O Level Chemistry

Chap 14: Metals

Metals and Alloys

1. Metals have a regular arrangement of closely packed positive ions surrounded by “a sea of
mobile valence electrons”. Atoms in a metal are packed tightly in layers and held by strong
metallic bonds.

2. Properties of metals and the relation to its structure

Physical Property Relation to structure
Malleable (easily beaten into thin Atoms (of the same size) are
sheets) and ductile (can be drawn regularly arranged in layers. They can
into wires without breaking) slide over each other easily when
forced is applied.
High density Metal atoms are closely packed.
High melting and boiling points Metal atoms are packed tightly in
layers by strong metallic bonds. A lot
of energy is needed to break the
strong metallic bonds.
Good conductors of heat and In metals, the valence electrons of
electricity the atoms are mobile and can move
throughout the metal. They allow
heat and electricity to be conducted.

3. An alloy is a mixture of a metal with one or a few other elements.

 Bronze = Copper + Tin
 Brass = Copper + Zinc (Musical Instruments, decorative ornaments)
 Stainless steel = Iron + Chromium + Nickel + Carbon (Cutlery, surgical instruments)

4. Why metals are often used in the form of alloys

a) Alloys are harder and stronger than pure metals.
Structures of Metals VS Alloys
Metals Alloys
Pure metals are weak and soft. The atoms - When a pure metal is alloyed, a different
(of the same size) are regularly arranged element is added to the pure metal.
in layers which can slide over each other - This disrupts the regular arrangement of
easily when force is applied. Pure metals atoms in the pure metal by the addition of
are thus soft and malleable. other atoms of a different size.
- Therefore, it is difficult for the atoms in
an alloy to slide over each other.
[Chemistry] Chap14: Metals

- This makes alloys harder, stronger and

less malleable than pure metals.

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 b) While pure metals corrode easily, alloys have a higher resistance to corrosion. E.g.
Copper-nickel alloy is used to make coins instead of pure copper.

c) Alloying is used to lower the melting points of metals. E.g. Solder is an alloy of tin and lead
and has a lower melting point than its constituent metals, thus can be used to join metals.

The Reactivity Series

4. Chemical Properties of Metals:
 Form positive ions (cations) by loss of electrons (metals are reducing agents)
 Form ionic compounds e.g. metal chlorides/oxides
 Usually (but not always) react with dilute HCl or H2SO4 to produce salt + hydrogen
 React with oxygen to form basic oxides or amphoteric oxides

5. Reactivity Series
 The reactivity series is a measure of a metal’s tendency to lose electrons and form a
positive ion. Metals high up in the reactivity series have a greater tendency to form its
positive ions.
 The order of reactivity can be deduced by reference to
- the metal’s reaction with water, steam and dilute HCl
- the reduction of their oxides by carbon and/or hydrogen, or any other form of
decomposition.
 Reactive metals are unstable and tend to react to form compounds (compounds are
stable). Unreactive metals are more stable but their compounds tend to be less stable
than those of the more reactive metals.

[Chemistry] Chap14: Metals

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 Reactivity Series of 13 metals
Reactivity Element Extraction
Carbon Hydrogen Heat
(oxide) (oxide) (carb)
Potassium x x x

Water

Heat oxide Electrolysis

Sodium x x x
Dilute HCl/H2SO4

Calcium x x /
Steam
Magnesium x x /
Aluminium x x /
Zinc / x /

with coke
Iron / / /
Lead / / /
Hydrogen
Copper / / /

Heating or

extraction
Manganese Heat Heat

physical
Silver Heat Heat /*
Gold Heat Heat
Platinum Heat Heat
Extraction method is from the metal oxide for Carbon and Hydrogen, and the metal carbonate
for Heating.

Refer to TB for details on the reactions of metals. Note:

- Metals above hydrogen will react with dilute acids to produce hydrogen gas (they are
more reactive and hence can displace hydrogen from solutions of acids).
- Lead appears not to react with dilute HCl/H2SO4 which is an exception to the acid +
metal reaction (refer to chap on acids and bases). However, just remember that
metals above hydrogen will react with dilute acids.
- Dilute H2SO4 reacts with metals similarly to HCl, the salt formed is a metal sulfate.

- K to Ca reacts with steam too, but is similar to reacting with water.

- There is some ambiguity at the borderlines between the groups. Mg is considered not
to react with water (although it can) as the reaction is too slow unless the surface
layer of oxide protecting the metal is specially removed.
- Al appears relatively unreactive despite its high position in the reactivity series.
This is because Al is reactive and reacts with oxygen, forming a thin and protective
layer of Al2O3 which coats the metal and prevents further reaction. This can be used
to prevent corrosion (see Alloys)

Applications of the Reactivity Series

6. Reduction of Metal Oxides by Reducing Agents

 The reactivity of metals can be studied by how easily metal oxides decompose. The more
reactive a metal is, the more difficult it is to decompose its oxides (reduce the oxide to
[Chemistry] Chap14: Metals

the metal)
 Above zinc = not reduced by reducing agents (too stable, use passing electricity).
 Below copper = oxide will decompose simply by heating without needing a reducing
agent.
2Ag2O (s) 4Ag (s) + O2 (g)

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 a) with Carbon (Zn & below) [smelting]
 E.g. 2CuO (s) + C (s) Cu (s) + CO2 (g)
Cu2+ ions from copper (II) oxide are reduced to copper; carbon is oxidised to carbon
dioxide.
 Metals below magnesium are often extracted from their ores (industrially) by reduction
with carbon. [?!]

b) with Hydrogen (Fe & below)

 metal oxide + hydrogen metal + steam
 CuO (s) + H2 (g) Cu (s) + H2O (g)

7. Decomposition of Metal Carbonates

 Compounds of reactive metals are stable and not easily reduced and decomposed by
heat (more stable to heat/thermally stable). The more reactive a metal is, the more
difficult it is to decompose its compounds (e.g. it takes a lot of heat and time to
decompose CaCO3, but CuCO3 decomposes quickly and easily).
 Carbonates- Ca & below:
metal carbonate metal oxide + carbon dioxide
 Silver carbonate: the silver oxide produced further decomposes to form silver + oxygen
(unstable)
2Ag2CO3  4Ag + 2CO2 + O2

8. Displacement of Metals
 More reactive metals can displace a less reactive metal from its salt solution or oxide.
This is because more reactive metals have a greater tendency to form its positive ions.
E.g. Mg can displace ZnSO4 but Cu, Pb and Fe cannot.
 The more reactive a metal is, the more readily it forms compounds; unreactive metals
tend to stay uncombined.

a) from solution
 E.g. iron displaces copper ions in CuSO4 to form copper metal and FeSO4
Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq)  FeSo4 (aq) + Cu (s)
 Metal displacement reactions are redox reactions. The more reactive metal is oxidised
(by becoming ions and forming compounds) while the less reactive metal is reduced (by
changing back to atoms).
E.g. Fe (s) + Cu2+ (aq)  Fe2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
Copper ions are reduced to copper atoms; iron is oxidised to iron (II) ions.

b) from oxide
 More reactive metals can reduce the oxide of a less reactive metal.
 E.g. Thermite reaction- Al displaces Fe from Fe2O3
Fe2O3 (s) + 2Al (s)  Al2O3 (s) + 2Fe (l)
[Chemistry] Chap14: Metals

Al atoms react with O2- ions from Fe2O3 to form Al2O3, Fe2O3 is reduced to molten Fe.
 Note: Highly exothermic reaction, molten iron (which melted due to heat) is formed. This
reaction is used to weld railway lines together.

9. Using the Reactivity Series

Refer to TB/242

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Extraction of Metals
10. Metals are found in the ground in rocks called ores. E.g. iron is found in the ore haematite.
An ore is a compound of the metal (oxides, sulphides, chlorides or carbonates) mixed with
large amounts of earth and rock.

11. Metal Method of Extraction

K to Al From ore: Using electricity to decompose
the molten metal compounds (electrolysis)
Zn to Pb From metal oxide: Reduce the metal oxide
by heating with coke (smelting)
Cu to Pt Found free in the ground naturally as
uncombined metals / physical extraction

 The more reactive the metal is, the harder it is to extract the metal from its ore. E.g.
compounds of reactive metals are stable and difficult to be reduced.
 Whenever possible, reduction with coke is used. Electrolysis is only used for reactive
metals because carbon cannot take oxygen away from the metal oxide, as the bonds in
the metal oxide are too strong.
 Smelting is cheap while electrolysis is expensive.

Extraction of Iron from Haematite

12. Refer to TB/244-246
 The iron that is extracted from the blast furnace is known as cast iron, and is mainly used
to produce steel.

Steel
13.  Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon and/or other metals.
 Different types of steel are made by varying the amount of carbon and by adding
different metals to iron. Each type has different amounts of carbon and other metals
added, hence its own unique properties and uses.

14.  Carbon steels: Iron + Carbon

 Alloy steels: Iron + Carbon + One or more of: Mn, Ni, Cr, W, V. These metals are added to
change the properties of the steel.

Category Type of Steel Uses Special Properties

Carbon Steels Mild Steel (low carbon) Car bodies and Hard, strong and
0.25% Carbon machinery malleable
High Carbon Steel Cutting and boring Strong but brittle
0.45 – 1.5% Carbon tools, e.g. knives, (more carbon atoms
hammers to prevent sliding)
Alloy Steels Stainless Steel Equipments in Extremely durable,
[Chemistry] Chap14: Metals

Alloy of iron, chromium, chemical plants, resistant to rust and

nickel & carbon. cutlery, surgical corrosion even when
instruments heated

Qn: Explain how the properties of low carbon and high carbon steel differ.
Low carbon steel is softer as it is more malleable. High carbon steel contains more carbon
atoms which prevent sliding of the iron atoms. Hence, high carbon steel is harder but brittle.

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Rusting
15.  Rusting is the oxidation of iron to form hydrated iron (III) oxide.
 When an object made of iron (e.g. iron, mild steel) is exposed to moist air for some time,
a reddish-brown substance (rust) slowly forms on the surface, through rusting/ corrosion
of iron.
 Rusting occurs only in the presence of both oxygen and water. The presence of sodium
chloride and acidic substances (e.g. sulphur dioxide, CO2) speeds up the rusting process.
 A simplified equation is
iron + oxygen + water  hydrated iron (III) oxide [rust]
4Fe (s) + 3O2 (g) + 2xH2O  2Fe2O3.xH2O (s)
 Note:
- Mild steel will rust faster than high carbon steel due to higher iron composition
- Only iron (and alloys containing iron) will rust. Magnesium corrodes.

16. Rust Prevention

Method Description
Using a - The metal may be coated with a layer of substance that stops water
protective layer and air from reaching the metal.
- This is done by painting, greasing, and coating with another metal.
- E.g. In galvanising (or zinc-plating), a thin film of zinc is used to
cover the iron. Note: even if the zinc layer is damaged, the iron will
not rust because zinc is more reactive than iron and it will corrode
in place of iron (the more reactive metal corrodes preferentially).
Using a - Involves attaching a more reactive metal (e.g. zinc) to iron. Since
sacrificial metal zinc is more reactive than iron, it gets corroded in place of the iron
(sacrificial because zinc loses its valence electrons more readily. As long as a
protection) more reactive metal is present, iron will not rust.
- E.g. fixing bars of zinc to a ship’s hull prevents the ship’s steel body
from rusting, attaching magnesium blocks to underground pipes
Using alloys - Stainless steel, which is a rust resistant alloy, can be used. On
exposure to air and moisture, a very hard coating of chromium (III)
oxide forms on the surface of stainless steel, preventing it from
further corrosion.

[Chemistry] Chap14: Metals

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Recycling of metals
17.  Metals are finite resources and need to be conserved.
 The amount of metal ores in the Earth is limited. If metal extraction continues at present
rates, the supplies of many metals will run out. Hence, there is a need to recycle metals.

Advantages Disadvantages
Economic - It saves the costs of extracting - It is very expensive,
new metals from their ores. considering other processing
- Fewer landfills to dispose used costs like collecting,
metal objects will need to be transporting and separating
built. This saves the cost of the scrap metals.
building landfill sites.
Social - It helps to conserve the - It takes time and effort for the
limited amount of metals in world to practise recycling as a
the Earth. way of life.
- With the increasing world
population, more land will be
available if ore mining is
reduced.
Environmental - Reduces the environmental - The recycling process may
problems related to extracting cause pollution if not done
metals from ores (e.g. waste properly (e.g. metal fumes
gases including carbon from the recycling process)
monoxide which are formed in
the blast furnace through iron
extraction will be reduced)

Sample Questions

Q1 Some alloys are coated with a layer of aluminium. Explain how this prevents the alloy
from corroding.
Al, being a reactive metal, reacts with oxygen, forming a thin and protective layer of
aluminium oxide which coats the alloy and protects it from further corrosion.

Q2 Explain why magnesium blocks are often attached to underground steel pipes.
Magnesium, being more reactive than iron, acts as a sacrificial metal to corrode in
place of iron. It provides sacrificial protection against rusting for the steel pipes.

Q3 A block of iron is coated with copper. The block was accidentally scratched and the
iron beneath was exposed.
a) Explain what would happen to the iron.
b) Will the copper in contact with the iron corrode faster or slower than normal?
[Chemistry] Chap14: Metals

Explain your answer.

a) The iron will undergo rusting because it is now exposed to oxygen and water
(moisture in air). In addition, the iron will rust faster than normal. This is because
iron, being more reactive than copper, acts as a sacrificial metal to corrode in
place of iron (when itself already undergoes rusting).
b) The copper will corrode slower than normal, because iron provides sacrificial
protection for the copper against rusting by corroding in place of copper.

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The Reactivity Series

Metal Reactivity Extraction

K Potassium
Na Sodium React
Li Lithium with
Sr Strontium water Electrolysis
Ca Calcium
Mg Magnesium
Al Aluminum
Carbon included for comparison
Zn Zinc
Cr Chromium
Fe Iron
Cd Cadmium React with acids Smelting with
Co Cobalt coke
Ni Nickel
Sn Tin
Pb Lead
Hydrogen included for comparison
Cu Copper Found naturally
Ag Silver Highly unreactive uncombined
Hg Mercury
Au Gold Heat or physical
Pt Platinum extraction

Going from bottom to top, the metals:

 increase in reactivity;
 lose electrons more readily to form positive ions;
 corrode or tarnish more readily;
 require more energy (and different methods) to be separated from their ores;
 become stronger reducing agents.

Notes:

Carbon is able to reduce metal oxides Zn to Pb because it is “higher up” in the reactivity series than
them.
[Chemistry] Chap14: Metals

200310

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