(P.T) Petrophysics Logging Tools

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
HISTORY
• One of the first log measurements made.
• It was discovered as a potential that effected old electric logs.
• It has been in use for over the past 50 years.
APPLICATION
• Correlation from well to well
• Depth reference for all logging runs
• Detecting permeable beds
• Detecting bed boundaries
• Qualitative indication of shalyness
• Rw determination
THEORY OF MEASUREMENT
Operation
An electrode (usually lead) is lowered down the well and an electrical potential is
registered at different points in the hole with respect to surface electrode.
Therefore SP is a recording of the difference in potential of a moveable electrode
in a borehole and a fixed electrode on the surface. In order to record a potential
the hole must contain conductive mud, as it cannot be recorded in air or oil-base
mud. Logging rate is approximately 1500m per hour and recordings are
continuous.
The SP electrode is built into different logging tools for example:
o Induction log.
o Laterolog.
o Sonic log.
o Sidewall core gun.
FIGURE 1: THE SP MEASUREMENT
SP results from electric currents flowing in the drilling mud. There are three
sources of the currents, two electrochemical and one electrokinetic. Deflection of
SP is caused by the Electrochemical Ec and Electrokinetic Ek actions:
Electrochemical Component
Ec = Elj + Em
1
These two effects are the main components of the SP. They are caused as a result
of differing salinities in the mud filtrate and the formation water.
Elj: "Liquid Junction Potential"
The ions Na+ and Cl- have different mobilities at the junction of the invaded and
virgin zones. The movement of the ions across this boundary generates a current
flow and hence a potential.
If the salinity of the mud in the borehole is weaker or stronger than that of the
formation water the potential generated between the two solutions is known as
the Liquid Junction Potential or Elj. The greater the difference between the salinity
of the solutions the greater the potential.
FIGURE 2: LIQUID JUNCTION EFFECTS #1
FIGURE 3: LIQUID JUNCTION EFFECTS #2
Em: "Membrane Potential"
Shale’s are permeable to Sodium ions but not to Chlorine ions. Hence there is a
movement of charged particles through the shale creating a current and thus a
potential. This is known as the membrane potential or Em.
2
FIGURE 4: MEMBRANE POTENTIAL SP
Electrokinetic Component
An Electrokinetic potential (Ek) is generated by the flow of mud filtrate through a

porous permeable bed. It depends upon the resistivity of the mud filtrate and will
only become important if there are high differential pressures across the
formation. This process is not well understood and the effects are normally
negligible in permeable formations because the mud cake builds quickly and halts
any further invasion. In low porosity, low permeability formations, the mud cake
builds slowly and the Electrokinetic potential becomes predominate. This is the
potential that makes the SP appear to float randomly in very tight formations such
as low porosity carbonates. In these conditions the SP cannot be used to
determine Rw.
FIGURE 5: TOTAL SP
Deflection of the SP curve

The SP measurement is constant but jumps suddenly to another level when
crossing the boundary between two different formations.
When Rmf > Rw The SP deflects to the left (-ve SP) found in permeable formations
filled with formation water
When Rmf < Rw The SP deflects to the right (+ve SP) found in permeable formation
filled with formation water
There is no deflection in non-permeable or shaly formations.
3
FIGURE 6: SP DEFLECTION
Depth of Investigation and Vertical Resolution
Depth of investigation of the SP tool is at the junction of the invaded and virgin
zones. Depending upon the diameter of invasion this can vary between only 2-3
inches if highly permeable and more than 2-3 feet if permeability is low.
Vertical resolution of the SP tool is approximately 3 meters
CALIBRATION
In the logging unit there is a small battery and a potentiometer in series between the two
electrodes. The logging engineer can adjust the potentiometer so that the SP appears in
track 1. Since we need to remove all extraneous potentials to the membrane potential,
the SP needs to be normalised in a computing centre so that there is no potential
(SP=0.0MV) opposite shale beds. This is done concurrently with the SP drift correction.
The absolute difference between shale and sand remains the same after drift correction.
Caution:
Some field engineers in the past varied the potentiometer to correct the drift while
logging and therefore keep the SP on the display track. Recent logging tools record the
raw SP on data storage (i.e. no battery and no potentiometer) and it is sometimes
preferable to use this raw SP to perform the SP correction. An offset can be applied to the
raw SP if its values range significantly above zero.
LIMITATIONS AND PRESENTATION
Limitations
Borehole mud must be conductive.
Formation water must be water bearing and conductive.
A sequence of permeable and non-permeable zones must exist.
Small deflection occurs if Rmf=Rw
Not fully developed in front of thin beds
Metallic reaction at measure electrode
4
This is one of the components that will cause the SP to drift. The SP electrode
made of mild iron will rust and this oxidizing effect of the electrode results in an
added electrochemical potential to the SP measurement. The drift gradually
disappears as the electrode becomes fully oxidized. Because this is an undesirable
potential, the drift can be removed by correcting the SP curve using computer
software. See the practical example of how to remove SP drift and normalize the
SP in section 8.0.
Possible solution to the problem:
o The bridle electrode should be made of lead as it incurs less oxidization and
therefore less drift.
o Never clean or remove the rust from the SP electrode.
o One hour before going down hole, wrap the electrode in a rag soaked in the
mud pit. This will reduce the oxidizing effect down hole
Other unwanted SP potentials

Heavy rain:
If heavy rain starts during logging, the surface conductivity of the soil will
gradually change and therefore can gradually change the potential between the
surface reference and the down hole electrode and thus contribute to the SP drift.
Noise:
Surface noise such as electrical leakages on the rig, welding equipment, weather
storms and lightning strikes will cause the SP to be noisy and at random. No
welding should be allowed during the recording of the SP log.
Logging drum and sheave magnetism:
If part of the logging drum, wire line sheave or measure wheel is magnetized, this
will appear on the SP curve as a short and regular deflections.
Disruptions to the ground reference:
The SP electrode (called the fish) should be placed in an undisturbed position in
the mud pit away from moving mud fluids.
Powerlines, electric trains, close radio transmitters and cathodic protection devices
all create currents, which disrupt the ground electrode reference causing a poor,
sometimes useless log.
Bimetallism occurs when two different metals are touching surrounded by mud
produces a weak battery.
Spikes in the curve can be caused by contact of the wire line cable and casing.
This is not normally a problem.
Using a curve smoothing program can remove unwanted noise.
Presentation
SP is presented in track 1 by a thin continuous line with the mnemonic of SP. SP is

measured in MV (millivolts) and although there is no absolute scale, a relative
scale of 10 MV per small division and usually -80 to 20MV across track 1 is used.
5
FIGURE 7: TYPICAL SP LOG PRESENTATION
TOOL COMBINATIONS
The SP is usually run with the resistivity service. The Induction tool contains an SP
electrode. An SP electrode is also available in the bridle of the logging cable and is used
with the Laterolog, Sonic and even Side Wall Coring tools.
Associated Mnemonics
SP Spontaneous Potential
SSP Static Spontaneous Potential
Typical Log Readings
The value of the SP measurement depends upon the salinity contrast of Rmf and
Rw. Values are expected to range approximately + or - 50mV about the 0mV shale
base line.
LQC, CORRECTIONS AND INTERPRETATION

Log Quality Control
6
FIGURE 8: SP IN HIGH RESISTIVE FIGURE 9: SHALE BASE LINE
BEDS SHIFTS
High resistive beds:

High resistivities can alter the distribution of the SP currents and hence the shape
of the SP curve.
Telluric Currents:
Natural current flow of fluids in the borehole is a major source of SP drift.
Shale base line shifts:
Occurs when an imperfect cationic membrane of a shale bed separates formation
waters of different salinities. There is also a shift when two different salinity waters
are present in a bed. This process is not very well understood.
FIGURE 10: SAW TOOTH SP
Invasion Effects:
Fresh water filtrate in permeable salt-water sands will float near the upper
boundary resulting in a saw tooth SP.
= [1+3E5/Salinity(ppm)^(1/1.05)]/81.77
CEMENT BOND LOG

HISTORY
• The Cement Bond Log has been used since the 1960's. It is still widely used and is
often preferred to many other more recent cement evaluation tools.
• In the mid 1980's ultrasonic transducer tools were introduced like the CET and PET
tools.
APPLICATION
• Determine cement bond quality between cement and casing and also between
cement and formation for zone isolation
• Correlate open hole logs to cased hole logs using the Casing Collar Locator (CCL)
and Gamma Ray tool
• An indication of cement compressive strength. These tools (CET, PET) also
measure casing thickness, micro annulus and cement channeling but do not
measure cement bond to formation as well as the CBL.
Operation
7
FIGURE 1: SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE CBL/VDL TOOL
Once a well has been determined to be productive, casing is run in the open hole
and cement is pumped to the outside of the casing to seal the casing to the
borehole wall. A Cement Bond Log (CBL) is then run to inspect the integrity of the
cement sealing to the casing and to the formation. This will ensure that formation
fluids will flow into the casing when the productive zone is perforated and not up
or down the outside of the casing.
The CBL is similar in operation the open hole Sonic tool. There is only one
transmitter however and two receivers at distances of 3 and 5 feet from the
transmitter. As with the Sonic tool the compressional or P waves are used to
measure the time to travel from the transmitter to the receiver. The CBL tool is
uncompensated unlike the open hole Sonic tool. Centralization of the CBL is
therefore critical to it's operation. Rigid steel Gemoco centralizer who’s outside
diameter match exactly the casing inside diameter should always be attached to
the CBL tool. This will ensure good centralization.
The 3-foot signal from the transmitter to the first receiver, will primarily measure
the cement to casing bond. If there is little or no bond the amplitude of the signal
will be very large. If there is good bond the amplitude will be very small. This is
commonly known as the TT3 (Travel Time 3 foot) or CBL (Cement Bond Log) signal.
A Similar compressional wave will be measured with the 5-foot signal from the
transmitter to the second receiver. The signal will however read deeper into the
formation. It will predominately measure the cement to formation bond. Again a
large signal amplitude indicates a bad cement to formation bond and a small
amplitude a good cement to formation bond. This is commonly known as the TT5
(Travel Time 5 foot) or VDL (Variable Density Log) signal.
Here the horizontal line is the threshold detection. The TT3 travel time is
measured between the transmitter pulse at the start and the amplitude arrive 'E2'.
The CBL signal amplitude is measured by the height of this first arrival.
The 5-foot waveform is used differently to the 3 foot. Here the horizontal threshold
'cuts through' the positive peaks of the received signal. It is this cross section
through the positive peaks that is displayed on the VDL track as if viewed from the
top of the waveform.
The 3-foot CBL signal measures immediately outside the casing. The 5-foot CBL
signal has a larger spacing and is sampled over the entire wave train. It therefore
reads several inches into the formation.
Limitations
The borehole must have fluid in the well bore in order for acoustic coupling to
occur.
Presentation
8
FIGURE 2: TYPICAL
FIGURE 3: GOOD
CEMENT BOND LOG FIGURE 4: FREE PIPE
FORMATION BOND
PRESENTATION
TT5 signal is displayed in the pseudo standard VDL presentation. This is a 'Bird's
eye view' of the TT5 waveform 'above' the threshold. See Figure 3
9
TOOL COMBINATIONS
The CBL tool requires a gamma ray measurement to correlate on depth with the open
hole gamma ray. A casing collar locator is also used to enable correlation of wireline
perforating guns.
Good cement to casing bond exists when the CBL signal amplitude is less than
about 10mV. Thick 'wavy' VDL response indicates good cement to formation bond.
Free pipe signal takes on specific values for different casing sizes. Typically 62mV
for 7 inch and 72mV for 5.5" casing. See table in Figure 4 above.
Log Quality Control

Micro annulus is often a problem when performing a casing cement job. Once the
cement has been pumped into the casing annulus, micro annulus can occur when
the wellhead pump pressure is held too long, causing the casing to expand. When
the pressure is released the casing retracts and a thin break occurs between the
casing and the cement. Holding of wellhead pressure immediately after the
cement job should be kept to a minimum.
Another cause of micro annulus occurs if there is any residual coatings left on the
outside of the casing during manufacture. When the cement job is run these
coatings inhibit the cement to bond to the casing again leaving a thin micro
fracture or break between the casing and cement. The cement job requires a free
flush chemical fluid to remove any coatings immediately before the cement is
pumped outside the casing.
Similarly a free flush needs to be run to remove any borehole wall mud cake. This
will help ensure a good cement to formation bond also.
Drilling operations can cause micro annulus. A CBL log run soon after the casing is
set may not confirm if micro annulus exists however.
If the 3-foot travel time is not primarily a straight line, then the CBL tool is poorly
centralized and the cement bond will not be accurate.
Corrections
Micro annulus is noticeable when the CBL signal is approximately 10-20mV. If
micro annulus is suspected, the casing should be pressured to 1000psi well head
and the CBL survey run again under the 1000psi pressure. If the CBL signal
reduces to below 10mV then micro annulus exists. Micro annulus is not usually a
problem for zone isolation.
Interpretation
The purpose of interpreting the CBL log is to ensure good zone isolation over a
productive formation. By viewing the CBL log presentation; a qualitative analysis
of the cement bond can be determined.
Good Bond:
CBL signal - The interval 3307.5-3310.5ft has very good bond between cement
and casing by virtue of small CBL amplitude in Track 3 of approx. 4mV. Often at
these low amplitudes the TT3 travel time will cycle skip.
VDL signal - There are good formation arrivals indicated by the VDL display in
Track 5. The formation arrivals are depicted by the very thick VDL lines (thick
because the amplitude is very high). These formation arrivals should also follow
the open hole Sonic transit times. This indicates a good cement to formation bond
also.
Free Pipe signal:
10
CBL signal - Here you can see that the free pipe signal is reaching a maximum of
approximately 62mV. There is some cement scattered around the pipe that is
reducing the CBL signal in places but essentially this is still free pipe. There is no
continuous cement seal to the casing. The TT3 is reading 280usec and the free
pipe signal is 62mV both indicating 5.5 inch casing.
VDL signal - At the start of the VDL signal in track 5 there are straight thin lines
representing casing arrivals. The thicker formation arrivals are also relatively
straight which are not representative of the formation response.
COMPENSATED NEUTRON LOG

APPLICATION
The Neutron tool is used to determine primary formation porosity, often called the pore
space on the formation rock which is filled with water, oil or gas. Together with other tools
like the density, the lithology and formation fluid type can also be determined.
11
An Am241Be source emits neutrons into the formation

at approximately 4MeV. (Plutonium Berilium sources
are no longer used since they can be broken down to
create atomic weapons). After collisions with the
formation, the neutron energy levels fall to between
0.1 and 10eV. These are known as epithermal neutrons.
After further collisions neutron energy levels fall below
0.03eV and these are termed thermal neutrons. By
virtue of its similar mass to neutrons, Hydrogen more
than any other element in the formation slows down
the neutrons dramatically. A useful analogy is a billiard
ball interacting with a bowling ball or a ping-pong ball.
The billiard ball only loses significant velocity when it
hits another billiard ball not when it hits a ping-pong
ball or bowling ball. Since hydrogen is primarily only
present in water, oil and gas, the neutron tool gives a
direct measurement of the fluid in the pore space of
clean formations. Two detectors, one short spaced and
the other long spaced from the source are used to
eliminate some borehole effects and detect the
FIGURE 2: THREE TYPES OF number of neutrons returning back to the tool. A low
NEUTRON INTERACTION neutron return count indicates the presence of
hydrogen and therefore porosity.
Once the neutrons reach the thermal stage, they

are ready to be captured. The presence of strong
neutron absorbers like Chlorine have a capture
cross section about 100 times that of Hydrogen at
the thermal level. Thermal neutrons therefore
need to be corrected for fluid salinity and matrix
capture cross section effects. Epithermal neutrons
do not need to be corrected for capture effects but
only have one tenth of the population of thermal
neutrons. Some neutron tools like the CNT-GA can
detect both epithermal and thermal neutrons
giving two different porosity measurements. The
standard CNT Tool measures only thermal
FIGURE 3: NEUTRON ENERGY neutrons.
DECAY
Halliburton Schlumberger
CNT Tool CNT Tool CNT Tool Enhanced
Neutron Neutron
Vertical Resolution 24 inches Vertical Resolution 24 inches 12 inches
Depth of
8-12 inchesDepth of Investigation 9-12 inches 9-12 inches
Investigation
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FIGURE 4: STANDARD DETECTOR FIGURE 5: DEPTH-MATCHED DETECTOR
RESPONSE RESPONSE
LIMITATIONS, OPERATION AND PRESENTATION
Limitations
The neutron tool can be used in any borehole filled with fluid or air. Both can be
run in boreholes with up to 20,000psi, 400degF and less than 24 inch hole
diameter.
Similarly with the gamma ray tool the neutron tool must be handled gently. Rough
treatment or heavy impacts can crack the crystal and this will need to be replaced
before logging.
Neutrons travel in a random manner and not in a continuous flow. The neutron
measurement is therefore affected by statistical variations. Statistical variations
can be reduced with a lower logging speed. As with gamma ray detection,
neutrons are averaged over a period of time. The slower the logging speed the
more accurate the measurement. Logging speeds of 30ft.min(1800ft/hr) with
software averaging produces accurate results.
Operation
Some Density/Neutron combinations are pad mounted devices and centered in the borehole. This
provides two caliper readings orthogonal to each other. The Neutron caliper has a stronger spring than
the Density, and will measure the largest part of any oval borehole. The pad device ensures a better
borehole contact for Neutron measurements and therefore requires less corrections. Some Neutron tools
use a source that is activated electronically. In this way the tool emits Neutrons only when it is switched
"ON" while downhole at the start and finish of logging.
Presentation
Presented in track 5 and 6 by a dashed line with the mnemonic NPHI and with
scales, 45% to –15% (or .45 to –0.15 p.u.-porosity units).
FIGURE 6: TYPICAL DENSITY/NEUTRON LOG PRESENTATION
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TOOL COMBINATIONS
Neutron is usually run in combination with the Density tool to help evaluate oil, gas and
water in the pore space
LQC/CORRECTIONS
Log Quality Control and Interpretation
Shale affects the neutron log reading by indicating larger than true porosity by
way of neutrons colliding with the bound water in the shales. Similarly a borehole
washout will indicate a larger than true porosity reading. A gaseous formation has
a lesser concentration of hydrogen than if filled with water or oil and the Neutron
will therefore indicate a pessimistic porosity value.
Using compatible limestone scales for density (1.95 RHOB 2.95) and neutron
curves (45% NPHI –15%) then:-
In a clean wet limestone RHOB and NPHI curves will overlay.
In shale RHOB plots right of NPHI depending on the amount of shale present.
In a gas limestone RHOB plots > 3pu left of NPHI
In clean wet sand RHOB plots 3pu left of NPHI
In a clean wet dolomite RHOB plots right of NPHI
Using compatible sandstone scales for density (1.90 RHOB 2.90) and neutron
In a clean wet sand RHOB and NPHI curves will overlay.
In a shale RHOB plots right of NPHI depending on the amount of shale present.
In an oil sand RHOB plots 1-3pu left of NPHI
In a gas sand RHOB plots > 3pu left of NPHI
Shale effectively reduces the measured

porosity
on both the Density tool and the Neutron
tool by:-
VDshale = (PHID – PHIeff) / PHIDsh
FIGURE 7: SHALY VNshale = (PHIN – PHIeff) / PHINsh

FORMATION
Environmental Corrections
Log quality is ensured if good contact is made with the borehole wall from the tool
bow spring. Environmental corrections that need to be applied for the Neutron log
are:-
1. Borehole size
2. Borehole salinity
3. Borehole temperature and pressure
4. Mud cake
5. Mud weight
6. Formation salinity
7. Tool standoff from borehole wall
It should be noted that each Neutron tool is different for each wireline logging
company and the specific correction chart should be used for that specific Neutron
tool. The Neutron tool response is dependant upon the source strength and
detector spacing.
14
Mineral NPHI (%)
100% Limestone 0%
100% Sandstone -2%
100% Dolomite 1%
Shale 30-45%
Expected log
0-45%
readings
DENSITY LOG
APPLICATION
The density tool is used to determine formation density and estimate formation porosity.
Together with other tools like the Neutron, the lithology and formation fluid type can also
be determined. The density tool can distinguish between oil and gas in the pore space by
virtue of their different densities. Modern density tools also measure the photoelectric
effect to help distinguish between rock lithologies, recognize presence of heavy minerals,
fracture identification when barite is present and additional clay evaluation. In addition
the density can be used to determine Vclay and to calculate reflection coefficients to
process synthetics.
A 1.5 Ci Cs137 chemical source bombards gamma rays at 662keV

energy into the formation. The high-energy gamma rays interact
with the electrons of the formation by way of Compton scattering
and lose energy in the process. Other processes also occur
namely photoelectric absorption and pair production, although
pair production only becomes significant at energies above 1MeV.
A low number of gamma rays detected through Compton
scattering will indicate a high electron density. The bulk density rB
has a close relationship to the electron density as shown by the
following experimentally determined equation: -
RHOB = 1.0704*RHOe - 0.1883
A spectral or litho density tool measures not only the bulk density
but also a photoelectric absorption index PEF. The photoelectric
effect occurs when the incident gamma ray of low energy is
absorbed by the electron and the electron is then ejected from the
atom.
PEF = (Z/A)3.6
Figure 1: Gamma ray
interactions A=Atomic weight, Z=Atomic number (or # of hydrogen atoms)
The photoelectric effect of absorbed gamma rays is directly

related to the Z, the number of electrons per atom, which is fixed
for each element. Different values of the PE curve indicate
different types of formation rock being measured and are
independent of formation porosity.
15
Figure 2: Energy Spectrum for measuring
Compton Scattering and Photoelectric Absorption
The Density tool is usually run eccentered together with the Neutron tool. The Density
has a backup caliper arm to push the pad against the borehole wall and the Neutron uses
a bow spring.
FIG URE 3 : DEN SITY PAD SCH EM ATI C
Density Porosity Determination

Since the bulk density (rB) is a measure of the matrix density (rma) and the fluid density
(rf) in the pore space, then the amount of pore space or formation porosity can be
determined. The rma and rf must however be known.
RHOB = RHOMA(1-PHID) + PHID*RHOF

or
PHID = (RHOB - RHOMA) / (RHOF-RHOMA)
Where:-
RHOB = Density log reading
RHOMA = Density Matrix
RHOF = Density Fluid
PHID = Density Porosity
Synthetic Processing
The Density is used along with the Sonic velocity to compute Acoustic impedance
(I) by:-
I = Density(rho) * Velocity (V)

The Reflection coefficient (R) at a bed boundary is then determined by:-
R = (I2 - I1) / (I2 + I1)
The Reflection coefficient is then used to generate synthetic processing curves
that can match the exploration seismic.
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Halliburton Standard Litho Schlumberger
Litho Density
Density Density Density Density
18 inches
Vertical (Standard)
7.5 inches 7.5inches Vertical Resolution
Resolution 6 inches
(Enhanced)
Depth of Depth of
2 inches 2 inches 6-9 inches
Investigation Investigation
CALIBRATION:
The density tool is calibrated using a Cs137 source to read rB = 1.00 g/cc in water and rB
= 2.71 g/cc in limestone and is calibrated against standard aluminum and sulphur blocks,
which characterize a water filled limestone formation. At the time of calibration a well site
verifier with small gamma sources is placed on the density tool and a measurement
taken. The PEF curve is also calibrated in a similar manner to read 5.085 in calcite and
1.806 in quartz.
Well site calibration checks are performed before and after each logging suite with the
well site verifier to ensure the tool was operating the same as when it was calibrated.
LIMITATIONS/OPERATION/PRESENTATION:
LIMITATIONS
The density tool can be used in any borehole, whether it contains oil-based mud,
water-based mud, salty mud or even air. A Density tool can be run in boreholes
with up to 20,000psi, 400degF and less than 22 inch hole diameter.
The major problem associated with the density tool is ensuring a good pad contact
against the borehole wall. Bad pad contact usually occurs in a washed out or
rugose hole, possibly caused by a fast drilling rate or brittle formation.
Similarly with the gamma ray tool the density tool must be handled gently. Rough
treatment or heavy impacts can crack the crystal and this will need to be replaced
before logging.
Measurement of detected gamma rays is averaged over a period of time. The

slower the logging speed the more accurate the measurement. Logging speeds of
30ft.min(1800ft/hr) with software averaging, produces accurate results.
OPERATION
Density tools use a Cs137 chemical source of 1.5Ci activity that continuously emits
gamma rays. The Density pad is heavily shielded, allowing gamma rays to pass
through a small window at the front of the pad and into the formation. Gamma
rays travel in a random manner and not in a continuous flow. The gamma ray
measurement is therefore affected by statistical variations. Statistical variations
can be reduced with a lower logging speed.
The Density tool is run eccentered against the borehole wall by virtue of the
mechanical pad design. The caliper is opened by a coil spring mechanical design
and is closed by a down hole motor and worm gears or by a hydraulic pump
operation.
PRESENTATION
Presented in track 5 and 6 by a thin continuous line with the mnemonic RHOB. For
sandstone scales, 1.90 to 2.90 with units of g/cc and neutron from 45% to –15%.
For limestone scales, 1.95 to 2.95 with units of g/cc and neutron from 45% to –
15%. The amount of density correction is presented in track 6 by a dashed line
with the mnemonic DRHO. DRHO scales are -0.25 to 0.25 with units of g/cc.
17
FIGURE 5: TYPICAL DENSITY/NEUTRON LOG PRESENTATION
TOOL COMBINATIONS:
Density is usually run in combination with the Neutron tool to help evaluate oil, gas and
water in the pore space.
LQC/CORRECTIONS:
Shales are usually less dense than in a clean formation. RHOB will therefore read
less than the true density in shales and as a result the computed density porosity
will be higher in shales than the true porosity. In gas bearing formations, RHOB will
show a large drop in density
Using compatible limestone scales for density (1.95 RHOB 2.95) and neutron
In a clean wet limestone RHOB and NPHI curves will overlay.
In a gas limestone RHOB plots > 3pu left of NPHI
In a clean wet sand RHOB plots 3pu left of NPHI
In a dolomite RHOB plots right of NPHI
Using compatible sandstone scales for density (1.90 RHOB 2.90) and neutron
In a clean wet sand RHOB and NPHI curves will overlay.
In an oil sand RHOB plots 1-3pu left of NPHI
In a gas sand RHOB plots > 3pu left of NPHI
Since the PEF of water, hydrogen and Oxygen are almost zero the effect of
porosity on the PEF measurement is negligible. Basic lithologies can therefore be
interpreted directly from the PEF curve alone.
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Volume of Shale calculations:
A shaly formation is depicted in Figure 7a. If Vsh is the
fractional
volume of shale then the fractional volume of matrix
is (1-Vsh-f) and: -
RHOB = (1-Vsh-f)*RHOMA + Vsh*RHOSH + PHI*RHOF
and
PHI = (RHOMA-RHOB)-Vsh*(RHOMA-RHOsh
(RHOMA-RHOF)
and
Vsh = (RHOMA-RHOB)-PHI*(RHOMA-RHOF)
(RHOMA-RHOsh)
Shale effectively reduces the measured porosity on
both
the Density tool and the Neutron tool by:-
PHID = PHIeff + PHIDsh(Vsh)
FIGURE 6: SHALY FORMATION PHIN = PHIeff + PHINsh(Vsh)
FIGURE 7: GAS BEARING FORMATION
Gas Effects:
Figure 7b illustrates a gas bearing formation and: -
RHOB = (1- PHI)*RHOMA + PHI*Sxo*rmf + PHI*(1-Sxo)*RHOg
and
PHI = (RHOMA -RHOB)/[RHOMA -RHOG-(RHOmf-RHOg)*Sxo]
An approximation phiorrg (in g/cc) can be given by: -
RHOg = 0.18/[(7644/D) + 0.22] where D = depth in feet
Mineral RHOB PEF

(g/cc)
100% 2.71 5.09
Limestone
100% 2.65 1.81
Sandstone
100% 2.85 3.05
Dolomite
Shale 2.2-2.7 3.36
(typically)
Anhydrite 2.92-2.98 5.05
Salt 2.06 4.65
19
Coal 1.68 0.18
Hydrogen -0.61
Carbon -0.29
Water 1 -0.02
Log quality is ensured if good contact is made with the borehole wall. As mud cake
builds up on the borehole wall, or the borehole wall is rugose, the density tool
measures less than true density because it is also reading the less dense mud. The
short and long spaced detectors are affected differently by the mud being
measured. The amount of correction that needs to be applied to the raw density
reading can therefore be determined via the spine rib plot. The corrected density
reading is shown on the log and the amount of correction applied is depicted by
the DRHO curve.
If a large DRHO occurs but RHOB follows DT and NPHI then RHOB is considered an
accurate reading. DRHO can be small indicating little correction applied but RHOB
very erratic and therefore accuracy is questionable. Sometimes DRHO is low, the
hole is not rugose but the borehole size is reaching the limit of the caliper
measurement. Here the tool is simply reading the borehole mud. It is important to
check the caliper, DRHO and hole rugosity to validate a good Density log.
FIGURE 8: DENSITY RESPONSE IN RUGOSE BOREHOLE
As can be seen in Figure 9A, a rugose borehole exists between 4008m and 4017m.
The DRHO is very large and RHOB is still reading borehole mud even after
corrections. Between 3989m and 4008m the DRHO is still very large but RHOB
appears good except for a couple of thin streaks. The zone above at 3972m to
3989m has DRHO < 0.05g/cc and RHOB is very accurate.
N.B. In the case of mud containing barite or high-density mud, a negative

correction will be applied to the DRHO curve.
Corrections are applied for:-

Mud cake thickness - real time
Mud weight – real time
Rugose borehole - real time
Borehole size
DIP METER LOG

HISTORY
• Early tools employed 3 and 4 arms with a single current emitter or button on each
pad.
20
• To achieve greater borehole coverage, the 1990's saw the introduction of high-
resolution tools with 24 and 25 buttons on each pad.
• Borehole televiewers and acoustic scanners generate borehole images covering
100% of the borehole.
APPLICATION
• Determination of borehole inclination and direction

• Determination of formation thickness, dip and direction
• Determination of True Vertical Depth (TVD)
• Hole ovality plots to determine insitu stress and breakout directions
• Image data processing allows paleontology studies and diagenetic history
• Volumetric measurements to determine thin bed total thickness
Operation
Accelerometer and Magnetometer transducers are placed inside the sonde body of
each dipmeter and imaging tool. There are 3 accelerometers, one along the axis of
the tool in the "Z" direction and in the "X" and "Y" direction at 90deg to the tool
axis. The accelerometers measure the tool acceleration and can determine if the
tool is jerking up the hole during logging. By applying these measurement, tool
speed corrections can be applied. There are also 3 magnetometer measurements
that measure the tool orientation in the X, Y and Z directions with respect the
earth’s magnetic field. These measurements help determine borehole inclination
and direction and also then formation dip angle and direction.
Dipmeter
FIGURE 1: BASIC DIPMETER TOOL
The dipmeter caliper arms are deployed against the borehole wall by either tool
hydraulic pressure or mechanical caliper springs. The dipmeter pads attached to each
caliper arm, measure the formation micro resistivity that is very similar to the MSFL
measurements. The resulting curves are called correlation curves and are used to
determine formation dip. The resistivity measurements require conductive borehole
muds. If oil based muds exist, then conductivity pad devices are employed using
induction type technology.
21
FIGURE 2: PAD DIMENSION FOR IMAGING TOOL
High-resolution dipmeters or imaging tools are similar to the standard dipmeter

tools except they have 24 or 25 buttons on each pad of each arm. See Figure 3. In
this way micro resistivity measurements cover a much greater percentage of the
borehole approximately 50% of 8.5" in diameter.
22
Acoustic Imaging
FIGURE 3: TYPICAL ACOUSTIC SCANNING TOOL

The Acoustic scanning tools typically have a single acoustic transmitter that
rotates at about 7.5 rps. The acoustic signal requires fluid in the borehole for
transmission. The reflected signal from the borehole wall positively interacts with
the transmitted signal setting up a standing wave. The wavelength is known and
time for the transmission to return from the borehole wall is measured. The
borehole diameter can then be determined.
While the acoustic scanning tools measure 100% of the borehole the image quality
is often poor when compared tom the high-resolution dipmeter results. This is
usually due to the poor acoustic coupling of the fluid in the borehole.
Depth of Investigation
FMS 0.2 inch

FMI 0.1 inch
EMI 0.1 inch
UBI 0.4 inch
Specifications
FMS FMI EMI STAR

Tool type (Schlumberg (Schlumberg (Halliburton Baker
er) er) ) Atlas)
# Pads 4 4 6 6
# Flaps 0 4 0 0
# Rows 2 2 2 2
# Buttons 24 48 25 24
Button horizontal
0.2 inches 0.2 inches 0.1 inches 0.1 inches
spacing
Button vertical
0.3 inches 0.3 inches 0.3 inches 0.3 inches
spacing
Even pad vertical 0 2.5 inches 2.5 inches
23
spacing
Flap spacing 0 6 inches No flaps No flaps
Limitations
As with all pad device tools, the dipmeter suffers from poor pad contact with the
borehole wall when the hole is rugose or washed out. The acoustic scanning tool
requires clean borehole fluids else a poor acoustic coupling will result giving poor
processed acoustic images.
Presentation
FIGURE 4:
STANDARD
FMI
PRESENTATIO
N
Dark colours are conductive muds.

Light colours are high resistive formation.
Log Quality Control

The Borehole Azimuth (HAZI) should not change dramatically during logging and
PAD1 azimuth (P1AZ) and Relative Bearings (RB) should closely track each other.
At all times however HAZI = P1AZ - RB (Relative Bearing) Tool rotation should be
kept to a minimum. More than 1 tool rotation per 100ft and the log should be run
again.
Corrections
EMEX Corrections Necessary for STAR tool logs only. Star tool data is recorded in 2
byte words and then converted to 4 byte words after multiplying by 4. The gain of
each pad changes when conductivity limits are reached. This needs to be
accounted for before processing.
De-stripe / button normalise Normalising all buttons on each pad is often required
when one pad has a heavy striping effect on the plotted image. Stripping typically
occurs when there is a bad contact usually corrosive on one of the buttons
connectors. This is can be overcome by better tool maintenance,
a simple tool pad calibration or normalizing software.
Compute Accelerometer corrected depths If the borehole is rugose and washout
or the image tool caliper arms are deployed hard against the borehole wall, the
tool may stop momentarily and 'jerk' up the borehole. This change in acceleration
must be corrected for before any sedimentology interpretation is performed.
24
Apply Accelerometer corrected depths Errors in the accelerometer data can result
in an image worse than the original. It is recommended computing the correction
but not applying to the image itself.
Pad / Button Depth Shifts As can be seen from the tool diagrams above, pads and
pad button rows do not measure the formation at the same depth at the same
time. Each pad and pad button row needs to be shifted to ensure they are all
measuring at the same depth.
Tool tilt and swing arm corrections All efforts should be made to ensure, the
dipmeter image tool is centralized at all times in the borehole. Occasionally due to
borehole washout, the tool is tilted and not central in the borehole. In these cases
tool tilt corrections must be applied. Borehole size changes will also dramatically
affect the dip interpreted by the image interpretation. Swing Arm corrections must
also be applied before interpretation.
Compute 6 calipers from Sonic image transit times Borehole caliper measurements
can be derived from the time taken for Sonic images to reflect off the borehole
wall back to the tool.
Interpretation
Standard Formation Dip Processing Formation dip and direction can be determined
from the standard correlation curves using dipmeter correlation programs.
Changes in bed boundary resistivity can be matched to opposing dipmeter arms to
determine the dip angle and direction of the formation bed.
Image Log Interpretation Using the recent image log technology, formation dip and
direction can be graphically determined from the image plots. The user
interactively generates dips from the image by select 3 points that define a plane
from the image plot. This approach has become highly sought after for several
reasons.
• Dips can be assigned different categories like structural dip, open fracture
etc.
• Each dip category can be edited and displayed in any combination.
• Image dips are considered to have 100% confidence, where as computer
processed dips have varying degrees of confidence.
The borehole image itself allows the formation geology to be studied and
interpreted. Paleontology of the image can be performed helping to interpret the
existence of bugs and fossils. Sedimentology interpretation helps determine the
process of deposition and diagenisis or post sedimentology changes.
Thin Bed Total Thickness Since the dipmeter imaging tools have a far greater
sampling rate and therefore greater vertical resolution than standard logging
tools, a more accurate thin bed analysis can be calculated. The detail of the image
log makes it ideal for fracture detection both open (sudden low resistivity) or
closed or healed (sudden high resistivity).
Tool Button shift Pad shift

type
FMS Row2 of all pads by – No shift
0.3inches
FMI Row2 of all pads by – Flap pads by
0.3inches +6.0inches
EMI Row2 of all pads by – Pads 2,4,6 by –
0.3inches 2.5inches
STAR Row2 of all pads by – Pads 2,4,6 by –
0.3inches 3.4inches
Borehole Breakout and Formation Stress The imaging tools have 2-6 caliper arm
measurements that determine the existence of any borehole ovality. Borehole
ovality helps indicate principle formation stress directions. The direction of
breakout is the direction of weakest formation strength and is perpendicular to the
primary stress direction.
SONIC LOG
APPLICATION:
o Porosity PHIS
25
o Volume of clay VS
o Lithology
o Time-depth relationship
o Reflection coefficients
o Mechanical properties
o VDL/CBL
By combining sonic and Checkshot data we can calibrate down hole log data with
surface seismic data. Mechanical properties can be determined from the shear
and compressional waves, fracture identification from shear and Stoneley waves
and permeability indication from Stoneley waves.
THEORY OF MEASUREMENT:
Transmitter emits sound waves into the formation and measures the time taken to detect
at a receiver of known distance from the transmitter. The Sonic tool operates at 20 cycles
per second as sounds similar to a pedestrian crossing at a set of traffic lights. The first
arrival is the compressional or 'p' waves, which travel adjacent to the borehole as shown
in Figure 1. It is this arrival that is used to measure the individual travel times T1, T2, T3,
and T4. Two receivers for each transmitter eliminates the borehole signal. The transit time
DT is computed from these travel times as shown in the equation below. This particular
arrangement of sonic tool transmitters and receivers is known as the standard BHC Sonic
tool and compensates for borehole washouts and also for tool tilting in real time while
logging.
DTLOG = [(T1 - T2) + (T3 - T4)] / 2
T1 and T3 travel times have a Tx-Rx spacing of 5 feet and T2 and T4 travel times have a
Tx-Rx spacing of 3 feet. This results in a DT of 2 feet and is also the vertical resolution of
the tool. The shear signal arrives next which usually has a slightly larger amplitude than
the compressional arrival, then mud arrivals and Stoneley waves. The various arrivals in
the received sonic signal can be seen in Figure 1. Stoneley waves are used to interpret
the existence of fractures.
Long Spaced Sonic tools
Long spaced sonic tools have a larger spacing between the transmitter and receiver. Tool
spacing are 8ft-10ft and 10ft-12ft. This allows a deeper depth of investigation and
improves the tool response in larger boreholes or where mud invasion is affecting the
standard tool. The DT measurement requires the 8ft-10ft signals to be memorized until
the 10ft-12ft signals are recorded and then a DT can be computed. This is known as
Depth Derived Borehole Compensation or DDBHC. The long and short spaced sonic tools
can be used in combination to identify swelling shales.
The Array or Full Waveform Sonic tools
Recent advances have seen the emergence of digital or array sonic tools where the entire
waveform is digitally recorded for analysis of the individual arrivals. The amplitude as well
as the travel time of the sonic signal can give important information about the formation.
Included in the array sonic tool is eight receivers each measuring approximately 1/8 th of
the borehole. This allows eight independent measurements in each direction rather than
an average of the borehole.
1. Full wave mode providing a full waveform analysis. Full wave recording in cased hole
can produce a compressional Delta-T with comparable results to the open hole Delta-T
measurement. The open hole DT should always be used in preference.
2. DDBHC mode where log spaced 8-10 and 10-12 foot or short spaced 3-5 and 5-7 foot
logs can be recorded.
3. 6in Delta-T mode where 4 receivers record a long spaced transit time.
4. CBL/VDL mode to measure standard 3 and 5 foot cement bond logs in casing.
Dipole/Monopole Operation
26
The Schlumberger DSI tool or Dipole Shear Imager, generates monopole and dipole
signals. The dipole signal is directional allowing the inclusion of a shear wave to be
recorded in slow formations. The DSI tool generates compressional and shear waves from
a 12kHz monopole signal, two orthogonal shear waves from 2.2kHz dipole signal and a
Stoneley wave from 1-2kHz monopole signal.
Long Spaced
Schlumberger BHC SDT
BHC
Depth of 5 12
12 inches
investigation inches inches
24 36
Vertical resolution 24 inches
inches inches
Long Spaced Long Spaced
Halliburton BHC Tool
BHC FWST
Depth of <3
< 8 inches 12 inches
investigation inches
24
Vertical resolution 24 inches 12 inches
inches
LIMITATIONS/OPERATION/PRESENTATION:
Limitations
The borehole must be fluid filled, preferably slightly salty, for acoustic coupling to
exist. The sonic tool is usually run centered with centralizers above and below the
transmitter receiver section, but if the hole size is > 16" it is run eccentered to
overcome weak signal amplitudes.
Operation
The Sonic tool has slots in the sonde body to reduce interference from the fast
signal traveling along the sonde itself. This makes the sonde very flexible and the
tool should always be made up or connected vertically at the well site to avoid
excessive tool bending and flexing of the fragile internal electronics. Some logging
companies insert the Sonic tool into an aluminum sleeve when it is lifted up the rig
Vdoor from the catwalk for this same reason.
In vertical boreholes 3 spring centralizers should be used to avoid the tool bowing
and to keep the tool centralized. For deviated holes and holes greater than 16",
1.5" standoffs should be used instead and the tool run eccentered against the
borehole wall. Standard BHC tools can be affected when zones are altered by
borehole fluids. Long spaced sonic tools provide a deeper depth of investigation
and are therefore preferred in larger boreholes or where mud invasion is affecting
the standard tool.
Cycle Skipping:
The problem of cycle skipping occurs if a weak signal is received. The low
amplitude first arrival may be skipped over and not detected. The subsequent
arrival is usually larger and often detected instead, thus a cycle has been skipped
showing a longer than true transit time. Cycle skipping occurs in washed out
boreholes and unconsolidated formations.
Road Noise:
The problem of road noise can occur from tools dragging against the borehole
wall. Road noise increases the background amplitude and as a result increases the
possibility of detection before the first compressional arrival. Road noise creates a
faster than true sonic transit time. Only slowing the logging speed can possibly
reduce road noise. Recent advances in Sonic tools lock onto the compressional
arrival within a window interval using computer software techniques. Faster noise
arrivals are ignored and so are slower shear, mud and Stoneley arrivals.
27
FIGURE 1: SONIC CYCLE SKIPPING AND NOISE TRIGGERING
Long Spacing Sonic Tools:

A long spacing Sonic (which has longer spacing between transmitters and
receivers) reads only slightly deeper into the formation but enough to be less
affected by swelling shales. As a result the standard 3 and 5 foot spacing transit
times will read slightly slower in swelling shales than the longer 9 and 11 foot
spacing Figures 4 - 8 show examples of cycle skipping, noise and casing signal
along with the corrected sonic longs
Presentation
Presentation is usually 140-40 us/ft (or 500-100 us/m) across tracks 5 & 6
FIGURE 2: TYPICAL SONIC LOG PRESENTATION
TOOL COMBINATIONS:
The Sonic tool can be run alone but is usually run at the top of the Resistivity tool with the
open hole Gamma Ray tool above the Sonic. The resistivity/sonic service is usually the
first logging run since the string is cheaper, usually centered and has no radioactive
sources.
LQC/CORRECTIONS:
Log Quality Control
To adequately prepare for the possibility of cycle skipping and/or road noise, each
travel time (usually T1, T2, T3 and T4) should be monitored on a screen while
28
logging so the threshold can be lowered to detect low amplitude arrivals but also
raised to avoid detection of any road noise.
If several transit times (usually DT, DTL, DTLF, DTLN or some variation of these)
complement each other then an accurate DT measurement can be made.
Corrections for tool tilting and borehole wash-out can be performed in real time
with the standard BHC Sonic tools.
A sonic reading of approx. 57us/ft (187us/m) should be observed in the surface

casing with no cement both before and after the logging run.
Computer editing of cycle skipping and noise effects is often necessary to obtain
an accurate Sonic log.
Borehole Effects:
The presence of gas in the well will severely attenuate the sonic signal and may
result in extensive cycle skipping. In altered or invaded zones, employment of a
long spaced sonic tool will read deeper into the formation bypassing any swelling
shales. Washed-out holes or caves attenuate the sonic signal resulting in cycle
skips. Fractures significantly attenuate the shear and Stoneley waves.
Delta-
. Material
T(us/ft)
Non Porous Anhydrite 50
Solids Calcite 49.7
. Dolomite 43.5
. Granite 50.7
. Gypsum 52.6
. Limestone 47.6
. Quartz 52.9
. Salt 66.6
. Steel 50
. Casing 57.0
Water
Dolomites (5-20%) 50.0-66.6
Saturated
Porous
Limestone (5-20%) 54.0 - 76.9
Rocks
. Sandstones (5-20%) 62.5 - 86.9
Sands (unconsolidated -
. 86.9 - 111.1
20-35%)
. Shales 58.8 - 143.0
Liquids Water (pure) 208
Water (100,000mg/L of
. 192.3
NaCl)
Water (200,000mg/L of
. 181.8
NaCl)
. Petroleum 238.1
. Mud 189
Gases Hydrogen 235.3
. Methane 666.6
Interpretation
Hydrocarbons:
29
It is generally considered that hydrocarbons have no significant effect on the Sonic
transit time.
Fractures/Vugs and Stoneley Analysis:
The Sonic tool tends to ignore the effect of fractures or vugs, which result in
secondary porosity. The Sonic tool therefore measures primary porosity only which
is less than true total porosity if fractures or vugs exist.
An increase in the permeability or in the number of fractures present will
attenuate the Stoneley wave. Low frequency Stoneley waves are more sensitive to
permeability and fractures. If a low pass 4kHz filter is applied to the sonic signal,
the Compressional and shear waves are removed and the remaining Stoneley
wave can be analyzed.
Porosity Effects:
The Sonic porosity is used for interpretation to complement the porosity

measurements obtained from the Density and Neutron tools.
FORMATION TESTING
• First used in the early 1980's
• Early tools suffered poor resolution and accuracy of pressure gauges.
• Often good formation seals could not be monitored in real-time.
APPLICATION
• Measure formation pressures accurately

• Take several formation fluid samples without mud filtrate contamination
• Take true PVT samples
• Estimate formation permeability and formation damage
• Determine gas/oil/water gradients and fluid contacts
• Rw and Sw determination
Operation
30
FIGURE 1: SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE WIRELINE FORMATION
TESTER
The Wireline Formation Tester is lowered in the hole until the snorkel is opposite
the zone of interest. Tool hydraulics is deployed to open the rubber packer and
backup arms and seal against the borehole wall. Hydraulic pressure, 1500psi
above hydrostatic pressure is usually sufficient to obtain a good seal. This stops
any borehole mud contaminating the formation fluid sample being tested. The
snorkel is then deployed or extracted at various rates and volumes, to draw the
formation fluid into the pre-test chambers of the tool. Pre-test chambers are
typically 0-30cc in volume. After a few moments the snorkel deployment is then
ceased and the formation pressure build-up is then monitored and recorded.
Further deployment of the snorkel will draw the formation fluid into sample
chambers attached at the bottom of the tool. The fluid samples are stored at
formation pressures that help in determining hydrocarbon composition.
Depending upon the formation permeability, pressure build-up times can vary
from seconds for high permeability (>5mD) to hours for low permeability
(<0.1mD). Often tool hydraulic pressure can slowly dissipate if fluid or pressure
sampling takes 1 hour or more. This may result in a lost formation seal and
formation fluid contamination with the borehole mud.
Some tools require different tool accessories need to be used depending upon
borehole conditions. Hard or soft packers, different packer sizes, different sample
chambers sizes and types and choke sizes all need to be planned before the
logging job.
31
Wireline Formation Tester tools can typically operate in borehole sizes ranging
from 7" to 19" in diameter. This depends upon the design of each tool and it's
specifications.
FIGURE 2: TYPICAL PRESSURE PLOT VS. TIME
Advances in Sample Detection
Early tools could not distinguish between mud filtrate and virgin formation fluid
before sampling. Advances in the sampling operation have included resistivity
measurements to distinguish between mud filtrate, formation water and
hydrocarbons. Once a change in resistivity is detected the sampling operation can
be engaged and formation fluids (water or hydrocarbons) can be sampled.
Implementation of Density fluid sensors will further distinguish between the gas
and oil
FIGURE 3: DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN MUD FILTRATE AND FORMATION

FLUIDS
Sample Chambers
Several types of sample chambers are available. Figure 5 shows a multiple sample
chamber allowing multiple zones to be sampled during one in the hole. Figure 6
shows a PVT sample chamber, where formation fluids are maintained at reservoir
pressures. This is critical in determining hydrocarbon composition in the reservoir.
FIGURE 4: MULTIPLE SAMPLE CHAMBER
32
FIGURE 5: PVT SAMPLE CHAMBER
The Wireline Formation Tester can sample formation fluids at several feet into the
formation. Depending upon permeability and mud invasion, the tool ideally reads
the virgin formation fluid beyond the zone invaded with mud filtrate.
The snorkel has a diameter of approximately 0.5 inches
Specifications
Strai
Petroqua
n
rtz
gaug
gauges
es
Tolerance 0.5% of +/-
s full scale 1psi
Resolutio
0.01psi 1psi
n
Repeatabi
1psi 3psi
lity
Limitations
High-pressured borehole mud can cause differential sticking if the tool is sampling
a single point for a long period of time. The Wireline Formation tool is the most
common wireline tool that becomes stuck in the hole. Sticking occurs since there
are very large sample chambers, typically 2.6 and 5 gal (10ltrs and 19ltrs)
attached to the tool. Some Wireline Formation tools sample only formation fluids
and therefore only require small sample chambers of approximately 600mL. With
large sample chamber tools, sampling period greater than one hour should be
treated with care. Long sampling periods often occur in where the formation
permeability is low.
Earlier tools had no means of determining if the tool was measuring virgin
formation fluid or the invaded mud filtrate. Modern tools measure the fluid
resistivity and density and display this at the surface for the logging engineer to
view. The engineer is then able to make real time decisions as to whether the fluid
is mud filtrate and if not then decide if the fluid is formation water, oil or gas.
Presentation
Presentation of the Wireline Formation Tester has changed little over the years.
The data is sampled as an increment of time rather than depth like typical logging
tools. The sample pressure is displayed in track 1 and also numerically in the
usually "depth" track. The remaining tracks display each significant digit of the
sample pressure. Track 3 displays units of 1000psi, Track 4 units of 100psi, Track 5
units of 10psi and Track 6 units of 1psi. In this way small pressure changes can be
monitored graphically.
TOOL COMBINATIONS
33
The Wireline Formation Tester tool is run with a depth control device usually a Gamma
Ray tool.
Associated Mnemonics
Early Tools
Repeat Formation Schlumber Fixed pre sample Variable pre

RFT
Tester ger volume sample rate
Selective Formation Variable pre sample Fixed pre sample
SFT Halliburton
Tester volume rate
Modern Tools
FET Formation Evaluation Tool Crocker Research

MDT Modular Dynamics Tester Schlumberger
RDT Reservoir Description Tool Halliburton
RCI Reservoir Cauterization Tool Baker Atlas
The Formation Tester tool can measure pressures up to 10,000psi. Formation

pressures are usually up to 200psi below the borehole hydrostatic pressures.
Log Quality Control

Upon entry into the well bore, the tool should be tested at regular depths for
borehole or hydrostatic pressure. If the mud weight is known the hydrostatic
pressure at specific depths can be calculated (say every 500m). This gives
confidence that the tool is measuring fluid pressure accurately. Hydrostatic
pressure can be calculated by the following: -
Hydrostatic Pressure = Depth*(0.052*Mud Weight)
Where: Hydrostatic Pressure is in units if psi

Depth is in units of feet
Mud Weight is in units of lbs/gal
The packer hydraulic pressure should be monitored at all times during sampling to
ensure it is approximately 1,500psi above borehole hydrostatic pressure. This
ensures data samples are not contaminated with borehole mud.
Ultimately, a valid formation pressure test or fluid sample is essential. Once the
tool packer is set, the pre sample pressure should be drawn down below the
expected formation pressure. If pressure build-up stabilizes but is still below the
borehole hydrostatic pressure, then it can be concluded that a sufficient seal from
the borehole mud has been achieved and the fluid being pressure tested or
sampled is fluid from the formation. If the pressure does not build-up within a
reasonable time, then the tool should be reseated and another formation pressure
test or sample is performed. At all times the standard wireline log measurements
should be viewed to determine if the hole is washed out (creating difficulty
obtaining a packer seal) or if a shale zone is being tested (creating tight low
permeability tests).
Low pre-test volumes and sample volumes should be used in low permeability
formations to enable pressure build-up times to be reduced.
In unconsolidated sands, slower flow rates maybe required to reduce sand flow
into the probe of the Formation Tester tool.
Corrections
34
No environmentally corrections are applied to the Formation tester.
Interpretation
Permeability from Pre-test Draw down:
Tools that are able to perform draw down at various rates can determine
draw down permeability and formation damage.
K = 921.3(CQu)[1-(rp/re)]/dP
Where: k = permeability in mdarcies, dP = draw down pressure in psi, C =

flow shape factor between 0.5 and 1, Q = flow rate in cc/sec
u = fluid viscosity in cp, rp = probe radius in inches, re = effective

drainage radius in inches,
Where: re = .394(CV/phi)^(1/3) and V = pre-test volume and phi =

formation porosity.
Permeability from Pre-test Buildup:
FIGURE 6: PRESSURE BUILD -UPS FOR VARIOUS PERMEABILITY’S
FIGURE 7: EFFECT OF SATURATION ON RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

FOR OIL AND WATER
35
FIGURE 8: CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL FLOW
Cylindrical Buildup
When the bed thickness is relatively small, a cylindrical build-up dominates

the formation fluid flow to the probe. The build-up is a function of the
horizontal permeability only. If pressure is plotted verses the cylindrical
time = log[(T+dT)/dT], a straight line results. This is called a Horner plot.
Permeability is given by: -
kc = -(88.4Qu)/(Mh)
where: -
kc = cylindrical permeability T = sampling time for Q

Q = flow rate in cc/sec dT = elapsed time after shut-in
u = fluid viscosity in cp M = slope of Horner plot
h = bed thickness in ft
FIGURE 9: CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VS. TIME PLOT
Spherical Buildup
A spherical build-up will exist, with large bed thickness typically greater
than 30ft. If pressure is plotted verses the spherical time = (dt)^-0.5 -
(T+dT)^-0.5 a straight line again results. Permeability id given by: -
ks = 1856u(Q/M)^2/3(phiCt)^1/3
where: -
ks = spherical permeability T = sampling time for Q
Q = flow rate in cc/sec dT = elapsed time after shut-in
36
u = fluid viscosity in cp M = slope of Horner plot
Ct = virgin fluid compressibility phi = formation porosity
FIGURE 10: SPHERICAL PRESSURE VS. TIME PLOT
Fluid Pressure gradients:

The change in pore pressure with depth can be plotted to indicate pressure
gradients. Different pore fluid density exhibit different pressure gradients. If
the pressure gradients are extrapolated and they intersect each other, the
water-oil and the oil-gas contact points can be determined.
Hydrocarbon density can be determined since the formation pressure

gradients are a function of the fluid density as follows:
Pore fluid density (g/cc) = Pressure gradient (psi/ft) * 2.3071
Oil and Gas saturation and production from fluid sample:

Once the fluid sample has been recovered and the salinity of the sample,
mud filtrate and formation water can be measured, the percentage of
formation water can be estimated by:
Sw = (Csample - Cmf) / (Cw - Cmf)
If the fluid sample volumes can be measured, then the water cut % can be
estimated by:
Water cut (%) = (volume formation water)/(volume oil + volume formation

water)
GAMMA RAY LOG

APPLICATION
Standard Gamma Ray Applications:
o Primary depth reference for all logging runs

o Correlation from well to well
o Lithology identification
o Identification of organic material, permeable beds and source rocks
o Fracture identification
o Calculate clay volumes
o Mineral analysis
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Natural Gamma Ray Tool (NGT) Applications:
o Detect, identify and evaluate radioactive minerals

o Identify clay type and calculate clay volumes
o Provides insight into depositional environment and the diagenetic history
o Uranium response of NGT is sometimes useful as a moved fluid indicator
o Permeable beds may have higher Uranium salt content than less
permeable beds.
The Gamma Ray log is typically run with most logging runs as a correlation tool
since natural Gamma Rays can pass through casing. Production tools and
perforating equipment can be accurately positioned using the Gamma Ray as a
correlation tool. Slim hole Gamma Ray tools, 1 11/16", 1 7/16" and 1" in diameter
for example, can be run through tubing to correlate TCP (Tubing Conveyed
Perforation) guns on depth. A Gamma Ray tool can be run in boreholes with up to
20,000psi, 350degF and less than 24 inch hole diameter
There are two types of Gamma Ray measurements used by the wireline logging industry.
Naturally occurring Gamma Rays:
These are Gamma Rays that occur naturally in the formation and have relatively
low energy levels. Tools that measure natural Gamma Rays are known as standard
and gamma spectrometry tools. Standard Gamma Ray tools measure the
occurrence of all Gamma Rays. Spectrometry Gamma Ray tools also measure the
Gamma Ray energy levels and therefore determines the concentrations of the
three normally present radioactive elements namely Uranium (Ur235/238),
Potassium (Isotope 19K40) and Thorium (Th232). These have long half-lives and
their radiation energy level is like a material fingerprint that is unique to the
material being measured.
Induced Gamma Rays:
Tools such as gamma - gamma logs use a high energy Gamma Ray source to
measure other formation parameters - see Density log and Neutron log
FIGURE 1: EMISSION SPECTRA FOR POTASSIUM, THORIUM AND URANIUM

SERIES
How are Gamma Ray's measured?
Typically two types of Gamma Ray detectors have been used in the industry, the
Geiger Mueller and Scintillation crystals. The Geiger Mueller is more reliable and
robust but the Scintillation is more accurate. When a Gamma Ray strikes the
crystal a single photon of energy is emitted. A burst of electrons are then emitted
as the photon hits the photocathode. The electrons multiply as they hit several
38
anodes in an electric field until a small electric pulse is produced. Each electric
pulse is produced from a single detected gamma ray.
FIGURE 2: GAMMA RAY DETECTOR TUBE
Gamma Rays occur naturally and at random as bursts of energy over time. To
reduce statistical variation in the Gamma Ray measurement, logging companies
take an average reading over time. The recommended time constant is 2 seconds.
As the tool is gradually moving up the hole this 2-second delay will cause a time
lag. A logging speed of 30ft/min (1800ft.hr) means that the tool will move 1ft
every 2 seconds. Logging too fast will cause the Gamma Ray log to be off depth
with other logs unless the time constant is changed for example a log at 60ft/min
(3600ft/hr) requires a time constant of 1 second. The witness should closely
monitor logging speed as a quality check. The higher the time constant the more
accurate the Gamma Ray log since it has a lower statistical variation. A time
constant of 4 seconds would be preferable but the 15ft/min (900ft/hr) logging
speed required, results in increased rig time and thus increased expense. The 2-
second time constant is an acceptable compromise.
The slower the logging speed the more accurate the measurement. Logging
speeds of 30ft/min (1800ft/hr) produce accurate results. For quick correlation
purposes speeds up to 100ft/min (6000ft/hr) can be used with acceptable
accuracy.
Depth of investigation of the standard Gamma Ray tool is approximately 10 inches

and that of the Spectrometry Gamma Ray tool is approximately 15 inches
Vertical resolution of the standard Gamma Ray tool is approximately 10 inches and
that of the Spectrometry Gamma Ray tool is approximately 15 inches
Limitations
A Gamma Ray tool can be run in boreholes with up to 20,000psi, 350degF and less
than 24 inch hole diameter.
Gamma Rays travel in a random manner and not in a continuous flow. The Gamma
Ray measurement is therefore affected by statistical variations. Lower logging
speed may be required to reduce this.
Presentation
The Gamma Ray is presented in track 1 by a thin continuous line with the
mnemonic GR or a variation of this. Typically a scale from 0 to 200 with units of
API. The right scale can be reduced to 150 or 120 if Gamma Ray activity is low.
39
Alternatively Spectrometry Gamma Ray tools can also present the following
curves: -
1. Total Gamma Ray (SGR)
2. Uranium free Gamma Ray (CGR) - to distinguish permeable
streaks with high Uranium.
3. Ratio Th/K - to distinguish between minerals
4. Ratio Th/U - to distinguish between minerals
FIGURE 3: TYPICAL SPECTROMETRY GAMMA RAY LOG
The SGR curve has Uranium removed to produce the CGR curve. Notice in Figure 5
that Uranium is negative and when removed from SGR, CGR becomes larger than
SGR. Although Uranium is actually present in the formation the problem is that the
NGT tool is poorly calibrated.
TOOL COMBINATIONS
The Gamma Ray tool is almost always used with every logging suite to correlate
subsequent logging runs on depth with the first original logging pass. The Gamma Ray
tool is usually connected at the top of the tool string.
The Gamma Ray tool must be handled gently. Rough treatment or heavy impacts can
crack the crystal and this will need to be replaced before logging.
LQC AND CORRECTIONS
In a clean formation (void of shale), the Gamma Ray measurement is low, typically
around 20-30 API. A shaly formation can have Gamma Ray readings varying
between 80 and 300 API
Environmental corrections to be made
Large boreholes and high-density mud's (often containing barite) decrease the
Gamma Ray count rate as the mud "shields" some Gamma Rays before reaching
the tool. Similarly a tool centered in the borehole receives less Gamma Ray counts
than an eccentered tool up against the bore hole wall. An eccentered Gamma Ray
is preferred since it requires less correction. A Gamma Ray tool run in KCl mud will
receive more counts by virtue of the increased Potassium content in the mud.
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Thus corrections are made for: -
1. Hole size and mud weight.

2. KCl mud correction
3. Casing size and weight
4. Cement thickness
Interpretation
The most common naturally occurring radioactive elements are 19K40 isotope,
Th232 and Ur235/238. The "average" shale contains 2% potassium, 12-ppm
thorium and 6ppm uranium. A high Gamma Ray measurement therefore usually
indicates a shale sequence. The Gamma Ray tool is often used as the primary
indicator of shale content. The percentage of rock that is considered shale and not
rock matrix can be estimated by: -
Vshale = (GRlog – GRclean)

(GRshale - GRclean)
The Gamma Ray appearance can be used to help identify different depositional
environments and therefore used as a stratigraphic tool.
As stated before, the Spectrometry Gamma Ray tool measures not only the
number of Gamma Rays returned but also their individual energies. Each energy
level is a characteristic of the type of formation being logged. Analysis of the
potassium, thorium and uranium energies can help indicate fractures, mineralogy
and clay type.
Kaolinite has almost no potassium where as Illite contains between 4% and 8%

potassium. Montmorillonite contains less than 1% potassium.
The ratio's U/Th, U/K and Th/K can be used to indicator fractures. The individual U,
Th and K concentrations when combined with other tools help determine
mineralogy and clay type.
INDUCTION LOGGING
APPLICATION
The Induction log was introduced to measure the formation resistivity in fresh or oil-based
mud and is used to detect the presence of hydrocarbon bearing zones. The tool was
developed from mine detector technology developed during the Second World War.
By analysing resistivity measurements, we can differentiate between formations

containing conductive and non-conductive fluids. Conductive fluids in the formation
usually consist of water or mud filtrate and non-conductive fluids consist of oil and gas.
Using equations such as the Archie formula shown below, we can establish the relative
proportions of hydrocarbons and water resident in the formation: -
Rt = aRw /(PHIm Sw2)

Where:-
Rt = Formation Resistivity
Rw = Formation water resistivity
Sw = Percentage of water in pore space (Water
Saturation)
F = Formation Factor = a/PHIm
PHI = Formation Porosity
n = 2, Saturation component
a and m, experimentally determined constants
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where a is close to 1 and m is close to 2
Most resistivity logs measure from 10 to 100 ft3 of material around the sonde, however
the micro-resistivity log measures only a few cubic inches of material near the borehole
wall. Resistance (R-Ohms) is related to current (I-Amps) and voltage (V-Volts) according to
Ohm’s law and is described by: -
V= IR
Resistivity (R) can be defined as the property of a material that resists the flow of electric
current, and is the voltage required to pass one amp through a cube with a one meter
square face area. The unit of measurement is Ohm-meter2/meter (ohm m2/m or ohm m).
If two pieces of material were placed end to end they would still have the same resistivity
but twice the resistance.
Resistivity = RA/L = KR = KV/I

Where:-
R = resistance
A = cross sectional area
L = length
K = Geometric constant
The Induction logging tool determines resistivity by measuring the formation conductivity.
The Induction tool induces and focuses an electromagnetic field into the formation
adjacent to the tool by generating an alternating current source in the primary coil. This
induced electromagnetic field will produce a measurable current and potential in the
receiver coil of the tool proportional to the formation conductivity. The primary and
secondary windings of a common transformer are a simple analogy. The measured
voltage in the receiver coil is then used to determine the formation conductivity and thus
the formation resistivity. Conductivity is the inverse of resistivity (1/resistivity) and has
the units of mho/m. Formation resistivity is computed using the following formulae:-
RILD = 1000/CILD where:-
RILD= Resistivity (ohmm)
CILD= Conductivity (mmho/m)
The Direct Coupling signal is the 'In'phase or X-Signal and the Formation Signal
is the 'Out' of phase or R-Signal
FIGURE 1: INDUCTION MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE
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The deep measurement ILD uses a different transmitter/receiver spacing
to that of the medium measurement ILM enabling two different depths of
investigation into the formation. The standard Induction tool (known as
6FF40/28 series) uses a total of 6 coils, which are used in pairs to improve
focusing and thus vertical resolution of the Induction measurements. The
deep measurement receives no signal from the first 40 inches surrounding
the tool with a transmitter/receiver spacing of 40 inches. The medium
measurement has a transmitter/receiver spacing of 28 inches. Ideally the
deep measurement will read primarily the uninvaded zone resistivity
depending upon diameter of invasion and the medium measurement will
read more of the transition and some flushed zone resistivity depending
upon diameter of invasion. Usually a small focused laterolog measurement
is incorporated in the Induction tool to measure the flushed zone resistivity
depending upon diameter of invasion. These measurements require
corrections for borehole and invasion effects. This will be described in
Section 6.0. MWD logs have less invasion effects since they measure the
formation immediately after drilling before the mud cake is formed and
invasion has ocurred. The process of giving greater emphasis tothe coils at
the centre of the tool in preference to those coils either side is termed
deconvolution. Modern Phasor Induction tools use the dielectric or X-signal
to make a non-linear deconvolution correction. This X-signal was ignored in
FIGURE 2: earlier tools. An Array Induction tool measures 28 independent signals
DILTOOL from 8 arrays.
Halliburton DIL Deep Medium Shallow

Tool (ILD) (ILM) (LL3)
Vertical resolution 60 inches 54 inches 6 inches
Depth of
65 inches 30 inches 14 inches
investigation
Schlumberger DIT-E
ILD IDPH IDER IDVR
Tool
72-84 36 9-24
Vertical resolution 72-84 inches
inches inches inches
Deep 90 Medium 40
Depth of investigation
inches inches
Schlumberger AIT
Tool
3 Vertical resolutions 12, 24 and 48 inches
5 Depths of 10, 20, 30, 60 and 90
investigation inches
LIMITATION/OPERATION/PRESENTATION
Limitations
The Induction tool is design to accurately measure formations less than 20ohmm
(50mmhos). Accuracy is reduced up to 200ohmm (5mmhos) and large corrections
and errors occur above 200ohmm (5mmhos). Often the sonde error itself is 3-4
mmhos and if this is removed from a 200ohmm (5mmhos) raw signal, a correction
of close to 100% is required giving less and less confidence to the recorded data.
The principle operation of the Induction tool is to actually measure the formation
conductivity. As the formation conductivity is reduced (and formation resistivity is
increased) the Induction tool will measure more of the relatively conductive mud.
A Phasor Induction tool will overcome some of the problem. The Induction tool
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therefore operates best in high resistivity drilling mud (ie fresh water), oil based
drilling mud and also in air.
The placement and polarity of the receiver coils effect the depth of investigation
and the vertical resolution of the tool.
The Induction tool is preferred over the Laterolog tool
typically when the following conditions apply: -
1. The Rmf/Rw ratio is greater than 2.5

2. When the formation resistivities do not exceed 200 ohmm
3. The bed thickness is greater than 10 ft.
When the porosity is below the Rw line but Rmf/Rw is still above 2.5, eddy currents
are not able to be induced as efficiently and the Laterolog tool rather than the
Induction tool could alternatively be used.
Skin Effect
Each Inductance coil is not independant of other coils in the Induction tool.
Additional voltages are induced not only from neighbouring coils but also from the
coil itself. This is known as mutual-inductance and self-inductance respectfully. The
is that the strength of the field is reduced resulting in a higher than true resitivity
reading. Skin is a inversely proportional to the formation conductivity, magnetic
permeability and the transmitter frequency. Thus the higher the transmitter
frequency, the less skin effect. Correction for skin effect is usually only performed
on the deep measurement. The medium measurement is usually less than 1% as a
result of the shorter coil spacing.
Operation
The logging speed is approximately 6000 ft/hr but is usually run at 1800 ft/hr when
run in combination with other logging tools. Standoff sizes are critical for
determining the amount of borehole correction to be applied. In holes above 8.5
inches, the tool is run eccentered with 1.5 inch standoffs along the tool. The
following table gives recommended standoff sizes.
Standoff
Hole Size
Distance
<6.5 inches 0.5 inch
6.5-7.75
1.0 inch
inches
7.75-9.5
1.5 inch
inches
>9.5 inches 2.0 inch
Presentation
The deep Induction log is presented in track 3-4 (logarithmic) by a thin

dashed line with the mnemonic ILD. The medium Induction log is also
presented in track 3-4 (logarithmic) by a thin dotted line with the
mnemonic ILM. The shallow focused resistivity log (alternatives are the
Short Guard) is presented in track 3-4 (logarithmic) by a thin continuous
line with the mnemonics SFLU or some. variation of this. The scale typically
ranges from 0.2 to 2000 with the units in Ohmm.
TOOL COMBINATIONS
The Induction tool can be run alone but is usually run at the bottom of the Sonic tool with
the open hole Gamma Ray tool at the top. The resistivity service is usually the first
logging run since the tool is cheaper, usually centered and has no radioactive sources.
Tool types available
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DIT-D Standard Dual Induction Tool containing 6 coils for focusing signals to
improve vertical resolution.
DIT-E Phasor Dual Induction Tool. The Phasor tool also measures the in-phase
(resistive) and the quadrature (dielectric) signals.
AIT Array Induction Tool. The AIT measures 28 independent signals from 8
arrays. The single transmitter operates at 3 different frequency and the in-
phase (resistive) and the quadrature (dielectric) signals are measured. The
AIT measures signals AIT10 (10 inches into the formation), AIT20 (20
inches into the formation) etc up to AIT90. A combination of these is used
to compute an Rt value, however if one of these readings is affected by
micro annulus the computed Rt can be inaccurate.
LQC/CORRECTIONS
Permeability can be indicated by the separation of the resistivity readings for ILD,
ILM and SFLU. This occurs when the higher-pressure borehole mud invades into the
formation displacing the original formation fluid. Ideally SFLU measures the
invaded zone (Rxo fully flushed by borehole mud), ILM measures the transition
zone (partially flushed by borehole mud) and ILD measures the un-invaded zone
(virgin formation fluid).
The Rxo < ILM < ILD profile will exist if Rw > Rmf or the profile ILD < ILM < Rxo
will exist if Rw < Rmf. If no permeability exists and therefore no mud invasion, as
typically is the case with shales, the deep, medium and Rxo measurements will
overlay unless environmental corrections still need to be applied.
While logging check that SP deflections are normal (to the left if Rxo > Rt) and not
noisy. Check that resistivity readings do not flat top in high resistivity beds and
that the deep and medium measurements remain symmetrical and on depth.
The measured formation resistivity is a function of:
1. The formation water resistivity

2. Lithology changes
3. Porosity changes
4. Changes in the mud-filtrate resistivity, which often occurs between logging
runs.
Solid rock and hydrocarbons will have an extremely high resistivity. A good rule of
thumb is that hydrocarbons are indicated where the RILD > RILM > RSFLU profile exists.
The Resistivity can be used as an indicator of clay

content. The percentage of rock that is considered
clay and not rock matrix can be estimated by: -
VRT = (Rsand – RT) / (Rsand - Rclay)
In practice this equation is modified and multiplied

by 4*Rclay/RT to avoid giving erratic readings. VRT is
usually much too high except when high resistivity
formations are present. Since clays are conductive,
an Rsand minimum value helps to fix the zero VRT point.
FIGURE 3: VRT CLAY
INDICATOR
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LATEROLOG TOOL
APPLICATION
The Laterolog tool was introduced to measure the formation resistivity in salty or high
conductive mud and is used to detect the presence of hydrocarbon bearing zones.
By analyzing resistivity measurements, we can differentiate between formations

containing conductive and non-conductive fluids. Conductive fluids in the formation
usually consist of water or mud filtrate and non-conductive fluids consist of oil and gas.
Using equations such as the Archie formula

shown below,
we can establish the relative proportions of
hydrocarbons
and water resident in the formation:
Rt = aRw /(PHIm Sw2)
Where:-
Rt = Formation Resistivity
Rw = Formation water resistivity
PHI = Formation Porosity
Sw = Percentage of water in pore space(Water
Saturation)
n = 2, Saturation component
a and m, experimentally determined
constants
where a is close to 1 and m is close to 2
F = Formation Factor = a/PHIm
FIGURE 1: CLEAN UNIT OF
FORMATION
Most resistivity logs measure from 10 to 100 ft3 of material around the sonde, however
the micro-resistivity log measures only a few cubic inches of material near the borehole
wall. Resistance (R-Ohms) is related to current (I-Amps) and voltage (V-Volts) according to
Ohm’s law and is described by: -
V= IR
Resistivity (R) can be defined as the property of a material that resists the flow of electric
current, and is the voltage required to pass one amp through a cube with a one meter
square face area. The unit of measurement is Ohm-meter2/meter (ohm m2/m or ohm m).
If two pieces of material were placed end to end they would still have the same resistivity
but twice the resistance.
Resistivity = RA/L = KR = KV/I

Where:-
R = resistance
A = cross sectional area
L = length
K = Geometric constant
Conductivity is the inverse of resistivity (1/resistivity) and has the units of mhos.
46
The sonde for this resistivity log uses guard or bucking
electrodes to focus the current and force the emitted
current in a direction approximately at right angles to the
sonde. This focused current allows the resistivity reading to
measure a more specific region of the formation, thus
increasing the Laterologs vertical resolution. The non-
focused resistivity tools suffer a distorted current
distribution especially when Rt/Rm is high, as the current will
try to flow within the borehole.
FIGURE 2:
FOCUSED/UNFOCUSED
CURRENT PATH
FIGURE 3: SHALLOW
FIGURE 4: DEEP LATEROLOG
LATEROLOG CURRENT PATH
CURRENT PATH DIAGRAM
DIAGRAM
In the standard Laterolog tool, constant power (Power=VI product) is supplied to pairs of
guard electrodes (A1 and A1*) and to a current electrode (A0) which is positioned
between two pairs of potential electrodes (M1-M2 and M1*-M2*). The potential of the
current electrode (A0) is in equilibrium with all guard electrodes (A1 and A1*). Thus the
current from the current electrode (A0) will not flow to the guard electrodes and is
therefore focused radially into the formation. Potential electrodes (M1-M2 and M1*-M2*)
measure the change in potential between the guard and the current electrodes. The
potential will vary depending upon the formation resistivity and each electrode potential
will be adjusted until the guard and current electrodes are once again in equilibrium.
By varying the distance of the return electrode with respect to the tool, the depth of
penetration can be changed. The shallow laterolog (LLS) has a return electrode
immediately above and below the sonde whereas the deep Laterolog (LLD) has a return
electrode at the surface thus the current is forced deeper into the formation.
47
FIGURE 5: MSFL CURRENT PATH
FIGURE 6: DLT FIGURE 7: MSFL

TOOL TOOL
Figures 8 and 9 show the percentage of tool signals at various distances into the
formation. 100% of the MSFL signal for example is acquired within the first 10 inches. The
LLD signal on the DLT Tool measures 50% of its reading within about the first 90 inches
into the formation, the remainder of the LLD signal is acquired beyond 90 inches and
therefore has a deeper depth of investigation than the MSFL or LLS signals. The depth of
investigation is considered to be at the 50% point.
Halliburton DLT Deep Shallow Micro Log

Tool (LLD) (LLS) (MSFL)
Depth of
80 inches 30 inches 1-4 inches
investigation
Halliburton DLLT Deep Shallow Micro Log
Depth of 60-84 24-36
1-4 inches
investigation inches inches
Schlumberger DLT Deep Shallow Micro Log
Vertical resolution 24 inches 24 inches
Depth of
90 inches 35 inches 2 inches
investigation
48
Schlumberger ARI Deep Deep Shallow Micro Log
Tool (LLhr) (LLD) (LLS) (MSFL)
Depth of
35 inches 45 inches 15 inches 2 inches
investigation
CALIBRATION
The Laterolog tool does not require a master or shop calibration like most logging tools
but does require an internal well site tool resistance check that is performed before and
after each logging suite. This ensures the tool was operating the same from the
commencement of logging to completion of the logging operation. Often a surface test
box is attached to the tool before running in the hole. This allows a check of the accuracy
of the tool against known resistance values in the test box.
LIMITATIONS/OPERATION/PRESENTATION
Limitations
The Laterolog tool is generally run in low resistivity drilling mud and also in highly
resistive formations. Low resistivity mud will have minimal affect on the resistivity
readings from the formation since the total measurement is added in series.
The Laterolog tool can accurately measure formation resistivity in the range of 0.2
- 40000 ohmm. The Laterolog tool is preferred over the Induction tool typically
when the following conditions apply:
1. The Rmf/Rw ratio is less than 2.5

2. When the formation resistivities exceed 200 ohmm
3. The bed thickness is less than 10 ft.
When the porosity is below the Rw line but Rmf/Rw is still above 2.5, eddy currents
are not able to be induced as efficiently and the Laterolog tool rather than the
Induction tool should be used.
Operation
The logging speed is approximately 6000 ft/hr (100 ft/min) but is usually run at
1800 ft/hr (30ft.min) when run in combination with other logging tools like the
MSFL and GR which need to be run at 1800ft/hr (30ft.min). A Laterolog electrode is
placed in the drilling rig mud pit for the reference and return of the deep laterolog
measurement. This electrode is called a 'Laterolog fish' and should be placed in a
section of the mud pit away from any moving mud fluids. At no time during tool
operation should personnel touch the sonde of the Laterolog. The Laterolog should
be centered in boreholes 8.5 inches or less and eccentered against the borehole
wall in boreholes larger than 8.5 inches.
Presentation
• Presented in tracks 3-4 (logarithmic) by a thin, dashed line with the

mnemonic LLD.
• Presented in tracks 3-4 (logarithmic) by a thin, dotted line with the
mnemonic LLS.
• Presented in tracks 3-4 (logarithmic) by a thin, solid line with the mnemonic
MSFL.
• Typically the scale of the is from 0.20 to 2000 with units of ohmm
49
FIGURE 8: TYPICAL LATEROLOG PRESENTATION
50
TOOL COMBINATIONS
The Laterolog tool can be run alone but is usually run at the bottom of the Sonic
tool with the open hole Gamma Ray tool at the top. The resistivity service is
usually the first logging run since the tool is cheaper, usually centered and has no
radioactive sources.
Tool types available
DLT - Standard Dual Laterolog Tool giving a deep and shallow laterolog
measurement.
ARI - Azimuthal Resistivity Tool. A small sub is added to the DLT tool and is
equipped with 12 equally spaced and independent azimuthal laterolog readings. A
deep reading and very shallow reading of tool standoff are produced.
LQC/CORRECTIONS
Permeability can be indicated by the separation of the resistivity readings for LLD,
LLS and MSFL. This occurs when the higher-pressure borehole mud invades into
the formation displacing the original formation fluid. Depending upon the diameter
of invasion, MSFL ideally measures the invaded zone (Rxo fully flushed by borehole
mud), the LLS ideally measures the transition zone (partially flushed by mud) and
the LLD ideally measures the un-invaded zone (virgin formation fluid) see for
invaded, transition and virgin zones.
The Rxo < LLS < LLD profile will exist if Rw > Rmf and the profile LLD < LLS < Rxo
will exist if Rw < Rmf. If no permeability exists and therefore no mud invasion, as
typically is the case with shales, the deep, shallow and Rxo measurements will
overlay unless environmental corrections still need to be applied.
While logging check that SP deflections are normal (to the right if Rxo < Rt) and
not noisy. Check that resistivity readings track each other and are on depth.
The measured formation resistivity is a function of: -
1. The formation water resistivity

2. Lithology changes
3. Porosity changes
4. Changes in the mud-filtrate resistivity, which often occurs, between different
logging runs.
Solid rock and hydrocarbons will have an extremely high resistivity. A good rule of
thumb is that hydrocarbons are indicated where the RLLD > RLLS > RMSFL profile
exists.
51
The Resistivity can be used as an indicator of clay
content.
The percentage of rock that is considered clay and
not rock
matrix can be estimated by: -
VRT = (Rsand – RT) / (Rsand - Rclay)
In practice this equation is modified and multiplied

by 4*Rclay/RT to avoid giving erratic readings. VRT is
usually much too high except when high resistivity
formations are present. Since clays are conductive,
an Rsand minimum value helps to fix the 100% VRT
FIGURE 9: VRT CLAY point.
INDICATOR
The resistivity measurement for the formation (Rt) of interest will be influenced by
three unwanted elements; the resistivity of the bore hole (Rm), the mud filtrate
invasion (Rxo) and the adjacent bed (Rs). The resistivity of the rock unit of interest
(Rt) maybe greater or less than that of the measured resistivity LLD and LLS.
The mud resistivity, the invaded

zone resistivity and the true
formation resistivity are
considered as series resistivities.
Figure 13 shows a simple
electrical circuit representing the
resistivity of the borehole mud -
Rm, the invaded zone – Rxo and
the uninvaded zone - Rt. If the
Laterolog is run in a salty mud, it
is evident that the contribution
from Rm and Rxo is small
compared to the true formation
FIGURE 10: LATEROLOG ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT resistivity Rt. The effect of the
mud and invaded resistivities
must be removed to estimate the
true formation resistivity.
The following corrections are applied, and strictly in the order shown. The
Laterolog needs to be corrected for:
MSFL Borehole corrections (See Figure 14)

Borehole corrections - mud resistivity and borehole size (See Figure 15)
Bed Thickness corrections (See Figure 16)
Invasion corrections - mud invasion (See Figure 17)
LLD Laterolog Deep ML Micro Log

LLS Laterolog Shallow ML1 Micro Log 1 inch
LLG Groningen LLD ML2 Micro Log 2 inch
HLLD High Resolution
MNOR Micro Log normal 2"
LLD
HLLS High Resolution
MINV Micro Log Inverse 1"
LLS
LL3 Laterolog 3 MLL Micro Laterolog
52
MSFL Micro-Spherically
LL7 Laterolog 7
Focused Log
N16 16 inch short MSFC Borehole corrected
normal MSFL
Resistivity values depend upon the amount of water and its salinity in the pore
space of the rock. The water being either formation water R w or the invaded mud
filtrate Rmf. Typically formation rock, oil and gas are considered infinite resistance
and any drop in resistivity is from the conductive water or conductive shales. The
Laterolog tool can accurately read between 0.2 and 40,000 ohmm.
NUCLEUR MAGNETIC
RESSONANCE
HISTORY
• Nuclear Magnetic Resonance technology originated in the medical field and is still
used as a major diagnostic tool today.
• The technology was applied to the oil industry in the early 1990's.
APPLICATION
• The NMR measurement is able to measure the fluid volume in the formation, the
types of fluids and the size of the pores space containing these fluids.
• Volume of clay bound fluids, irreducible fluids and free fluids being water, oil and
gas can be determined.
• Formation permeability and hydrocarbon density can be determined.
• Conventional logging tools measure the entire formation and are more sensitive to
the larger volume matrix material rather than the formation fluids. NMR
technology only sees the formation fluid and therefore provides a formation
porosity independent of formation rock type.
53
Operation
FIGURE 1: SCHEMATIC OF THE NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE TOOL
The NMR tool uses a large permanent magnet which magnetises the formation for
a predetermined period of time. Different transmission frequencies can be used to
measure at different depths of investigation as represented by the regular spaced
cylinders around the tool. Oil based muds provide a better tool response than
water based muds.
FIGURE 2: VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF POLARISATION AND BURST

FREQUENCY
Figure 3 shows the vector representation the magnetic polarisation of magnitude
Mo. Polarisation is applied for a time TW. The fluid particles (or more specifically
the hydrogen atoms or protons) are then exposed to regular bursts of radio-
frequency energy (transverse magnetic pulses of frequency fo) transmitted into
the formation in the form of an alternating magnetic field. The transverse
magnetic pulses are applied at 180deg intervals.
54
FIGURE 3: SPIN ECHO TRAIN
After each successive transverse pulse of period TE, the decrease in magnitude is
measured. The decay of the spin echo magnitude over the period of the pulse
train is given by: -
Mx(t) = Mox e^(-t/T2)
where Mox is the initial magnitude of the transverse magnetisation and Mx(t) after
time t. T2 is the transverse relaxation time constant and is representative of the
magnitude of the transverse magnetic decay.
FIGURE 4: POLARISATION AND PULSE SEQUENCE

After a period of decay time equaling several times the T2 value, the measured
magnitude is essential zero. Further transverse pulsing will not be possible.
Polarisation and pulsing must start again. The photons are therefore polarised
again for a period TW (approx. 6-8msec) and pulsed at a period of TE (approx.
1.2msec)
3.2 Depth of Investigation and Vertical Resolution
Depth of
Vertical Resolution
Investigation
MRIL 14-16 inches (less approx. 5ft but dependent upon sampling rate
(Halliburton) hole radius) and logging speed
CMR approx. 6 inches but dependent upon sampling
0.5-1.25 inches
(Schlumberger) rate and logging speed
Specifications
55
FIGURE 5: SCHLUMBERGER CMR TOOL
Magnet length = 2ft, tool is eccenterred. Pulsing rate = 0.2msec.
FIGURE 6: HALLIBURTON MRIL TOOL

Magnet length = 7ft, tool is centralised. Pulsing rate = 0.6 and 1.2 msec
but up to 9 readings simultaneously.
Pros Cons
56
More reliable in rugose Poor vertical
Halliburton MRIL
hole resolution
Schlumberger
Thin bed analysis Affected by bad hole
CMR
CALIBRATION
The NMR tool requires a monthly calibration using a calibration tank. Before
and after survey calibration checks are also required.
Limitations
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance tools where initially used to measure bound fluid
volumes. The T2 decay times for clay bound fluids is in the vicinity of 3msec and
10msec for capillary bound fluids. This requires a very small polarisation time.
Logging speeds therefore are not restricted. Free fluids however have a far greater
T2 decay time and require a far greater polarisation time. This restricts the logging
speed considerably to less than 10ft/min. Stationary readings are often required
over very porous, large porosity zones.
The Halliburton MRIL tool has a larger permanent magnet than Schlumberger's
CMR allowing it polarise formation fluids faster. The larger magnet however is
approximately 7 feet in length compared to the CMR at approximately 2feet. The
CMR therefore has a superior vertical resolution. The MRIL is a centred tool and the
depth of investigation is reduced as the hole size increases. The CMR is an
eccenterred tool and is not as badly affected by hole size.
Presentation
FIGURE 7: TYPICAL NMR PRESENTATION

Track 1: Various T2 bin cut-offs representing pore sizes. Bin 1(black) is the
smallest pore size up to Bin 6(green) the largest pore size.
Track 2: Depth
57
Track 3: Various fluid volumes. TFV - total fluid volume, BFV - bound fluid volume.
Track 4: Permeability calculations and T2 averages. KCMR - perm from CMR, PKEN
- perm from PETROLOG, T2LM - Logarithmic of T2, T2AV - Average T2
Track 5: T2 wave train trace amplitude representation.
Track 5: Colour image representation of T2 wave train
Log Quality Control

Logging speed is critical to the correct operation of the NMR tool. Depending upon
the tool gain and the TW wait times being used, the logging speed and vertical
resolution are determined. Curves can be displayed in real-time on the logging
run, showing signal to noise ratios and ringing. The MRIL tool has a log called the
CHI that is a measure of the quality of the calculated T2 decay curves determined
from the echo decay amplitudes.
Short polarisation times (TW) will underestimate porosity. If the TW is increased

and porosity increases then the tool should operate at this new TW. The correct
TW is critical since hydrocarbon bearings zones are usually where porosity is
underestimated.
Other checks are: -
NMR Effective porosity < NMR Total porosity

Clean water filled formation MPHI = Cross plot porosity
58
Corrections
No environmental corrections are applied to the NMR tool.
Interpretation
FIGURE 8: HIGH AND LOW PERMEABILITY ECHO TIMES

Each pore size has different decay times and a specific T2 time constant. High
permeability large pores have slow echo times and high T2 values. Low
permeability small pores have fast echo times and low T2 values.
FIGURE 9: THE T2 RELAXATION TIME

Figure 10 show the conversion from multiple pore sizes in the echo decay time plot
to the T2 distribution plot.
FIGURE 10: ECHO TIMES DEPENDS UPON PERMEABILITY

Although porosities are the same, pore size is different and therefore echo decay
times are different and permeability significantly different The T2 value is
proportional to the surface to volume ratio of the pore space which is a measure of
the size of the pore space. Low T2 values occur in low permeability formations and
high T2 values occur in high permeability formations.
59
Permeability from NMR
FIGURE 11: BOUND FLUIDS AND FREE FLUIDS ON THE T2

SPECTRUM
Kenyon permeability:
k = aPHI^4(T2,log)^2
where a = 4mD/(ms)^2 for sandstone
a = 4mD/(ms)^2 for carbonates
PHI = porosity
T2,log = the logarithmic mean T2 in msec
Timur/Coates permeability:
k = a'PHI^4(FFI/BFV)^2
where a' = 1000mD for sandstone
PHI = porosity
FFI = Moveable fluid volume
BFV = Bound fluid volume
Water saturation from NMR
FIGURE 12: T2 REPRESENTATION OF VARIOUS FLUID TYPES

By selecting different T2 cut-offs, the various bins can be applied to clay
bound water (MCBW), capillary bound water (MBVI), free movable water,
light oil, heavy oil and gas (MBVM).
60
Bound Water Saturation:
Swb = (MCBW+MBVI)
(MCBW+MBVI+MBVM)
Hydrocarbon Saturation:
Shc = (Vol. oil and gas)
(MCBW+MBVI+MBVM)
The bottom part of Figure 13 shows how a long wait time TW will increase
the volume of oil and gas determined from the NMR. Also a long TE will
move the free water volume to the left.
The correct TW and TE values are clearly critical to distinguishing the

different fluids in the formation. Zones of interest should have multiple
passes to confidently establish what values should be used.
Caution: The volume of hydrocarbon using the above mentioned method is

highly dependant on the residual hydrocarbon. Since the tool measures in
the invaded zone, this method is less effective where Swirr is high and
hydrocarbons have been flushed out.
61

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SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG

The SP electrode is built into different logging tools for example:

FIGURE 1: THE SP MEASUREMENT

Elj: "Liquid Junction Potential"

FIGURE 2: LIQUID JUNCTION EFFECTS #1

FIGURE 3: LIQUID JUNCTION EFFECTS #2

Em: "Membrane Potential"

An Electrokinetic potential (Ek) is generated by the flow of mud filtrate through a

Deflection of the SP curve

Depth of Investigation and Vertical Resolution

Vertical resolution of the SP tool is approximately 3 meters

LIMITATIONS AND PRESENTATION

Metallic reaction at measure electrode

Possible solution to the problem:

Other unwanted SP potentials

SP is presented in track 1 by a thin continuous line with the mnemonic of SP. SP is

Typical Log Readings

LQC, CORRECTIONS AND INTERPRETATION

High resistive beds:

FIGURE 10: SAW TOOTH SP

CEMENT BOND LOG

LIMITATIONS AND PRESENTATION

Typical Log Readings

LQC, CORRECTIONS AND INTERPRETATION

Log Quality Control

Free Pipe signal:

COMPENSATED NEUTRON LOG

An Am241Be source emits neutrons into the formation

Once the neutrons reach the thermal stage, they

Depth of Investigation and Vertical Resolution

LIMITATIONS, OPERATION AND PRESENTATION

FIGURE 6: TYPICAL DENSITY/NEUTRON LOG PRESENTATION

Log Quality Control and Interpretation

Shale effectively reduces the measured

VDshale = (PHID – PHIeff) / PHIDsh

FIGURE 7: SHALY VNshale = (PHIN – PHIeff) / PHINsh

Typical Log Readings

A 1.5 Ci Cs137 chemical source bombards gamma rays at 662keV

RHOB = 1.0704*RHOe - 0.1883

The photoelectric effect of absorbed gamma rays is directly

Compton Scattering and Photoelectric Absorption

FIG URE 3 : DEN SITY PAD SCH EM ATI C

Density Porosity Determination

RHOB = RHOMA(1-PHID) + PHID*RHOF

PHID = Density Porosity

I = Density(rho) * Velocity (V)

Depth of Investigation and Vertical Resolution

Measurement of detected gamma rays is averaged over a period of time. The

FIGURE 7: GAS BEARING FORMATION

Typical Log Readings

Mineral RHOB PEF

FIGURE 8: DENSITY RESPONSE IN RUGOSE BOREHOLE

N.B. In the case of mud containing barite or high-density mud, a negative

Corrections are applied for:-

DIP METER LOG

• Determination of borehole inclination and direction

FIGURE 1: BASIC DIPMETER TOOL

High-resolution dipmeters or imaging tools are similar to the standard dipmeter

FIGURE 3: TYPICAL ACOUSTIC SCANNING TOOL

Hydrostatic Pressure = Depth(0.052Mud Weight)