Dendrochronology

1 History

The Greek botanist Theophrastus (ca. 371 ca. 287 BC)

rst mentioned that the wood of trees has rings.[2][3] In his
Trattato della Pittura (Treatise on Painting), Leonardo da
Vinci was the rst person to mention that trees form rings
annually and that their thickness is determined by the con-
ditions under which they grew.[4] In 1737, French inves-
tigators Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau and Georges-
Louis Leclerc de Buon examined the eect of growing
conditions on the shape of tree rings.[5] They found that
in 1709, a severe winter produced a distinctly dark tree
ring, which served as a reference for subsequent Euro-
Drill for dendrochronology sampling and growth ring counting
pean naturalists.[6] In the U.S., Alexander Catlin Twining
(18011884) suggested in 1833 that patterns among tree
rings could be used to synchronize the dendrochronolo-
gies of various trees and thereby to reconstruct past
climates across entire regions.[7] The English polymath
Charles Babbage proposed using dendrochronology to
date the remains of trees in peat bogs or even in geologi-
cal strata (1835, 1838).[8]
During the latter half of the nineteenth century, the sci-
entic study of tree rings and the application of den-
drochronology began. In 1859, the German-American
Jacob Kuechler (18231893) used crossdating to exam-
ine oaks (Quercus stellata) in order to study the record
of climate in western Texas.[9] In 1866, the German
botanist, entomologist, and forester Julius Ratzeburg
(18011871) observed the eects on tree rings of defo-
The growth rings of a tree at Bristol Zoo, England. Each ring
liation caused by insect infestations.[10] By 1882, this ob-
represents one year; the outside rings, near the bark, are the
youngest. servation was already appearing in forestry textbooks.[11]
In the 1870s, the Dutch astronomer Jacobus C. Kapteyn
Dendrochronology (from , dendron, tree (18511922) was using crossdating to reconstruct the cli-
limb"; , khronos, time"; and -, -logia) or mates of Holland and Germany.[12] In 1881, the Swiss-
tree-ring dating, is the scientic method of dating based Austrian forester Arthur von Seckendor-Gudent (1845
on the analysis of patterns of tree rings, also known as 1886) was using crossdating.[13] From 1869 to 1901,
growth rings. Dendrochronology can date the time at Robert Hartig (18391901), a German professor of for-
which tree rings were formed, in many types of wood, est pathology, wrote a series of papers on the anatomy
to the exact calendar year. This has three main areas of and ecology of tree rings.[14] In 1892, the Russian physi-
application: paleoecology, where it is used to determine cist Fedor Nikiforovich Shvedov (
certain aspects of past ecologies (most prominently cli- ) (18411905) wrote that he had used patterns
mate); archaeology and the history of art and architec- found in tree rings to predict droughts in 1882 and
ture, where it is used to date old panel paintings on wood, 1891.[15]
buildings, etc.; and radiocarbon dating, where it is used During the rst half of the 20th century, the astronomer
to calibrate radiocarbon ages (see below). In some ar- A. E. Douglass founded the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Re-
eas of the world, it is possible to date wood back a few search at the University of Arizona. Douglass sought to
thousand years, or even many thousands. As of 2013, better understand cycles of sunspot activity and reasoned
fully anchored chronologies in the northern hemisphere that changes in solar activity would aect climate pat-
extend back 13,900 years.[1] terns on earth, which would subsequently be recorded by

1
2 2 GROWTH RINGS

tree-ring growth patterns (i.e., sunspots climate tree

rings).

2 Growth rings
Further information: Wood
Growth rings, also referred to as tree rings or annual

Pinus taeda Cross section showing annual rings, Cheraw, South

Carolina.

tree and the climatic conditions in which the tree grew.

Adequate moisture and a long growing season result in
a wide ring, while a drought year may result in a very
narrow one.
Direct reading of tree ring chronologies is a learned sci-
ence, for several reasons. First, contrary to the single ring
per year paradigm, alternating poor and favorable condi-
tions, such as mid-summer droughts, can result in several
rings forming in a given year. In addition, particular tree
species may present missing rings, and this inuences
the selection of trees for study of long time spans. For
instance, missing rings are rare in oak and elm trees.[18]
Diagram of secondary growth in a tree showing idealised vertical Critical to the science, trees from the same region tend
and horizontal sections. A new layer of wood is added in each to develop the same patterns of ring widths for a given
growing season, thickening the stem, existing branches and roots,
period of historical study. These patterns can be com-
to form a growth ring.
pared and matched ring for ring with trees growing at
the same time, in the same geographical zone (and there-
rings, can be seen in a horizontal cross section cut through fore under similar climatic conditions). When these tree-
the trunk of a tree. Growth rings are the result of new
ring patterns are carried back, from tree to tree in the
growth in the vascular cambium, a layer of cells near the same locale, in overlapping fashion, chronologies can be
bark that is classied as a lateral meristem; this growth in
built upboth for entire geographical regions and sub-
diameter is known as secondary growth. Visible rings re- regions. Moreover, wood from ancient structures with
sult from the change in growth speed through the seasons
known chronologies can be matched to the tree ring data
of the year; thus, critical for the title method, one ring (a technique called cross-dating), and the age of the wood
generally marks the passage of one year in the life of the
can thereby be determined precisely. Cross-dating was
tree. originally done by visual inspection; computers have been
The rings are more visible in temperate zones, where the harnessed to do the task, applying statistical techniques to
seasons dier more markedly. The inner portion of a assess the matching.
growth ring is formed early in the growing season, when To eliminate individual variations in tree-ring growth,
growth is comparatively rapid (hence the wood is less dendrochronologists take the smoothed average of the
dense) and is known as early wood (or spring wood, tree-ring widths of multiple tree samples to build up a
or late-spring wood[16] ); the outer portion is the late ring history, a process termed replication. A tree-ring
wood (and has sometimes been termed summer wood, history whose beginning and end dates are not known
often being produced in the summer, though sometimes is called a oating chronology. It can be anchored
in the autumn) and is denser.[17] by cross-matching a section against another chronology
Many trees in temperate zones make one growth ring each (tree-ring history) whose dates are known. Fully an-
year, with the newest adjacent to the bark. Hence, for chored chronologies extending back more than 11,000
these, for the entire period of a trees life, a year-by-year years exist for river oak trees from South Germany (from
record or ring pattern is formed that reects the age of the the Main and Rhine rivers) and for pine from North-
 3

ern Ireland.[19][20][21] The consistency of these two in- growths provides not only a match by year, it can also
dependent dendrochronological sequences has been sup- match location because the climate across a continent is
ported through comparison of their radiocarbon and not consistent. This makes it possible to determine the
dendrochronological ages.[22] Another fully anchored source of ships as well as smaller artifacts made from
chronology that extends back 8500 years exists for the wood but which were transported long distances, such as
bristlecone pine in the Southwest US (White Mountains panels for paintings and ship timbers.
of California).[23]

5 Applications
3 Sampling and dating
Dendrochronology makes available specimens of once-
5.1 Radiocarbon dating calibration
living material accurately dated to a specic year.[24]
Dates from dendrochronology can be used as a calibration
Dates are often represented as estimated calendar years
and check of radiocarbon dating[24]
B.P., for before present, where present refers to 1 Jan-
uary 1950.[24]
Timber core samples are sampled and used to measure 5.2 Climatology
the width of annual growth rings; by taking samples from
dierent sites within a particular region, researchers can In areas where the climate is reasonably predictable, trees
build a comprehensive historical sequence. The tech- develop annual rings of dierent properties depending on
niques of dendrochronology are more consistent in areas weather, rain, temperature, soil pH, plant nutrition, CO2
where trees grew in marginal conditions such as aridity concentration, etc. in dierent years. These variations are
or semi-aridity where the ring growth is more sensitive to used in dendroclimatology to infer past climate variations.
the environment, rather than in humid areas where tree-
ring growth is more uniform (complacent). In addition,
some genera of trees are more suitable than others for 5.3 Art history
this type of analysis. For instance, the bristlecone pine is
exceptionally long-lived and slow growing, and has been
used extensively for chronologies; still-living and dead
specimens of this species provide tree-ring patterns go-
ing back thousands of years, in some regions more than
10,000 years.[25] Currently, the maximum span for fully
anchored chronology is a little over 11,000 years B.P.[19]
In 2004 a new calibration curve, INTCAL04, was in-
ternationally ratied to provide calibrated dates back to
26,000 B.P. (based on an agreed worldwide data set of
trees and marine sediments).[26] The part of the new cal-
ibration curves that relies on tree-ring evidence spans
12,410 calendar B.P., and a further 14,700 calendar years
prior to that.[27]
Dendrochronology practice faces many obstacles, includ-
ing the existence of species of ants that inhabit trees and
extend their galleries into the wood, thus destroying ring
structure.

4 Reference sequences
European chronologies derived from wooden structures
initially found it dicult to bridge the gap in the 14th
century when there was a building hiatus, which coin-
A portrait of Mary Queen of Scots, determined to date from the
cided with the Black Death,[28] however there do exist 16th century by dendrochronology.
unbroken chronologies dating back to prehistoric times,
for example the Danish chronology dating back to 352 Dendrochronology has become important to art histori-
BC.[29] ans in the dating of panel paintings. However, unlike
Given a sample of wood, the variation of the tree-ring analysis of samples from buildings, which are typically
4 8 SEE ALSO

sent to a laboratory, wooden supports for paintings usu- fore use, or could have been used to replace a damaged
ally have to be measured in a museum conservation de- piece of wood. The dating of building via dendrochronol-
partment, which places limitations on the techniques that ogy thus requires knowledge of the history of building
can be used.[30] technology.[39]
In addition to dating, dendrochronology can also provide Examples:
information as to the source of the panel. Many Early
Netherlandish paintings have turned out to be painted on cli dwellings of Native Americans in the arid U.S.
panels of Baltic oak shipped from the Vistula region via Southwest.
ports of the Hanseatic League. Oak panels were used in
a number of northern countries such as England, France
The Fairbanks House in Dedham, Massachusetts.
and Germany. Wooden supports other than oak were
[31] While the house had long been claimed to have been
rarely used by Netherlandish painters.
built circa 1640 (and being the oldest wood-framed
Since panels of seasoned wood were used, an uncertain house in North America), core samples of wood
number of years has to be allowed for seasoning when es- taken from a summer beam conrmed the wood
timating dates.[32] Panels were trimmed of the outer rings, was from an oak tree felled in 16378. An ad-
and often each panel only uses a small part of the radius of ditional sample from another beam yielded a date
the trunk. Consequently, dating studies usually result in a of 1641, thus conrming the house had been con-
"terminus post quem" (earliest possible) date, and a ten- structed starting in 1638 and nished sometime af-
tative date for the actual arrival of a seasoned raw panel ter 1641 as wood was not seasoned before use in
using assumptions as to these factors.[33] As a result of building at that time in New England.[40]
establishing numerous sequences, it was possible to date
8590% of the 250 paintings from the 14th to 17th cen- The burial chamber of Gorm the Old, who died
tury analysed between 1971 and 1982;[34] by now a much c. 958,[41] was constructed from wood of timbers
greater number have been analysed. felled in 958.[39]
A portrait of Mary, Queen of Scots in the National
Portrait Gallery, London was believed to be an 18th-
century copy. However, dendrochronology revealed that 6 Related chronologies
the wood dated from the second half of the 16th century.
It is now regarded as an original 16th century painting by
Similar seasonal patterns also occur in ice cores and in
an unknown artist.[35]
varves (layers of sediment deposition in a lake, river, or
On the other hand, dendrochronology was applied to four sea bed). The deposition pattern in the core will vary for
paintings depicting the same subject, that of Christ ex- a frozen-over lake versus an ice-free lake, and with the
pelling the money-lenders from the Temple. The results neness of the sediment.
showed that the age of the wood was too late for any of
Some columnar cactus also exhibit similar seasonal pat-
them to have been painted by Hieronymus Bosch.[36]
terns in the isotopes of carbon and oxygen in their spines
While dendrochronology has become an important tool (acanthochronology). These are used for dating in a man-
for dating oak panels, it is not eective in dating the ner similar to dendrochronology, and such techniques are
poplar panels often used by Italian painters because of used in combination with dendrochronology, to plug gaps
the erratic growth rings in poplar.[37] and to extend the range of the seasonal data available to
The 16th century saw a gradual replacement of wooden archaeologists and paleoclimatologists.
panels by canvas as the support for paintings, which A related technique is used to analyse sh stocks through
means the technique is less often applicable to later the analysis of growth rings in the otolith bones of sh.
paintings.[38] In addition, many panel paintings were
transferred onto canvas or other supports during the 19th
and 20th centuries. 7 Further reading
Tree Ring Science, the academic site of Prof.
5.4 Building history
Henri D. Grissino-Mayer, Department of Geogra-
phy, The University of Tennessee, and the Labora-
The dating of buildings with wooden structures and com-
tory of Tree-Ring Science, see
ponents has also been done by using dendrochronology.
While archaeologists can date wood and when it was
felled, it may be dicult to denitively determine the age
of a building or structure in which the wood was used; 8 See also
the wood could have been reused from an older struc-
ture, may have been felled and left for many years be- Acanthochronology
 5

Baumkuchen, cake that resembles growth rings Sarton, George (1954) Queries and Answers:
Query 145. When was tree-ring analysis discov-
Dendroarchaeology ered?", Isis, 45 (4): 383384. Sarton also cites a di-
ary of the French writer Michel de Montaigne, who
Dendroclimatology in 1581 was touring Italy, where he encountered a
carpenter who explained that trees form a new ring
Dendrology each year.
Herbchronology [5] du Hamel & de Buon (27 February 1737) De la cause de
l'excentricit des couches ligneuses qu'on apperoit quand
Paleoclimatology on coupe horisontalement le tronc d'un arbre ; de l'ingalit
d'paisseur, & de dierent nombre de ces couches, tant
Post excavation
dans le bois form que dans l'aubier (On the cause of the
Sclerochronology eccentricity of the woody layers that one sees when one
horizontally cuts the trunk of a tree ; on the unequal thick-
Timeline of dendrochronology timestamp events ness, and on the dierent number of layers in the mature
wood as well as in the sapwood), Mmoires de l'Acadmie
Varve royale des science, in: Histoire de l'Acadmie royale des
sciences ..., pp. 121134.

[6] du Hamel & de Buon (4 May 1737) Observations

9 References des dirents eets que produisent sur les vgtaux les
grandes geles d'hiver et les petites geles du printemps
[1] Reimer, Paula J.; et al. (2013). IntCal13 and (Observations on the dierent eects that the severe frosts
Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0 of winter and the minor frosts of spring produce on
50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55: 18691887. plants), Mmoires de l'Acadmie royale des science, in:
doi:10.2458/azu_js_rc.55.16947. Histoire de l'Acadmie royale des sciences ..., pp. 273
298. Studhalter (1956), p. 33, stated that Carl Linnaeus
[2] Theophrastus with Arthur Hort, trans., Enquiry into (1745, 1751) in Sweden, Friedrich August Ludwig von
Plants, volume 1 (London, England: William Heinemann, Burgsdorf (1783) in Germany, and Alphonse de Candolle
1916), Book V, p. 423. From p. 423: Moreover, the (18391840) in France subsequently observed the same
wood of the silver-r has many layers, like an onion; there tree ring in their samples.
is always another beneath that which is visible, and the
wood is composed of such layers throughout. Although [7] Alexander C. Twining (1833) On the growth of timber
many sources claim that Theophrastus recognized that Extract of a letter from Mr. Alexander C. Twining, to
trees form growth rings annually, this is not true. the Editor, dated Albany, April 9, 1833, The American
Journal of Science, 24 : 391393.
[3] For the history of dendrochronology, see:
[8] See:
R. A. Studhalter (April 1956) Early history of
crossdating, Tree-Ring Bulletin, 21 : 3135. Avail- (Anon.) (1835) Evening meeting at the Rotunda,
able on-line at: University of Arizona (Condensed Proceedings of the Fifth Meeting of the British As-
from: Studhalter, R. A. (1955) Tree growth: some sociation for the Advancement of Science held in
historical chapters, Botanical Review, 21 : 172.) Dublin during the week from the 10th to the 15th
of August, 1835, inclusive, pp. 116117.
Studhalter, R. A. ; Glock, W. S. & Aoerter, S. R.
(1963) Tree growth, some historical chapters in Charles Babbage (1838) On the age of strata, as
the study of diameter growth, Botanical Review, inferred from rings of trees embedded in them,
39 (3) : 245343. The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise: A Fragment, 2nd
ed. (London, England: John Murray, 1838), pp.
James H. Speer, Fundamentals of Tree-ring Re-
256264.
search (Tucson, Arizona: University of Ari-
zona Press, 2010), Chapter 3: History of Den-
[9] See:
drochronology, pp. 2842.
Jacob Kuechler ( August 6, 1859) Das Klima von
[4] See:
Texas (The climate of Texas), Texas Staats-Zeitung
Leonardo da Vinci, Trattato della Pittura ... (Rome, [Texas state newspaper] (San Antonio, Texas), p. 2.
(Italy): 1817), p. 396. From p. 396: Li circuli delli The droughts of western Texas, The Texas Al-
rami degli alberi segati mostrano il numero delli suoi manac for 1861, pp. 136137 ; see especially p.
anni, e quali furono pi umidi o pi secchi la mag- 137.
giore o minore loro grossezza. (The rings around
the branches of trees that have been sawn show the [10] J. T. C. Ratzeburg, Die Waldverderbniss oder dauernder
number of its years and which [years] were the wet- Schade, welcher durch Insektenfrass, Schlen, Schlagen
ter or drier [according to] the more or less their und Verbeissen an lebenenden Waldbumen entsteht. [The
thickness.) deterioration of forests or lasting damage that arises from
6 9 REFERENCES

feeding by insects, debarking, felling, and gnawing on liv- [20] Friedrich M, Remmele S, Kromer B, Hofmann J, Spurk
ing forest trees.], vol. 1, (Berlin, (Germany): Nicolais- M, Kaiser KF, Orcel C, Kppers M (2004). The 12,460-
che Verlag, 1866), p. 10. From p. 10: Die beiden, auf year Hohenheim oak and pine tree-ring chronology from
Taf. 42, Fig. 6 (mit dem Durchschnitt Fig. 7) und Fig. 1 central Europe A unique annual record for radiocarbon
(mit dem Durchschnitt Fig. 2) dargestellten Zweige hatten calibration and paleoenvironment reconstructions. Ra-
in dem Frassjahre 1862 einen doppelt so starken Jahrring diocarbon 46 (3): 111122.
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nicht abgebildete) Ring des jhrigen Triebes war bei den [21] Pilcher JR; et al. (November 1984). A 7,272-
gefressenen strker as der eines nicht gefressenen. (Both year tree-ring chronology for western Europe. Na-
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[22] Stuiver Minze, Kromer Bernd, Becker Bernd, Fergu-
a growth ring that was twice as strong as in the preceding
son CW (1986). Radiocarbon Age Calibration back to
one, and so was the ring of the year-old shoot (not illus-
13,300 Years BP and the 14
trated here) stronger in the case of the defoliated tree than
C Age Matching of the German Oak and US Bristlecone
one that was not defoliated.)
Pine Chronologies (PDF). Radiocarbon 28 (2B): 969
979.
[11] Franklin Benjamin Hough, The Elements of Forestry
(Cincinnati, Ohio: Robert Clarke and Co., 1882), pp. 69 [23] Ferguson CW, Graybill DA (1983). Dendrochronology
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[12] Kapteyn, J. C. (1914) Tree-growth and meteorological
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[13] See:
[25] Bibliography of Dendrochronology. Switzerland: ETH
Seckendor, Arthur von (1881) Beitrge zur Ken- Forest Snow and Landscape Research. Retrieved 2010-
ntnis der Schwarzfhre Pinus austriaca Hss [Con- 08-08.
tributions to our knowledge of the black pine Pinus
austriaca Hss], Mitteilung aus dem forstlichen Ver- [26] In distinction to the use of free ring chronologies to cal-
suchswesen Oesterreichs [Report from the Austrian ibrate and validate 14 C-derived chronologies, IntCal04
Department of Forestry Research] (Vienna, Aus- is constructed from 14 C-derived datesof foraminifera
tria: Carl Gerold Verlag, 1881), 66 pages. from Venezuelas Cariaco basin, corrected for a constant
reservoir age of 405 years. See Reimer Paula J, Baillie
Speer (2010), p. 36. Mike GL, Bard Edouard, Bayliss Alex, Beck J Warren,
Bertrand Chanda JH, Blackwell Paul G, Buck Caitlin E,
[14] Speer (2010), p. 3637.
Burr George S, Cutler Kirsten B, Damon Paul E, Edwards
R Lawrence, Fairbanks Richard G, Friedrich Michael,
[15] See:
Guilderson Thomas P, Hogg Alan G, Hughen Konrad,
, . (Shvedov, F.) (1892) ", Kromer Bernd, McCormac Gerry, Manning Sturt, Ram-
" (The tree as a record of sey Christopher Bronk, Reimer Ron W, Remmele Sabine,
drought), (Meteo- Southon John R, Stuiver Minze, Talamo Sahra, Taylor
rological Herald), (5) : 163178. FW, van der Plicht Johannes, Weyhenmeyer Constanze
E (2004). INTCAL04 Terrestrial Radiocarbon age cal-
Speer (2010), p. 37. ibration, 026 cal kyr BP (PDF). Radiocarbon 46 (3):
102958.
[16] Early wood is used in preference to spring wood, as
the latter term may not correspond to that time of year in [27] Fairbanks, Richard. Current Research: Radiocarbon
climates where early wood is formed in the early summer Calibration. Columbia.
(e.g. Canada) or in autumn, as in some Mediterranean
species. [28] Baillie Mike (1997). A Slice Through Time. London:
Batsford. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-7134-7654-5.
[17] Capon, Brian (2005). Botany for Gardeners (2nd ed.).
Portland, OR: Timber Publishing. pp. 6667. ISBN 0- [29] WM Trdatering [WM Tree dating]. skalk.dk (in Dan-
88192-655-8. ish). Retrieved 15 May 2015.

[30] English Heritage Guide to Dendrochronology

[18] The only recorded instance of a missing ring in oak trees
occurred in the year 1816, also known as the Year Without [31] Spronk, Ron, More than Meets the Eye: An Introduction to
a Summer.Lori Martinez (1996). Useful Tree Species Technical Examination of Early Netherlandish Paintings at
for Tree-Ring Dating. Retrieved 2008-11-08. the Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University Art Museums
Bulletin, Vol. 5, No. 1, Autumn, 1996
[19] McGovern PJ; et al. (1995). Science in Archaeology: A
Review (ch. Dendrochronology)". American Journal of [32] Peter Ian Kuniholm, Dendrochronology (Tree-Ring Dat-
Archaeology 99 (1): 79142. JSTOR 506880. ing) of Panel Paintings Cornell University
 7

[33] Taft, W. Stanley; Mayer, James W.; Newman,

Richard; Kuniholm, Peter Ian; Stulik, Dusan (2000).
Dendrochronology (Tree-Ring Dating) of Panel Paint-
ings. The Science of Paintings. Springer. pp. 206215.
ISBN 978-0-387-98722-4.

[34] Fletcher,John, Panel Examination and Dendrochronology

The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal, Vol. 10, 1982

[35] National Portrait gallery

[36] Tree Rings, the barcodes of Nature illuminate art history

[37] National Portrait Gallery

[38] The Getty Conservation Institute

[39] Sawyer, Peter; Sawyer, Birgit (1993). Medieval Scandi-

navia: from conversion to Reformation, circa 8001500.
The Nordic Series 17. University of Minnesota Press. p.
6. ISBN 9780816617395. OCLC 489584487.

[40] A Grand House in 17th-Century New England. Fair-

banks House Historical Site. Retrieved May 27, 2012.

[41] The Royal Lineage - The Danish Monarchy. konge-

huset.dk. Retrieved 15 May 2015.

10 External links
Nottingham Tree-Ring Dating Laboratory

Video & commentary on Medullary Rays, heart

wood and tree rings.

Video & commentary on Tree Rings - Formation

and Purpose

Oxford Tree-Ring Laboratory

Bibliography of Dendrochronology

Multilingual Glossary of Dendrochronology

Digital Collaboratory for Cultural Dendrochronol-
ogy (DCCD)
International Tree-Ring Data Bank

Ultimate Tree-Ring Web Pages

Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research University of
Arizona
8 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text
Dendrochronology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronology?oldid=679383941 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Anome,
Malcolm Farmer, Eclecticology, Christian List, PierreAbbat, SimonP, Heron, JohnOwens, Tannin, Arpingstone, Looxix~enwiki, William
M. Connolley, El~enwiki, Dysprosia, Wetman, Bcorr, Finlay McWalter, Pollinator, Rogper~enwiki, Robbot, Astronautics~enwiki, Hen-
rygb, Wikibot, MPF, Awolf002, Wolfkeeper, Chinasaur, Wmahan, Antandrus, Adamsan, MishaChan, Neutrality, Canterbury Tail, Rich
Farmbrough, Vsmith, Florian Blaschke, Dave souza, Paul August, El C, NickW, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Wiki-uk, Wal-
shga, Jersyko, WadeSimMiser, Wdanwatts, Emerson7, Graham87, FreplySpang, Edison, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Choess, Imnotminkus,
CJLL Wright, DaGizza, Dj Capricorn, YurikBot, Wavelength, Jadon, Yamara, Rsrikanth05, Anomalocaris, Jrbouldin, Speedevil, Hep-
tazane, Eno-ja, Allens, Mmcannis, Elephant Juice, SmackBot, Jclerman, Oliloqui, Eskimbot, Skizzik, RDBrown, SB Johnny, Nbarth,
Audriusa, Meitme, UNV, Shalom Yechiel, Abyssal, V1adis1av, Snowmanradio, Bigturtle, Dreadstar, Richard001, Chrisch, Childzy, Viv
Hamilton, Hgrobe, George100, JForget, Geremia, Requestion, Goatchurch, AustexTreo600, Cydebot, SteveMcCluskey, Rosser1954,
Thijs!bot, Mentisto, Lantios, Lklundin, Mikenorton, Rothorpe, Ishikawa Minoru, Ajm1205, RichardMcCoy, Pax:Vobiscum, Martin-
Bot, STBot, Tulkolahten, Dudley Miles, TheSeven, Mididoctors, Johnbod, Clerks, Chiswick Chap, Colchicum, Warut, DASonnenfeld,
Deor, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Rjm at sleepers, Dickvb4, SieBot, Brenont, Countryrocks, LeadSongDog, Flyer22, Harry~enwiki, Harry
the Dirty Dog, OKBot, Aintmo, Maralia, Kamarad Walter, Atif.t2, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Krogstadt,
Saddhiyama, DoctorEric, XLinkBot, Imagine Reason, ErgoSum88, Vojtch Dostl, Pjames73, Aunt Entropy, Addbot, Labratt, DOI
bot, Lilsoljiaboi224, Leszek Jaczuk, Noozgroop, SoSaysChappy, Mickthedig, Cesiumfrog, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Anypodetos,
Becky Sayles, KamikazeBot, Richigi, AnomieBOT, Choij, Wapsoid, Dinesh smita, Minnecologies, DAFMM, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Anna
Frodesiak, GrouchoBot, Dirrival, Stratocracy, Larsake, Ariannahiggins, Gouerouz, Ziegelangerer, Citation bot 1, Cubs197, Pinethicket,
Bgd20, EmausBot, Wikipelli, K6ka, Bahudhara, AvicAWB, Donner60, Peter Karlsen, Jansm103, ClueBot NG, Abeast234, PatHadley,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Northamerica1000, MusikAnimal, AvocatoBot, Arvoge, Austin023, Newsalem, 512bits, Crazyboy250,
Slingervis103, Makecat-bot, SFK2, Michelekd, Epicgenius, Shearyer, Ol' Dirty Jedi, Monkbot, VexorAbVikipdia and Anonymous: 160

11.2 Images
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Dendrochronological_drill_hg.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Dendrochronological_drill_
hg.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hannes Grobe/AWI
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sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Mary_Queen_of_Scots_portrait.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Mary_Queen_of_Scots_
portrait.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open-
Clipart Original artist: OpenClipart
File:Pine_forest_in_Sweden.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Pine_forest_in_Sweden.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/tetrapak/5956902891/sizes/m/in/set-72157628342553177/ Original artist:
AB Tetra Pak
File:Pinus_taeda_crossx7358.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Pinus_taeda_crossx7358.JPG Li-
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Tree.ring.arp.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Tree.ring.arp.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable
author provided. Arpingstone assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Tree_secondary_growth_diagram.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Tree_secondary_growth_
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svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.

11.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0