine addic- course of human evolution. The work also has the potential to
tion, allergies, and certain clotting disordersnothing severe identify other archaic hominins for which there is no known
in the long run, but perhaps sources of significant problems archaeological signature. According to Akey, a persons genome
for the first generations of hybrids. But again, he cautions holds more information than just the genes inherited from
against reading too much into these results. We cant blame ones mother and father. It comes from a collection of ances-
Neanderthals for us being depressed. We cant blame Nean- tors: All of us are mosaics of admixture events. n
derthals for nicotine addiction, says Capra. They made a
modest contribution to these traits in some populations. In Zach Zorich is a contributing editor at Archaeology.
archaeology.org 35
An underwater archaeologist from
Parks Canada clears kelp from the
wreck of one of the ships from Sir John
Franklins doomed 1840s expedition
to traverse the Northwest Passage.
Both rescuers and archaeologists have
sought the wrecks of his two ships,
A
Erebus and Terror, for nearly 170 years.
board the Canadian Coast Guard ship Gulfsome 540 square miles of sea. The team, led by Ryan
Sir Wilfrid Laurier, a team of marine and ter- Harris, a senior underwater archaeologist with Parks Canada,
restrial archaeologists, hydrographers, the had been looking since 2008 for signs of perhaps the two most
ships captain, and a helicopter pilot gathered famous ships lost in the search for the Northwest Passage: the
to finalize the days plan. It was September reinforced British bomb vessels HMS Erebus and HMS Terror,
1, 2014, and they were in the waters of the led by Sir John Franklin and missing since the late 1840s.
Canadian territory of Nunavut, searching the west coast of Scott Youngblut, a Canadian government hydrographer,
King William Island and the eastern part of Queen Maud was heading out from Laurier on a helicopter to a small, unin-

Franklins
Last
Voyage
After 170 years and countless searches,
archaeologists have discovered a
famed wreck in the frigid Arctic
by Allan Woods
habited island off the western edge of Nunavuts Adelaide Stenton noted two promising signs: the absence of polar bears,
Peninsula to set up a GPS station that would help him chart and the presence of what appeared to be clear cultural features,
the local waters. The area being searched is near where, in the including tent rings and small stone mounds indicative of sup-
nineteenth century, an Inuit elder had reported rummaging ply caches. After just 20 minutes on the ground, helicopter
through an abandoned ship. Alongside Youngblut were Doug pilot Andrew Stirling called Stenton over. Before them was
Stenton, Nunavuts director of heritage, and Robert Park, an a 17-inch, U-shaped iron fitting partially embedded in sand.
archaeological anthropologist from the University of Water- Stenton was intrigued by the find. It was different and
loo, who had come along to survey the island. Before landing, more substantial than other items thought to have come
archaeology.org 37
from Franklins ships, such as nails and spikes. Those artifacts The search to determine the fate of Franklins 1845 expedition
had been discovered on or around King William Island, to began almost immediately after the realization that the ships
the northeast. Stenton picked up the 12-pound piece of iron were lost. Since then, explorers have turned up bodies, bones,
to look for the telltale broad arrow that would identify it as weapons, tools, a sunken rescue ship, and even a handwritten note
property of the British Royal Navy, which had commissioned with precise coordinates of where the quest veered so horribly
and outfitted Franklins expedition. When I opened my hand off course. But the shipwrecks themselves remained elusive, lost
I saw the number 12and a broad arrowstamped into the amid a constellation of archipelagos and the whims of sea ice.
bottom, Stenton recalls. After nearly 170 years, Canadian archaeologists were finally on
That evening on Laurier, Stenton, Harris, and the Parks the cusp of a breakthrough in one of the great maritime mysteries.
Canada crew examined the find, as well as two wooden disks The potential find carried the weight of decades of anticipation
they had discovered. Because of the iron fittings size, they and even modern geopolitical ramifications, as the nations that
surround the now increasingly ice-free Arctic jockey for access to
the natural resources that are thought to lie beneath it.
S
ir John Franklin and his crew aboard Erebus and
Terror134 men in allset sail from England on May
19, 1845. Their mission was to find the long-sought
Northwest Passage through the treacherous Arctic seas that
connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Franklin was at
the helm of Erebus, while his second-in-command, Francis
Rawdon Crozier, captained Terror. By late July, the ships (now
carrying 129, after five men fell ill and were sent back) were in
Lancaster Sound, the eastern entrance to the Arctic Ocean.
They left word with the captain of a passing whaling vessel
that the mission was going according to plan, and then set
off into the unknown.
Back in Britain, alarm only arose after the expeditions
three-year mark came and went with no word from Frank-
lin. Their disappearance into the void sparked a string of
ambitious but unsuccessful rescue efforts funded first by the
British Admiralty, and then privately by the explorers wife,
Lady Franklin. In 1850 alone, 10 separate expeditions were
launched, including one helmed by Robert McClure, who took
an easterly route into the Arctic through the Bering Strait.
McClure ended up losing his ship, HMS Investigator (Saga of
the Northwest Passage, March/April 2012), but he and most
of his crew were rescued, and he managed a feat for which
he was celebrated upon his return: His men were the first to
traverse the Northwest Passage (by sea and sled).
McClure encountered no evidence of Franklin, but another
The wreck of one of Franklins ships was first identified with
1850 expedition found, on Beechey Island, mummified
sonar (top) in September 2014. When the water is clear of ice remains identified by crude wooden markers as William Braine
and silt, the wreck (above), which sits in just 30 feet of water, and John Hartnell, who served on Erebus, and John Torrington,
can be seen from the air. who was part of Terrors crew. The most troubling realization
about the fate of the expedition came in 1859, when a search
guessed it had come from Erebus or Terror, and not from one party led by Royal Navy explorer Francis Leopold McClintock
of the smaller boats Franklins crew is known to have used discovered a stone cairn at Victory Point on King William
after their ships had become icebound. Harris concluded that Island. Inside was a handwritten note dated May 28, 1847,
the iron was most likely part of a boat-launching mechanism reporting that all was well with the Franklin expedition despite
called a davit pintle, and that the disks were possibly plugs for a winter stuck in the ice. But an update written around the
a deck hawse, an opening through which a ships anchor chain margins of the paper detailed how desperation had taken hold
passes into a storage space below the deck. less than a year later. Dated April 25, 1848, the update stated
You can imagine [as the ship was crushed by ice] the mast that Franklin had died just days after the first note was left, and
breaking down and the riggings and lines and sails and all kinds of that the decision had been made to abandon the ships. What
things drifting ashore on ice, says Stenton. The find just suggested remained of the crew105 menheaded on foot in the direc-
there was a very good possibility that there was a wreck in the area. tion of Backs Fish River, which would have led them south.

More evidence of the survivors was eventually uncovered, nook-poo-zhee-jook, someone he called a walking history of
much of it grisly. Later expeditions found buried or mutilated the fate of Sir John Franklins expedition. The man lived in a
human remainssome alone, some in groups of several dozen. hut that was full of articles from the ships, and he presented
It is not known if starving crew members resorted to cannibal- Hall with a large silver spoon believed to have belonged to
ism, or whether the condition of the remains was caused by Franklin. He also drew for Hall a detailed map based on his
wild animals. Other traces included iron nails, metal cutlery, recollection of what he and others had spotted. The first point
tools, knives, and wood fragments that the crew carried with he marked was an area just off the Adelaide Peninsula.
them on their doomed march. But just as important, or more,
T
are the oral histories and eyewitness accounts, collected by he day aFter the island survey, Harris, his Parks
later search parties, of the Inuit, who traveled seasonally Canada colleague Jonathan Moore, and two techni-
through the area for centuries. cians launched their underwater sonar equipment in
The ships bell was found on the very first dive on the newly discovered wreck. A broad arrow, which identifies it as property of
the Royal Navy, and the year 1845 are clearly visible.
The most detailed of these accountsand the most useful the shallow waters off the island. As the technicians wrangled
for the eventual identification of remains from the wrecks the sonar, Harris emerged on deck from the cabin below just
were recorded by U.S. Army Lieutenant Frederick Shwatka in time to witness the emergence of a golden mass on the sonar
and Charles Francis Hall, another American Arctic explorer. In screen. Thats it! Harris cried out in jubilation.
1861, Hall credited Inuit accounts for his discovery of relics I remember sitting in Captain Bill Noons quarters on
from Martin Frobishers 1578 Arctic expedition. He hoped for Laurier when Ryan and the others told us about the discov-
a similar breakthrough in the Franklin search. I am convinced ery, recalls Stenton. There was this momentary pause and I
that were I on King Williams Land and Boothia (Peninsula), thought, Oh, what have we done here? We found it and now
and could I live there two years, I could gather fact[s] relative what? It just sort of hits you like a ton of bricks.
to Sir John Franklins expeditions...from the Innuits that would For all the money and energy spentand lives lostlook-
astonish the civilized world, he wrote in his diary. ing for the ships and survivors, what may be most noteworthy
Hall found neither records nor survivors from the Franklin is that the ship was found in almost exactly the same area
expedition, but he did meet an Inuit elder he identified as In- indicated by the Inuit elder in 1869. The spot, in the area of
archaeology.org 39
ment, a day of rest, and a major storma reminder of the
dangerous power of the Arcticbefore they could don dry
suits and investigate their prize, which sits upright in just
30 feet of water. The visibility was so bad [because of the
storm] that we couldnt see the wreck when we got to the
bottom, Moore says.
Their dive plan was simple and methodical: survey the
wreck, document its condition, determine the most easily
accessible artifacts, and search for anything that could establish
the ships identity beyond doubt. On their first dive, Harris
recalls, he could make out scattered timber as he approached
the wreck from the stern. Out of the glowing murk, a mono-
lithic wreck came into focus. Harris and Moore checked
the perimeter of the ship and then swam to the upper deck,
moving from stern to bow in parallel, shining their lights on
artifacts and hailing one another to peek through holes where
the ships hull had opened.
By dumb luck, I happened to
be on the starboard side and Ryan
was on the port side, Moore says,
which put him in position to find the
key artifact of their search. Moore
approached a green metal mass with
A sword hilt was retrieved from
the clear outline of a bell, cast with
the wreck of Erebus. A scrap of
fabric may indicate whether it the Royal Navy broad arrow and the
belonged to a member of the Royal year 1845. Its quite extraordinary
Navy or Royal Marines. that the date and the broad arrow
were almost upright like a book, facing
Wilmot and Crampton Bay, northeast of OReilly me, ready to read, he says. Ill never
Island, is more than 60 miles south of the ships last forget that. Few items hold as much sym-
documented location. The discovery, which would make bolic value for Harris as that first find, which was
international news in the coming days, was particularly impor- retrieved on the last day of the 2014 dive and is now under-
tant for the Inuit who have stood sentinel over the Arctic for going preservation treatments at a Parks Canada laboratory
generations. It validates their version of events, says Harris. in Ottawa. The bell is the soul of the ship, Harris says.
The next step for Harris and Moore was to determine which It would have been used to mark the passing hours of the
ship they had found. They ran a remotely operated camera doomed mission, a symbol of civility and order in the face of
around the wreck to film and measure the vessel. The mis-
sion came to an abrupt halt as they were secretly flown back
to Ottawa to join the Canadian government in announcing
the discovery to the world. It was a find important to both
Canadian pride and the nations sovereign claim to portions
of the Arctic and the mineral, oil, and gas reserves below. The
announcement was made by no less than Canadas thenPrime
Minister, Stephen Harper.
It would take several weeks of poring over images taken
from a 3-D topographic scanner for Harris to
determine the precise dimensions
of the ship. He knew that one
of the ships was three feet desperation and death.
longer and two feet wider As the [Franklin] mis-
than the other. From those sion unraveled, at what
dimensions, and the loca- point did even the prog-
A fragment of
tions of the ships foremast, mainmast, and hatches, the team ress of time lose signifi-
Erebus wheel was
concluded that they had found the larger of the two ships, the found lying on the cance? Harris adds.
one captained by Franklin himselfErebus. seafloor next to the Subsequent dives have yielded
Harris and Moore had to wait through the announce- wreck. 55 artifactsfor the most part

easily accessible items sitting on the upper deck and strewn leads and clues to help target multibeam sonar searches.
about the seafloor. Among them are one of the ships three What weve been doing and will be doing some more is
cannonsa brass six-pounder, with three cannonballs looking at that Inuit testimony through a lens of discovery,
insidepart of the ships wheel, a sword hilt made of wood Moore says. Its absolutely fascinating going through every
and brass with an attached piece of fabric that could indicate nuance, every sentence, every word recorded...and making
whether it belonged to an officer of the Royal Navy or Royal sure that we understand and know what the Inuit observed.
Marines, a leather shoe or boot, and a wooden table leg that Stenton also has adapted his search for terrestrial sites related
resembles one in an illustration of Franklins cabin on Erebus to the survivors, including the wealth of untapped archaeo-
published in a London newspaper in 1845. Were sort of logical prospects that still exist on King William Island, where
scratching the surface of a very long archaeological process, the crews set ashore for their doomed trip south. His team
Harris says. Daunting years of work lie ahead. recently completed facial reconstructions from the remains of
In the fall 2015 expedition, divers started cutting away two crew members. Another project in the works is analyzing
kelp and other marine life to better assess Erebus condition. DNA from the remains to identify individual crew members
They set out reference markers to accurately record distances and attempt to determine who died where.
and locations on the wreck, and are making plans for an Such is the public fascination with missing ships that Sten-
intensive search inside the ship. Later in
2016, Harris hopes to explore the offi-
cers cabins just behind the main mast,
which are accessible because scouring
ice floes have crushed the main beams
of the upper deck. Were able to look
in at a number of these spaces and
identify both the places where certain
officers would have slept and their
belongings, he says. If youve got hats
or woolen jackets, there is the pros-
pect of there still being hair attached
somewhere, [discoverable] if you look
carefully with a microscope. We can
potentially sample that and determine
who was there. Halls account of Inuit
testimony also mentions that the Inuit
at some point observed a dead man
on board with very long teeth, and a
large, heavy body that took five people
to lift. The remains may still be there.
Structural reinforcement may be
required to search other areas inside Following the discovery of Erebus, the Canadian Coast Guard ship Sir Wilfrid Laurier
the ship, such as the crews mess area sets out to locate Terror, the other ship from Franklins expedition.
and Franklins quarters, both of which
have been badly impacted by ice. Videos taken by the divers ton has already caught himself apologizing to some Franklin
highlight other potential areas of interest on Erebus lower enthusiasts who are mourning the loss of the mystery, and are
deck, such as the ship surgeons sick bay and a seamens chest, wary of what the finds mean for the future of one of the worlds
used to store belongings. According to Harris, We are most least touched and most unforgiving environments. Already the
interested in artifacts that will help reconstruct not just what once-impenetrable Northwest Passage is host to numerous
happened but what life was like. luxury cruise ships, and the territory of Nunavut is keenly
aware of further tourist interest, especially in sites related to
A
s overwhelming as the Erebus project may seem, it the Franklin expedition. Those are very big issues that need
remains only half the story of the Franklin expedition. to be approached cautiously, Stenton says.
Terror is still missing. The working theory is still that Some people have said to me that they hoped the wrecks
Terrorlike Erebuswas carried southward in the drifting ice were never found, he says, adding, I try to ease the pain a
from the point where it was deserted, off the northwestern coast little bit by telling them that we havent found Terror yet, so
of King William Island. The discovery of Erebus, and the proof its not a total disappointment. n
of the accuracy of the Inuit accounts, has forced Moore back
into the library for the original nineteenth-century accounts of Allan Woods is a writer and reporter at the Toronto Star.
rescue missions and Inuit testimony, which may contain new To see more artifacts from Erebus, go to archaeology.org/erebus
archaeology.org 41
Children
of Giza
Finds from a cemetery near the
pyramids are illuminating the Egyptian
view of youth and the afterlife
by Daniel Weiss
J ust a short walk from the Sphinx and the

Great Pyramid, those majestic wonders of
the Old Kingdoms 4th Dynasty (25752450
b.c.), lie the remains of a far more humble
structure from the same period known as
Heit el-Ghurab, or the Wall of the Crow. The
walls original purpose is unknown, but several thou-
sand years after it was built, during the 26th Dynasty
vated as part of Ancient Egypt Research Associates
(AERA) Giza Plateau Mapping Project. Bioarchae-
ologist Jessica Kaiser, who was the projects chief
osteologist for 10 years, found telling differences
between child burials and those of adults, as well as
changes over time in the manner in which children
were interred. In all, she identified 86 child buri-
als70 from the 26th Dynasty, also known as
(664525 b.c.) and again during the early Roman the Saite period, and 16 from the Roman period.
period (first to second centuries a.d.), it served as the According to Kaiser, grave goods were found in
site of a cemetery where those from the lower rungs almost two-thirds of the Saite juvenile burials and in
of societyincluding childrenwere laid to rest. four-fifths of the Roman ones. By comparison, grave
In recent years, this cemetery has been exca- goods were found in just over a third of all burials in
the cemetery. The most significant aspect of the
child burials is the care with which they were all
interred, she says. It shows that children were
thought to have an afterlife. We already knew that
from other sites, but this is one of the poorer cemeteries to
have been extensively excavated, and you can see that they
concentrated their meager resources on children.
Analysis of the items interred with the children begins to
convey what Egyptians believed they might need on their
way to the afterlife. Jewelry and amulets included in graves
were surely valued in their own right, but they also played an
important role in protecting the dead and warding off evil.
While adults were frequently interred with just a single bead
or amulet, children were more likely to be buried with multiple
items, suggesting that they were thought to need an extra
assistor extra protectionafter death.
Among the items included with children are earrings,
Dozens of burials of children, such as this Saite one in a human-

shaped coffin (left), have been found in a cemetery near Egypts
pyramids. One example included an amulet of the god Bes
(above), who was thought to help protect the young.

Within view of the Giza Plateaus monumental
pyramids sits the Wall of the Crow (low structure
in front of trees), where later generations of poor
Egyptians chose to bury their children.
possibly to defend against demons, as the ears were today, this particular section of the wall is thought
considered particularly susceptible to attack, to have fertility-granting powers and is visited
and cowrie shells, which were seen as fertil- by Egyptian women who hope to conceive.
ity symbols because of their resemblance Why would these women insist on going to
to female genitalia. Amulets representing the walls eastern end, Kaiser asks, unless
the Eye of Horus are thought to have the eastern end has specific meaning?
offered general protection on the way In contrast, child burials from the
to the afterlife, while amulets of the later, Roman time are mixed in with
deities Bes, Hathor, Bastet, and Nut adult ones away from the wall. This
may have been intended to promote has parallels with other burial practices
fertility and to protect both women during child- known from that era, in which children were
birth and youngsters after birth. interred in anthropoid coffins, as were adults,
As Kaiser studied the two periods, she and were depicted on them as mature men
detected a shift in the burial treatment of or women, possibly to present them as fully
children as time went on. Almost all the Saite prepared for transition to the afterlife.
child burials are concentrated in an area at the According to AERAs director, Mark
east end of the Wall of the Crow, with younger Lehner, the Saite and Roman periods had in
children being generally interred in plain boxes, common a revival of interest in Egypts past and
while older ones tend to have anthropoid, or in its most impressive icons on the Giza Plateau.
human-shaped, coffins. This may explain why the nearby Wall of the Crow cem-
Kaiser says it is possible that the wall was seen as a phal- etery was active during both. Roman-era leaders, in fact, took
lic symbol capable of imbuing the young deceased with the steps to repair the Sphinx and to build a large esplanade in
mature sexual potential necessary to get to the afterlife. Even front of it, even as a fifth of a mile to the southeast, people
of far lesser means did what they could to help their deceased
At the Wall of the Crow cemetery, children were far more likely children thrive after death. n
than adults to be buried with grave goods, such as an amulet of
the goddess Nut (top) and a composite Eye of Horus (above). Daniel Weiss is a senior editor at Archaeology.
archaeology.org 43
Portrait of William Shakespeare,
perhaps painted by John Taylor, in the
National Portrait Gallery, London
Renovations, entertainment, and grief at New Place,
Shakespeares manor in Stratford-upon-Avon
by Kate Ravilious
THE BARD AT HOME

T
he summer of 1596 was a sad one for Wil-
liam Shakespeare. Following the success of
Romeo and Juliet and A Midsummer Nights
Dream the previous year, his only son,
Hamnet, died at the age of 11. No letters
or documents record how Englands most
celebrated dramatist and poet felt at the time, but perhaps
some of his grief can be detected in King John (written later
in 1596), in the words he gave Lady Constance, a mother
frantic at the loss of her son, Arthur:
Grief fills the room up of my absent child,

Lies in his bed, walks up and down with me,
Puts on his pretty looks, repeats his words,
Remembers me of all his gracious parts,
Stuffs out his vacant garments with his form
O Lord! my boy, my Arthur, my fair son!
My life, my joy, my food, my all the world!
My widow-comfort, and my sorrows cure!
Soon after, in 1597, the 33-year-old playwright, who was by

that time the talk of London, was drawn back to his roots in
Stratford-upon-Avon, the small market town about 100 miles
northwest of London, where he was born. Records show that
he bought New Place, the second largest house in town, for
the considerable sum of 120 (a Stratford school teacher
would have earned around 20 per year at the time). As a Shakespeares house in Stratford-upon-Avon is depicted in a 1737
child, Shakespeare is likely to have walked past this grand drawing and description that is helping archaeologists understand
and unique house on his way to school, says Kevin Colls, an how the playwright renovated the stately home later in his life.
archaeologist from Staffordshire University, and it probably
O
made a big impression on him. riginally built in 1483, New Place was a three-story
This year marks the 400th anniversary of Shakespeares brick and timber house with more than 20 rooms and
sudden death at the age of 52. His plays continue to be per- 10 fireplaces, arrayed around a courtyard and accom-
formed, studied, and appropriated worldwide, and he is cred- panied by two barns, two orchards, and two small gardens. It
ited with introducing 300 words and dozens of well-known was certainly one of the nicest houses in Stratford, but none-
phrases into the English language. Yet, strangely, for all his theless seems a somewhat puzzling fit for Shakespeare at that
enduring fame, little is known about what kind of man the time of his life. He had until then spent most of his career in
Bard of Avon was. Scholars have pored over his every written London, and his contemporaries were demonstrating their
word and scrutinized every document related to his life, but success by investing in houses close to the city.
Shakespeare himself remains elusive. Now excavations at the Nicholas Rowe, an eighteenth-century Shakespeare biog-
site of New Place are helping to provide an intimate picture of rapher, states that the playwright retired to Stratford some
his lifeboth as celebrated entertainer and grieving father years before his death, which some take to mean that he
including where and how he may have spent his later years. retreated from public life following Hamnets death, a period
archaeology.org 45
Through the roots and soil, Colls and his colleagues
uncovered some brick foundations belonging to the
open hall, a family room situated at the back of the
house, beyond the courtyard. Measuring around 35
by 30 feet, the open hall would have originally been
made from timber, but it appears that Shakespeare
decided to reconstruct it in brick. This was probably
to reduce the risk of fire, explains Colls.
Traditionally, an open hall would have had a cen-
tral hearth, but in this case it had been replaced with
a large, semicircular hearth and chimney in a corner
of the room. These were serious renovations that
would have been expensive and dangerous to carry
out, says Colls, who speculates that the rearrange-
ment and improvements to the way the hall was
heated would have enabled Shakespeare to divide
it into smaller, cozier parlors, as per the fashion
of the day. Dating these
renovations is tricky, but
Colls and his colleagues
are confident that Shake-
A 1702 engraving (above) depicts New Place after speare had authorized
Shakespeares death, but before the house was razed them. A receipt for the
by a later owner in a tax dispute. An 1864 photograph sale of a load of stone,
(right) shows small-scale excavations at the site that
dated 1598, suggests major
revealed some of the buildings foundations.
building works occurring
at the time, and Shake-
during which he may have written his Henry IV speare was the only owner
plays. By contrast, government papers show that of New Place likely to have
Shakespeare regularly performed before Queen had the funds for such an
Elizabeth I, and then King James I, who succeeded extensive remodeling. The
to the throne in 1603, suggesting that he must have few artifacts recovered in
spent long periods of time in London even after his that part of the house,
sons death. Some people like to think of him sit- including a gaming piece
ting in his study in Stratford, surrounded by books, and a tuning peg, speak of
and others imagine he was leading a hectic life in an affluent household, with
London, says Michael Wood, an English historian time to spare.
and broadcaster who has worked extensively on By 2015 the excavations
Shakespeares life. No one really knows. moved beyond the open hall to reveal Shakespeares kitchen
Whatever answers New Place might hold are well hidden. and a brewhouse (water was unsafe at the time, so people
The house is reputed to have been razed in 1759 by its then- drank weak beer instead), both adjacent to it. The kitchen,
owner, Reverend Francis Gastrell, in a fit of pique over taxes. which measured around 20 by 15 feet, contained a stone
Today the site is a public garden managed by the Shakespeare sink, a cold-storage pit, and a hearth, evident from layers of
Birthplace Trust. In 2010 the Trust, along with Staffordshire leftover charcoal. Finding Shakespeares oven [the hearth]
Universitys Centre of Archaeology, launched a public research was such a thrillthis was where the family baked bread,
project to explore the remains of New Place and discover more says Paul Edmondson, one of the archaeologists on the team.
about Shakespeares life there. Their starting points were areas Fragments of plates, cups, and cookware were also found in
previously investigated by J.O. Halliwell-Phillipps, a historian the kitchen area, along with bones from venison and fish
who conducted small-scale excavations at the site the 1860s. His including cod. These foodstuffs were relatively unusual at
work provided valuable glimpses of New Places foundations, but this time, says Colls.
it was far from a complete picture. From the records of those Crucially, the discovery of the open hall and kitchen
excavations, Colls and his colleagues were unable to determine enabled the archaeologists to map out the rest of the house.
which parts of the house Halliwell-Phillipps had exposed. These courtyard houses from this era tended to have quite
That changed in 2012, when construction of a new visitor a formulaic layout around the open hall, so we were able
center required the removal of a mulberry tree, which turned to draw comparisons in the layout and design with closely
out to be concealing the heart of Shakespeares family home. matching houses, such as Strangers Hall near Norwich, which

still stands today, says Colls. Meanwhile, a drawing and A game piece, crib peg, and bobbin found at New Place
suggest an affluent, leisurely life for Shakespeares family.
written description of Shakespeares home made in 1737
by George Vertueone of the most accu-
rate engravers of the timefurther this part of the house to a long gallery would have been
helped archaeologists piece together a major construction project, involving knocking out a
the remaining gaps. number of supporting walls, says Colls.
Along one edge of what would have The long gallery, together with the evidence for the
been the courtyard, the archaeologists renovations at the back of the house, makes it clear
found evidence of additional renova- that Shakespeare was prepared to go to great lengths to
tions from Shakespeares time, in the create the home he wanted for himself and his surviving
form of brick foundations for external familyhis wife, Anne Hathaway, and daughters Susanna
staircases. This would have enabled and Judith (Hamnets twin sister). This is backed
access to sleeping chambers from the up by Shakespeare biographer Lewis Theobald,
front of the house, without the need who wrote in 1733 of how Shakespeare had
to go through the servants quarters, repaired and modelled it [New Place] to his
explains Colls. In the middle of own mind. My personal opinion, says Wood,
the courtyard they found evidence is that buying New Place was Shakespeares
for a huge pit, 10 feet wide and response to the death of his sonhis attempt
six feet deep, that had been back- to make things whole again.
filled. There was nothing personal According to Colls and Edmondson, having
in the pit, says Colls. Instead it invested so much time, energy, and money
looked more like a big clear-out that in the house, Shakespeare likely spent large
occurred near the beginning of Shakespeares ownership, with amounts of time there with his family and friends. I think
lots of broken roof tiles and rubble. the purchase was a very deliberate decision and he became a
At the front of the house archaeological evidence was commuter, probably spending months at a time in Stratford,
sparse, but the first-floor windows in Vertues drawing suggest says Edmondson, given that the journey to London would
that Shakespeare carried out significant renovations there as have taken three or four days at that time.
wellin a manner that may speak to how he spent his time Wood isnt so sure that Shakespeare could have left his
there. The style and design of the windows are in line with London life behind so easily, but agrees that the Bard probably
sixteenth- to seventeenth-century architecture, says Colls, did live at New Place for some long stretches, perhaps for a
and again, Shakespeare was the only owner flush enough to specific purpose. He may well have retreated there to avoid
have made the changes. These new windows would have let some of the worst outbreaks of the plague during the early
extra light into what was probably the long gallery, a room seventeenth century, he says. Also, his creation of the long
running the length of the first floor. These large entertain- gallery overthrows the idea of his grief over Hamnet leading
ing spaces were fashionable for the rising middle classes, and to a retreat from public life. This room speaks of a man who
it is most likely that Shakespeare remodeled the front of the was gregarious and sociable, says Colls. Furthermore, it was
house to create this long gallery, says Edmondson. Prior to a status symbola place for feasting, admiring and exhibiting
Shakespeares renovations, the trend would have been to have artworks, and promenading. From both archaeological work
the servants quarters at the front of the house. Converting and historical documents, a picture emerges of a man who
wanted to exude wealth and prominence in the community.
Shakespeare had recently gained gentleman statusa huge
leap from his familys farm-labor heritageand this house was
the perfect way to show off his success. Social class was very
important in Shakespeares life, and this house represented a
way of establishing himself, says Wood.
Today the gardens at the site of New Place are rather
hushedthere, people speak of the Bard of Avon in reverent
voices. But in its day it was lively, perhaps even a touch brash.
Most likely the gardens would have rung with the laughter of
Susanna and Judith, the long gallery would have bustled with
visitors, and the corridors would have echoed with the footfalls
of scurrying servants. And as for the man himself, he seems to
have been at the heart of it all, continuing to pen the words
that have made his name almost synonymous with the stage. n
The kitchen of New Place, including a hearth, a cold-storage
pit, and a stone sink, was excavated in 2015. Kate Ravilious is a science journalist based in York, United Kingdom.
archaeology.org 47
Archaeologists
excavate for
the first time
one of the walls
that surround
the ancient
city of Co Loa,
Vietnams
earliest urban
center.
Vietnams
First City
At the site of Co Loa, researchers
are examining the foundations of
power in Southeast Asia
A
by Lauren Hilgers
bout 10 miles outside of Hanois city center,
where the urban environment gives way to
rice paddies and vegetable stalls, a steep hill
rises abruptly out of the landscape and runs
adjacent to the road for half a mile before
turning away. Closer examination reveals
that it is man-madesubstantial, certainly, and old. The rise
is, in fact, the outer edge of the remains of Co Loa, Vietnams
earliest urbanized center, an earthen rampart that, more than
2,000 years after it was built, still defines the land it occupies.
The structure, says Nam C. Kim, an archaeologist at the Uni-
versity of WisconsinMadison, represents a turning point in
Vietnams history, the moment when a powerful, centralized
state evolved out of the regions protohistoric Iron Age culture.
Co Loa is a city that shouldnt have existed, at least not at
the time and on the scale that its ramparts suggest. The lowest
levels of Co Loas walls have been dated as far back as 300 b.c.,
a period in which, according to many researchers, centralized
states had not yet evolved in Southeast Asia. Instead, scholars
have long believed that the regions only settlements were
small, moated, and loosely organized at best. Such minor sites
formed part of Vietnams ancient Dongson culture, a society
known for its impressive ceremonial bronze drums. The
Dongson left behind no written records, and their scattered
burials and archaeological sites are linked to one another only
by the distinctive bronze workdrums, daggers, vesselsthat
suggests a shared cultural production.

archaeology.org 49
which propelled northern Vietnam
from an era of scattered rural settle-
ments to one of centralized power
and urbanization.
Depending on the estimates,
were looking at maybe 500 to 600
hectares [approximately 1,500 acres]
of space, Kim says of the area
enclosed by the outermost wall. Most
other settlements from the same time
period are significantly smaller. Co
Loa, he says, is simply unparalleled.
The settlement is encircled by walls
three times over, and inside the ram-
parts, archaeologists have discovered
the remains of firing kilns, carefully
decorated roof tiles, weapons, and
large-scale bronze workshops.
Before Kims work helped estab-
lish Co Loas timeline, there were
two accounts of when and how the
city came to be: one from written
foreign sources and another from
Vietnams folk history. According to
Chinese historical texts, centralized
power in Vietnam can be traced back
to the influence of the Han Dynasty,
which invaded and settled in the area
in the second century b.c. It was the
Han, these texts state, who brought
advanced agricultural ideas, military
expertise, and building techniques
to a less-developed, barbaric, part
of Asia. The alternate version comes
from Vietnamese legends. They sug-
gest that a small empirethe Au Lac
Kingdomwas united by an ancient
Vietnamese army general, An Duong
In this satellite photo, miles of Co Loas walls are visible as dark bands spiraling around the Vuong. He was a military genius and
modern town at center. New research is examining when and how the walls were built.
an astute ruler, who wielded a magic
crossbow given to him by a golden
It is now understood that from among this smattering of turtle. For his capital, he picked a location close to the Red
settlements, Co Loa grew into a polity the likes of which the River, flanked by mountains and thick forest.
region had never seenand in a matter of just decades. The Vietnamese historians and archaeologists began to offi-
city featured large-scale earthworks, a complex system of cially research these topics in the 1960s, says Trinh Hoang
water management, and an area large enough to hold a truly Hiep, an archaeologist at the Vietnamese Institute of Archae-
urban population. It drew upon a labor force large enough to ology and Kims collaborator at the Co Loa site. But the local
build its ramparts, divert river water, and feed an expanding people living in the area of Co Loa have known about these
population. Significantly, according to Kims research at the stories for much longer due to the existence of folklore and
site, it became this urban center hundreds of years earlier than oral traditions for many generations. Trinh learned about An
previously thought. Kims timeline places the earliest rampart Duong Vuong in high school. It is something that every stu-
construction well before a Han Dynasty invasion that took dent learns about, he says, even if they do not exactly know
place in 111 b.c. The citys development was long believed to about the archaeology.
be a result of this occupation, but it now appears, rather, to Kims findings, which establish that some of Co Loas walls
be a story of cultural exchange and emulation, drawing from predate Chinese presence in the area by centuries, appear to
both Dongson and Chinese influences and technologies, all of favor folktale over written historythat the city was founded

locally rather than by an invading force. Kim believes the truth back of his mind. When archaeologists at the Institute asked
to be somewhere in between. He thinks Co Loas story is one him what he was interested in, Kim said Co Loa. I was thinking,
of development that relied on cultural exchange, trade, and Shoot for the moon and see what happens. I didnt expect they
local ingenuity. The site can offer archaeologists a narrative would say yes. He was offered a tour of the site later that week.
more compelling than a simple timeline, one that provides The biggest change in our work, since the late 1990s, has been
insight into the galvanizing forces behind centralization and to include more foreign collaboration, says Trinh. This was done
how a region might organize and urbanize. because of a shift in objectives from pure research to include a
greater sense of preservation and conservation. The hope was to
K
im spent the first year of his life in Vietnam, but grew begin making Co Loa better known outside of Vietnam.
up in the United States. He was evacuated from Saigon The Institute had been conducting excavations at the
with his parents in 1975, by helicopter from the top of site for nearly three decades before Kim arrived. The focus,
the USAID building, as American forces retreated. I grew up however, had been primarily on the artifacts that had been
knowing nothing about Co Loa and Vietnamese history, Kim uncovered within its inner walls. No one had excavated the
says. I knew about the recent history because my parents ramparts themselves. Recalling his first visit, Kim says, We
experienced it. It wasnt until he was a graduate student at the went from one environment, downtown Hanoi, to a more
University of Illinois at Chicago that he started looking into rural environment. Going into the site itself through the main
Vietnams ancient past. By the time he decided to return to the entrance, which is on the south side, youre going through
country of his birth, it had been 30 years since his rice paddies and you go across this bridge. I had seen
family had fled. satellite photos, he adds, but when
Kim arrived, in 2005, with youre on the ground you realize
little more than a handful of just how large-scale these
contacts and a scheduled constructions are and how
meeting at the Vietnam- much labor likely went
ese Institute of Archaeol- into them.
ogy in Hanoi. He kept Co Loa is defined by
his expectations low. I the three spiraling lay-
was a graduate student, ers of packed-earth walls
he says. No one knew me. I that form its ramparts. The
had gotten in touch with some second, irregularly shaped wall
folks in Hanoi, but we hadnt is the focus of Kims research.
talked about anything specific. It runs for four miles and
Nonetheless, he arrived with a stands about 30 feet in height.
wish list of archaeological sites in the The innermost wall approximates a
rectangle and is slightly over a mile
A massive, 158-pound bronze in total length. The outer wall
drum (right), in the style of the has a five-mile perimeter and
Dongson culture, was excavated
at Co Loa in 1981. Inside were
measures only 10 to 12 feet high
more than a hundred bronze today, depending on local topog-
artifacts, including plowshares raphy and modern disturbances.
(below) and weapons. Archaeologists can only guess at
archaeology.org 51
made discoveries revealing the
scope of production and wealth
at Co Loa. In the 1980s, they
uncovered an enormous bronze
drum158 pounds, 29 inches
across, and 21 inches tallnear
the inner wall. This find, its
surface intricate with circular
carvings of warriors, drummers,
and people threshing rice, ties
the site more closely to Vietnams
Dongson culture. Inside the drum
itself, archaeologists found a trove
of bronze artifacts: 96 plow-
shares, six hoes, and a variety of
axes, daggers, and arrowheads.
It is estimated that it would have
required thousands of pounds
of ore to manufacture the drum
and its contents. In addition, the
drum held a Chinese coin from
200 b.c. and an inscription in
Chinese on the inner surface of
the drum. Co Loa may have been
The middle wall of Co Loa, shown here after vegetation was stripped away, but before excavation, built before the Han Dynasty
had been built in three stages and required the mobilization of a large, organized labor force.
annexed northern Vietnam, but it
was not built in a vacuum.
the height of the wall at the citys apexerosion, episodic We know that these materials were being produced and used
refurbishments, and over a thousand years of continual human before the Han presence had come into the culture, Kim says.
habitation make any precise calculations impossible. Likewise, The emulation argument makes more sense [than annexation],
researchers have been hard-pressed to determine the extent given its proximity to what was happening in the north. It was
of a network of canals, moats, and reservoirs that run through the Warring States period [475221 b.c.] in the north. You might
the site. Today, depressions in the landscape still fill up with have a lot of movement of people, taking their ways of life and
water during floods and downpours, and modern bridges cross their ideas with them.
them. In places, ditches run alongside the length of the ancient In addition to the drum, archaeologists had also previously
ramparts. Its likely, however, that many ancient reservoirs have uncovered a cache of 10,000 bronze-tanged projectiles near
been filled in over time. the southern entrance to Co Loaarrow tips that bring to
What we suspect is that they were taking earthen materials mind An Duong Vuong and his feared crossbow. And, in other
out of the ground [to build up the walls] and simultaneously areas of the city, archaeologists have uncovered roof tiles
making these ditches, Kim says. In the middle wall, the similar to those found during the same period in what is today
original shape of the ditch was sort of a V in cross-section. southern China. These tiles, however, bear starburst patterns
So we suspect that this was originally a dry ditch that might that more closely match designs on Dongson bronzes. This,
have had some kind of military purpose. Later, it could have Kim says, is another point of overlap between Chinese and
served for water management or water transportation. There Vietnamese traditions, and further evidence that the polity
are many different possibilities. And the ditches may have may have functioned as a hub of trade and cultural exchange.
been intended to provide alldefense, irrigation, and the
K
delineation of social space. Filled with the monsoon rains, ims thesis was strengthened when he began his
they may have served as canals along which boats could move own excavations in 2006, and began to put the previ-
throughout the city. ously excavated artifacts within a solid timeline. His
Kim notes that a reservoir inside the settlement still fills intention was to address the question of cultural exchange
today. Depending on the time of year, he says, it sometimes versus annexation and to find out how quickly Co Loa had
looks like a lake. The suspicion is that the reservoir allowed been established. Kim and Trinh chose to focus on the middle
access into the city, out to the Red River, and then up the river wall of the city and excavated a cross-section near the northern
to modern-day China or downriver to the coast. It would have gate, where the wall runs generally east-west.
been pretty strategically located. Kim was able to separate the rampart into three phases of
When Kim arrived, Vietnamese archaeologists had already construction: early, middle, and late. Using radiocarbon dating,

he placed the earliest, bottommost section sometime in the of construction into three stages that began with a layer of soil,
fourth century b.c., well before the Han Dynasty had annexed sand, and clay placed in layers to form a kind of mound. At the
the territory at the end of the second century b.c. The middle top of this section, Kim discovered a depression that runs the
phase of construction ran from 300 to 100 b.c., and shows how length of the wall, and may have been used as a pathway for
Chinese influence began to spread before the annexation. In walking or pulling carts. Over that, rammed earth was added
the initial phase of the construction we just have piled earth, to create a strong, flat top surface. Atop that, Kim found
Kim explains. The middle layers appear to be rammed earth, another layer of dumped earth, but this one differed from the
not all that different from what you would find in China. other because it contained the bulk of the artifacts his team
While many monumental structures around the world uncovered, primarily ceramic roof tiles and stones. The tiles are
during this time period came together slowlythe result similar to those already discovered by Vietnamese archaeolo-
of accretionary building over centuries or millenniaKim gists. Kim theorizes that there was a roof running the length
believes Co Loas construction went quickly. He estimates of the rampart at this stage, or that the tiles were placed there
that the amount of soil moved, just for the middle phase, to protect the wall from erosion.
reached more than 30 million cubic feet. It also appears to With all of this in mind, Kim has developed a number
have been done without substantial pauses in building, which of theories about the speed and strategic importance of Co
would be represented by layers of natural fill. Using rates Loas construction. What kind of labor force would it take?
of construction from case studies that other archaeologists he asks. Archaeologists have not uncovered buildingsthey
have conducted worldwide, I suspect were looking at years know very little about the size and scale of the settlements in
or decades, Kim says. This is different from other large and around Co Loa, and, on that basis, little about the size
construction [projects], which took centuries or millennia. of the population in the area. Based on a five-hour workday
This happened much more quickly. It signals a much more for laborers and the quantity of earth that would have been
centralized approach to labor and land management. moved, Kim estimates that more than five million individual
The final phase of construction came much later. From workdays would have been required to complete Co Loas
early rampart system. This corresponds
to a large labor force, spanning multiple
generations, for construction and main-
tenance, and hence a stable, centralized
power capable of directing and feeding
them, as well as a military force capable
of defending the city wallsa true polity.
Kim suspects that Co Loas founders
had a military background, but he will
not go so far as to say that general An
Duong Vuong was involved. Folklore
can only do so much. Whether or not
that person actually existed or that
polity actually existed, he says, there
was some kind of society that was cen-
tralized politically that had access to a
lot of labor.
The next step, according to Kim,
Ceramic roof tile fragments, which combine Vietnamese and Chinese styles, were
found within the walls of Co Loa. They may have been placed to prevent erosion, or
will be to look at how the local envi-
may suggest that the wall once had a roof atop it. ronment changed as Co Loa was being
built. Preliminary studies of pollen in
pottery fragments, archaeologists determined that the last, the earth used in the ramparts construction suggest the area
tightly packed layers of soil were deposited in the fifteenth was heavily forested before Co Loa was built, and not ideal for
or sixteenth century a.d.perhaps an attempt at refurbish- agriculture. The findings imply that large swaths of forest had
ment by a later power. been cleared and sweeping landscape changes took place as
Estimating the amount of labor required to build the the city developed. The research we are starting to do moving
ramparts is Kims approach to getting at population size and forward involves looking at the other aspects of the settlement
growth along the Red River over time. The construction began itselfwhere everybody was living, and what types of changes
with a foundation of soil taken from the corresponding ditch, were made to the environment over time, he says. Dating the
spread out to create a flat surface. Mixed with this founda- ramparts represents planting a stake in the ground. Kim says,
tion, Kim found topsoil from rice paddies, an indication that Heres where we can start. n
increased agricultural activity was already transforming the
area when Co Loa was built. Kim separates the middle phase Lauren Hilgers is a journalist based in Brooklyn.
archaeology.org 53
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LETTER FROM ENGLAND
Beneath medieval Bamburgh Castle
on Englands northeast coast lie
the remains of a royal Anglo-Saxon
fortress that was once the seat of the
kings of Northumbria.
Stronghold of the Kings in

the North
Excavations at one of Britains most majestic castles help tell
the story of an Anglo-Saxon kingdom
by Eric A. Powell
O
n the windswept northeastern gist Graeme Young, and a different Dark Ages, but Young suggests that
coast of England, Bamburgh vision of the castle emerges. On his discoveries here paint a more nuanced
Castle rises high above a morning tea break, Young takes a few picture. Weve long known Bam-
massive outcrop of black dolerite. Its moments from supervising his crew to burgh was an important site during
brooding sandstone fortifications com- explain that he has spent 20 years exca- the Anglo-Saxon period, he says, but
mand sweeping views of the surround- vating inside and around Bamburgh weve discovered it was much more
ing county of Northumberland, which in an effort to understand the sites cosmopolitan that we imagined.
was once the heart of the medieval 2,000-year history. Beneath the stately Sitting in a small office tucked into
kingdom of Northumbria. Visit the cas- grounds of the modern castle, he and the wall of Bamburghs west court-
tle today, and what you see is an ornate his team have unearthed the remains yard, Young tells the unlikely story of
Norman fortress that was extensively of a royal citadel from the early medi- archaeology in the castle. It begins in
rebuilt by its owners in the eighteenth eval period, when Northumbrias the 1960s, when famously eccentric
and early twentieth centuries, though Anglo-Saxon kings made this nearly archaeologist Brian Hope-Taylor start-
traces of medieval masonry are still vis- impregnable volcanic plateau their seat ed to excavate inside the castle walls.
ible in many of the buildings. But view of power. In the popular imagination, He had previously dug at a nearby
the site through the eyes of archaeolo- this era is the violent and barbaric early royal Anglo-Saxon settlement
archaeology.org 55
to understand it properly. They also
became the unexpected heirs of Hope-
Taylors considerable legacy.
While searching for office space,
Young and the castles groundskeeper
broke the locks on the small rooms
built into the castle walls that had
sat unopened for decades. What
they found inside was a kind of time
capsule of Hope-Taylors fieldwork.
Still astonished by the discovery,
Young shares pictures of the rooms
that show they were filled with dust-
covered boxes of bones, artifacts,
and soil samples, all excavated by
Hope-Taylor. A 1974 copy of the

Daily Telegraph still resting on a chair
A gold plaque depicting the so-called Bamburgh Beast (top) and an Anglo- helped establish the date of the last
Saxon sword (above) were recovered during early excavations at the castle. field season. Weve accidently inher-
ited an enormous body of work at
called Yeavering that he believed was permission, and the small team began an extraordinary site, says Young.
a co-capital with Bamburgh of the their work. Twenty years later, Young Hope-Taylors students later found
kingdom of Bernicia, which predated shakes his head and smiles at the years worth of Bamburgh excavation
Northumbria. He was one of the memory. We were thinking of it as notes, and even artifacts, such as a
first archaeologists to seriously study a short project that wed do on week- sword, in his apartment. Now, the
Anglo-Saxon sites, says Young. He ends among friends, he says. But that Bamburgh teams task is not only to
really was a pioneer. Scholars con- short project quickly bloomed into a understand their own excavations,
sider Hope-Taylors meticulous pub- much bigger effort when it became but to synchronize their findings
lication of the Yeavering excavation a apparent to the team that the richness with the copious record Hope-Taylor
landmark in Anglo-Saxon archaeology. of the site meant it would take years left behind.
Unfortunately, though he made sev-
eral spectacular discoveries at Bam-
burgh, including the best-preserved
Anglo-Saxon sword in Britain and
a solid gold plaque depicting a styl-
ized animal known as the Bamburgh
Beast, he was not able to publish his
results before his death in 2001.
Young has a personal investment in
Hope-Taylors work. He grew up visit-
ing Bamburgh and credits the forma-
tive experience of exploring the castle
as a boy with inspiring him to become
an archaeologist. In 1996, he and his
colleagues contacted the castle owners
to request permission to follow up on
Hope-Taylors excavations. We didnt
know where he had dug, says Young,
so we were hoping to use geophysics
and small-scale excavation to deter- Long-unopened offices at Bamburgh provided archaeologists with important
mine that. The owners gave their glimpses into prior excavations conducted at the site.

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University of Durham archaeolo- thought to be bishops thrones. Since
gist and Anglo-Saxon expert Rosemary Bamburgh was a secular site, such a
Cramp knew Hope-Taylor well and throne would have been used by the
was glad to see archaeologists return to Northumbrian kings themselves and
Bamburgh. It really is a key site, says likely played an important ceremonial
Cramp, who visits the excavations but role. Its an amazing artifact, says
is not officially involved with the proj- Young. These thrones were called gift-
ect. High points like this are strong- stools, and were central to a fundamen-
holds from prehistoric times onwards, tal ritual during which a warrior would
but very few have the depth of Anglo- receive gifts from his lord in full view of
Saxon deposits that you have at Bam- the court, binding him to the king until
burgh. We still know so little about the death. A replica of the throne now sits
early medieval period. Theres every- in the central courtyard at Bamburgh.
thing to find out, really. Perhaps the most famous of the
T
kings to have sat on the Northumbiran
hough a fortress has probably throne was thelfriths son St. Oswald,
stood above the crag at Bam- a warrior king of great renown who was
burgh since prehistoric times, known as Whiteblade. As Bede tells
little is known about the site before it, when thelfrith was killed in battle
the Romans arrived. Ancient historians in 617 by a rival king, Oswald fled
Analysis of dozens of Anglo-Saxon burials
record that the Britons built a coastal found at a cemetery outside the castle
north to seek sanctuary with the Irish.
fort at the site and that it was the shows that people came to Bamburgh After 17 years, he returned to the king-
stronghold of the Votadini, a tribe that from throughout Britain and Europe. dom and retook the throne by force.
lived beyond the northern frontier of He also brought with him Irish monks
the empire, but whose leaders prob- that it was a high-status center. who converted pagan Anglo-Saxons
ably depended on Roman power for The site first rose to prominence and founded a monastery on the island
their authority. Hope-Taylor discov- in 547, when an Angle warlord known of Lindisfarne, which became an
ered Roman-era pottery at Bamburgh, as Ida the Flamebearer seized the important center of medieval Christi-
says Young. That helps confirm that Briton coastal fortress and founded a anity. Oswald ruled from Bamburgh as
Britons living here were aligned with kingdom called Bernicia. His grandson the most powerful king in England for
Rome. The Romans might have even thelfrith brought the neighbor- eight years, only to be killed in battle
been paying off warlords to help pro- ing Anglian realm of Deira under his and have his corpse dismembered.
tect the frontier. While the team has dominion around 604, creating the Bede records that Oswalds follow-
found stray Roman-era artifacts, such unified kingdom of Northumbria. ers found his arm, which would not
as pieces of glass, they have yet to dig thelfrith renamed the citadel Beb- decompose. They brought this incor-
as deep as Hope-Taylor did. For now, banburgh, or Bebbas fortress, after ruptible arm to Bamburgh, where it
they are focused on the Anglo-Saxons. one of his wives. For the next three was kept in a silver shrine. Oswald was
When the Romans abandoned centuries it played a central role in later canonized and became the object
Britain in the early fifth century, the English history, with its throne often of a cult that was venerated throughout
Germanic Angle, Saxon, and Jute changing hands between warrior kings. Europe. When Young and his team
tribes, collectively called Anglo- Remarkably, an early archaeological conducted remote sensing at the cas-
Saxons, took advantage of the power find at Bamburgh allows scholars to tles twelfth-century chapel, they found
vacuum and sailed across the North visualize exactly what one of those that it was likely built on the remains
Sea to settle in England. Much of thrones would have looked like. of Bamburghs seventh-century church.
what we know about the turbulent In the late nineteenth century That was probably where Oswalds
early Anglo-Saxon period comes from groundskeepers clearing foliage discov- arm was kept, says Young.
The Ecclesiastical History of the English
A
ered intricately carved stone fragments.
People, written by the Venerable Bede, For more than a hundred years they nother glimpse inside Bam-
the eighth-century monk known as were thought to be the remains of a burghs royal court came soon
the father of English history. A native standing cross. But when Rosemary after Youngs project began,
of Northumbria, Bede left an espe- Cramp reexamined the pieces, she when a winter storm exposed early
cially rich (and some would say biased) identified them as the arm of a stone medieval burials outside the castle.
account of the kingdom. Bede often chair dating to around 800. Similar The team excavated the site, known
mentions Bamburgh as the kingdoms carved stone chairs have been found
royal city, says Young. That tells us at Northumbrian monasteries, and are (continued on page 62)

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Photo Credits
COVERIgor Kozhevnikov/Courtesy Andrey
(continued from page 58) And it wasnt just men, she says, but Belinski; 1Courtesy Parks Canada, Photo:
women from Scandinavia and south- Thierry Boyer; 3Courtesy Jean Clottes, Chauvet
as the Bowl Hole cemetery, between ern Europe as well. Whether the peo- Cave Project, Copyright N.J. Saunders, Zona
Arqueolgica Caral, Guillaume Gernez / Mission
2001 and 2007, eventually recover- ple lived permanently at Bamburgh archologique franaise en Oman central; 4State
ing 91 skeletons. Durham University or died there while visiting, possibly Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia /
bioarchaeologist Charlotte Roberts while on a pilgrimage or working there Bridgeman Images; 6E. O./Shutterstock.
com; 9Courtesy David Mearns; 10Courtesy
led the team that studied the remains. temporarily, is impossible to know. But David Mearns, Courtesy Archaeological Site of
They recently published their results: clearly, at its height, Bamburgh was a Saint-Pierre Cathedral, Shutterstock, Photo:
Most of the people buried in the cem- cosmopolitan place, with people from Tejus Shah; 12Courtesy Jean Clottes, Chauvet
Cave Project, Copyright N.J. Saunders, Photo:
etery were likely aristocratic members across Britain and Europe gathering Ali Baldry; 13Courtesy Southern Methodist
of the court. They were mainly wellin the great hall where the Northum- University; 14U.S. Naval History and Heritage
nourished and of high stature, says brian kings held court. Command, NOAA ONMS/Teledyne SeaBotix;
16Courtesy York Archaeological Trust, Courtesy
Roberts, though many had severe Young has even pinpointed just Jessica Lamont; 17Courtesy Professor Matthew
tooth decay that could have where those courtiers would Bennett, Bournemouth University; 18
been brought on in part by have gathered. During a Guillaume Gernez / Mission archologique franaise
en Oman central (3); 20 Zona Arqueolgica
high consumption of mead. geophysical survey of the Caral (3); 22Courtesy Wiltshire Archaeology
Roberts team also ana- castles inner ward, the team Service , Courtesy Aerial Filming Services Ltd.
lyzed strontium isotope discovered traces of a large Courtesy var Brynjlfsson, National Museum of
Iceland; 24(clockwise from top left) Courtesy
levels in the teeth, which can royal mead hall. The Anglo- Laura Lockau, McMaster University, Photo: James
pinpoint where an individual Saxon poem Beowulf describes Connolly (PicSell8), Shutterstock, Photo: Roman
spent his or her childhood. The a similar royal structure as a Babakin, Courtesy Daphne Gallagher, University
of Oregon, NOAA; 25(clockwise from top left)
results showed the people timbered hall, splendid and Courtesy Marco Giglio, Courtesy Margarita Gleba,
buried at the Bowl Hole ornamented with gold. The University of Cambridge, Courtesy the University
cemetery were a surprisingly building in which a powerful of Hong Kong; Shutterstock, Photo: Pete Burana,
Courtesy Mark Beech; 26-27 Courtesy Andrey
diverse group. We found Belinski; 28HIP / Art Resource, NY, Igor
that relatively few locals were At a metalworking area in
Kozhevnikov/Courtesy Andrey Belinski; 29SEF
Bamburgh, archaeologists
buried in the cemetery, says have unearthed hundreds of
/ Art Resource, NY, SEF / Art Resource, NY;
30Igor Kozhevnikov/Courtesy Andrey Belinski
Roberts. Most of these people Anglo-Saxon styca coins. (2), Courtesy Andrey Belinkski; 31Courtesy
came from other regions of the British Andrey Belinski; 32Roman Beniaminson / Art
Isles. Anglo-Saxon kings would often man held court that was the foremost Resource, NY; 33Wikimedia Commons, Photo:
hairymuseummatt, Derivative work: DrMikeBaxter
exchange children or close relatives of halls under heaven. Some scholars (2); 34Courtesy Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory,
as royal hostages to ensure that the have suggested that the poem may Bence Viola (2), MPI f. Evolutionary
terms of treaties were observed. Some have been composed in Northumbria. Anthropology/ B. Viola; 36-37Courtesy Parks
Canada, Photo: Marc-Andr Bernier; 38Courtesy
of the individuals could have been Its possible, says Young, that around Parks Canada, Courtesy Parks Canada, Photo:
staying at Bamburgh as just this kind 1,200 years ago, a poet recited Beowulf Thierry Boyer; Courtesy Parks Canada, Photo:
of hostage. The team also found one for the king in that great hall. Thierry Boyer; 39Courtesy Parks Canada, Photo:
Thierry Boyer; 40Courtesy Parks Canada, Photo:
man who came from the Outer Heb- Marc-Andr Bernier, Courtesy Parks Canada, Photo:
rides, near to where St. Oswald fled ot all the finds at Bamburgh
N
Charles Dagneau (3); 41Courtesy Parks Canada,
during his exile. Artifacts found with relate to the royal Anglo- Photo: Thierry Boyer; 42Photo: Kevin Kaiser,
2016 by Ancient Egypt Research Associates
the burial and radiocarbon dating Saxon court. Just outside the (amulet), Photo: Jessica Kaiser, 2016 by Ancient
show that the man lived in the sev- office where he takes his tea breaks, Egypt Research Associates (coffin); 43 2016
enth century, around the same time as Young and his team have unearthed a by Ancient Egypt Research Associates (cemetery,
wall, and pyramids), Photo: Kevin Kaiser, 2016
Oswald. Perhaps he accompanied the large metalworking area, littered with by Ancient Egypt Research Associates (nut amulet),
famous king back to Northumbria as iron slag and cast-off metal artifacts, Yukinori Kawae, 2016 by Ancient Egypt Research
part of his retinue. Thats as close as including some 300 styca, or Anglo- Associates (eye of Horus); 44 National Portrait
Gallery, London; 45British Library, Add MS
archaeology can get us to the Oswald Saxon coins. It might have functioned 70438; 46Courtesy Shakespeare Birthplace Trust,
story, says Young. something like a mint, says Young. SBT_ER1_96, Courtesy Shakespeare Birthplace
A few of the people interred in They were making so many coins here Trust , SBT_DR1067_3; 47Courtesy Kevin
Colls and William Mitchell (4); 48-49Courtesy
the cemetery came from even far- that they didnt bother to pick up ones Nam C. Kim; 50Courtesy Nam C. Kim, Image
ther afield. Some of the strontium that fell on the floor. by DigitalGlobe and ArchaeoTerra; 51Courtesy
signatures show childhoods spent in Walking around the excavation, Nam C. Kim (2) ; 52Courtesy Nam C. Kim;
53Courtesy Nam C. Kim; 55Colin Carter
Scandinavian countries, and this is Young points out sections Hope-Taylor Photography/GettyImages; 56Courtesy
centuries before the Viking era, says originally explored, as well as subsoil Bamburgh Research Project (3); 58Courtesy
Roberts. Others were from the south- that shows traces of intense burning. Bamburgh Research Project; 62Courtesy
Bamburgh Research Project; 64Horizon AP;68
ern Mediterranean or North Africa. Its possible that that burning could Courtesy Peter Eeckhout

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relate to a dark period in Bamburghs midable defensive structures, but also What they found was a dolerite track
history, when the Vikings first raided a deliberate reference to the power of polished to a sheen from hundreds of
and then settled in the kingdom. In the Roman world, a showy display of years of being trod upon. Everyone
fact, Northumbria was the first of authority that would have stood out who lived at Bamburgh would have
the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms to be rav- dramatically on the landscape. come through this gate, says Young.
aged by the Vikings. From the castles Young continues his walk to a All the people we found buried in
battlements, visitors today can clearly second large area under excavation, the cemetery would have known this
see Lindisfarne, where, in 793, Norse- this one near an entrance to the castle walk. The steep path is stark evidence
men carried out an infamous raid on that has been known as St. Oswalds of how difficult it must have been for
the islands monastery, a brutal event Gate since at least 775, when it is enemy warriors to approach Englands
regarded as the beginning of the mentioned in a chronicle describ- most formidable fortress, but its also
Viking Age. ing Bamburgh. Here the team has a reminder that the citadel was once
While the descendants of the Nor- found trash deposits containing vast the home and workplace for genera-
thumbrian kings continued to rule the amounts of animal bones that show tions of Anglo-Saxons, who would have
area around Bamburgh as earls after the castle residents were eating choice struggled up this path every day.
the Norse invasions, a Viking force
successfully sacked the fortress in 993.
The Vikings may have burned build-
ings when they took the citadel, but
Young believes it is just as likely that
the burned soil hes unearthed is evi-
dence of a massive fire that was caused
by Bamburghs resident metalwork-
ers themselves. It may have been an
industrial accident, says Young, rather
than localized evidence of an attack.
Fires would have been a constant
threat to Anglo-Saxons, who have
long been thought to have largely lost
the art of making stone buildings and
instead built almost exclusively with
wood. But Young and his team are
finding evidence that the people in
Bamburgh knew more about stone- A partial aerial view of Bamburgh castle shows the metalworking area to the left
work than was previously believed. and an area near the castles gate on the right, both of which are under excavation.
We think of Anglo-Saxon England as
a wooden world, really, says Young. cuts of meat. Theyve found evidence Young begins to talk about how
And originally we believed the citadel here for a number of different grains, the Bamburgh Project is nearing the
was defended mainly by a wooden and even lentils, demonstrating that end of its excavation phase, and men-
palisade. But evidence for batch pro- the court enjoyed a diverse diet along tions that publication will soon be
duction of mortar on a large scale at with its mead. the focus of most of the effort. As
Bamburgh, first discovered by Hope- Near the trash deposits they have he speaks, he stops and points to a
Taylor, led them to think stoneworking also unearthed the remains of two church in the distance, located in the
might have been more important than small halls, one timber and the other village that spreads out to the south
they realized. In 2008, during excava- stone, where its likely Bamburghs of the castle. All the people from
tion around the castles chapel, they gate wardens, who controlled access the cemetery will be reburied there,
unearthed a stone wall dating to the to the fortress, lived and worked. St. he says. With the study of their
eighth century. We know there were Oswalds Gate is now largely made of remains complete, the members of
Roman-style stone churches in Nor- eighteenth-century masonry, but as one of Englands greatest Anglo-Saxon
thumbria that were largely rebuilt, Young ducks through the small entry- courts, who came to the citadel from
says Young. I think it was rare, but way, he recalls an earlier excavation throughout Britain and Europe, will
we still probably underestimate how he conducted under the steep steps be returned to the earth. n
much stone building was done by the leading away from the gate. We took
Anglo-Saxons. He thinks that Bam- off the eighteenth-century paving and Eric A. Powell is online editor at
burghs stone walls were not only for- exposed the bedrock below, he says. Archaeology.

www.archaeological.org EXCAVATE, EDUCATE, ADVOCATE
Cotsen Grants Awarded to Archaeologists Working

in Italy and Peru
T
his years Cotsen Excavation and Wari states that had previously
Grants will fund two important dominated much of the Andes.
research projects: one that inves- The collapse of Tiwanaku and Wari
tigates Roman pottery production around a.d. 1000 marked the transition
and innovation at a site in Italy, and a from the Middle Horizon to the Late
second that examines changing cultural Intermediate Period in Peru. After
traditions and burial practices in the the collapse, small settlements were
Moquegua Valley in Peru. established in the Moquegua Valley
The Cotsen Excavation Grant for by populations affiliated with Tiwa-
First-Time Project Directors was naku. These communities continued
awarded to Astrid Van Oyen, assistant pre-collapse cultural practices for two
professor in the Department of Clas- centuries. In a.d. 1200, a cultural group
sics at Cornell University, for the Mar- called the Estuquia appears to have
zuolo Archaeological Project (MAP): disturbed traditions, bringing with
Crafting Innovation and Community them a different material culture, and
in the Roman Countryside, a five-year Nicola Sharratt, Cotsen different construction practices, ritu-
excavation at Podere Marzuolo in Excavation Grant winner als, and burial practices. Sharratt and
her team will use the grant to continue
will challenge the current orthodox- excavating an Estuquia cemetery,
ies of the ancient rural economy as which will allow her to reconstruct the
occupied by conservative, isolated, and local political landscape during a period
economically underdeveloped farmers of fragmentation and explore the role
and instead reveal a more nuanced of mortuary ritual in processes of social
picture of the changing practices of a interaction and cultural replacement.
Astrid Van Oyen (center), highly diversified crafting community
Cotsen Excavation Grant winner that was well connected and actively
innovating. International
Italy. Van Oyens research examines The Cotsen Excavation Grant for
the social context that influences and Ongoing Projects was awarded to Archaeology Day
shapes interactions between humans Nicola Sharratt, assistant professor in
and objects. Anthropology at Georgia State Uni- Celebration
Survey and excavation have uncov- versity. Sharratts research examines the
I
ered evidence for ceramic production aftermath of state collapse and commu- nternational Archaeology Day
at Marzuolo. One type of pottery in nity response to political upheaval. Her (IAD) is October 15, 2016. The
particular, Italian terra sigillata, appears project, Cultural Collapse and Funer- global celebration of archaeology
to have gone through an experimental ary Practice: A Mortuary Perspective keeps growing both in numbers of
phase of production before the potters on the Middle Horizon to LIP Transi- events and participants. Last year
settled into a more standardized pro- tion in Southern Peru, will investigate more than 100,000 people worldwide
duction mode. Van Oyen will explore the significant changes that occurred in participated in over 500 events orga-
how and why experimentation and the Moquegua Valley of Peru around nized by more than 400 Collaborating
innovation occurred in the production a.d. 1200two centuries after the Organizations. To learn more about
process. She believes that her results collapse of the powerful Tiwanaku the celebration and to find out how
65
political, and religious exchange in the hammam, grand mosque, and palace,
Excavate, Educate, Advocate
Middle Ages, and, despite the reloca- and partially reconstruct the walls.
tion of the capital to Marrakech in Eroding lime plaster covering the
the eleventh century by the conquer- walls will be repaired and the plaster
ing Almoravids, Aghmat carried on consolidated to prevent further erosion.
as an important religious center and Drainage canals will be constructed to
strategic link between the Sahara and redirect water pooling within the sites
the rest of Morocco. to a nearby irrigation canal. Additional
For over 10 years, Ronald Messier, work at the hammam will repair the
professor emeritus at Middle Tennes- cracks in the vaults of the structure,
see State University and director of and it will subsequently be treated with
the Moroccan-American Project at a waterproof sealant.
Aghmat, has been excavating four of the At the end of the two-year program,
you can participate, please visit www. most important monuments in the cen- the site will officially open to the public.
tral part of the city: the hammam (public An invitation to an inaugural open

archaeologyday.org. Read about past

events on the IAD blog and sign up to bath), the grand mosque, the adjoining house will be sent to all of the inhabit-
Dispatches from the AIA
receive updates and news as we prepare ablution hall, and the royal palace. The ants of the village. Special invitations
for IAD 2016. excavations have revealed Aghmats will be sent to local authorities, associa-
historical trajectory from independent tions, and schools. As part of the AIA
city-state to imperial capital to major Site Preservation Grant, project mem-
AIA and Hilton commercial-religious center and its bers will create and install a series of
significance in the history and culture 12 panels with photographs, diagrams,
Worldwide of Morocco and western Islam. and text to tell the history of the place
Unfortunately, the preservation of as well as the story of its discovery and
Award Site the brick-and-mortar monuments is preservation. Brochures will be pre-
Preservation Grant threatened by water infiltration from
heavy rainfall, occasional flooding, and
pared and distributed to visitors.
A portion of the AIA and Hilton
to Moroccan Site erosion. Although the most critical
consolidation and partial reconstruc-
Worldwide funds will also be used to
continue a program that trains interns
tion required to prevent the hammam and graduate students from the Uni-
T
he medieval site of Aghmat, and some of the brick walls and pillars versity of Marrakech.
located at the base of the High in the palace from collapsing has been
Atlas Mountains in the Ourika done, more conservation needs to take
Valley, was the capital of the southern place. An AIA and Hilton Worldwide Become a
districts of Morocco and the center of Site Preservation Grant will support a
Berber control of the region. The city two-year program to repair the eroded Member Today!
was a key location for commercial, mortar joints in the brick walls at the
A
IA programs and activities pre-
sented in Dispatches from the
AIA are made possible through
membership dues and gifts from gen-
erous donors. The AIA uses these
resources to continue its mission of
supporting archaeological research,
preserving sites around the world, pro-
moting outreach, and making the world
of archaeology accessible through its
publications and websites. We urge
you to join the AIA and support the
Institutes efforts to understand, pro-
tect, and promote our cultural heritage.
Archaeology magazine subscribers
The partially restored hammam at the medieval can upgrade their membership for just
site of Aghmat in Morocco, AIA and Hilton $40 at archaeological.org/upgrade.
Worldwide Site Preservation Grant winner And new members can join at archaeo-
logical.org/join.
66
EXPLORE NORTHERN AFRICA
WITH THE AIA
MOROCCO: ABSOLUTE EGYPT
FROM THE DESERT TO THE SEA FEBRUARY
OCTOBER 2016 2017
Traverse the Moroccan landscape Travel with Egyptologist Stephen

with archaeologist Ronald Messier, Harvey on our meticulously-planned
ABSOLUTE EGYPT
February 12 27, 2017 (16 days) with Dr. Stephen Harvey
visiting six World Heritage sites, ad- itinerary, featuring premium accom-
miring astounding scenes of the natu- modations and a deluxe, 4-night Nile
ral world, and meeting with locals River cruise. Visit all the preeminent
in all walks of life, from farmers to sites of the pharaohs from Cairo
professors. Throughout, Prof. Messier to Luxor, Aswan, and Abu Simbel
Travel with Egyptologist Stephen Harvey on our meticulously-planned itinerary, featuring premium
accommodations and a deluxe, 4-night Nile River cruise. Visit all the preeminent sites of the pharaohs
from Cairo to Luxor, Aswan, and Abu Simbel including, thanks to special permissions granted to our
group, the stunning tombs of Seti I and Nefertari.
will provide his perspectives on the including, thanks to special permis-

true fabric of Morocco, along with sharing the two sites sions granted to our group, the stunning tombs of Seti I
he helped uncover. Limited to 15 participants. and Nefertari. Limited to 14 participants.
Rosino JP Roche R Todd Nielsen R Todd Nielsen
I genuinely appreciated the high level of All in all, an excellent tour, packed with sights
organization and competence in all aspects and rare privileges. The guide and tour manager
of the trip." - Ron, New York were both top-notch and truly good natured
problem-solvers. - Hugo, Massachusetts
This was my first AIA trip...It was worth every dollar.

- Leslie, California
call: 800-748-6262 web site: www.aiatours.org email: aia@studytours.org

ARTIFACT
P
achacamac was one of the most significant religious centers for the inhabitants WHAT IS IT
Horseshoe
of the Pacific coast of Peru for more than 1,300 years. With the construction of CULTURE
the first temples by the Lima culture beginning in about a.d. 200, through the Spanish
DATE
expansion of the ceremonial center by the Ychsma and Inca, the site attracted
Ca. a.d. 1535
pilgrims from all over the region to worship the pantheon of pre-Hispanic native deities. MATERIAL
In the early sixteenth century, it also attracted the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizzaro. Metal, probably iron
alloy
Along with soldiers and officials of the Spanish crown, Pizzaro brought horses to Pachacamac, FOUND
an essentialand, for the locals, previously unknownweapon used by the Spanish in the Pachacamac, Peru
DIMENSIONS
conquest of the New World. 9.05 inches long, 6.49
Traditional accounts of Pizzaros takeover of Peru claim that he came to Pachacamac inches wide, 0.110.15
inches thick
and forced out the local residents as part of his effort to create a new capital, destined to
become the city of Lima. But according to Peter Eeckhout of the Universit Libre de
Bruxelles, who has directed excavations at the site since 1999, new findsincluding
the horseshoe, Inca ceramics, metal adornments possibly from a Spanish soldiers
uniform or saddle, and pages of Spanish texts
written on parchmentare challenging this
version of events. The whole context
reflects probable coexistence between
Spanish and indigenous people at
Pachacamac at the time of the
conquest, says Eeckhout. They
seem to share buildings, or at
least parts of them, and some of
the architecture at the site could
belong to the beginning of the
colonial era, which is something
we never expected. Eeckhout
has also learned that even local
animals such as llamas, and foreign ones
including horses and donkeys, lived together
in the same barn.
68
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