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AT6002 ALTERNATIVE FUELS AND ENERGY SYSTEMS L T P C

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OBJECTIVES:
To know about the types of alternative fuels and energy sources for IC engines.
UNIT I ALCOHOLS AS FUELS 9

Introduction to alternative fuels. - Need for alternative fuels - Availability of different
alternative fuels for SI and CI engines. Alcohols as fuels. Production methods of
alcohols. Properties of alcohols as fuels. Methods of using alcohols in CI and SI
engines. Blending, dual fuel operation, surface ignition and oxygenated additives.
Performance emission and combustion characteristics in CI and SI engines.
UNIT II VEGETABLE OILS AS FUELS 9

Various vegetable oils and their important properties. Different methods of using
vegetable oils engines – Blending, preheating Transesterification and emulsification of
Vegetable oils - Performance in engines – Performance, Emission and Combustion
Characteristics in diesel engines.
UNIT III HYDROGEN AS ENGINE FUEL 9

Production methods of hydrogen. Combustive properties of hydrogen. Problems
associated with hydrogen as fuel and solutions. Different methods of using hydrogen in
SI and CI engines. Performance, emission and combustion analysis in engines.
Hydrogen storage - safety aspects of hydrogen.
UNIT IV BIOGAS, NATURAL GAS AND LPG AS FUELS 9

Production methods of Biogas, Natural gas and LPG. Properties studies. CO2 and H2S
scrubbing in Biogas., Modification required to use in SI and CI Engines- Performance and
emission characteristics of Biogas, NG and LPG in SI and CI engines.
UNIT V ELECTRIC, HYBRID AND FUEL CELL VEHICLES 9

Layout of Electric vehicle and Hybrid vehicles – Advantages and drawbacks of electric
and hybrid vehicles. System components, Electronic control system – Different
configurations of Hybrid vehicles. Power split device. High energy and power density
batteries – Basics of Fuel cell vehicles. TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
On completion of the course, the student will understand the various
alternative fuels available, its properties, performance characteristics,
combustion characteristics, emission characteristics, engine modifications
required etc.,
TEXT BOOK:
1. Ayhan Demirbas, ‘Biodiesel A Realistic Fuel Alternative for Diesel Engines’,
Springer- Verlag London Limited 2008,ISBN-13: 9781846289941
REFERENCES:
1. Gerhard Knothe, Jon Van Gerpen, Jargon Krahl, The Biodiesel Handbook, AOCS
Press Champaign, Illinois 2005.
2. Richard L Bechtold P.E., Alternative Fuels Guide book, Society of Automotive
Engineers, 1997 ISBN 0-76-80-0052-1.
3. Transactions of SAE on Biofuels (Alcohols, vegetable oils, CNG, LPG, Hydrogen,
Biogas etc.).
4. Science direct Journals (Biomass & Bio energy, Fuels, Energy, Energy
conversion Management, Hydrogen Energy, etc.) on biofuels.
5. Devaradjane. Dr. G., Kumaresan. Dr. M., "Automobile Engineering", AMK Publishers,
2013.
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UNIT I
ALCOHOLS AS FUELS
Alternative Fuels:
Alternative fuel as defined here, is any material or substance, other than petroleum (oil),
which is consumed to provide energy to power an engine. Some alternative fuels are
biodiesel, ethanol, butanol, chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells),
hydrogen, methane, natural gas, wood, and vegetable oil. The need for the development
of alternative fuel sources has been growing due to concerns that the production of oil
will no longer supply the demand.
Classification of Alternative Fuels
Some of these come into the category of renewable energy. Renewable energy includes
electricity generation for the home, while the term "alternative fuels" tends to refer to
mobile energy. Some alternative fuels and the cars they power are:
Gasoline type biofuels
Butanol as a direct replacement for gasoline

Ethanol or mixtures with gasoline E85,
Hydrogen internal-combustion car (see hydrogen car)
Diesel type biofuels
Hempseed oil fuel or other Straight vegetable oils

Biodiesel
Others with internal combustion
Natural gas, compressed or liquified

Propane (aka LPG, LP gas)
Synfuel synthetic fuels
Oil shale,
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
External combustion
Steam engine cars (like the Stanley Steamer)

Coal-oven steam cars
Organic waste fuel
Wood gas on board gasification
No combustion
 Electric vehicle
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Solar cell powered or charged electric cars

Tesla's electric car (with antenna)
Hydrogen fuel cell liquefied or compressed hydrogen
MAGLEV with induction drive (a variety of electric mass transit)
Air car working on compressed air.
Properties of Alternative Fuels:
Ethanol:
Essentially 100 percent pure grain alcohol made unfit to drink, ethanol is produced by
fermenting plant sugars. It can be made from corn, potatoes, wood, waste paper, wheat,
brewery waste, and many other agricultural products and food wastes. Anything
containing sugar, starch, or cellulose can be fermented and distilled into ethanol. More
than 90 percent of U.S. ethanol production comes from corn.
Pure ethanol is rarely used for transportation; usually it is mixed with gasoline. The most
popular blend for light-duty vehicles is known as E85, which is 85 percent ethanol and 15
percent gasoline. Heavy-duty trucks typically use E95 (ethanol blended with five percent
unleaded gasoline) and E93 (ethanol blended with five percent methanol and two percent
kerosene). For many years, ethanol has also been used as a 10 percent mixture with
gasoline in a blend called ―gasohol‖ or E10 to reduce carbon monoxide emissions during
winter. Finally, ethanol is often blended in gasoline as an oxygenate to meet clean fuel
requirements.
The technology to produce ethanol is well established, and all the resources needed to
produce it can be supplied domestically.
Performance:
Ethanol vehicles exhibit the same power, acceleration, payload, and cruise speed as
conventionally fueled vehicles. In addition, ethanol use has several benefits. It has a
higher octane rating than gasoline, which reduces engine ―knock‖ and can result in
higher energy efficiency. Ethanol also absorbs moisture and helps prevent gas-line
freeze-up in cold weather, preventing the need to add expensive and possibly harmful
fuel additives. In addition, ethanol has some detergent properties that reduce buildup,
which keeps engines running smoothly and fuel injection systems clean for better
performance.
On the other hand, ethanol vehicles have about 75 to 90 percent of the range of
comparable gasoline vehicles and might require more frequent fueling. Some auto
manufacturers are installing larger fuel tanks in E85 vehicles to prevent this
inconvenience. Another potential concern is that ethanol is a more volatile fuel than
gasoline, with a low volatility in winter and a high volatility in summer. In addition,
ethanol does not mix well with diesel fuel. Consumers with diesel vehicles who wish to
use ethanol should completely replace diesel fuel with pure ethanol or use a special
injection method.
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Safety :
Ethanol is not considered a toxic pollutant at levels likely to be inhaled when used as a
motor fuel. It is much less flammable than gasoline, thus fires are less frequent and less
severe when spills or releases of vapor occur. It is safer than gasoline to store, transport,
and refuel. Because ethanol is water soluble and biodegradable, land and water spills
are usually harmless, dispersing and decomposing quickly; the gasoline portion of a spill
is still a problem in these situations. Adequate training is required to operate and maintain
ethanol vehicles, however.
Emission Characteristics:
Actual emissions will vary with engine design; these numbers reflect the potential
reductions offered by ethanol (E85), relative to conventional gasoline.
• Fewer total toxics are produced.
• Reductions in ozone-forming volatile organic compounds of 15 percent.
• Reductions in carbon monoxide of 40 percent.
• Reductions in particulate emissions of 20 percent.
• Reductions in nitrogen oxide emissions of 10 percent.
• Reductions in sulfate emissions of 80 percent.
• Lower reactivity of hydrocarbon emissions
• Higher ethanol and acetaldehyde emissions.
Methanol:
Methanol is the simplest alcohol chemically, containing one carbon atom per molecule.
Commonly known as ―wood alcohol,‖ it is a toxic, colorless, tasteless liquid with a very
faint odor. Because it is produced as a liquid, methanol is stored and handled like
gasoline. Most methanol is currently made from natural gas, but it can also be made from
a wide range of renewable sources, such as wood or waste paper.
Methanol also offers important emissions benefits compared with gasoline—it can reduce
hydrocarbon emissions by 30 to 40 percent with M85 and up to 80 percent with M100
fuels. Emissions are considerably lower when methanol is used in a fuel cell vehicle—
automobiles that convert the chemical energy of a fuel into electricity and heat without
combustion.
Performance:
Methanol and methanol blends have higher octane ratings than gasoline, which reduces
engine ―knock‖ and can produce in a higher engine efficiency. The higher octane also
gives methanol-fueled vehicles more power and quicker acceleration. M100 vehicles
have difficulty starting in cold weather, but this is not a problem for M85 vehicles
because of the presence of gasoline. Furthermore, because of methanol‘s corrosive
nature, a specialized fuel system is needed to handle the fuel.
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Safety:
There are some safety concerns with methanol because it burns with a nearly invisible
flame, making flame detection difficult for vehicle owners and operators. Yet methanol is
much less flammable than gasoline and results in less severe fires when it does ignite. A
few teaspoons of methanol consumed orally can cause blindness and a few tablespoons
can be fatal, if not treated. Antidotes can be effective if administered within hours of
intake. For safety reasons, denaturants are added to M100 to give the fuel an unpleasant
taste and odor.
As with other alternative fuel vehicles, adequate training is required to operate and
maintain methanol based vehicles. In case of spills, methanol is biodegradable and dilutes
quickly in large bodies of water. In addition, the toxic effects on the environment after
methanol fuel spills are shorter in duration than those of petroleum spills, and even more
so for M100 because it contains no gasoline.
reductions offered by methanol, relative to conventional gasoline.
• Potentially lower nitrogen oxide emissions due to a high heat of vaporization and lower
peak flame temperature.
• Forms no particulate matter when combusted; M85 will have some particulate
emissions due to the gasoline component of the blend.
• Lean combustion results in lower overall volatile organic compound emissions and
higher energy efficiency.
• Potentially greater direct formaldehyde emissions.
• Reductions in indirect formaldehyde formation because the hydrocarbons emitted are
less reactive.
Compressed Natural Gas:
CNG is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. It consists mostly of methane and is drawn from
gas wells or in conjunction with crude oil production. CNG vehicles store natural gas in
high-pressure fuel cylinders at 3,000 to 3,600 pounds per square inch. An odorant is
normally added to CNG for safety reasons.
Two types of CNG fuel systems are on the market: dedicated vehicles, which operate
exclusively on natural gas, and dual-fuel vehicles, which can use both natural gas and
gasoline.
Performance:
The octane rating for CNG is higher than that for gasoline; in a dedicated engine, a CNG
vehicle‘s power, acceleration, and cruise speed can be greater than that of a gasoline-
powered vehicle. In addition, due to the cleaner burning characteristics of natural gas,
CNG vehicle engines can run more efficiently than a gasolinepowered vehicle, thereby
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extending the life of the vehicle. In heavy-duty vehicles, CNG engines are also generally
less noisy than diesel engines.
Safety:
Although CNG is a flammable gas, it has a narrow flammability range, making it an

inherently safe fuel. Strict safety standards make CNG vehicles as safe as gasoline-
powered vehicles. In the event of a spill or accidental release, CNG poses no threat to
land or water; it is nontoxic. CNG also disperses rapidly, minimizing ignition risk relative
to gasoline. Natural gas is lighter than air and will not pool as a liquid or vapor on the
ground. Nevertheless, leaks indoors may form a flammable mixture in the vicinity of an
ignition source. CNG is primarily methane, however, which is a greenhouse gas that
could contribute to global climate change if leaked. Methane is slightly soluble in water
and under certain environmental conditions (anaerobic) does not biodegrade; If excess
amounts accumulate, the gas can bubble from the water, possibly creating a risk of fire or
explosion. Reported incidences of bus fires are related to engine failures, not the use of
natural gas. Natural gas buses have onboard gas detectors and other safety devices, such
as tank safety valves that allow fuel flow only when the engine is keyed on. Also, the
tanks must be inspected and approved by the U.S. Department of Transportation after
certain periods of use.
There are some different safety concerns with CNG buses than diesel fuel buses, such as
greater breaking distance due to increased fuel storage system weight. This is a relatively
small concern, however, because the fuel system is a small fraction of a bus‘ total weight.
CNG buses also might accelerate slower than their diesel counterparts.
reductions offered by compressed natural gas, relative to conventional gasoline.
• Reductions in carbon monoxide emissions of 90 to 97 percent, and reductions in carbon
dioxide emissions of 25 percent.
• Reductions in nitrogen oxide emissions of 35 to 60 percent.
• Potential reductions in nonmethane hydrocarbon emissions of 50 to 75 percent.
• Fewer toxic and carcinogenic pollutants and little to no particulate matter produced.
• No evaporative emissions in dedicated engines (such as those associated with gasoline
or diesel).
Liquefied Natural Gas:
LNG is odorless, colorless, noncorrosive, and nontoxic. When extracted from

underground reserves, natural gas is composed of approximately 90 percent methane.
During the liquefaction process, oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulfur compounds, and water
are removed, purifying the fuel and increasing its methane content to almost 100 percent.
As a result, LNG-fueled vehicles can offer significant emissions benefits compared with
older diesel-powered vehicles, and can significantly reduce carbon monoxide and
particulate emissions as well as nitrogen oxide emissions.
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Performance:
There are no discernible differences in LNG vehicle performance, operation, and utility
when compared with diesel. The high ignition quality of LNG is similar to that of diesel,
providing for similar durability and engine life overall
Safety:
A LNG vehicle parked indoors and unmoved for a week or more will vent a flammable
gas mixture that could catch fire in the vicinity of an ignition source. To address this
safety issue, LNG use should be restricted to frequently driven fleet vehicles or to
vehicles stored outdoors. Only trained personnel should service the vehicles.
In addition, refueling vehicles with LNG requires training because of the fuel‘s ultra low
temperature. It can cause frostbite if it contacts skin. Since LNG is almost 100 percent
Methane—a greenhouse gas—it can also contribute to global climate change if
accidentally released into the air. Methane is slightly soluble in water and, under certain
environmental conditions (anaerobic), it does not bio-degrade. If excess amounts
accumulate, the gas can bubble from the water, possibly creating a risk of fire or
explosion.
reductions offered by LNG relative to diesel.
• Production of half particulate matter of average diesel vehicles.
• Can significantly reduce carbon monoxide emissions.
• Reductions of nitrogen oxide and volatile organic hydrocarbon emissions by 50 percent
or more.
• Potential reductions in carbon dioxide emissions of 25 percent depending on the source
of the natural gas.
• Drastic reductions in toxic and carcinogenic pollutants.
• Increase in methane emissions.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas or LPG
Propane (otherwise known as Liquefied Petroleum Gas or LPG) is a byproduct of natural

gas processing and petroleum refining. In its natural state, propane is a colorless,
nontoxic gas—at least 90 percent propane, 2.5 percent butane and higher hydrocarbons,
and the balance ethane and propylene. An odorant is added to the gas so it can be
detected for safety reasons. Under moderate pressure, propane gas turns into a liquid
mixture, making it easier to transport and store in vehicle fuel tanks. Compared with
gasoline, propane can lower carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other toxic emissions.
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Performance:
Those who drive propane-powered vehicles assert that there are no significant driving
differences between dedicated propane vehicles and gasolinepowered vehicles. In fact,
propane vehicles have a higher octane rating than gasoline, allowing for a higher
compression ratio in the engine and greater engine efficiency. This also reduces engine
―knock‖ and allows the engine to run more smoothly. Because the fuel is already in a
gaseous state, it mixes readily with air in the combustion chamber to allow for nearly
complete combustion. This reduces certain exhaust emissions, such as carbon monoxide,
and minimizes problems with starting the vehicles in cold weather.
Safety:
Propane in its liquid state has the lowest flammability range of any alternative fuel, which
reduces the chances of a vehicle fire. Because it becomes a gas when leaked, however, it
is more likely to ignite than gasoline and other liquid fuels; propane gas when leaked can
fill a room and form a flammable layer against the ground or floor. Nevertheless, in case
of a spill outdoors, propane is nontoxic, slightly soluble and biodegrades rapidly in soil,
water or air. If stored in an enclosed space, proper ventilation and leak detection sensors
are needed to increase safety, since the gas can displace the air necessary for breathing.
reductions offered by propane, relative to conventional gasoline.
• Potentially lower toxic, carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and nonmethane
hydrocarbon (NMHC) emissions.
• Rich calibration shows high NMHC and CO emissions, but lower nitrogen oxide (NOx)
emissions.
• Lean calibration shows slightly higher NOx emissions, but lower CO and NHMC
emissions.
Bio-diesel:
Today, the diesel engine is still capable of running on ―biodiesel‖ fuel, which can be
produced from a variety of renewable sources, including soybean oil, canola oil,
sunflower oil, cottonseed oil, and animal fats. These sources can be obtained from
agricultural feedstocks or by recycling used oil such as cooking grease. Most biodiesel
produced in the United States is made from soybean oil due to this feedstock‘s
abundance.
Biodiesel is usable in its pure form, known as ―neat biodiesel‖ or B100. In addition, it is
available in various blends with petrodiesel, the most common of which is known as B20
(20 percent biodiesel and 80 percent petrodiesel). It is also used in smaller percentages as
a lubricating fuel additive.
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Performance:
Biodiesel maintains the same payload capacity and range as conventional diesel, and
provides similar horsepower, torque, and fuel economy. Biodiesel has a higher cetane
number than conventional diesel, which increases the engine‘s performance. It also
serves as a high-quality lubricant and can enhance the life of heavyduty engines.
Biodiesel vehicles can have cold start problems relative to petrodiesel, but this is more of
an issue for B100 than B20 fuels. For example, B20 freezes at temperatures 3°F to 5°F
higher than petrodiesel, but it has been used in upper Wisconsin and Iowa during -25°F
weather with no reported problems. B100 will begin to freeze at 25°F, however. Vehicle
owners can solve cold start problems with biodiesel in the same manner as with
conventionally fueled vehicles (e.g., using engine block or fuel filter heaters or storing
the vehicles near or in a building).
Safety:
Biodiesel is biodegradable, which means it dissipates quickly after a spill. Biodiesel has a
high flashpoint and low volatility so it does not ignite as easily as petrodiesel, which
increases the margin of safety in fuel handling. In fact, it degrades four times faster than
petrodiesel and is not particularly soluble in water. It is nontoxic, which makes it safe to
handle, transport, and store. When blended with petrodiesel, the spill‘s petrodiesel
portion is still a problem, but less so than with 100 percent petrodiesel. As with all
vehicles, adequate training is recommended to operate and maintain biodiesel vehicles.
reductions offered by a biodiesel blend (B20) and pure biodiesel (B100), relative to
conventional diesel.
• Reductions in carbon monoxide emissions of 10 percent (B20) and 50 percent (B100).
• Reductions in particulate emissions of 15 percent (B20) and 70 percent (B100).
• Reductions in total hydrocarbon emissions of 10 percent (B20) and 40 percent (B100).
• Reductions in sulfate emissions of 20 percent (B20) and 100 percent (B100).
• Increases in nitrogen oxide emissions of 2 percent (B20) and 9 percent (B100).
• No change in methane emissions using either B20 or B100.
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Methane Propane LNG Gasoline Diesel Hydrogen Methanol Ethanol
CH4 C3H8 CH4 C8 H18 C12H26 H2 CH3OH C2H5OH

Formula
Research Octane Number 130 112 130 91-98 N.A 130+ 107 108
Motor Octane Number 130 97 130 83-90 N.A N.A 91 92
Cetane Number -10 5-10 -10 8-14 40-65 N.A 3 8
Density of Liquid Fuel(kg/lt) N.A 0.509 0.421 0.746 0.808 0.0708 0.79 0.783
Density of Gas (kg/m3) 0.6512 0.508 N.A 4.4 0.0838
Boiling Point (C) -162 -42 -162 27-240 -252.7
Lower Heating Value (kj/kg) 49,913 46,238 49,913 42,661 43,419 119,444 19,859 26,855
Energy Content (Volume) (BTU/gallon) 121,459 84,448 28,287 114,194 125,881 N/A N/A 57,449
Energy Compared to Gasoline 65% 72% 66% 100% 113% 26% 47% 66%
Energy Compared to Diesel 57% 64% 60% 88% 100% 23% 41% 58%
Stoichometric A/F Ratio (mass) 17.3 15.7 17.3 14.7 15 34.3 6.5 9
Heat of Vaporization (kj/kg) 507 423 507 355 286 N.A 1186 842
Energy of Stoich. Mixture (Vapor) 3.58 3.79 3.58 3.55 3.61 3.58 3.45 3.46
Wobbe Number (Mj/m3) 50.66 74.7 50.66 N.A N.A
Autoignition Temperature (C) 540 482 450 257 316 574 464 423
Peak Flame Temperature (C) 1790 1990 1790 1977 2054 2045
Spark Ignition Energy (mj) 0.29 0.305 0.29 0.24 0.24 0.02
Flammability Limits (vol %) 5.3-15 2.1- 10.4 1.4- 7.6 0.6- 5.5 4-75
Max. Burning Velocity in NTP air (cm/s) 37-45 43-52 37-45 37-43
Specific Gravity at NTP (60 deg F) 0.55 1.52 0.55 2-4 4-6
Reid Vapor Pressure (psi) 2400 208 8-15 0.2 4.6 2.3
Flame Visibility, relative 0.6 0.6 0.6 1 1
Flash Point (F) -300 -100 to -150 -306 -45 165 52 55
Properties of Some Alternative Fuels
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Alcohols
Properties of Alcohol as engine fuels:
1. Air Fuel Ratio
Because the alcohols contain oxygen in their chemical form, they require less air
to complete combustion. (A/F ratio is low with alcohol fuels). For methanol it is
6.4 : 1 and ethanol it is 9 : 1.
2. Theory of Combustion
The ratio of moles of product and reactants for alcohols is higher compared to
gasoline. Assuming all the fuels enter the engine completely evaporated, the fuel
giving largest number of moles of products per mole of reactant should produce
more pressure after combustion and hence power in the cylinder, all other factors
being equal. By this it is clear that alcohol will produce more power than gasoline
Fuel Ratio
Gasoline 1.058
Methanol 1.061
Ethanol 1.065
3. Calorific Value
One of the most important properties of a fuel is the amount of energy obtained
from it when it is burned. All of the alcohols contain an oxygen atom bonded to a
hydrogen atom in the hydroxyl radical. When the alcohol is burned, the hydroxyl
combines with a hydrogen atom to form a molecule of water. Thus, the oxygen
contained in the alcohol contributes nothing to the fuel value.
The relative atomic weights of the atoms involved are: hydrogen, 1 ; carbon, 12;
and oxygen, 16. Since methyl alcohol has an atomic weight of 32, half the
molecule cannot be "burned" and does not contribute any fuel value. As expected,
methanol has less than half the heat value (expressed in Btu/lb) of gasoline.
Ethanol, with 35% oxygen, is slightly better with 60% of the heat value of
gasoline. To generate equal amount of energy as that of gasoline, methanol has to
be supplied 2.2 times as that of gasoline and ethanol 1.64 times greater.
If the heating value of methyl and ethyl alcohol were considered alone, they
would appear to be poor choices as motor fuels. However, other redeeming
qualities such as "latent heat of vaporization" and anti-knock values make alcohol
fuels superior, in some ways, to gasoline.
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4. Volatility
A fuel‘s ability to vaporize or change from liquid to vapor is referred to as its

volatility. Gasoline and other liquid fuels such as alcohols are used in a variety of
engines with large variations in operating conditions and under a wide range of
atmospheric temperatures and barometric pressures. Therefore, the volatility
characteristics of a spark ignition (SI) engine fuel are of prime importance. Fuels
that do not vaporize readily may cause hard starting of cold engines and poor
vehicle driveability during warm-up and acceleration. Conversely, fuels that
vaporize too readily at higher operating temperatures will cause too much vapor
to form causing a decrease in fuel flow to the engine (known as ―vapor lock‘).
These extremes of difficult starts on the one hand and vapor lock on the other can
be minimized by changing fuel volatility specifications for seasonal,
geographical, and elevation considerations. Therefore, it is important that a fuel‘s
tendency to evaporate is controlled to certain standards.
Gasoline is composed of a number of compounds having boiling points ranging

from approximately 27- 225°C(80-437°F).Unlike gasoline, methanol and ethanol
are single compounds that boil at 64.7°C (149°F) and 78.3°C (173°F),
respectively. In fuel applications, alcohols lack the light fractions with boiling
points near 38°C (100°F) which are essential for starting spark-ignited engines in
severe cold.
5. Vapor Pressure
A fuel‘s tendency to vaporize is measured by Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP), The

Reid Vapor Pressure or RVP (ASTM D 323) is a measurement of a fuel‘s front-
end volatility. The determination of RVP is performed by submerging a fuel
sample (sealed in a flask) in a 100°Fwater bath. More volatile fuels will vaporize
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more readily, producing higher pressure readings. Less volatile fuels will not
create as much vapor, therefore creating lower pressure readings.
Alcohols have a very low vapor pressure because of their high boiling point and
high latent heat of vaporization. This makes alcohol unsuitable for severe cold
environment operation. When alcohol is added to gasoline in small amount it
tends to increase the RVP of the fuel
6. Water Content
Gasoline and water free alcohol are miscible in all proportions over a wide range
of temperatures. However, even a small addition of water to this blended fuel
causes separation of the alcohol and gasoline which can be one of most difficult
problems for the blends to be used as motor fuels.
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7. Latent Heat of Vaporization
When a liquid is at its boiling point, a certain amount of additional heat is needed
to change the liquid to a gas. This additional heat is the latent heat of
vaporization. Alcohols have higher Latent Heat of Vaporization. In an engine,
vaporization of the gasoline fuel/air mixture results in a temperature drop of about
4.5 degrees Celsius. Under similar conditions, the temperature drop for ethyl
alcohol will be more than twice that of gasoline, and for methanol the drop will be
over three times as great. These temperature drops result in a considerably greater
"mass density" of the fuel entering the engine for alcohol as compared to gasoline.
The result is a greatly increased efficiency for alcohol fuels. To visualize why,
remember that at a given pressure, the amount of space a gas occupies is directly
proportional to the temperature. For example, if one kg of a gas fits into a certain
container at a given pressure and the temperature is cut in half, the container will
now hold two kg of the gas at the same pressure. In an engine, a stoichiometric
mixture of methanol and air would be over three times colder than the same
gasoline/air mixture. This means that there is now over three times (by weight) as
much methanol in the cylinder. Now, even though methanol has only half the heat
value of gasoline, the net gain in "volumetric mass efficiency" is over three times.
So, for example, if the gasoline/air mixture in a given engine cylinder produces
100 kJ on each stroke, the same engine would produce kJ Btu per stroke with
methanol. This power gain due to increased volumetric mass efficiency is the
primary reason for the popularity of methyl alcohol.
8. Octane Number
The Octane number of methanol and ethanol are higher than gasoline. Hence
higher compression ratios can be used with alcohols resulting in higher thermal
efficiency. alcohols have the ability to raise considerably the octane ratings of
gasolines with which they are mixed. The effect is greatest on the poorer grades
of gasoline. A 25% blend of ethanol and 40 octane gasoline will have a net
increase of almost 30 points! This increase is one of the major advantages of
"gasohol". The ability to increase octane rating means that: (1) a lower (therefore
cheaper) grade of gasoline can be used to obtain a fuel with a certain octane
rating; and (2) the use of traditional pollution producing anti-knock additives such
as tetraethyl lead can be eliminated
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Combustion Characteristics of Alcohol
1. Flammability limits
Alcohols have extended flammability limits, which mean that they can be
combusted with very leaner mixture also. This results in the reduction of emissions
also.
2. High Pressure development

Alcohols during combustion produce a great number of product moles per mole of
fuel burnt, therefore, higher pressure are achieved. This results in the increase in
work output and hence the power of the engine.
3. High laminar burning velocity

A faster burning chamber with its shorter burn time permits operation with more
excess air or leaner mixtures, and provides a more repeatable combustion pattern,
thus providing lower cycle-by-cycle variability over the entire operating range.
The higher laminar burning velocities of alcohols makes it suitable for the faster
burning chamber.
The higher flame speed, giving earlier energy release in the power stroke, results
in a power increase of 11% at normal conditions and up to 20% at the higher
levels of a compression ratio.
The optimum spark setting will depend on the rate of flame development and
propagation and the length of the flame travel path across the combustion
chamber. The use of both ethanol and methanol has shown to decrease the spark
advance required for MBT. As shown in Figure below for methanol, as the
percentage of alcohol increases in the gasoline/alcohol mixture, less spark
advance is required and the MBT timing shifts toward Top Dead Center or TDC.
This is an indication of methanol‘s higher burning velocity. In the drawing,
DBTDC signifies Degrees before Top Dead Center
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4. Non Luminous flame

Low flame luminosity of methanol causes safety concern. The formation of
submicroscopic soot particles during the combustion process provide the
luminosity of a carbon containing fuel. These particles which are heated by the
flame emit light at visible wavelengths in a process called gray-body radiation.
When methanol burns, it has a cooler flame and a few soot particles occur. The
tendency to soot increases with molecular weight. Therefore, methanol produces
less soot than ethanol. The flame of methanol radiates at infrared wavelengths due
to the absence of gray-body radiation. A visible luminous flame during the
combustion process is a desirable fuel characteristic in point of safety view in
order to detect of the flame in the event of an accidental fire. Non-luminous flame
can cause danger to people close to the fire. Some additives can improve the
luminosity of methanol.
5. Lower Adiabatic Flame Temperature

The adiabatic flame temperature of alcohols is lower compared with the gasoline.
16
In conjunction with lower flame temperature, about 10% less heat is lost to the
engine coolant. The lower flame temperature of alcohols results in much lower
NOx (Nitrogen Oxides) emissions.
Performance of Alcohol Engines
Effect of Compression Ratio
Compression ratio (CR) is defined as the maximum cylinder volume (when the
piston is at the bottom of its reciprocating path) divided by the minimum cylinder
volume (when the piston is at Top Dead Center or TDC). Increasing the
compression ratio is a known method of increasing fuel economy by improving
thermal efficiency. Because of their higher octane ratings, alcohol fuels allow the
use of higher compression ratios. However, the introduction of high compression
ratios has two potential drawbacks: an increased tendency to knock and higher
NOx emissions. Alcohol blends can help solve the problem of knock at elevated
compression ratios. Using a variable-compression ratio, single-cylinder engine,
the effect of methanol content on the knock-limited compression ratio (KLCR) is
shown below in Figure
17
It is found that the compression ratio is increased to higher level from nearly 7.75
to around 9.75 when the fuel is replaced by methanol. As the CR is increased, the
temperature in the combustion chamber increases, resulting in increased NO,,
formation.
However, methanol has inherently lower flame temperatures than gasoline, and
therefore tends to produce less NOx.
Effect of Equivalence Ratio
The equivalence ratio ( ) is a measure of the actual fuel/air mixture (F/A) to the
stoichiometric fuel/air ratio (F/A) Stoichiometry is the proportion required
between fuel and air for a specific fuel to allow complete combustion of the
chemical reactions to occur. The excess air ratio is also used and is inverse of the
equivalence ratio. Its purpose is to describe whether the engine is operating on a
lean or rich fuel/air mixture. Both are defined below:
At lower equivalence ratios or lean burn conditions, engines operate more

efficiently. Because of their oxygenated composition, alcohol fuels and alcohol-
based ethers allow the use of leaner equivalence ratios. Figure below shows the
relation between equivalence ratio and thermal efficiency for methanol and
gasoline. The maximum efficiency attainable by a lean mixture of gasoline (27%)
can be attained with rich mixtures of methanol. Work conducted on a test engine
operating on ethanol produced similar results.Because the efficiency values are
measured at the fuel‘s knock limited compression ratio (KLCR), the second figure
is included to discriminate between the effect of the fuel and the effect of KLCR
on efficiency.
18
Figure below shows the relation between equivalence ratio and power for
methanol and gasoline. The peak power achieved with gasoline was attained by
the fuels containing methanol at much leaner conditions. Again, because an
increase in compression ratio is accompanied by an increase in power, the right
hand illustration in Figure below shows the contribution of the compression ratio
vs. the methanol fuel content.
19
Figure below is a plot of 198 proof (99%) ethyl alcohol as compared to gasoline.
"Mean Effective Pressure" in the graph is a direct indication of the power
produced. The increased mean effective pressure (M.E.P.) of alcohol at all
mixture ratios is the most noticeable difference between the two fuels. This
increase in M.E.P. is due mainly to the greater volumetric efficiency that results
from the high latent heat of vaporization of ethanol and the resulting greater mass
density of the fuel/air mixture.
Figure 2-4: ENGINE PERFORMANCE of ETHANOL vs GASOLINE
Note that the M.E.P. of ethanol increases with mixtures having up to 40% excess
fuel, whereas for gasoline, the maximum pressure is reached at 20% excess fuel.
It would seem that to achieve maximum power from an alcohol-burning engine
there would be a temptation to burn very rich mixtures. Fuel economy aside, it
should be noted that the rich mixtures necessary to obtain maximum M.E.P. are
accompanied by incomplete burning of the fuel and the resultant lowering of
overall thermal efficiency. The lean limits for alcohol and gasoline, therefore, are
about the same, and both fuels develop maximum thermal efficiency at about 15%
excess air. With mixtures leaner than 15% both fuels loose thermal efficiency.
Figure 2-5: HORSEPOWER COMPARISON of ETHANOL vs GASOLINE
20
Figure 2-5 compares engine horsepower and air/fuel ratios for ethanol and
gasoline in a six-cylinder engine
Emission Characteristics of Alcohols:
One of the issues in modern engine design is the control of specific pollutants.
Increasing the percentage of methanol and lowering the equivalence ratio
decreases hydrocarbon and CO emissions but increases the creation of NOx and
formaldehyde, as can be seen in Figure below Lean burn strategies, while
providing better thermal efficiency and lower hydrocarbon and CO emissions,
produce higher NOx emissions. When the fuels are burnt in near equivalence ratio
the NOx is found to be reduced.
21
Aside from the fuel/air mixture, the moment of ignition has the greatest influence
on pollutant emissions. As shown below in the set of drawings, both HC and NO,
emissions are much higher at 50 degree before TDC than at 20°, for the range of
equivalence ratios from 0.75 to 1.2. As the spark is advanced (away from TDC),
HC emissions increase up to the lean misfire limit. As the timing is advanced, the
combustion temperature is increased and NO, formation increases. CO emissions
22
are almost completely independent of ignition timing and are primarily a function
of the fuel/air ratio.
23
Alcohols and Gasoline Blends – Distillation Curves:
Low Level Alcohol Blends:
Adding alcohols to gasoline causes an increase in vapor pressure and depresses

the boiling temperature. However, some researchers have found the addition of
low levels of alcohols raise the front-end section of the curve. The distillation
curve of these blends show that most of the alcohol vaporizes at its boiling point,
giving the so-called ‗alcohol flat‖ in the distillation curves.
From a typical equilibrium vapor composition curve (Figure 4-6), it is apparent

that in the flat region, alcohol vapors exist at concentrations disproportionate to
the alcohol concentration in the blend. At a volumetric concentration of methanol
of 5% or greater, over 50% of the resulting vapor at 46°C (115°F) is methanol, as
shown in Figure below
24
Higher Alcohol Blends
Greater concentrations of methanol in gasoline blends have very significant

effects on the shape of the distillation curve, as shown below in Figure 4-7. [21]
The front end temperatures increased, Vapor/Liquid Ratio indicating possible cold
start problems; the mid range temperatures have been decreased indicating
possible drivability problems; and the end point temperatures decreased,
implying less crankcase and combustion deposits.
Because ethanol has a higher boiling point than methanol, its effect on the
gasoline curve would be less than methanol. To summarize, the effect of
increasing the percentage of alcohol on the distillation curve is to flatten it around
the alcohol‘s boiling temperature.
25
Conversion of Diesel Engines to run with Alcohol:
When diesel engines are converted to alcohols, some properties of gasoline, diesel
and alcohol should be concerned. Table 5.2 shows the properties of the fuels
.There are several methods for converting a diesel engine to alcohol to be
discussed.
Table 5.2. Some properties of fuels
Gasoline Diesel Methanol Ethanol

1. Cetane number - 50 5 8
2. Octane number 96 - 112 107
3. Auto-ignition tempt. ° C 371 315 446 390
4. Latent heat of vaporization (KJ/Kg) 349 220 1177 914
5. Lower heating value (KJ/Kg) 4400 42600 19945 26700
a. Cetane number and cetane improving additive
For a fuel to burn in a diesel engine, it must have a high cetane number or ability
to self-ignite at high temperatures and pressures. There exists a significant
difference among gasoline, diesel and alcohol in terms of cetane number and auto
ignition. A high cetane number leads to a short ignition delay period, whereas a
low cetane number results in a long ignition delay period. From table 5.2, it can
be seen that alcohols have lower cetane number than that of diesel, which is not
desired when diesel engines are converted to alcohol. Fortunately, some additives,
an example of which is nitrate glycol, can increase the cetane number of alcohols.
This means that ignition delay period will become short, which will reduce
tendency to cause a diesel knock. However, too short ignition delay period will
cause a lower rate of heat release which is not wanted.
b. Alcohol-diesel emulsions
Because alcohols have limited solubility in diesel, stable emulsion must be

formed that will allow it to be injected before separation occurs. Hydroshear
emulsification unit can be used to produce emulsions of diesel-alcohol. However,
the emulsion can only remain stable for 45 seconds. And, 12% alcohol (energy
basis) is the maximum percentage. In addition, this kind of method has several
problems which are as follows: 1).Specific fuel consumption at low speed
increases; 2).High cost; 3).Instability. Therefore, other methods are developed.
c. Fumigation
Fumigation is a process of introducing alcohol into the diesel engine (up to 50%)
by means of a carburettor in the inlet manifold. At the same time, the diesel pump
26
operates at a reduced flow. In this process, diesel fuel is used for generating a
pilot flame. And, alcohol is used as a fumigated fuel. Two points should be noted
in using this method. At low loads, quantity of alcohol must be reduced to prevent
misfire .On the other hand, at high loads, quantity of alcohol must also be reduced
to prevent pre-ignition.
d. Dual injection
In dual injection system, a small amount of diesel is injected as a pilot fuel for
ignition source. And a large amount of alcohol is injected as main fuel. It must be
noted that the pilot fuel must be injected prior to injection of alcohol. Some ideal
results can be achieved when this method is used. Thermal efficiency is better. At
the same time, NOx emission is lower. Moreover, CO emissions and HC
emissions are the same. However, the system requires two fuel pumps, thus,
leading to a high cost. Meanwhile, alcohol needs additives for lubricity.
e. Heated surfaces
Alcohol can ignite with hot surfaces. For this reason, glow-plugs can be utilized
as a source of ignition for alcohol. In this system, specific fuel consumption
depends on glow-plug positions and temperatures. It must be noted that the
temperature of glow-plugs must vary with load. However, the glow-plug becomes
inefficient at a high load. In addition, the specific fuel consumption is higher than
that of diesel.
f. Spark-ignition
When a spark plug is used, diesel engine can be converted to Otto cycle engine. In
this case, compression ratio should be reduced, from 16: 1 to 10.5: 1. There are
two types about this kind of conversion. They are as follows:
Type 1: The original fuel injection system is maintained. Alcohol needs additive
for lubricity (Nitride glycol). Besides, both distributor and sparkplug need to be
installed, thus leading to a high cost of conversion. It is critical to adjust an ideal
injection and spark-time for this kind of conversion.
Type 2: Original fuel injection is eliminated. But, a carburettor, a spark-plug and a

distributor need to be installed, which increases the cost of conversion. In this
conversion, spark timing is critical.
Both the type 1 and type 2 conversion have a lower thermal efficiency than that of
diesel.
27
UNIT II
VEGETABLE OILS AS FUELS
VEGETABLE OILS & BIODIESEL
Vegetable oils and their derivatives (especially methyl esters), commonly referred to as
―biodiesel,‖ are prominent candidates as alternative diesel fuels. They have advanced
from being purely experimental fuels to initial stages of commercialization. They are
technically competitive with or offer technical advantages compared to conventional
diesel fuel. Besides being a renewable and domestic resource, biodiesel reduces most
emissions while engine performance and fuel economy are nearly identical compared to
conventional fuels. Several problems, however, remain, which include economics,
combustion, some emissions, lube oil contamination, and low-temperature properties.
Numerous different vegetable oils have been tested as biodiesel. Often the vegetable
oils investigated for their suitability as biodiesel are those which occur abundantly in the
country of testing. Therefore, soybean oil is of primary interest as biodiesel source in the
United States while many European countries are concerned with rapeseed oil, and
countries with tropical climate prefer to utilize coconut oil or palm oil. Other vegetable
oils, including sunflower, safflower, etc., have also been investigated. Furthermore, other
sources of biodiesel studied include animal fats and used or waste cooking oils. Sources
of biodiesel with some emphasis on developing countries have been discussed Several
problems, however, have impaired the widespread use of biodiesel. They are related to
the economics and properties of biodiesel. For example, neat vegetable oils reported to
cause engine deposits. Attempting to solve these problems by using methyl esters causes
operational problems at low temperatures. Furthermore, problems related to combustion
and emissions remain to be solved. The problems associated with the use of biodiesel are
thus very complex and no satisfactory solution has yet been achieved despite the efforts
of many researchers around the world.
Vegetable oils.
Most vegetable oils are triglycerides (TGs; triglyceride = TG). Chemically, TGs are
the triacylglyceryl esters of various fatty acids with glycerol (Figure 1).
Some physical properties of the most common fatty acids occurring in vegetable oils
and animal fats as well as their methyl esters are listed in Table I. Besides these fatty
acids, numerous other fatty acids occur in vegetable oils and animal fats, but their
abundance usually is considerably lower. Table II lists the fatty acid composition of some
vegetable oils and animal fats that have been studied as sources of biodiesel.
CH2OOR CH2OH
CHOOR + 3 CH3OH 3 CH3OOCR + CHOH
CH2OOR CH2OH
28
Triglyceride Methanol Methyl ester Glycerol

Figure 1. Structure of triglycerides and principle of the transesterification reaction
(shown for methyl esters; R = (CH2)xCH3 or unsaturated rests according to the fatty acids
listed in Table I).
The most common derivatives of TGs (or fatty acids) for fuels are methyl esters.
These are formed by transesterification of the TG with methanol in presence of usually a
basic catalyst to give the methyl ester and glycerol (see Figure 1). Other alcohols have
been used to generate esters, for example, the ethyl, propyl, and butyl esters.
Selected physical properties of vegetable oils and fats as they relate to their use as
DF are listed in Table III. For esters these properties are given in Table IV. Also listed in
Table III are the ranges of iodine values (centigrams iodine absorbed per gram of sample)
of these oils and fats. The higher the iodine value, the more unsaturation is present in the
fat or oil.
That vegetable oils and their derivatives are suited as DF is shown by their CNs
(Table III) which generally are in the range suitable for or close to that of DF. The heat
Table I. Selected properties of some common fatty acids and esters.
a c c,d
Trivial (Systematic)name ; Mol. m.p. b.p. Cetane Heat of
e
Acronym
b) wt. ( C) ( C) No. Combustion
(kg-cal/mole)
Caprylic acid 144.22 16.5 239.3

(Octanoic acid); 8:0
Capric acid 172.27 31.5 270 47.6 1453.07 (25 ),

(Decanoic acid); 10:0 f
(98.0)
1
Lauric acid 200.32 44 131 1763.25 (25 ),
(Dodecanoic acid); 12:0
Myristic acid 228.38 58 100

250.5 2073.91 (25 ),
(Tetradecanoic acid); 14:0
Palmitic acid 256.43 63 350 2384.76 (25 ),

(Hexadecanoic acid); 16:0
Stearic acid 284.48 71 360d 2696.12 (25 ),

(Octadecanoic acid); 18:0
Oleic acid 282.47 16 286100 2657.4 (25 ),

(9Z-Octadecenoic acid); 18:1
16
Linoleic acid (9Z,12Z- 280.45 -5 229-30
Octadecadienoic acid); 18:2
17
Linolenic acid (9Z,12Z,15Z- 278.44 -11 230-2
Octadecatrienoic acid); 18:3
29
15
Erucic acid 338.58 33-4 265
(13Z-Docosenoic acid); 22:1
Methyl caprylate 158.24 ... 193 33.6 1313

(Methyl octanoate); 8:0 f
(98.6)
Methyl caprate 186.30 ... 224 47.7 1625

f
(Methyl decanoate); 10:0 (98.0)
Methyl laurate 214.35 5 266766 61.4 1940

f
(Methyl dodecanoate); 12:0 (99.1)
Methyl myristate 242.41 18.5 295751 66.2 2254

f
(Methyl tetradecanoate); 14:0 (96.5)
270.46 30.5 747 74.5 2550

Methyl palmitate 415-8
f
(methyl hexadecanoate); 16:0 (93.6)
747
Methyl stearate 298.51 39.1 442-3 86.9 2859
f
(Methyl octadecanoate); 18:0 (92.1)
20 g
Methyl oleate (Methyl 9Z- 296.49 -20 218.5 47.2 2828
octadecenoate); 18:1
Methyl linoleate (Methyl 9Z, 294.48 -35 20 g 2794

215 28.5
12Z-octadecadienoate); 18:2
Methyl linolenate (Methyl 9Z, 292.46 -57 1090.018 20.6

g
2750
12Z,15Z-octadecatrienoate); 18:3 -52
Methyl erucate (Methyl 13Z- 352.60 ... 5 76.0 3454

221-222
docosenoate); 22:1
a) Z denotes cis configuration.

b) The numbers denote the number of carbons and double bonds. For example, in oleic
acid, 18:1 stands for eighteen carbons and one double bond.
c) Melting points and boiling points given in Ref. 28, pp. C-42 to C-553. Melting points
and boiling points of 12:0 - 18:0 and 18:3 esters given in Ref. 181.
d) Superscripts in boiling point column denote pressure (mm Hg) at which the boiling
point was determined.
e) See Ref. 27.
f) Cetane number from Ref. 21. Number in parentheses indicates purity (%) of the
material used for CN determinations as given by the author. Other CNs given in Ref. 21
not tabulated here (purities in parentheses): ethyl caprate (10:0) 51.2 (99.4); ethyl
myristate (14:0) 66.9 (99.3); propyl caprate (10:0) 52.9 (98.0); isopropyl caprate (10:0)
46.6 (97.7); butyl caprylate (8:0) 39.6 (98.7); butyl caprate (10:0) 54.6 (98.6); butyl
myristate (14:0) 69.4 (99.0).
g) CN from Ref. 17. CNs (lipid combustion quality numbers) deviating from Ref. 21 as
given in Ref. 17: Methyl laurate 54, methyl myristate 72, methyl palmitate 91, methyl
stearate 159.
30
contents of various vegetable oils (Table III) are also nearly 90% that of DF2 (11-13).
The heats of combustion of fatty esters and triglycerides as well as fatty alcohols (15)
have been determined and shown to be within the same range.
The suitability of fats and oils as DF results from their molecular structure and high
energy content. Long-chain, saturated, unbranched hydrocarbons are especially suitable
for conventional DF as shown by the CN scale. The long, unbranched hydrocarbon
chains in fatty acids meet this requirement. Saturated fatty compounds have higher CNs.
Other observations are (i) that (a) double bond(s) decrease(s) quality (therefore, the
number of double bonds should be small rather than large, (ii) that a double bond, if
present, should be positioned near the end of the molecule, and (iii) no aromatic
compounds should be present
Table II. Major fatty acids (in wt.-%) of some oils and fats used or tested as
alternative diesel fuels.a All values combined from Refs. 176 and 181.
Oil or Fat F a t t y A c i d C o m p o s i t i o n (Wt.-%)
12:0 14:0 16:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 22:1
Babassu 44-45 15-17 5.8-9 2.5-5.5 12-16 1.4-3
Canola 4-5 1-2 55-63 20-31 9-10 1-2
Coconut 44-51 13-18.5 7.5-10.5 1-3 5-8.2 1.0-2.6
Corn 7-13 2.5-3 30.5-43 39-52 1
Cottonseed 0.8-1.5 22-24 2.6-5 19 50-52.5
Linseed 6 3.2-4 13-37 5-23 26-60
Olive 1.3 7-18.3 1.4-3.3 55.5-84.5 4-19
Palm 0.6-2.4 32-46.3 4-6.3 37-53 6-12
Peanut 0.5 6-12.5 2.5-6 37-61 13-41 1
Rapeseed 1.5 1-4.7 1-3.5 13-38 9.5-22 1-10 40-64
Safflower 6.4-7.0 2.4-29 9.7-13.8 75.3-80.5
Safflower, 4-8 2.3-8 73.6-79 11-19

high-oleic
Sesame 7.2-9.2 5.8-7.7 35-46 35-48
31
Soybean 2.3-11 2.4-6 22-30.8 49-53 2-10.5
Sunflower 3.5-6.5 1.3-5.6 14-43 44-68.7
Tallow 3-6 25-37 14-29 26-50 1-2.5

(beef)
a) These oils and fats may contain small amounts of other fatty acids not listed here. For
example, peanut oil contains 1.2% 20:0, 2.5 22:0, and 1.3% 24:0 fatty acids (181).
a
Table III. Fuel-related properties and iodine values of various fats and oils.
Oil or Fat Iodine CN HG Viscosity CP PP FP

Value (kJ/kg) (mm2/s) ( C) ( C) ( C)
Babassu 10-18 38
Castor 82-88 ? 39500 297 (38 ) --- -31.7 260
Coconut 6-12
Corn 103-140 37.6 39500 34.9 (38 ) -1.1 -40.0 277
Cottonseed 90-119 41.8 39468 33.5 (38 ) 1.7 -15.0 234
Crambe 93 44.6 40482 53.6 (38 ) 10.0 -12.2 274
Linseed 168-204 34.6 39307 27.2 (38 ) 1.7 -15.0 241
Olive 75-94
Palm 35-61 42
Peanut 80-106 41.8 39782 39.6 (38 ) 12.8 -6.7 271
Rapeseed 94-120 37.6 39709 37.0 (38 ) -3.9 -31.7 246
Safflower 126-152 41.3 39519 31.3 (38 ) 18.3 -6.7 260
High-oleic 90-100 49.1 39516 41.2 (38 ) -12.2 -20.6 293

safflower
Sesame 104-120 40.2 39349 35.5 (38 ) -3.9 -9.4 260
Soybean 117-143 37.9 39623 32.6 (38 ) -3.9 -12.2 254
Sunflower 110-143 37.1 39575 37.1 (38 ) 7.2 -15.0 274
32
Tallow 35-48 - 40054 51.15 - - 201

(40 )
No. 2 DF 47 45343 2.7 (38 ) -15.0 -33.0 52
a) Iodine values combined from Refs. 176 and 181. Fuel properties from Ref. 11. All
tallow values from Ref. 177 (No CN given in Ref. 177, calcd. cetane index 40.15).
Table IV. Fuel-related physical properties of esters of oils and fats.a
Ester CN HG Viscosity CP PP FPb

(kJ/kg) (mm2/s) ( C) ( C) ( C)
Methyl
Cottonseedc 51.2 - 6.8 (21 ) - -4 110
Rapeseedd 54.4 40449 6.7 (40 ) -2 -9 84
Safflowere 49.8 40060 - - -6 180

f 46.2 39800 2 -1 171
Soybean 4.08 (40 )
Sunflowerg 46.6 39800 4.22 (40 ) 0 -4 -
Tallowh - 39949 4.11 (40 ) 12 9 96
Ethyl
Palmi 56.2 39070 4.5 (37.8 ) 8 6 19
Soybeanf 48.2 40000 4.41 (40 ) 1 -4 174

j 15 12
Tallow
Propyl
Tallowj 17 12
Isopropyl
Soybean 52.6k -9l -12l
Tallowj 8 0
n-Butyl
33
Soybeanf 51.7 40700 5.24 (40 ) -3 -7 185
Tallowj 13 9
2-Butyl
Soybeanl -12 -15
Tallowj 9 0
a) CN = cetane number; CP = cloud point, PP = pour point, FP = flash point.

b) Some flash points are very low.
Problems with Neat Vegetable Oil Fuel.
The major problems that are faced when the engines are run with Straight vegetable
oils are:
 Engine deposits caused due to the deposition of carbonaceous particles and

vegetable oil residues.
 Improper injection of fuels due to the higher viscosity of the oil. The nozzle may
not provide fine mist of fuel particles and also built ups on injector are found
which result in the bad spray pattern of fuel.
 More effort is required to pull the oil can cause damage to fuel pump and cause
extra stress on timing belt
These problems can be overcome by following any of the four methods:
Dilution of vegetable oils with conventional diesel fuel
Dilution is an additional possible solution to the viscosity problem of vegetable oils

as discussed above. Results with this technology have been mixed and engine
problems similar to those found with neat vegetable oils as fuels were observed here
also. A model on vegetable oil atomization showed that blends of DF2 with
vegetable oil should contain from 0 to 34% vegetable oil if proper atomization was
to be achieved
Microemulsification:
The formation of microemulsions (co-solvency) is one of the four

potential solutions for solving the problem of vegetable oil viscosity. Microemulsions are
defined as transparent, thermodynamically stable colloidal dispersions in which the
diameter of the dispersed-phase particles is less than one-fourth the wavelength of visible
light. Microemulsion-based fuels are sometimes also termed ―hybrid fuels,‖ although
blends of conventional diesel fuel with vegetable oils have also been called hybrid fuels
(128). Some of these fuels were tested in engines including the 200 hr EMA test. A
34
microemulsion fuel containing soybean oil, methanol, 2-octanol, and a cetane enhancer
was the cheapest vegetable oil-based alternative diesel fuel ever to pass the EMA test.
The components of microemulsions can be conventional DF, vegetable oil, an
alcohol, a surfactant, and a cetane improver. Water (from aqueous ethanol) may also be
present in order to use lower-proof ethanol (129), thus increasing water tolerance of the
microemulsions is important.
Pyrolysis:
Pyrolysis is the method of subjecting the oil to high pressure distillation there by
reducing the viscosity of the vegetable oils.
Transesterification:
Transesterification is the process of converting Triglycerides in to esters by mixing

with alcohols in the presence of a catalyst. The conversion of component TGs to simple
alkyl esters (transesterification) with various alcohols reduces the high viscosity of oils
and fats.
Transesterification general procedure :
The experimental setup is shown in figure 1. A 2000 ml three-necked round-

bottomed flask was used as a reactor. The flask was placed in a water bath, whose
temperature could be controlled within + 2 oC. One of the two side necks was equipped
with a condenser and the other was used as a thermowell. A thermometer was placed in
the thermowell containing little glycerol for temperature measurement inside the reactor.
A blade stirrer was passed through the central neck, which was connected to a motor
alongwith speed regulator for adjusting and controlling the stirrer speed.
Esterification: A known amount of karanja oil was taken in the above-mentioned setup.
Required amount of sulphuric acid and methanol were added to the oil and stirred
continuously maintaining a steady temperature of 640C. Intermittently samples were
collected at regular intervals (30min) and acid value was determined. After the
confirmation of complete reduction of acid valve to less than 1.0, the heating was stopped
and the products were cooled. The unreacted methanol was separated by separating
funnel. The remaining product was analyzed for acid value and it was found that the acid
value varied from 1.0 to 0.5. This oil sample was for transesterified to obtain methyl
esters.
Transesterification: In the same setup, known amount of esterified karanja oil was
charged. Required amount of catalyst NaOH was desolved in methanol and the rest
amount of methanol alongwith the catalyst solution was added to the oil sample. After
proper closing of the flask it was put on the water bath.The system was maintained
airtight to prevent the loss of alcohol. The reaction mix was maitained at temperature just
above the boiling point of the alcohol i.e. around 70°C to speed up the reaction rate.
35
Excess alcohol was used to ensure total conversion of the oil to its esters. The formation
of methyl ester was monitered by using thin layer chromatography(TLC) technique.
Coated silicagel glass plates were spotted with karanja oil and the sample of ester. The
spotted samples were developed in solvent system in glass chamber using solvent ratio of
80:20 hexane/ether by volume. This confirms the formation of methyl esters. This
procedure was followed for all the samples collected at regular interval of time to check
the formation of methyl ester. After the confirmation of completion of methyl ester
formation, the heating was stopped and the products were cooled and transferred to a
separating funnel. Where the ester layer containing mainly methyl ester and methanol and
glycerol layer containing mainly glycerol and methanol were separated. The pH level of
both layers were measured and neutralised seperately. For neutralisation a known amount
of sulfuric acid in methanol was added to both the layers seperately to neutralize the
sodium methoxide present in them. The traces of methanol present in ester layer was
recovered in a distillation column under control vacuum. Distilled methanol was weighed
and stored in sample bottle. Similar procedure was adopted to recover the traces of
methanol present in glycerol layer. The methyl ester was washed and dried under vacuum
to remove traces of moisture. A sample of esters were analyzed for acid value.
36
Types of Transesterification process:
In the transesterification of vegetable oils, a triglyceride reacts with an alcohol in the

presence of a strong acid or base, producing a mixture of fatty acids alkyl esters and
glycerol25,26 (Scheme 4). The overall process is a sequence of three consecutive and
reversible reactions, in which di- and monoglycerides are formed as intermediates26. The
stoichiometric reaction requires 1 mol of a triglyceride and 3 mol of the alcohol.
However, an excess of the alcohol is used to increase the yields of the alkyl esters and to
allow its phase separation from the glycerol formed.
Several aspects, including the type of catalyst (alkaline or acid), alcohol/vegetable oil
molar ratio, temperature, purity of the reactants (mainly water content) and free fatty acid
content have an influence on the course of the transesterification and will be discussed
below, based on the type of catalyst used.
Acid-Catalyzed Processes
The transesterification process is catalyzed by BrØnsted acids, preferably by sulfonic27

and sulfuric acids26,28,29. These catalysts give very high yields in alkyl esters, but the
reactions are slow, requiring, tipically, temperatures above 100 °C and more than 3 h to
reach complete conversion30. Pryde et al.26 showed that the methanolysis of soybean oil,
in the presence of 1 mol% of H2SO4, with an alcohol/oil molar ratio of 30:1 at 65 °C,
takes 50 h to reach complete conversion of the vegetable oil (> 99%), while the
butanolysis (at 117 °C) and ethanolysis (at 78 °C), using the same quantities of catalyst
and alcohol, take 3 and 18 h, respectively.
The alcohol/vegetable oil molar ratio is one of the main factors that influences the
transesterification. An excess of the alcohol favors the formation of the products. On the
other hand, an excessive amount of alcohol makes the recovery of the glycerol difficult,
so that the ideal alcohol/oil ratio has to be established empirically, considering each
individual process.
37
The mechanism of the acid-catalyzed transesterification of vegetable oils is shown in

Scheme 5, for a monoglyceride. However, it can be extended to di- and triglycerides31.
The protonation of the carbonyl group of the ester leads to the carbocation II which, after
a nucleophilic attack of the alcohol, produces the tetrahedral intermediate III, which
eliminates glycerol to form the new ester IV, and to regenerate the catalyst H+.
According to this mechanism, carboxylic acids can be formed by reaction of the

carbocation II with water present in the reaction mixture. This suggests that an acid-
catalyzed transesterification should be carried out in the absence of water, in order to
avoid the competitive formation of carboxylic acids which reduce the yields of alkyl
esters.
Base-Catalyzed Processes
The base-catalyzed transesterification of vegetable oils proceeds faster than the acid-
catalyzed reaction26,30. Due to this reason, together with the fact that the alkaline catalysts
are less corrosives than acidic compounds, industrial processes usually favor base
catalysts, such as alkaline metal alkoxides26,30,32 and hydroxides29,33-36 as well as sodium
or potassium carbonates37-39.
The mechanism of the base-catalyzed transesterification of vegetable oils is shown in

Scheme 6. The first step (Eq. 1) is the reaction of the base with the alcohol, producing an
alkoxide and the protonated catalyst. The nucleophilic attack of the alkoxide at the
38
carbonyl group of the triglyceride generates a tetrahedral intermediate (Eq. 2)11,40, from
which the alkyl ester and the corresponding anion of the diglyceride are formed (Eq. 3).
The latter deprotonates the catalyst, thus regenerating the active species (Eq. 4), which is
now able to react with a second molecule of the alcohol, starting another catalytic cycle.
Diglycerides and monoglycerides are converted by the same mechanism to a mixture of
alkyl esters and glycerol.
Alkaline metal alkoxides (as CH3ONa for the methanolysis) are the most active catalysts,
since they give very high yields (> 98%) in short reaction times (30 min) even if they are
applied at low molar concentrations (0.5 mol%). However, they require the absence of
water which makes them inappropriate for typical industrial processes30. Alkaline metal
hydroxides (KOH and NaOH) are cheaper than metal alkoxides, but less active.
Nevertheless, they are a good alternative since they can give the same high conversions
of vegetable oils just by increasing the catalyst concentration to 1 or 2 mol%. However,
even if a water-free alcohol/oil mixture is used, some water is produced in the system by
the reaction of the hydroxide with the alcohol. The presence of water gives rise to
hydrolysis of some of the produced ester, with consequent soap formation (Scheme 7).
This undesirable saponification reaction reduces the ester yields and considerably
difficults the recovery of the glycerol due to the formation of emulsions30.
39
Lipase-Catalyzed Processes
Due to their ready availability and the ease with which they can be handled, hydrolytic
enzymes have been widely applied in organic synthesis. They do not require any
coenzymes, are reasonably stable, and often tolerate organic solvents. Their potential for
regioselective and especially for enantioselective synthesis makes them valuable tools41.
Although the enzyme-catalyzed transesterification processes are not yet commercially

developed, new results have been reported in recent articles and patents42-48. The
common aspects of these studies consist in optimizing the reaction conditions (solvent,
temperature, pH, type of microorganism which generates the enzyme, etc) in order to
establish suitable characteristics for an industrial application. However, the reaction
yields as well as the reaction times are still unfavorable compared to the base-catalyzed
reaction systems.
Factors Affecting Transesterification:
Effect of Moisture and free fatty acids
The starting materials used for alkali-catalyzed Transesterification of glycerides

must meet certain specifications. The glyceride should have an acid value less than 1 and
all materials should be substantially anhydrous. If the acid value was greater than 1,
more NaOH was required to neutralize the free fatty acids. Water also caused soap
formation, which consumed the catalyst and reduced catalyst efficiency. The resulting
soaps caused an increase in viscosity, formation of gels and made the separation of
glycerol difficult. The e€ects of free fatty acids and water on Transesterification of beef
tallow with methanol were investigated. The results showed that the water content of beef
tallow should be kept below 0.06% w/w and free fatty acid content of beef tallow should
40
be kept below 0.5%, w/w in order to get the best conversion. Water content was a more
critical variable in the transesterification process than were free fatty acids.
The effect of molar ratio
One of the most important variables affecting the yield of ester is the molar ratio of
alcohol to triglyceride. The stoichiometric ratio for transesterification requires three
moles of alcohol and one mole of glyceride to yield three moles of fatty acid ester and
one mole of glycerol. The molar ratio is associated with the type of catalyst used. An acid
catalyzed reaction needed a 30:1 ratio of BuOH to soybean oil, while a alkali-catalyzed
reaction required only a 6:1 ratio to achieve the same ester yield for a given reaction time
The effect of catalyst
Catalysts are classified as alkali, acid, or enzyme. Alkali-catalyzed transesterification is

much faster than acid-catalyzed (Freedman et al., 1984). However if a glyceride has a
higher free fatty acid content and more water, acid-catalyzed transesterification is
suitable. The acids could be sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, hydrochloric acid or organic
sulfonic acid. Alkalis include sodium hydroxide, sodium methoxide, potassium
hydroxide, potassium methoxide, sodium amide, sodium hydride, potassium amide and
potassium hydride. Sodium methoxide was more effective than sodium hydroxide
because of the assumption that a small amount of water was produced upon mixing
NaOH and MeOH.
The effect of reaction time
The conversion rate increases with reaction time. Transesterified peanut, cottonseed,
sun¯ower and soybean oils under the condition of methanol to oil ratio of 6:1, 0.5%
sodium methoxide catalyst and 60°C. An approximate yield of 80% was observed after 1
min for soybean and sun¯ower oils. After 1 h, the conversions were almost the same for
all four oils (93±98%). Ma et al. (1998a) studied the effect of reaction time on
transesterification of beef tallow with methanol. The reaction was very slow during the
first minute due to the mixing and dispersion of methanol into beef tallow. From one to
five min, the reaction proceeded very fast. The apparent yield of beef tallow methyl
esters surged from 1 to 38. The production of beef tallow slowed down and reached the
maximum value at about 15 min. The di- and monoglycerides increased at the beginning
and then decreased. At the end, the amount of monoglycerides was higher than that of
diglycerides.
The effect of reaction temperature
Transesterification can occur at different temperatures, depending on the oil used. In

methanolysis of castor oil to methyl ricinoleate, the reaction proceeded most satisfactorily
at 20±35°C with a molar ratio of 6:1± 12:1 and 0.005±0.35% (by weight of oil) of NaOH
catalyst (Smith, 1949). For the transesteri®cation of re®ned soybean oil with methanol
(6:1) using 1% NaOH, three di€erent temperatures were used. After 0.1 h, ester yields
were 94, 87 and 64% for 60, 45 and 32°C, respectively. After 1 h, ester formation was
41
identical for the 60 and 45°C runs and only slightly lower for the 32°C run. Temperature
clearly influenced the reaction rate and yield of esters.
Effect of mixing intensity:
It is found that the reaction is not started without mixing of the oil and alcohols. The oil
or flats are immiscible with NaOH & Methanol solution. For better yield constant mixing
is required.
42
UNIT III
HYDROGEN AS ENGINE FUEL
INTRODUCTION
Hydrogen fuel is a zero-emission fuel when burned with oxygen (if one considers water not
as an emission) or used in a contained cell also capable of 'reversing' the reaction if needed.
It often uses electrochemical cells, or combustion in internal engines, to power vehicles and
electric devices. It is also used in the propulsion of spacecraft and might potentially be
mass-produced and commercialized for passenger vehicles and aircraft.
Hydrogen lies in the first group and first period in the periodic table, i.e. it is the first
element on the periodic table, making it the lightest element. Since hydrogen gas is so light,
it rises in the atmosphere and is therefore rarely found in its pure form, H2.[1] In a flame of
pure hydrogen gas, burning in air, the hydrogen (H2) reacts with oxygen (O2) to
form water (H2O) and releases energy.
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
(If carried out in atmospheric air instead of pure oxygen (as is usually the case),
hydrogen combustion may yield small amounts of nitrogen oxides, along with the water
vapor.)
The energy released enables hydrogen to act as a fuel. In an electrochemical cell, that
energy can be used with relatively high efficiency. If it simply is used for heat, the
usual thermodynamics limits on the thermal efficiency apply.
Since there is very little free hydrogen gas, hydrogen is in practice only an energy
carrier, like electricity, not an energy resource. Hydrogen gas must be produced, and
that production always requires more energy than can be retrieved from the gas as a fuel
later on.[3] This is a limitation of the physical law of the conservation of energy.
Hydrogen production induces environmental impacts.
PRODUCTION
Because pure hydrogen does not occur naturally on Earth in large quantities, it takes a
substantial amount of energy in its industrial production. There are different ways to
produce it, such as electrolysis and steam-methane reforming process. In electrolysis,
electricity is run through water to separate the hydrogen and oxygen atoms. This method
can use wind, solar, geothermal, hydro, fossil fuels, biomass, nuclear, and many other
energy sources. Obtaining hydrogen from this process is being studied as a viable way to
produce it domestically at a low cost. Steam-methane reforming, the current leading
technology for producing hydrogen in large quantities, extracts the hydrogen from methane.
However, this reaction causes a side production of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide,
which are greenhouse gases and contribute to global warming.
43
STEAM FORMING
There are four main sources for the commercial production of hydrogen: natural gas, oil,
coal and electrolysis; which account for 48%, 30% 18% and 4% of the world‘s hydrogen
production respectively. Fossil fuels are the dominant source of industrial hydrogen.
Hydrogen can be generated from natural gas with approximately 80% efficiency, or from
other hydrocarbons to a varying degree of efficiency. Specifically, bulk hydrogen is usually
produced by the steam reforming of methane or natural gas. The production of hydrogen
from natural gas is the cheapest source of hydrogen nowadays. This process consists of
heating the gas in the presence of steam and a nickel catalyst. The resulting exothermic
reaction breaks up the methane molecules and forms carbon monoxide CO and hydrogen
H2. The carbon monoxide gas can then be passed with steam over iron oxide or other
oxides and undergo a water-gas shift reaction. This last reaction produces even more H2.
The downside to this process is that its major byproducts are CO, CO2 and other
greenhouse gases. Depending on the quality of the feedstock (natural gas, rich gases,
naphtha, etc.), one ton of hydrogen produced will also produce 9 to 12 tons of CO2.
For this process at high temperatures (700–1100 °C), steam (H2O) reacts
with methane (CH4) in an endothermic reaction to yield syngas.
GASIFICATION
CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2
In a second stage, additional hydrogen is generated through the lower-temperature,
exothermic, water gas shift reaction, performed at about 360 °C:
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
Essentially, the oxygen (O) atom is stripped from the additional water (steam) to
oxidize CO to CO2. This oxidation also provides energy to maintain the reaction.
Additional heat required to drive the process is generally supplied by burning some
portion of the methane.
CO2 SEQUESTRATION
Steam reforming generates carbon dioxide (CO2). Since the production is concentrated in
one facility, it is possible to separate the CO2 and dispose of it without atmospheric release,
for example by injecting it in an oil or gas reservoir (seecarbon capture), although this is not
currently done in most cases. A carbon dioxide injection project has been started by
aNorwegian company StatoilHydro in the North Sea, at the Sleipner field.
Integrated steam reforming / co-generation - It is possible to combine steam reforming
and co-generation of steam andpower into a single plant. This can deliver benefits for an oil
refinery because it is more efficient than separate hydrogen,steam and power plants. Air
44
Products recently built an integrated steam reforming / co-generation plant in Port Arthur,
Texas.
OTHER METHOD OF PRODUCTION
PARTIAL OXIDATION
The production of hydrogen from oil is achieved by partial oxidation. For this, a carefully
controlled fuel-air mix is partially combusted, which results in an H2 rich gas. Like the
previous process, the formation of hydrogen from oil is done with a water-gas shift reaction.
The energy added to the process is achieved by the combustion of fuels, which also causes a
negative impact to the environment.
The partial oxidation reaction occurs when a substoichiometric fuel-air mixture is
partially combusted in a reformer, creating a hydrogen-rich syngas. A distinction is made
between thermal partial oxidation (TPOX) and catalytic partial oxidation(CPOX). The
chemical reaction takes the general form:
CnHm + n/2 O2 → n CO + m/2 H2
Idealized examples for heating oil and coal, assuming compositions C12H24 and
C24H12 respectively, are as follows:
C12H24 + 6 O2 → 12 CO + 12 H2
C24H12 + 12 O2 → 24 CO + 6 H2
PLASMA REFORMING
The Kværner-process or Kvaerner carbon black & hydrogen process (CB&H) is a plasma
reforming method, developed in the 1980s by a Norwegian company of the same name, for
the production of hydrogen and carbon black from liquid hydrocarbons (CnHm). Of the
available energy of the feed, approximately 48% is contained in the hydrogen, 40% is
contained in activated carbon and 10% in superheated steam. CO2 is not produced in the
process.
A variation of this process is presented in 2009 using plasma arc waste disposal technology
for the production of hydrogen, heat and carbon from methane and natural gas in a plasma
converter
COAL
For the production of hydrogen from coal, coal gasification is used. The process of coal
gasification uses steam and a carefully controlled concentration of gases to break molecular
bonds in coal and form a gaseous mix of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. This source of
hydrogen is advantageous since its main product is coal-derived gas which can be used for
fuel. The gas obtained from coal gasification can later be used to produce electricity more
45
efficiently and allow a better capture of greenhouse gases than the traditional burning of
coal.
Another method for conversion is low temperature and high temperature coal carbonization
PETROLEUM COKE
Similarly to coal, petroleum coke can also be converted in hydrogen rich syngas, via coal
gasification. The syngas in this case consists mainly of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and
H2S, depending on the sulfur content of the coke feed. Gasificationis an attractive option
for producing hydrogen from almost any carbon source, while providing attractive hydrogen
utilization alternatives through process integration.
FROM WATER
Many technologies have been explored but it should be noted that as of 2007 "Thermal,
thermochemical, biochemical and photochemical processes have so far not found industrial
applications." High temperature electrolysis of alkaline solutions has been used for the
industrial scale production of hydrogen (see Sable Chemicals) and there are now a number
of small scale polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysis units available
commercially.
ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolysis consists in using electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. This
source of hydrogen is by far the most expensive since the energy input required for water
splitting is higher than the energy that could be obtained from the produced hydrogen. Due
to their use of water, a readily available resource, electrolysis and similar water-splitting
methods have attracted the interest of the scientific community. With the objective of
reducing the cost of hydrogen production, renewable sources of energy have been targeted
to allow electrolysis. There are three main types of cells, solid oxide electrolysis
cells (SOECs), polymer electrolyte membrane cells (PEM) and alkaline electrolysis cells
(AECs). SOECs operate at high temperatures, typically around 800 °C. At these high
temperatures a significant amount of the energy required can be provided as thermal energy
(heat), and as such is termed High temperature electrolysis. The heat energy can be
provided from a number of different sources, including waste industrial heat, nuclear power
stations or concentrated solar thermal plants. This has the potential to reduce the overall
cost of the hydrogen produced by reducing the amount of electrical energy required for
electrolysis. PEM electrolysis cells typically operate below 100 °C and are becoming
increasingly available commercially. These cells have the advantage of being comparatively
simple and can be designed to accept widely varying voltage inputs which makes them ideal
for use with renewable sources of energy such as solar PV. AECs optimally operate at high
concentrations electrolyte (KOH or potassium carbonate) and at high temperatures, often
near 200 °C.
46
ENERGY
Once manufactured, hydrogen is an energy carrier (i.e. a store for energy first generated by
other means). The energy can be delivered to fuel cells and generate electricity and heat, or
burned to run a combustion engine. In each case hydrogen is combined with oxygen to form
water. The heat in a hydrogen flame is a radiant emission from the newly formed water
molecules. The water molecules are in an excited state on initial formation and then
transition to a ground state; the transition unleashing thermal radiation. When burning in air,
the temperature is roughly 2000°C. Historically, carbon has been the most practical carrier
of energy, as more energy is packed in fossil fuels than pure liquid hydrogen of the same
volume. The carbon atoms have classic storage capabilities and releases even more energy
when burned with hydrogen. However, burning carbon base fuel and releasing its exhaust
contributes to global warming due to the greenhouse effect of carbon gases. Pure hydrogen
is the smallest element and some of it will inevitably escape from any known container or
pipe in micro amounts, yet simple ventilation could prevent such leakage from ever
reaching the volatile 4% hydrogen-air mixture. So long as the product is in a gaseous or
liquid state, pipes are a classic and very efficient form of transportation. Pure hydrogen,
though, causes metal to become brittle, suggesting metal pipes may not be ideal for
hydrogen transport.
Potentially, there is plenty of wind power to supply all of the world's electrical demand.
Once the construction cost of a windmill is paid off, very little maintenance cost is required
and the energy is practically free. Although electricity can be delivered over long distances,
large amounts of electricity cannot be stored and must be generated as they are needed; this
requires complex distribution networks and management processes. This is where hydrogen
can act as a good carrier. With electrolysis, electricity can effect the extraction of hydrogen
and oxygen from water with a little loss of energy in process. Then the hydrogen can be
carried out over long distances by means of the appropriate pipe work and reconverted into
electricity to power consumer products like fuel cell cars. A greater quantity of hydrogen
can be delivered while bonded to carbon in fossil fuel form, because micro-leakage and
metal embrittlement will be avoided.
USES
Hydrogen fuel can provide motive power for liquid-propellant rockets, cars, boats and
airplanes, portable fuel cell applications or stationary fuel cell applications, which can
power an electric motor.[9] The problems of using hydrogen fuel in cars arise from the fact
that hydrogen is difficult to store in either a high pressure tank or a cryogenic tank.
Hydrogen is mainly used for the conversion of heavy petroleum fractions into lighter ones
via the process of hydrocrackingand other petroleum fractions (dehydrocyclization and
47
the aromatization process). It is also required for cleaning fossil fuels

via hydrodesulfurization.
Hydrogen is mainly used for the production of ammonia via Haber process. In this case, the
hydrogen is produced in situ. Ammonia is the major component of most fertilizers.
Earlier it was common to vent the surplus hydrogen off, nowadays the process systems are
balanced with hydrogen pinch to collect hydrogen for further use.
Hydrogen may be used in fuel cells for local electricity generation, making it possible for
hydrogen to be used as a transportation fuel for an electric vehicle.
Hydrogen is also produced as a by-product of industrial chlorine production by electrolysis.
Although requiring expensive technologies, hydrogen can be cooled, compressed and
purified for use in other processes on site or sold to a customer via pipeline, cylinders or
trucks. The discovery and development of less expensive methods of production of bulk
hydrogen is relevant to the establishment of a hydrogen economy.
Hydrogen is an energy carrier, not an energy source — it stores and delivers energy in a usable form,
but it must be produced from compounds that contain it.
Hydrogen can be produced using diverse, domestic resources including fossil fuels, such as coal (with
carbon sequestration) and natural gas; nuclear; and biomass and other renewable energy technologies,
such as wind, solar, geothermal, and hydroelectric power.
In the future, the hydrogen economy will not rely on a single production pathway — the great
potential for diversity of supply is an important reason why hydrogen is such a promising energy
carrier.
Hydrogen can be produced at large central plants as far as several hundred miles from the point of
end-use; semi-centrally, 25 to 100 miles from the point of end-use; or in small distributed units located
at or very near the point of end-use, such as at refueling stations or stationary power sites.
How Is Hydrogen Produced?

Researchers are developing a wide range of technologies to produce hydrogen economically from a
variety of resources in environmentally friendly ways.
Natural Gas Reforming

Hydrogen can be produced from methane in natural gas using high-temperature steam. This process,
called steam methane reforming, accounts for about 95 percent of the hydrogen used today in the
United States. Another method, called partial oxidation, produces hydrogen by burning methane in air.
Both steam reforming and partial oxidation produce a ―synthesis gas,‖ which is reacted with water to
produce more hydrogen.
Renewable Electrolysis
Electrolysis uses an electric current to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. Making hydrogen from
water by electrolysis is one of the more energy-intensive ways to produce the fuel. It is a clean process
as long as the electricity comes from a clean source. But electrolysis is associated with losses.
Electrolysis is the reversal of the hydrogen oxidation reaction the standard potential of which is about
1.23 Volts at NPT conditions. But electrolyzers need higher voltage to separate water into hydrogen
and oxygen. The over-potential is needed to overcome polarization and ohmic loss es caused by
electric current flow under operational conditions.
48
The electrolyzer and fuel cell characteristics are schematically shown in Figure 3. Under open circuit
conditions the electrochemical potential is 1.23 Volts at 20°C. Assuming that the same electrolyte and
catalysts are used, the polarization losses are typically 0.28 Volt for solid polymer or alkaline systems.
The apparent open circuit voltages thus become 0.95 and 1.51 Volt for fuel cell and electrolyzer,
respectively. For both we assume an area-specific resistance of 0.2 Wcm2 and construct the
characteristics for a low temperature fuel cell (dashed line) and a corresponding electrolyzer (solid
line). Fuel cells are normally operated at 0.7 Volt to optimize the system efficiency. We assume the
same optimization requirements also hold for an electrolyzer. In this case the corresponding voltage of
operation is 1.76 Volts as indicated by the dash-dot lines in Figure 3.
The standard potential of 1.23 Volts corresponds to the higher heating value HHV of hydrogen.
Consequently, the over-potential is a measure of the electrical losses of the functioning electrolyzer.
The losses depend on the current density or the hydrogen production rate. As shown in Figure 4, at
1.76 Volt 1.43 energy units must be supplied for every HHV energy unit contained in the liberated
hydrogen. At higher hydrogen production rates (higher current densities) this number increases
further. Nevertheless, electrolysis is perhaps the only practical link between physical renewable
energy (kinetic energy from wind, water and waves, radiation from the sun, geothermal heat) and
chemical energy needed for transportation. Also, electrolysis offers a way of virtual storage of
electricity from intermittent sources.
49
Gasification
Gasification is a process in which coal or biomass is converted into gaseous components by applying
heat under pressure and in the presence of steam. A subsequent series of chemical reactions produces
a synthesis gas, which is reacted with steam to produce more hydrogen that then can be separated and
purified.
Producing hydrogen directly from coal by gasification and reforming processes is much more
efficient than burning coal to make electricity that is then used to make hydrogen. Researchers are
developing carbon capture and sequestration technologies to separate and store the carbon dioxide
(CO2) produced in this process. With carbon capture and sequestration, hydrogen can be produced
directly from coal with near-zero greenhouse gas emissions.
 Like coal, biomass can be gasified using high temperatures and steam to produce hydrogen.
Because biomass resources consume CO2 in the atmosphere as part of their natural growth
process, producing hydrogen through biomass gasification releases near-zero net greenhouse
gases.
Renewable Liquid Reforming
Biomass can also be processed to make renewable liquid fuels, such as ethanol or bio-oil, that are
relatively convenient to transport and can be reacted with high-temperature steam to produce
hydrogen at or near the point of end-use.
Nuclear High-Temperature Electrolysis
Heat from a nuclear reactor can be used to improve the efficiency of water electrolysis to produce
hydrogen. By increasing the temperature of the water, less electricity is required to split it into
hydrogen and oxygen, which reduces the total energy required.
50
High-Temperature Thermochemical Water-Splitting

Another water-splitting method uses high temperatures generated by solar concentrators (special
lenses that focus and intensify sunlight) or nuclear reactors to drive a series of chemical reactions that
split water. All of the chemicals used are recycled within the process.
Photobiological and Photoelectrochemical
When certain microbes, such as green algae and cyanobacteria, consume water in the presence of
sunlight, they produce hydrogen as a byproduct of their natural metabolic processes. Similarly,
photoelectrochemical systems produce hydrogen from water using special semiconductors and energy
from sunlight.
How Is Hydrogen Delivered Today?
Suppliers currently transport hydrogen by pipeline or by road using tube trailers and cryogenic liquid
hydrogen tankers. For special purposes, liquefied hydrogen is transported by barge. Hydrogen also can
be moved using carriers — chemical substances that incorporate atoms of hydrogen and other
elements — such as ethanol or ammonia.
 Pipelines are the least expensive way to deliver large volumes of hydrogen, but the current
hydrogen pipeline infrastructure in the United States is very small (approximately 700 miles,
compared to more than one million miles of natural gas pipelines). Hydrogen pipelines currently
exist in just a few regions, near large petroleum refineries and chemical plants in Illinois,
California, and the Gulf Coast.
 Transporting compressed hydrogen gas over the road in high-pressure tube trailers is expensive
and used primarily for short distances; it becomes cost-prohibitive when transporting farther than
about 200 miles from the point of production.
 Liquefied hydrogen (cooled to -423°C) is denser and has a higher energy content than gaseous
hydrogen in a given volume (such as a tank), so it is preferred for delivering hydrogen over long
distances, when compared to delivery by tube trailer. Liquefaction is costly and takes a great deal
of energy. Nonetheless, because current pipeline transport has limited availability, hydrogen is
often transported as a liquid in super-insulated, cryogenic, over-the-road tankers and then
vaporized for use at the customer site.
What Are the Challenges?

Hydrogen has a low volumetric energy density — it contains a relatively small amount of energy by
volume compared to other fuels such as natural gas and gasoline — so its transportation, storage, and
final delivery to the point of end-use are costly and result in some of the energy inefficiencies
associated with using it as an energy carrier.
The high initial capital costs of new pipeline construction constitute a major barrier to expanding
hydrogen pipeline delivery infrastructure. Technical concerns related to pipeline transmission include
the potential for hydrogen to embrittle the steel and welds used to construct pipelines, and the need for
lower cost, more reliable, and more durable hydrogen compression technology. Also, because
hydrogen molecules are very small, preventing permeation and leakage from pipeline and other
containment materials is a challenge.
How hydrogen is produced also affects the cost and method of delivery. Producing hydrogen in
large, central plants (as far as several hundred miles from the point of end-use) results in longer
transport distances that increase delivery costs. Distributed production at the point of end-use,
such as refueling stations or stationary power sites, eliminates the transportation costs, but results
in higher production costs.
51
Where and How Will Hydrogen be Stored?

Hydrogen storage will be required onboard vehicles and at hydrogen production sites, hydrogen
refueling stations, and stationary power sites. Possible approaches to storing hydrogen include:
Physical storage of compressed hydrogen gas in high pressure tanks (up to 10,000 pounds per
square inch);
Physical storage of cryogenic liquid hydrogen (cooled to -253°C) in insulated tanks; and
Storage in advanced materials — within the structure or on the surface of certain materials, as well
as in the form of chemical precursors that undergo a chemical reaction to release hydrogen.
What Are the Challenges?

Hydrogen has a very high energy content by weight (about three times more than gasoline), but it has
a very low energy content by volume (about four times less than gasoline). This makes hydrogen a
challenge to store, particularly within the size and weight constraints of a vehicle.
A light-duty fuel cell vehicle must carry approximately 5-13 kilograms of hydrogen on board
(depending on the size and type of the vehicle) to allow a driving range of more than 300 miles, which
is generally regarded as the minimum for widespread public acceptance. Drivers must also be able to
refuel at near room temperature and at a rate comparable to the rate of refueling today‘s gasoline
vehicles.
Using currently available storage technology, placing a sufficient quantity of hydrogen onboard a
vehicle to provide a 300-mile driving range would require a very large tank — larger than the trunk of
a typical automobile. Aside from the loss of cargo space, there would also be the added weight of the
tank(s), which would in turn reduce fuel economy. Low-cost materials and components for hydrogen
storage systems are needed, as well as low-cost, high-volume manufacturing methods for those
materials and components.
Scientists in government, industry, and academia are working to improve the weight, volume, and cost
of current hydrogen storage systems, as well as identify and develop new technologies that can
achieve similar performance, at a similar cost, as gasoline fuel storage systems.
Compressed gas and liquid hydrogen tanks

Current compressed hydrogen gas tanks are much larger and heavier than what is ultimately
desired for light-duty vehicles. Researchers are evaluating light-weight, safe, composite materials that
can reduce the weight and volume of compressed gas storage systems. Energy is needed to compress
gases. The compression work depends on the thermodynamic compression process. The ideal
isothermal compression cannot be realized The energy consumed by an adiabatic compression of
monatomic Helium, diatomic hydrogen and five-atomic methane from atmospheric conditions (1 bar =
100,000 Pa) to higher pressures is shown in Figure 2. Clearly, much more energy per kg is required to
compress hydrogen than methane.
52
Liquefied hydrogen is denser and has a higher energy content than gaseous hydrogen in a given
volume. Liquid hydrogen tanks can store more hydrogen than compressed gas tanks, but it takes
energy to liquefy hydrogen, and the tank insulation required (to prevent hydrogen loss) also
affects the weight and volume of hydrogen that can be stored. Researchers are studying a hybrid
tank concept that can store high-pressure hydrogen gas under cryogenic conditions (cooled to
around -120 to -196°C) — these ―cryo-compressed‖ tanks would allow relatively lighter weight,
more compact storage.
Even more energy is needed to compact hydrogen by liquefaction. Theoretically only about 3.6 MJ/kg
have to be removed to cool hydrogen down to 20K (-253°C) and another 0.46 MJ/kg to condense the
gas under atmospheric pressure. About 4 MJ/kg are removed from room temperature hydrogen gas in
the process, little compared to its energy content of 142 MJ/kg. But cryogenic re frigeration is a
complex process involving Carnot cycles and physical effects (e.g. Joule- Thomsen) that do not obey
the laws of heat engines. Nevertheless, the Carnot efficiency is used as a reference for the foregoing
process analysis. For the refrigeration between room temperature (TR = 25°C = 298 K) and liquid
hydrogen temperature (TL = -253°C = 20 K) one obtains a Carnot efficiency of
c = T L / (TR – TL) = 20 K / (298 K -20 K) = 0.072
or about 7%. The assumed single-step Carnot-type cooling process would consume at least 57 MJ/kg
or 40% of the HHV energy content of hydrogen. This simple analysis does not include mechanical,
thermal, flow-related or electrical losses in the multi-stage refrigeration process. But by intelligent
process design the Carnot limitations may be partially removed. But the lower limit of energy
consumption of a liquefaction plant does not drop much below 30% of the higher heating value of the
liquefied hydrogen. As a theoretical analysis of the complicated, multi-stage liquefaction processes is
difficult, we present the energy consumption of existing hydrogen liquefaction plants
53
The compilation reveals the following. Small (10 kg/h) liquefaction plants need about 100 MJ/kg,
while large plants of 1000 kg/h or more capacity consume about 40 MJ of electrical energy for each
kg liquefied hydrogen. The actual liquefaction energy consumption for plants between 1 to 10,000
kg/h capacity is shown in Figure 7. The specific energy input decreases with plant size, but a
minimum of about 40 MJ per kg H2 remains. In Figure 8 the required energy input is compared to the
higher heating va lue HHV of hydrogen. For small liquefaction plants the energy needed to liquefy
hydrogen may exceed the HHV of the gas. But even with the largest plants (10,000 kg/h) at least 30%
of the HHV energy is needed for the liquefaction process.
Gasoline tanks used in cars and trucks today are considered conformable and take maximum
advantage of available vehicle space. Researchers are evaluating concepts for conformable high-
pressure hydrogen tanks as an alternative to cylindrical tanks, which do not package well in a
vehicle.
Materials-based storage
Hydrogen atoms or molecules bound tightly with other elements in a compound (or potential
storage material) may make it possible to store larger quantities of hydrogen in smaller volumes at
low pressure and near room temperature.
Scientists are investigating several different kinds of materials, including metal hydrides, carbon-
based materials, and chemical hydrides, as well as identifying new materials with potential for
storing hydrogen.
Hydrogen storage in materials offers great promise, but additional research is required to better
understand the mechanism of hydrogen storage in materials under practical operating conditions
and to overcome critical challenges related to capacity, the uptake and release of hydrogen,
management of heat during refueling, cost, and life cycle impacts.
54
The Facts of Hydrogen Safety

 As the lightest and smallest element in the universe, confining hydrogen is very difficult.
Hydrogen is much lighter than air and rises at a speed of almost 20 meters per second — two
times faster than helium and six times faster than natural gas — which means that when released,
it rises and dilutes quickly.
Combustion cannot occur in a tank or any contained location that contains only hydrogen. An
oxidizer, such as oxygen, must be present.
Hydrogen is odorless, colorless, and tasteless and therefore undetectable by human senses. For
these and other reasons, industry uses hydrogen sensors to detect hydrogen leaks. Natural gas is
also odorless, colorless, and tasteless, but industry adds a sulfur-containing odorant so people can
detect it. These odorants cannot be used with hydrogen, however, because they contaminate fuel
cells, a popular hydrogen application.
Hydrogen burns very quickly. Under optimal combustion conditions, the energy required to initiate
hydrogen combustion is significantly lower than that required for other common fuels, such as
natural gas or gasoline. At low concentrations of hydrogen fuel in air, the energy required to
initiate combustion is similar to that of other fuels.
 Hydrogen flames have low radiant heat. A hydrogen fire has significantly less radiant heat when
compared to a hydrocarbon fire. Since low levels of heat are emitted near a hydrogen flame (the
flame itself is just as hot), the risk of secondary fires is lower.
With the exception of oxygen, any gas can cause asphyxiation in high enough concentrations. In
most scenarios, however, because hydrogen rises and diffuses so rapidly, it is unlikely to be
confined where asphyxiation might otherwise occur.
Hydrogen is non-toxic and non-poisonous. It will not contaminate groundwater (it‘s a gas under
normal atmospheric conditions), and a release of hydrogen is not known to contribute to
atmospheric pollution or water pollution.
55
UNIT IV
BIOGAS, NATURAL GAS AND LPG AS FUELS
BIOGAS
Biogas typically refers to a mixture of different gases produced by the breakdown oforganic
matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as
agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material,sewage, green waste or food
waste. It is a renewable energy source and in many cases exerts a very small carbon
footprint.
Biogas can be produced by anaerobic digestion with anaerobic bacteria, which digest
material inside a closed system, or fermentation of biodegradable materials.
Biogas is primarily methane (CH4)and carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have small amounts
of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), moisture and siloxanes. The gases methane,hydrogen,
and carbon monoxide (CO) can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen. This energy release
allows biogas to be used as a fuel; it can be used for any heating purpose, such as cooking.
It can also be used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into electricity and heat.
Biogas can be compressed, the same way natural gas is compressed to CNG, and used to
power motor vehicles. In the UK, for example, biogas is estimated to have the potential to
replace around 17% of vehicle fuel. It qualifies for renewable energy subsidies in some
parts of the world. Biogas can be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas standards, when it
becomes bio methane.
PRODUCTION
Biogas is produced as landfill gas (LFG), which is produced by the breakdown of

biodegradable waste inside a landfill due to chemical reactions and microbes, or as digested
gas, produced inside an anaerobic digester. A biogas plant is the name often given to an
anaerobic digester that treats farm wastes or energy crops. It can be produced using
anaerobic digesters (air-tight tanks with different configurations). These plants can be fed
with energy crops such as maize silage or biodegradable wastes including sewage sludge
56
and food waste. During the process, the microorganisms transform biomass waste into
biogas (mainly methane and carbon dioxide) and digestate. The biogas is a renewable
energy that can be used for heating, electricity, and many other operations that use a
reciprocating internal combustion engine, such as GE Jenbacher or Caterpillar gas
engines. Other internal combustion engines such as gas turbines are suitable for the
conversion of biogas into both electricity and heat. The digestate is the remaining inorganic
matter that was not transformed into biogas. It can be used as an agricultural fertiliser.
There are two key processes: mesophilic and thermophilic digestion which is dependent on
temperature. In experimental work at University of Alaska Fairbanks, a 1000-litre digester
using psychrophiles harvested from "mud from a frozen lake in Alaska" has produced 200–
300 liters of methane per day, about 20%–30% of the output from digesters in warmer
climates.
DANGERS
The dangers of biogas are mostly similar to those of natural gas, but with an additional risk
from the toxicity of its hydrogen sulfide fraction. Biogas can be explosive when mixed in
the ratio of one part biogas to 8-20 parts air. When the tank is opened for cleaning or repair
work then open flames, sparks and smoking should be avoided. If light is needed a
flashlight or sunlight reflected off of a mirror should be used. Biogas leaks smell like rotten
eggs (hydrogen sulfide). Special safety precautions have to be taken for entering an empty
biogas digester for maintenance work.
It is important that a biogas system never has negative pressure as this could cause an
explosion. Negative gas pressure can occur if too much gas is removed or leaked. Because
of this biogas should not be used at pressures below one column inch of water, measured by
a pressure gauge.
Frequent smell checks must be performed on a biogas system. If biogas is smelled

anywhere windows and doors should be opened immediately. If there is a fire the gas
should be shut off at the gate valve of the biogas system
LANDFILL GAS
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Landfill gas is produced by wet organic waste decomposing under anaerobic conditions in a
landfill.
The waste is covered and mechanically compressed by the weight of the material that is
deposited above. This material prevents oxygen exposure thus allowing anaerobic microbes
to thrive. This gas builds up and is slowly released into the atmosphere if the site has not
been engineered to capture the gas. Landfill gas released in an uncontrolled way can be
hazardous since it can becomes explosive when it escapes from the landfill and mixes with
oxygen. The lower explosive limit is 5% methane and the upper is 15% methane.
The methane in biogas is 20 times more potent a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.
Therefore, uncontained landfill gas, which escapes into the atmosphere may significantly
contribute to the effects of global warming. In addition, volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
in landfill gas contribute to the formation of photochemical smog.
Technical
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of oxygen required by

aerobic micro-organisms to decompose the organic matter in a sample of water. Knowing
the energy density of the material being used in the biodigester as well as the BOD for the
liquid discharge allows for the calculation of the daily energy output from a biodigester.
Another term related to biodigesters is effluent dirtiness, which tells how much organic
material there is per unit of biogas source. Typical units for this measure are in mg
BOD/litre. As an example, effluent dirtiness can range between 800–1200 mg BOD/litre in
Panama.
From 1 kg of decommissioned kitchen bio-waste, 0.45 m³ of biogas can be obtained. The

price for collecting biological waste from households is approximately €70 per ton.
COMPOSITION
The composition of biogas varies depending upon the origin of theanaerobic

digestion process. Landfill gas typically has methane concentrations around 50%. Advanced
waste treatment technologies can produce biogas with 55%–75% methane, which for
reactors with free liquids can be increased to 80%-90% methane using in-situ gas
purification techniques. As produced, biogas contains water vapor. The fractional volume of
water vapor is a function of biogas temperature; correction of measured gas volume for
58
water vapor content and thermal expansion is easily done via simple mathematics which
yields the standardized volume of dry biogas.
In some cases, biogas contains siloxanes. They are formed from theanaerobic
decomposition of materials commonly found in soaps and detergents. During combustion of
biogas containing siloxanes, silicon is released and can combine with free oxygen or other
elements in the combustion gas. Deposits are formed containing mostly silica (SiO
2) or silicates (SixOy) and can containcalcium, sulfur, zinc, phosphorus. Such white
mineral deposits accumulate to a surface thickness of several millimeters and must be
removed by chemical or mechanical means. Practical and cost-effective technologies to
remove siloxanes and other biogas contaminants are available.
For 1000 kg (wet weight) of input to a typical biodigester, total solids may be 30% of the
wet weight while volatile suspended solids may be 90% of the total solids. Protein would be
20% of the volatile solids, carbohydrates would be 70% of the volatile solids, and finally
fats would be 10% of the volatile solids.
APPLICATIONS
Biogas can be used for electricity production on sewage works, in a CHP gas engine, where
the waste heat from the engine is conveniently used for heating the digester; cooking; space
heating; water heating; and process heating. If compressed, it can replace compressed
natural gas for use in vehicles, where it can fuel an internal combustion engine or fuel
cells and is a much more effective displacer of carbon dioxide than the normal use in on-site
CHP plants.
59
CNG
The origin of natural gas derives from the decomposition of plants and animals over a long period
of time and under tremendous heat and pressure. When natural gas comes out of the ground, it
commonly mixed with water, liquefied hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide and other solid matter. The
gas is cleaned of the water and solid matter, then the other gases and liquids are stripped away.
Because water content in natural gas would cause formation of ice or hydrates in the pipeline.
Likewise, the amount of available hydrocarbons heavier than ethane should be taken into account
to reduce the risk of blocking the pipeline due to accumulation of condensable liquids
Natural gas is a naturally occurring mixture of combustible hydrocarbon gasses found in porous
formations beneath the earth's surface, usually in association with crude petroleum. When it is
found, it can be
Nonassociated gas--Free gas not in contact with significant amounts of crude oil in the
reservoir
Associated gas--Free gas in contact with crude oil in the reservoir.
Dissolved gas--Gas in solution with crude oil in the reservoir.
The main component of natural gas is methane (CH4) with minor amounts of heavier
hydrocarbons and some nonhydrocarbons,
Table 1. Natural Gas Components in mass and volume percent.
Component Volume (percent) Mass (percent)

Methane 92.29 84.37
Ethane 3.6 6.23
Propane 0.8 2.06
Butanes 0.29 0.99
Pentanes 0.13 0.53
Hexanes 0.08 0.39
CO2 1 2.52
Nitrogen 1.8 2.89
Water 0.01 0.01
Total 100 100
FUEL COMPONENTS
CNG is a mixture of several gases. Methane is the dominant component , but ethane and "
heavier hydrocarbons" such as propane butanes, etc. are in natural gas up to a maximum of their
equilibrium vapor pressure. Only saturated hydrocarbons ( alkane, in other word paraffins) are
found in gas. The general formula for this series is CnH2n+2.
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Table 3. Properties of Natural Gas Components
Molecular Density Specific Boiling Autoign. Flamm.

Component Formula
Weight kg/m3) Gravity Point(C) Temp.(C) Limits
Methane CH4 16.04 0.68 0.554 -161.5 537 5-15
Ethane C2H6 30.07 1.286 1.049 -88.6 515 3-12.5
Propane C3H8 44.09 1.915 1.562 -42 450 2.1-9.5
n-Butane C4H10 58.12 2.534 2.067 -0.5 405 1.8-8.5
n-Pentane C5H12 72.11 3.05 2.487 36.1 260 1.4-7.8
n-Hexane C6H14 86.17 3.642 2.97 68.7 234 1.2-7.5
Nitrogen N2 28.02 1.192 0.972
Oxygen O2 32 1.355 1.105
Carbon
CO2 44.01 1.874 1.528
Dioxide
Paraffins are unable to combine with additional hydrogen atoms. They are also called "saturated".
If the paraffin has more than three carbons, there is possibility of having more than one
arrangement of the carbon and hydrogen atoms in molecule. Molecules which contain the same
number and some kind of atoms, but differ in structure are called isomers. For example, three
structural isomers of pentane (C5H12) are possible.
n-pentane isopentane neopentane

Boiling Point 36.1 27.9 9.5
Melting Point -129.7 -159.9 -16.5
Density (20 C) 0.6262 0.6201 0.6135
Alkenes (olefins) and alkynes are not normally present in natural gas. Olefins are among the most
photochemically reactive components of automotive hydrocarbon emissions. Other compounds
present in natural gas include: nitrogen (N2), sulfur (H2S), and odorants such as ethyl mercaptan
(C2 H5 SH), carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
The composition of natural gas has impact on emission, performance and safety. In terms of this
issue, the effect of gas composition can be outlined as follows:
Knock tendency of the fuel

Fuel stratification in the storage cylinder
Fuel metering which is primary effect on engine performance and emissions.
Corrosion occurrence due to impurities in the fuel.
Water, sulfurcompounds, carbon dioxide, oxygen and other impurities in natural gas cause
storage tank and fuel system corrosion and corrosion-fatigue cracking of the materials. The
limitations of this impurities are important in terms of minimizing of corrosion and acceptable
service life of the storage tank. Ice occurance in regulators and lines due to condensation of
water content in natural gas should be considered. Besides this, clogging in fuel injectors and fuel
filters cause rough engine operation.
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The dew point indicates the point at which gas to become saturated with water vapor. At dew
point, the mixture contains maximum amount of water. Relative humidity is 100 % at this
temperature. When the natural gas is compressed from pipeline pressure of approximately 50 psi
to tank pressure of 3600 psi, this increase causes higher dew point which is the function of
pressure. Liquid water would precipitate out of the gas with the consequence of this increase.
Dryers or desiccants are used to remove the water. Another method is the methanol injection in
order to decrease the freezing point of the gas. Pipeline quality natural gas has a dew point of -28
F at 50 psi which corresponds 52 F at 3600 psi. In order to prevent occurrence of corrosion
problems in vehicles, natural gas must be dried to a dew point under the minimum ambient
temperature in which the vehicle run. Regarding this matter the dew point of the gas at the
maximum operating pressure to be at least 10 F below the winter design dry bulb temperature will
be required by the proposed regulations.[4]
Fuel stratification in the cylinder should be considered when the natural gas contains heavy
hydrocarbons. At low ambient temperatures, as fuel draws from the storage tank, the pressure
decreases. This decrease changes the composition of liquid and vapor states. For instance,
propane/air peak shaving gas is not suitable for natural gas vehicles due to the variation of
propane concentration more than 10 percent during the operation. Obviously, the variation of the
fuel composition has a primary impact on engine performance, knock tendency, emissions and
fuel economy. In order to handle the variation of fuel composition,
Combustion systems
Exhaust catalysts
Engine controls
can be taken into consideration for natural gas vehicles
INTERNAL ENGINE FUEL CHARACTERISTICS
OCTANE NUMBER
The high octane number of natural gas allows high compression ratio in optimized natural gas
engine which means an increase in power and efficiency.
CETANE NUMBER
Cetane number is of primary importance in overall efficiency of diesel engine. CNG has a very
poor cetane number . Because of this, some modifications are necessary in diesel engine for
CNG applications.
HEATING VALUE
The heating value in another word, (heat of combustion, calorific value,) of a fuel is the amount
of heat produced when the fuel is burned completely. A fuel with low heating value provides less
heat on combustion which means less power than the same amount of fuel with high heating
value. In order to maintain power output with low-heating value fuel , more consumption of it
would be necessary. If natural gas is used in optimized engine, better fuel consumption will be
obtained
Energy content based on volume, determines the vehicle range. To increase the range, a high
density fuel is preferred because heating value per unit volume of fuel is greater. This explains
62
why the liquid state is of primary interest for storage problem. According to this data vehicle
running on CNG can travel only 26 % as far as it could on gasoline.
VAPOR PRESSURE
Vapor Pressure of a fuel is a prime importance of drivebility of vehicles under all conditions. One
of the most common method to measure fuel volatility is Reid Method. In this method, the vapor
pressure of liquid fuel is measured at 100 F in a chamber having 4:1 air to liquid ratio. There is no
need to vaporize CNG, contrarily liquid fuels have to be vaporized before they are introduced into
the engine. This characteristics of CNG makes the cold start problems and low temperature
emissions due to the cold enrichment, minimum.
HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
The heat of vaporization of a fuel effects the volumetric efficiency positively by decreasing the
temperature of the fuel-air mixture which means makes the mixture dense. Although natural gas
has a higher heat of vaporization, it is already in gaseous state when it is inducted into engine
and it does not provide this cooling effect. On the other hand cold starting problems would occur
with higher heat of vaporization in IC engines.
WOBBE NUMBER
Wobbe number is especially an important parameter in open loop control system. Wobbe
number defines the chemical energy that will flow through an orifice with a given pressure drop. It
is calculated by dividing the heating value of the fuel by the square root of specific gravity.
To describe natural gas characteristics on the basis of its energy content, Wobbe number is used.
Wobbe number is computed by dividing square root of the ratio between CNG and air specific
gravity ; it represents the energy flow rate resulting from a certain pressure drop. Wobbe number
increases when the content of the non-methane hydrocarbon increases. This increase results
from the higher densities of the non-methane hydrocarbons. The Wobbe number decreases when
the inert gases concentration rises.
In an open loop engine, different Wobbe number causes change in stoichometric A/F ratio which
effects equivalence ratio. Equivalence ratio is of primary importance in engine operation.In closed
loop control engine, the affection of variations in Wobbe number is negligible. Because, engine
control module responds the signal from the exhaust oxygen sensor and corrects for equivalence
ratio change.
CONVERSION SYSTEMS
There are basically two types of conversion systems available, mechanical (carburetted) and
electronic (fuel injected) types. Mechanical systems work on the same principles as gasoline
carburetor do. The fuel is mixed with the intake air in a fuel/air mixture (carburetor). In electronic
systems, injectors or flow control valves are used to meter the fuel into the intake air.
A) Mechanical Conversion System :
Mixer
Gaseous fuel is introduced into intake manifold. The mixer is placed upstream of the throttle valve
in order to respond to manifold pressure to provide the adequate amount of fuel introduced into
63
the manifold for engine load. Some mixers have air valve to control the air flowrate. Needle valve
adjustments provide appropriate fuel / air mixture.
Air flow capacity requirement for the range of the necessary engine operation conditions is the
selection criteria of mixers. The power obtained from engine is dependent of the size of mixer.
The selection of small size of mixer causes the restriction of air entering to intake manifold after a
certain point. Consequently engine is not be able to achive the desired operation with respect to
increased throttle opening. Engine starting and low speed running will be problem with the
oversize mixer due to inadequate and poorly controlled manifold vacuum. The engines which can
not run with wide open throttle will probably operate with smaller size mixer. The advantage of
slightly oversize mixer appears on over-the road applications. Because it achieves optimum
performance at higher engine speeds. The formula which is below can be used in order to
estimate required air flowrate.
Regulator:
In order to provide necessary control in CNG conversions, pressure regulations are achived in
two stages. A single regulator with two stages or two separate regulators can be used for this
purpose.
In first stage, the pressure is reduced from tank pressure to approximately 100 psi. It is necessary
to reduce the pressure to a few inches of water to meter the fuel through the mixer and into intake
manifold. There are two kind of two stage regulators available.
The piston regulators compared to diaphram type provides better control in terms of outlet
pressure with varying tank pressure. In mechanical conversion, this pressure variation is
compansated by the precise control of second stage regulator with respect to varying inlet
pressure. However, for an electronic conversion without second stage regulator this pressure
variation is of importance in the amount of fuel that meters through the injector.
Shut-off valve:
It stops the flow of the natural gas when the engine does not run. The valve provides fuel flow
from the tank to regulator when the engine runs. A filter can be available with this equipment to
filter the fuel before entering the regulator.
It is a solenoid type valve which is controlled from the fuel selector switch in the vehicle. This
valve shuts off the gasoline supply when the alternative fuel is selected. It is also required to cut
the power to gasoline injectors when the engine runs on alternative fuel.
Control Valve:
64
It responds to outputs from the conversion system computer in order to provide a richer or leaner
fuel / air fuel mixture. In some applications control valve operates with the second stage regulator
make the fuel / air ratio leaner during deceleration. The control valve is driven by the conversion
system computer in order to determine fuel / air ratio by receiving outputs from oxygen sensor
which is placed in engine exhaust.
Figure 4. Oxygen Sensor
Oxygen sensor is installed into exhaust manifold. ZrO2 is coated with a platinum films on both
sides. ZrO2 acts as a solid electrolyte, its output is strogly dependent of oxygen content of the
exhaust gas. Small voltage is generated on the platinum surfaces due to difference between the
oxygen content in atmosphere and exhaust. Measured value of the oxygen content in exhaust
provides conversion system computer keep the A/F ratio within 0.05 tolerance.
Refueling Receptacle:
The refueling receptacle should provide safe and easy using with minimum trapped gas or vapor
release when disconnected. It must be a quick disconnect type. They are constructed of non-
sparking material, usually brass with corrosion resistant iternal parts. NGV-1 (ANSI Standard) is
available for receptacles. According to this :
The nozzle and receptacle shall not be used for any other fuel
Standards shall be uniform throughout the U.S and Canada.
Receptacles shall be non-sparking
They should allow interchangeability between different manufacturers.
They should be designed to prevent the loading of a vehicle with a lower service
pressure
They should have a non-contact integral check valve.
Check valve leakege appear the common reason which is relaed to receptacle problems.
Particulate contamination and ice or hydrate build up usually cause the problems with
receptacles.
Electronic Control Units:
65
Electronic control units with mechanical conversion systems vary from the simple type device
which mainly eliminate false Electronic Control Module (ECM) malfunction codes to smart
equipments with adaptive memory which dynamically control the A/F ratio and ignition.
Basic type device provides prevent false EGR, knock and oxygen sensor malfunction codes by
using open loop control strategy together with the Original Equipmenr Manufacturer (OEM).
Advanced type devices evaluate data from all the engine sensors to adjust A/F ratio, spark timing
and other controllable parameters by using feedback control (closed loop control) strategy.This
type devices also have a feature in order to achieve open loop control method for some conditons
like cold starting and wide open throttle (WOT)
B) Electronic Conversion System:
The main difference in the application of electronic conversion method with respect to mechanical
conversion is the use of solenoid driven injectors or proportional metering valves to supply the
fuel into intake manifold instead of fuel air mixture. Fuel injection provides significant advantages
over the use of mixer. These are:
Nonrequirement of second stage regulator.

Better emission control.
Easy starting, particularly in cold weather.
Better Brake Spesific Fuel Consumption (BSFC).
Quick throttle response.
Accurate fuel control.
Possibility of flowrate control on deceleration.
Pulse Width Modulated (PMW) control strategy
When solenoid injectors used, the amount of fuel introduced into engine can be adjusted by
varying the pulse width (the period which is valve open.). In case of proportional flow control
valves are used instead of solenoid injectors, the fuel flowrate is metered by using a mass flow
sensor which supplies data to to the alternative fuel microprocessor which achieves the control of
the valve. The Alternative Fuel Microprocessor evaluates Original Equipment Manufacturer
(OEM) speed density in order to drive the alternative fuel injectors. Another approach is to modify
the injector actuation signal delivered by OEM Electronic Control Module. Ignition timing is also
one of the parameters controlled by alternative fuel microprocessor.
The use of injectors or flow control valve provides very accurate and precise control of mixture
ratio which is resulted in optimum operation conditions at all loads. These operation conditions
can not be achieved by mechanical conversion systems. Electronic systems have first stage
regulator to decrease 3600 psi of tank pressure to 50-100 psi of injector pressure. However,
some electronic systems equipped with flow control valve require second stage regulator.
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UNIT V
ELECTRIC, HYBRID AND FUEL CELL VEHICLES
Electric drive vehicles:
Electric drive vehicles (EDVs) are one way of reducing vehicle emissions that contribute
two-thirds of all air pollution in most cities. Some electric drive technologies are battery
electric vehicles (BEV), hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and fuel cell powered vehicles
(FCV).
Electric Drive Technologies

Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)
An electric vehicle is a motor vehicle, such as an automobile, truck, or bus, which

uses a rechargeable battery for fuel, replacing gasoline, diesel or other types of
combustible fuels. Gone are the internal combustion engine and the transmission.
A BEV utilizes an electric motor or, in some applications, more than one motor to
propel the vehicle.
The energy stored in the Electric Vehicle's rechargeable battery supplies power to
a motor controller. The motor controller is a device that controls the amount of
power supplied to the electric drive motor(s) based on the position of the
accelerator pedal.
Refueling an electric vehicle consists of connecting the vehicle to an outlet or

charging device that is specifically designed for charging a BEV. Recharging time
varies, depending on the battery type, capacity and the voltage/current output of
the charger. Most BEVs can be fully recharged in about 6 hours.
Additionally, electric vehicles are much more energy efficient then Internal
Combustion Engine vehicles. Not only is the propulsion system itself much more
efficient, but energy loses through the transmission and idling simply do not exist.
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)
The use of two different energy sources is what defines a hybrid vehicle.
Essentially an HEV is an electric vehicle that uses an onboard internal combustion
engine linked to a motor/generator to drive the vehicle and/or recharge the
batteries. There are currently many different hybrid-electric system designs
utilizing gasoline and diesel engines, alternative fuels engines, gas turbines or fuel
cells in conjunction with batteries. These design options are grouped in three
categories: series (range-extending HEVs), parallel (power assist HEVs), and
dual-mode HEVs.
The main sources of energy used in the most common HEVs today are gasoline
and batteries. A battery contains no moving parts. The only energy wasted is a
67
very small amount of heat during the course of a discharge cycle. As previously
mentioned, hybrid electric vehicles utilize two different energy sources. For those
vehicles currently available commercially, batteries are the secondary energy
supplier for the vehicle and an engine that burns gasoline, diesel fuel, or
alternative fuels such as methanol, ethanol or compressed natural gas provides the
primary power. The cleanest, most fuel efficient HEV design is one in which
there is a significant all-electric range (20 miles or more) and where the vehicle is
plugged in to recharge the batteries at the end of the day. The ultimate goal of the
hybrid electric vehicle is to provide the equivalent power, range, cost and safety
of a conventional vehicle while reducing fuel costs and harmful emissions. At
present an HEV is able to operate nearly twice as efficiently as traditional internal
combustion vehicles.
Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCV)
A fuel cell vehicle is essentially an electric vehicle that has a fuel cell providing
the electric energy needed to run instead of batteries. The fuel cell vehicle carries
a supply of hydrogen that the fuel cell converts to electricity.
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device in which the energy of a chemical

reaction is converted directly into electricity. By combining hydrogen fuel with
oxygen from air, electricity is formed, without combustion of any form. Water
and heat are the only by-products when hydrogen is used as the fuel source.
Although hydrogen is considered the primary fuel source for fuel cells, the
process of fuel reforming allows for the extraction of hydrogen from other fuels
including methanol, natural gas, petroleum, or renewable sources. Unlike a
battery, a fuel cell does not run down or require recharging; it operates as long as
a fuel is supplied.
Environmental Benefits
Though conventional gasoline vehicles are becoming cleaner and other alternative fuel
vehicles can alleviate air pollution, electric drive vehicles hold the promise of the greatest
air quality benefits of any available technology. EDVs are unique in that they produce no
operating emissions; the only emissions associated with these EDVs come from the
power plants that generate the electricity for battery charging and the plants that produce
the hydrogen for consumption in fuel cell vehicles.
Even compared to today‘s gasoline vehicles EDVs or BEVs offer exceptional air quality
benefits. In the company's service territory, driving an EDV instead of a gasoline
powered vehicle would reduce emissions of reactive organic gases (ROG) and nitrogen
oxides (NO) - the precursors to smog, a serious health hazard, would drop. Carbon
dioxide (CO2), the principal gas associated with global warming.
68
Driving BEVs and HEVs would also decrease pollution to oceans, rivers, and ground
water that is caused from petroleum, gasoline, and motor oil spills. Relief from urban
noise pollution is another benefit, as electric motors are quiet as well as clean.
Electric Vehicles:
The power system of an electric vehicle consists of just two components: the motor that
provides the power and the controller that controls the application of this power. In
comparison, the power system of gasoline-powered vehicles consists of a number of
components, such as the engine, carburetor, oil pump, water pump, cooling system,
starter, exhaust system, etc. Motors Electric motors convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Two types of electric motors are used in electric vehicles to provide
power to the wheels: the direct current (DC) motor and the alternating current (AC)
motor.
DC electric motors have three main components:

 A set of coils (field) that creates the magnetic forces which provide torque
 A rotor or armature mounted on bearings that turns inside the field
 Commutating device that reverses the magnetic forces and makes the armature
turn, therebyproviding horsepower.
As in the DC motor, an AC motor also has a set of coils (field) and a rotor or armature,
however, since there is a continuous current reversal, a commutating device is not
needed.
Both types of electric motors are used in electric vehicles and have advantages and
disadvantages, as shown here.
While the AC motor is less expensive and lighter weight, the DC motor has a simpler
controller, making the DC motor/controller combination less expensive. The main
disadvantage of the AC motor is the cost of the electronics package needed to convert
(invert) the battery‗s direct current to alternating current for the motor.
Past generations of electric vehicles used the DC motor/controller system because they
operate off the battery current without complex electronics. The DC motor/controller
system is still used today on some electric vehicles to keep the cost down.
69
However, with the advent of better and less expensive electronics, a large number of
today‘s electric vehicles are using AC motor/controller systems because of their
improved motor efficiency and lighter weight.
These AC motors resemble motors commonly used in home appliances and machine
tools, and are relatively inexpensive and robust. These motors are very reliable, and since
they have only one moving part, the shaft, they should last the life of the vehicle with
little or no maintenance.
Electric Motor Comparison

AC Motor DC Motor
Single - speed transmission Multi-speed transmission
Light weight Heavier for same power
Less expensive More expensive
95% efficiency at full load 85-95% efficiency at full load
More expensive controller Simple controller
Motor/Controller/Inverter more expensive Motor/controller less expensive
Controllers or Power Electronics Controllers
The electric vehicle controller is the electronics package that operates between the
batteries and the motor to control the electric vehicle‗s speed and acceleration much like
a carburetor does in a gasoline powered vehicle. The controller transforms the battery‘s
direct current into alternating current (for AC motors only) and regulates the energy flow
from the battery. Unlike the carburetor, the controller will also reverse the motor rotation
(so the vehicle can go in reverse), and convert the motor to a generator (so that the kinetic
energy of motion can be used to recharge the battery when the brake is applied).
In the early electric vehicles with DC motors, a simple variable-resistor-type controller
controlled the acceleration and speed of the vehicle. With this type of controller, full
current and power was drawn from the battery all of the time. At slow speeds, when full
power was not needed, a high resistance was used to reduce the current to the motor.
With this type of system, a large percentage of the energy from the battery was wasted as
an energy loss in the resistor. The only time that all of the available power was used was
at high speeds.
70
The Basic components of controllers are
Converter or Inverter:
The converter converts and controls the energy flow between the energy source (battery
and or generator) and the electrical drive. Layout and construction depend on the
operating voltage and the electrical machine. Generally spoken an inverter is built with
one or more power switches and additional passive elements. The amount of passive
elements (DC-link capacitors, series inductances) must be held at a minimum for cost and
efficiency reasons, whereas the integration of silicon based power switches allows the use
of complex converter structures. In order to control the energy flow between source and
drive, current and voltage sensors are used. In the future these will be integrated into the
power module to reduce packaging cost and volume.
DC-link brake resistor
The brake resistor is used to take over the part of energy, which cannot be restored in the
energy source (battery) and therefore would damage the power electronics by rising the
DC-link voltage. A constant brake torque can be maintained, even if the battery is already
fully charged. A common DC-link brake resistor consists of a power resistor, which is
switched on with the help of a power semiconductor. To control the amount of energy,
which flows into the battery, the power semiconductor is switched with high frequency
and variable pulse width. The ripple current at low load can be very high without
filtering. The brake resistor ripple current adds up to the DC-link current ripple and
increases the demand on the DC-link capacitor. If the brake resistor is only used as a
protection unit to prevent overvoltage of the DC-link the additional ripple current may
cause no trouble. This method is widely used in industrial drives applications. But in
hybrid electric and electric cars the brake chopper is used to divide the regenerative
71
power between the battery and the brake resistor. The amount of brake power flowing
into the battery depends on its state of charge.
DC-link main connector
For safety reason the energy storage system and the drive system must be separable. In
case of failure the disconnection has to be triggered automatically. The DC-link main
connector can separate the energy source and all the other power electronics function
blocks.This is not only meant for safety reason at maintenance work, but also for
protection of the battery in case of power electronics failure (short circuit). Therefore it is
necessary that the main connector can switch at current ratings well above the nominal
current. The Hybrid I11 uses an experimental prototype of a vacuum switch from
Kilovac/ USA. Vacuum switches are probably the only ones which offer high switching
capability with low conduction losses and small volume. An electronic circuit has been
developed to reduce the loss in the switching coil. After an initial step of 12V the voltage
across the switching coil is reduced down so that the losses are reduced to less than 3 W.
Battery charger
The battery charging system should run independently from the rest of the power
electronics, allowing the user to charge the batteries overnight. A constant monitoring,
a battery management system is necessary to prevent from damages as a
consequence of overload or a deep discharge. The battery charger must meet
different specifications given by utility companies and battery manufacturers.
Low current harmonics, power factor control and electrical isolation are used to
meet the specification of the utility companies. The battery management includes
a constant control of the battery charge level as well as of the allowed current and
voltage. As in most cases the battery consists of several series connected cell
blocks, the battery charger must avoid asymmetrical charging and discharging.
This problem increases with the number of series connected cells. The control of
the terminal voltage is not a sure indication for the state of charge. The Hybrid
I11 uses a charging system which controls actively the state of charge for each
12V block of the battery. Under load it can charge the weaker cells from the
stronger ones and therefore increases the usable amount of battery capacity.
To reach a unit power factor advanced battery charger systems are using an input step-up
converter with power factor control. The input current is controlled to be sinusoidal and
in phase with the line voltage. The output voltage of the step-up converter is higher than
the rectified line voltage to ensure power flow over the whole line period. The output
voltage of the step-up converter could be connected directly to the terminal voltage of the
battery. By varying the output voltage of the output voltage the charging current can be
controlled. If electrical isolation is needed as required by different regulations a second
DC/DC-converter after the step-up converter is used. The output of this DC/DC-converter
is connected to the terminals of the battery and only the terminal voltage can be
controlled. The disadvantage of the second solution is the necessity of two entire power
electronic circuits with two independent control circuits. Also because of the sinusoidal
72
input power flow, a relatively large input capacitor is needed in both cases. Furthermore,
by controlling only the terminal voltage there is no valid indication of the state of charge.
This is especially true with higher system voltages, as this requires a large number of
series connected cells. If one of the series connected cells has less capacity than the
majority of the cells it will be discharged to a lower cell voltage and therefore, as the
internal resistance rises at the end of discharging, have more losses with same load
current. This results in a higher temperature and a shorter service life. If after this, only
the terminal voltage of the cellblock is used to detect the end of charge, it is likely, that
overvoltage of the other cells is hiding the low voltage of the weaker cell. To only way to
prevent this is overcharging with a factor of 110 to 140%. This results in a lower
charging efficiency and an increased temperature of the other cells at the end of charge.
Board power supply
The board power supply converts the energy from the main energy source to the
traditional 12V consumers in a car. The maximum power for the board power supply is
given with the maximum power used by all 12V consumers. It delivers also the different
supply levels used in the power electronics function blocks and should therefore
integrated with the converter.
Battery Charging system:
There are essentially two approaches to #e charging of electrical vehicle batteries:

conductive coupling in which the charging source is connected directly to the
vehicle and
inductive coupling in which a take-apart transformer is used to transfer the
charging power to the car. These two approaches will now be discussed.
CONDUCTIVE COUPLING
Conductive coupling employs the conventional conductive contact in which the user
connects the off-vehicle source of charging power directly to the car. An example of a
typical concept for a suggested charging infrastructure based on conductive coupling is
shown in Fig.
73
INDUCTIVE COUPLING
Inductive coupling is a method of transferring electrical power from the source to the
load magnetically rather than by direct ohmic contact. Inductive coupling, in various
forms, has been considered as a viable robust and safe power transfer approach in such
areas as mining and underwater power delivery, but it is also naturally suited to the area
of EV charging. The practical application of inductive coupling as employed in the
charging of the GM EVl is illustrated in Fig above. The basic principle underlying
inductive coupling is #at the two halves of the inductive coupling interface are the
primary and secondary of a separable two-part transformer. When the charge coupler is
juxtaposed with the vehicle inlet (i.e. the secondary), power can be transferred
magnetically with complete electrical isolation, as with a standard transformer. The
coupler and vehicle inlet featured in EV1 are shown in Fig. 3. The coupler is attached via
the cable to the off-vehicle charging module. When the coupler is inserted into the
vehicle inlet, power from the coupler is transformer coupled to the secondary, rectified
and fed to the battery by the battery cable. Note that the coupler contains a ferrite block
or "puck" at the center of the primary winding to complete the magnetic path when the
coupler is inserted into the vehicle inlet. The simplified power flow diagram for inductive
charging of the EV1 is shown in Fig below. The charger converts the low frequency utility
power to high frequency ac (HFAC) power. The WAC is transformer-coupled at the vehicle
inlet, rectified and supplied to the batteries.
74
Hybrid Electric Vehicles:
An HEV is a cross between an electric vehicle and a conventional internal combustion

engine (ICE) vehicle.
Hybrid electric and electric cars are classified according their use of energy sources and
drive systems. The hybrid electric vehicle categories include the series and parallel
hybrid as well as the range extender or mixed hybrid
A. Parallel Hybrid
The parallel hybrid has two independent drive systems. Each of them can contribute
power to accelerate the vehicle. They can share a common driving axle (one axle parallel
hybrid) or not (two axle or split parallel hybrid). The combination of them should result
in a better efficiency. For this reason, in a parallel hybrid vehicle the combination of a
full sized internal combustion engine together with a smaller electrical machine is mostly
used. The electrical drive overcomes the typically low efficiency of the internal
combustion engine at low load. The electrical drive system consist of the energy storage
medium and the needed power electronics.
B. Series Hybrid
The series hybrid vehicle uses an internal combustion engine to produce electrical power
which is then used by the electrical drive system. Connected to the DC-Link is a battery
to provide short time acceleration power or to restore braking power. Therefore the
internal combustion engine can be operated at it‘s best efficiency. Like the parallel hybrid
zero-emission driving is possible and unlike the latter even at full load. The installation of
three times of the needed power (ICE, Generator, Motor) and the need of a battery, even
of a small one, did longtime make the series hybrid the second choice. Recent progress in
power electronics and electrical machines did bring the series hybrid into focus again.
C. Hybrid with short time storage medium

Recent development in the control of internal combustion engines makes it favorable to
operate the engine at part load in a odoff mode. Highest efficiency can be reached. In this
system a short time storage medium is necessary to do the averaging for the constant load
power demand. This is done with an mechanical flywheel. A continuous variable
transmission is needed between the flywheel and the wheel. With the progress in
75
development of super capacitors the mechanical link engine, flywheel and transmission
can be replaced by an electrical solution.
Basic Components of an Hybrid System
The basic components of an Hybrid electric vehicles are:
I.C. Engines
Electric Motor
System Controller
I.C Engines:
Internal Combustion Engines act as a source of power during the rural driving
conditions, where the emission norms are not that much stringent. To further reduce
emissions, the ICE runs on an alternative fuel, such as, compressed natural gas, ethanol,
methanol or propane. The ICE operates to provide energy to power the car and, in some
cases, to recharge the batteries
Electric Motor:
The electric motor is used in the opposite manner during times of low engine load. The
electric motor actually loads down the engine when there is little load on the engine, as
during deceleration or when coasting down a steep grade. During this time, the motor acts
as a generator, and recovers some of the vehicle‘s kinetic energy. This process is called
regeneration. Regeneration is also used during braking, where the energy is recovered
into the batteries instead of wasting the energy as heat developed by friction. The electric
motor acts as a buffer for the IC engine in this system. The relationship between the IC
engine and electric motor uses the best aspects of each system. The electric motor
absorbs some of the transients encountered by the system. The electric motor is more
efficient than the IC engine during these transient periods. The IC engine provides the
extended range that the electric motor cannot.
System Controller:
The system controller for the hybrid electric vehicle is a microprocessor based system
that manages the electric drive system for the vehicle. The objective of the system
controller is to incorporate the electric motive power of the vehicle to increase fuel
economy and reduce emissions, while being transparent to the operator. A block diagram
of the system controller and related systems is shown in Figure below. The system
controller monitors several IC engine signals, the status of the battery pack, and driver
control signals to determine the usage of electric motor power.
76
Layout and working of Hybrid Vehicle:
The parallel structure of the HEV requires that both electric power and the IC engine
must be able to provide power to the wheels. The electric motor is coupled to the wheels
via the original transmission A transfer case supports the electric motor and encloses a
high-velocity chain drive that connects to an extension from the transmission shaft. This
is one of the most critical aspects of the mechanical design. The sizing of the electric
motor and controller is of vital importance to the HEV performance. The electric drive
system is matched to operate with the existing powertrain. Since the electric motor and
IC engine are connected in a parallel structure, the maximum speed of the motor is at
least that of the IC engine (6000 revolutions per minute, rpm). The power output of the
motor is also sized to allow for some limited operation as a ZEV. The motorkontroller
pair is physically small enough to maintain the functionality of the vehicle.
77
The input and output signals of the microcontroller are conditioned to interface with
different systems on the vehicle through a custom designed interface board. The system
controller monitors signals from three major systems: the IC engine and powertrain
control module (PCM), the driver input signals, and the main battery pack. By observing
these signals, the system controller can determine how much electric power to deliver or
absorb depending upon driving conditions. There are four main signals that are produced
by sensors on the IC engine that are of critical importance for HEV operation. The
absolute intake manifold pressure or MAP is significant due to the fact that it directly
relates to the load on the engine [9]. The engine speed signal in rpm, is significant as well
as the manifold pressure because it has a dramatic effect on fuel economy. In general, for
a given manifold pressure, fuel consumption increases with engine speed [lo]. This is due
to the fact that as the engine runs faster, more fuel is delivered to the constant volume of
the engine cylinders. The engine speed signal is measured from the tachometer output
from the PCM. The PCM determines the engine speed based upon the crank and
camshaft signals it receives. The manifold pressure and engine speed can be used to
determine an engine load function that corresponds to the amount of torque being
produced by the engine
The engine coolant temperature signal is significant for similar reasons. Emissions levels
and fuel consumption are at their highest when the engine is relatively cold. The engine
coolant temperature (ECT) signal is a voltage from one of the PCM inputs. The oil
pressure switch input is a digital signal that is on when the engine oil pressure reaches a
minimum level. This occurs only when the engine is running. In ZEV mode, the engine
must be off and, in HEV mode, the engine must be running to determine the validity of
the other engine sensor signals.
The operator input signals are perhaps the most important input signals because they
reflect the intentions of the driver. The throttle position signal is an analog voltage that
comes from a potentiometer on the throttle body. The
TPS is mainly used in the ZEV mode to allow the operator to increase speed. The brake
position signal is used to control the regenerative braking capabilities of the vehicle in the
HEV and ZEV modes of operation.
The clutch signal is a digital signal that represents the position of the clutch pedal. This
signal comes from a clutch switch mounted at the top of the clutch pedal. When the
clutch is at rest a low signal is output and when the clutch is slightly depressed a high
signal is output. This signal is used differently for the various modes of operation. In
ZEV mode, it is necessary for the clutch to be fully engaged to prevent the electric motor
from turning the input shaft of the IC engine. In hybrid and IC mode, when the clutch is
depressed, no torque is being applied to the transmission input shaft. This prevents the
motor from loading down the transmission and allows for proper shifting.
The two other user selectable inputs are the vehicle mode and regeneration control inputs.
These inputs are digital signals that are provided by the two switches located in the center
console. The mode switch sets a two-bit pattem depending upon whether ZEV, HEV, or
IC mode is selected. The regeneration switch outputs a single bit that allows the user to
turn the regeneration control on or off during the IC and HEV modes. The regeneration
control in ZEV mode is not user selectable and is only regulated by the system controller.
78
The battery pack voltage is of significant importance to the system controller. The battery
pack voltage is significant due to the charge maintaining strategy of the hybrid vehicle.
That is, the engine load function, previously mentioned, can be modified to keep the
batteries at as high a SOC as possible for the given driving and operating conditions.
The system controller‘s primary function is to control the operation of the electric motor .
This is accomplished via two main control signals that are input to the motor controller.
The desired speed signal is analogous to a vehicle accelerator pedal. This signal is
carefully controlled to ensure the safety, reliability, and functionality of the vehicle. The
desired speed signal controls the amount of electrical assist in HEV mode. In ZEV mode,
the desired speed signal actually controls the speed of the vehicle. The regen control
signal determines the amount of braking torque that will be applied to the vehicle. This
signal is used for several charging modes in the vehicle. In the ZEV mode, the regen
control output controls the regenerative braking aspect of the vehicle. In the IC mode, the
regen control signal allows for idle charging of the batteries, In HEV mode, regenerative
braking and idle charging during times of low engine load are controlled by the regen
control output signal.
79

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AT6002 ALTERNATIVE FUELS AND ENERGY SYSTEMS L T P C

UNIT I ALCOHOLS AS FUELS 9

UNIT II VEGETABLE OILS AS FUELS 9

UNIT III HYDROGEN AS ENGINE FUEL 9

UNIT IV BIOGAS, NATURAL GAS AND LPG AS FUELS 9

UNIT V ELECTRIC, HYBRID AND FUEL CELL VEHICLES 9

Classification of Alternative Fuels

Gasoline type biofuels

Butanol as a direct replacement for gasoline

Diesel type biofuels

Hempseed oil fuel or other Straight vegetable oils

Others with internal combustion

Natural gas, compressed or liquified

Steam engine cars (like the Stanley Steamer)

Solar cell powered or charged electric cars

Properties of Alternative Fuels:

Compressed Natural Gas:

Although CNG is a flammable gas, it has a narrow flammability range, making it an

Liquefied Natural Gas:

LNG is odorless, colorless, noncorrosive, and nontoxic. When extracted from

Liquefied Petroleum Gas or LPG

Propane (otherwise known as Liquefied Petroleum Gas or LPG) is a byproduct of natural

Methane Propane LNG Gasoline Diesel Hydrogen Methanol Ethanol

CH4 C3H8 CH4 C8 H18 C12H26 H2 CH3OH C2H5OH

Motor Octane Number 130 97 130 83-90 N.A N.A 91 92

Cetane Number -10 5-10 -10 8-14 40-65 N.A 3 8

Density of Gas (kg/m3) 0.6512 0.508 N.A 4.4 0.0838

Boiling Point (C) -162 -42 -162 27-240 -252.7

Wobbe Number (Mj/m3) 50.66 74.7 50.66 N.A N.A

Flame Visibility, relative 0.6 0.6 0.6 1 1

Flash Point (F) -300 -100 to -150 -306 -45 165 52 55

Properties of Some Alternative Fuels

Properties of Alcohol as engine fuels:

1. Air Fuel Ratio

A fuel‘s ability to vaporize or change from liquid to vapor is referred to as its

Gasoline is composed of a number of compounds having boiling points ranging

A fuel‘s tendency to vaporize is measured by Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP), The

7. Latent Heat of Vaporization

Combustion Characteristics of Alcohol

2. High Pressure development

3. High laminar burning velocity

4. Non Luminous flame

5. Lower Adiabatic Flame Temperature

Performance of Alcohol Engines

Effect of Compression Ratio

Effect of Equivalence Ratio

At lower equivalence ratios or lean burn conditions, engines operate more

Figure 2-4: ENGINE PERFORMANCE of ETHANOL vs GASOLINE

Figure 2-5: HORSEPOWER COMPARISON of ETHANOL vs GASOLINE

Emission Characteristics of Alcohols:

Alcohols and Gasoline Blends – Distillation Curves:

Low Level Alcohol Blends:

Adding alcohols to gasoline causes an increase in vapor pressure and depresses

From a typical equilibrium vapor composition curve (Figure 4-6), it is apparent

Higher Alcohol Blends

Greater concentrations of methanol in gasoline blends have very significant

Conversion of Diesel Engines to run with Alcohol:

Table 5.2. Some properties of fuels