COMPLEX NUMBERS

The Complex Number

The quadratic equation
x 2  1
has no solution in the set of real numbers,, since the square of a real number can never be
negative. The complex numbers represent a number system containing the real number system
and in this system equations such as equation above have solutions.

DEFINITION
A complex number z is a number of the form
z  a  ib
where i  1 is called imaginary unit and a and b are real numbers. Here, a is called the real
part and b the imaginary part of z , represented by
Rez  a and Im z  b
With this note, we have z  Re z  i Im z . Hence complex numbers include all real numbers and
all pure imaginary numbers. Keep in mind that there is no difference to write a  ib as a  bi
since the two numbers implies the same meaning.

Note: Mathematicians designate the imaginary unit by the symbol i , but it is customary to use
j in electrical engineering in order to avoid confusion with the symbol for current.
Remarks:

1. The set of all complex numbers is represented by  with   a  ib a ,b   .

2. A complex number is said to be purely real if b  0 , i.e., z  a .

3. A complex number is said to be purely imaginary if a  0 , i.e., z  ib .

Example 1: The following are examples of complex numbers:

(a) z1  4  i5 Re z1  4 , Im z1  5

1 2 1 2
(b) z2  i Re z2  , Im z2  
4 3 4 3
(c) z3  i8 Re z3  0 , Im z3  8
(d) z4  9 Re z4  9 , Im z4  0

The Complex Conjugate

DEFINITION
For the complex number z  a  ib , we define the complex conjugate, denoted by z ( z bar) or z 
( z star) to be

1
 z  a  ib
Observe that the complex conjugate can be found by changing the sign of ib .

Example 2: The complex conjugate of z1  3  i2 is z1  3  i2 and z2  7  i6 is the complex

conjugate of z2  7  i6 .

Integral Powers of the Imaginary Unit i.

The successive integral powers of i are
i i i5  i4  i  i
i2  1 i 6  i 5  i  1
i3  i2  i  i i7  i6  i  i
i4  i3  i  1 i8  i7  i  1 , 
It can be proved by induction that for any positive integer n ,
i4n  1 , i4n 1  i , i4 n2  1 and i4 n3  i .

Hence, in  i, 1, i,1 for all integers n  0 .

Example 3: Evaluate i107  i13  i16  i42 .

i107  i13  i16  i42  i    i    i    i    i  i  1   1  2

4 26 3 4 3 1 44 4 10 2
Solution:

Algebraic Operations in Complex Numbers

When working with complex number, we use usual algebraic methods. That means that we
cannot combine a real number with an i -term. For example, 3  i2 cannot be simplified. Keep in
mind that the plus sign in a  ib does not represent addition but instead a  ib is a single
number and not the sum of the terms a and ib . When performing the algebraic operations, we
simply treat i as symbolic constant with the property that i2  1 .
Let z1  a  ib and z2  c  id be complex numbers, with a,b, c, d   . Accordingly, we now
define:
1. Equality
z1  z2 or a  ib  c  id if and only if a  c and b  d
Remark: For two complex numbers to be equal their real and imaginary parts are
respectively, are equal.
2. Addition
z1  z2   a  ib    c  id    a  c   i  b  d 
Remark: To add complex numbers, add the real parts and the imaginary parts
separately.
3. Subtraction
z1  z2   a  ib    c  id    a  c   i b  d 

2
 Remark: To subtract complex numbers, subtract the real parts and the imaginary
parts separately.
4. Multiplication
z1 z2   a  ib  c  id    ac  bd   i  ad  bc 

Proof: z1 z2   a  ib  c  id   ac  i  ad  bc   i 2bd

 ac  i  ad  bc    1 bd
  ac  bd   i  ad  bc 
Remark: To multiply complex numbers treat the numbers as ordinary binomials
and use the fact that i2  1 .
5. Division
z1 a  ib
 , c  id  0
z2 c  id

Proof: To prove it, we multiply both numerator and denominator by the complex
conjugate of the denominator and expressing the result in the form of a  ib , then
we have
z1 a  ib c  id  ac  bd   i bc  ad  ac  bd bc  ad
    2 i 2
z2 c  id c  id c 2  d2 c  d2 c  d2
Remark: Instead of memorizing this entire formula, it’s best to multiply out both
numerator and the denominator by the complex conjugate of the
denominator to make the new denominator a real number.

Example4: Express the following in the form a  ib .

(a)  2  i6    3  i5  (c)  2  i6 3  i5 

2  i6
(b)  2  i6   3  i5 (d)
3  i5

Solution: Direct application of the rules of operation, we have

(a)  2  i6    3  i5    2  3   i  6  5   5  i

(b)  2  i6   3  i5    2  3   i 6   5   1  i11

(c)  2  i6  3  i5     2  3    6  5    i  2  5    6  3    36  i 8

2  i6 2  i6 3  i5 2  3    6  5    i  2  5    6  3   24  i28

(d)    
3  i5 3  i5 3  i5 2 2 34
3 5
12 14
 i
17 17

Example5: If x  i3  2  3  i4 y   12  i21

3
Solution: Simplifying the left hand side of the equation, we get
 x  6  i  3  8 y  12  i21
Applying the definition of equality of complex numbers, we have
x  6  12 and 3  8 y  21
Solving for x and y , we obtain x  6 and y  3 .

Field Properties of Addition and Multiplication

Let z  a  ib , z1  a1  ib1 , z2  a2  ib2 and z3  a3  ib3 be four complex numbers, the following
properties hold.
1. Commutative laws for Addition and Multiplication
(a) z1  z2  z2  z1
(b) z1 z2  z2 z1
2. Associative laws for Addition and Multiplication
(a) z1   z2  z3    z1  z2   z3
(b) z1  z2 z3    z1z2  z3
3. Distributive law
z1  z2  z3   z1z2  z1z3
4. Additive and Multiplicative identities
(a) z  0  0  z  z
(b) z  1  1  z  z
5. Additive and Multiplicative inverses
(a) z   z    z   z  0

(b) z  z 1  z 1z  1 , z0

Proof: We prove property (1) only and leave the proofs of the remaining properties as an
exercise.
(a) z1  z2   a1  ib1    a2  ib2    a1  a2   i b1  b2    a2  a1   i b2  b1 
  a2  ib2    a1  ib1   z2  z1
(b) z1z2   a1  ib1  a2  ib2    a1a2  b1b2   i  a1b2  b1a2 
  a2 a1  b2b1   i  b2 a1  a2b1    a2  ib2  a1  ib1   z2 z1

Laws of Exponents in Complex Numbers

An integer power of a nonzero complex number z is defined by

z 0  1 , z1  z , z2  z  z ,  z n  z  z z for all integer n  0

 z 
n times

and z n  ( z 1 )n for all integers n  0 .

For all integers m and n , the following laws hold for all complex numbers z , z1 and z2 .

4
 1. z m  z n  z m n
zm
2.  zm n , z0
zn
3. ( zm )n  zmn

4.  z1z2 n  z1n z2n

n
 z1  z1n
5.    n , z2  0
 z2  z2

Properties of Complex Conjugate

The following properties are satisfied.


1. zz


2. z  z if and only if z is purely real.


3. z   z if and only if z is purely imaginary.


2 2
4. z  z   Re z    Im z   0 .

1 
5. Re z  z  z
2 
1 
6. Im z  z  z
2i  
 
7. z1  z2  z1  z 2

 
8. z1  z2  z1  z 2

 
9. z1 z2  z1 z 2

 z  z1
10.  1   , z2  0
 z2  z 2
Proof: We leave the proofs of properties (1)-(6), (8)-(10) as an exercise and prove (7) and
(9) here.

7. z1  z2   a1  ib1    a2  ib2    a1  a2   i b1  b  2    a1  a2   i b1  b2 

  a1  ib1    a2  ib2    a1  ib2    a2  ib2   z1  z 2

9. z1 z2   a1  ib1  a2  ib2    a1a2  b1b2   i  a1b2  b1a2 

5
   a1a2  b1b2   i  a1b2  b1a2    a1  ib1  a2  ib2 

  a1  ib1  a2  ib2   z1 z 2

1
Example 6: Show that for any nonzero complex number z , z 1  z  .

1  1 1 
Solution: Since z   1 , we take  z    1 . Applying property (9), we have z    1 or
z  z  z
1
zz 1  1 . This gives us z 1  z  as desired.

Geometric Representation of Complex Numbers

Since the complex number z  a  ib is determined by a pair of real numbers  a,b , this suggests
that we need two axes to graph the complex numbers: one for the real part and other for the
imaginary part. In this case, we refer the horizontal axis and vertical axis the real axis and the
imaginary axis, respectively. The plane determined by these two axes is called complex plane,
Argand plane or Gaussian plane. Thus, the complex number a  ib is represented by the point
 a,b in this plane.

Example 7: Plot the following complex numbers in the same complex plane:
(a) z1  3  i2 (b) z2  4  i5 (c) z1  z2 .

Solution: (a) The number z1  3  i2 is represented by the point  3,2 .

(b) In similar way, z2  4  i5 is represented by the point  4, 5 .
(c) We have z1  z2  3  i2    4  i5  7  i3 . The graph is shown in figure below.

6
Modulus and Argument of Complex Numbers
Recall that the absolute value of a real number can be thought of as its distance from the
origin on the real number line. We define the absolute value for complex number in a similar
way. Let z  a  ib be the complex number represented by the point P  a,b  on Argand diagram.
Construct the line from the origin O to P and let z be the distance OP and  be the angle
made in the counter clockwise sense which OP with the positive real axis. From the figure, we
read

b
z  a 2  b2 , a  z cos , b  z sin and tan  
a
Thus the absolute of z , denoted by z , is the distance of z from the origin. These results lead to
the following definitions.

The Modulus
DEFINITION
The modulus or absolute value of a complex number z  a  ib , denoted as z or mod z , is a non-
negative real number and is defined by

z  a 2  b2

7
Properties of Modulus
The following properties are satisfied.
1. z  0 for all z  C .
2. z  0 if and only if z  0 .

3. z  z  z  z

4.  z  Re z  z
5.  z  Im z  z

2
6. zz  z

7. z1z2  z1 z2
z1 z
8.  1 , z2  0
z2 z2
9. z1  z2  z1  z2 (Triangle inequality)
10. z1  z2  z1  z2

Warning: We stress that complex numbers are not ordered. Expression such as z1  z2 or
z1  z3 are meaningless unless z1 , z2 and z3 are all real numbers.
Proof: We prove properties (6) and (7) and leave the proofs of the remaining properties
as an exercise.

2
6. zz   a  ib a  ib   a 2  b2  z

7. z1 z2   a1  ib1  a2  ib2    a1 a2  b1b2   i  a1b2  a2b1 

  a1a2  b1b2 2   a1b2  a2b1 2  a12 a22  b12b22  a12b22  a22b12

 a2
1  
 b12 a22  b22  a12  b12 a12  b12  a1  ib1 a2  ib2  z1 z2

Example 8: Show that z1  z2

2
 z1  z2
2
 2 z1  2
 z2
2
.
Solution: Immediate application of property 6 above, we have

2 2
z1  z2  z1  z2  
  z1  z2  z1  z2   z1  z2  z1  z2 

 
  z1  z2  z1  z 2   z1  z2  z1  z 2  
2 2 2 2
 z1  z1 z 2  z2 z1  z2  z1  z1 z 2  z2 z1  z2


 2 z1
2
 z2
2

8
The Argument
DEFINITION
The argument or amplitude of a complex number z  a  ib , abbreviated arg z , is the angle made
by modulus with the positive real axis and can be determined by the formula
b
arg z    tan 1
a

Note: The argument is defined for all nonzero numbers and is only determined up to an

additive integer multiple of 2 , that is, arg z    2 k k  

Remarks:
1. If the complex number z  0 , then its argument is undefined.
2. If z1  z2 , then z1  z2 and arg z1  arg z2 .

 
3. If arg z  or  , then complex number z is purely imaginary.
2 2
4. If arg z  0 or  , then the complex number z is purely real.

Principal Value of arg z

Observe from the figure above that any given nonzero complex number z the angle  can be
determined only to within an arbitrary integer multiple of 2 , that is, there are infinite set of 

b
values since tan 1 is multi-valued. Consequently, in order to stipulate a unique value of arg z ,
a
we have the following definition.

DEFINITION
The value of  satisfying      is called the principal value of the argument or principal
argument of z and will be written as Arg z .

If we represents the value of Arg z as  , then we have

arg z    Arg z  2k    2k
for k  0 , 1 , 2 , 

Remarks: The value of principal argument depends on the quadrant location in which the
position point  a,b lies. This is depicted in the Argand diagram shown.

b
1. Lies in the 1stquadrant: If a  0 , b  0 , then Arg z  1  tan 1 .
a

b
2. Lies in the 2nd quadrant: If a  0 , b  0 , then Arg z  2    tan 1 .
a

9
 b
3. Lies in the 3rdquadrant: If a  0 , b  0 , then Arg z  3    tan 1 .
a

b
4. Lies in the 4thquadrant: If a  0 , b  0 , then Arg z  3   tan 1 .
a

Example 8: Find the moduli and principal arguments of the following complex numbers:
(a) z1  1  i
(b) z 2  1  i 3

1 
Solution: (a) z1  12  12  2 and Arg z  tan 1  , since the given point lies in the
1 1 4
first quadrant.
2 3 
(b) z2  12   3    2 and Arg z2   tan 1
1
  tan 1 3   , since the
3

given point lies in the fourth quadrant.

Properties of Argument
The following properties are valid.
1. arg z   arg z

2.  
arg z n  n arg z

3. arg  z1 z2   arg z1  arg z2

z 
4. arg  1   arg z1  arg z2
 z2 

5.  
arg z1 z 2  arg z1  arg z2

z  z 
6. If arg  2    , then arg  1   2k   , where k  0 , 1 , 2 ,  .
z
 1  z2 

Proof: We prove property (1) only and leave the proofs of the remaining properties as an
exercise.

10
  b  b
1. arg z  arg  a  ib   arg  a  ib  tan 1     tan   arg z
a
  a
 z z2 
Example 9: If arg z1   and arg z2   , determine arg  1  .
 i 
 
Solution: Using Properties 4 and 1 above, we have
 z z2  
arg  1   arg z1  arg z 2  arg i  arg z1  arg z2  arg i     
 i  2
 

Other Forms of Complex Numbers

The complex number z  x  iy , known as rectangular form, can be positioned as polar
coordinates  r,  instead of its rectangular coordinates  x , y  , it is clear that there is analogous
way to put complex number in other forms.

Referring to Argand diagram above, let r  z , where r  x 2  y2 , then we have x  r cos  and

y  r sin  . Therefore z may expressed as

z  x  iy  r  cos   i sin  

y
where   tan 1 .
x
The complex number z  r  cos   i sin   is known as the trigonometric form and may be
abbreviated as z  rcis .

From advanced courses, it can be shown that

ei  cos   i sin  (Euler’s identity)

where e  2.718
This formula helps us to define another form of a complex number, called the exponential form,
thus we may write

z  r  cos   i sin    rei

where angle  is usually expressed in radians.

11
The polar or Steinmetz form of a complex number z is usually used in circuit analysis and is
written as
z  r
where  is usually expressed in degrees. Recall that the polar coordinates of a point are not
unique, that is, there are an infinite number of polar angles. Here, unless otherwise specified, 
is normally chosen so that 0    2 .
Remarks:
1. In polar form, the conjugate of z  r is z  r   , since cos     cos  and
sin      sin  .
2. Similarly, the conjugate of z in trigonometric and exponential form are

z  r  cos   i sin   and z  re i , respectively.

3. Hence, the conjugate of a complex number in polar or exponential form differs only in the
sign of the angle.

i i
Example 10: (a) If z1  4e 12 then z1  4 e 12 .

(b) If z2  230 then z 2  2  30 .

Thus, there are four ways of writing complex number z and are summarized below. The form to
be used will depend upon the operation which is to be performed.
1. Rectangular form: z  x  iy
2. Trigonometric form: z  r  cos   i sin  
3. Polar or Steinmetz form: z  r
4. Exponential form: z  rei

Remarks: From the practical perspective:

1. Addition and subtraction of complex numbers can be performed easily only when both
numbers are in the in rectangular form.
2. Multiplication and division can be performed conveniently when both numbers are given
in exponential or polar form, but not useful for adding and subtracting unless done
graphically, which is seldom done. This follows directly from the laws of exponents.

Let z1  r1ei1 and z2  r2 ei2 for z2  0 , we have


z1 z2  r1ei1 r e   r r e 
2
i2
1 2
i 1  2 
 r1r2  1  2 

z1 r1ei1 r i   r
  1 e  1 2   1  1  2 
z2 r2 ei2 r2 r2

12
 Expressing the results in trigonometric form, these can be written as

z1 z2  r1r2  cos 1  2   i sin 1  2  

z1 r1
 cos 1  2   i sin 1   2  
z2 r2 

3. Even though both forms are equivalent, the polar form is much more popular because it
is easier to write. Moreover, most scientific calculators have a built-in feature for
converting between rectangular and polar form.

Example 11: Express the following in trigonometric, exponential and polar form:
(a) 9
(b) 4i
(c) 3  i3 3

Solution: (a) 9  9  0i corresponds to the geometric point  9,0  . Here x  9 and

y 0
y  0 , then r  x 2  y2   9 2  02  9 and tan     0 . Since  9,0  is
x 9
on the negative real axis,    or 180 . Thus the required forms of 9 are
Trigonometric form: 9  cos   i sin  

Exponential form: 9ei

Polar form: 9180

(b) 4i  0  4i corresponds to the geometric point  0,4  . Here x  0 and y  4 ,

4
then r  02  42  4 and   tan 1 is undefined. Since  0,4  is on the positive
0


imaginary axis,   or 90 . Thus the required forms of 4i are
2

  
Trigonometric form: 4  cos  i sin 
 2 2

i
Exponential form: 4e 2

Polar form: 490

 
(c) 3  3i 3 corresponds to the geometric point 3,3 3 . Here x  3 and y  3 3 ,

2 3 3 

then r  32  3 3   6 and   tan 1
3

3
or 60 . Thus the required

forms of 3  3i 3 are

13
   
Trigonometric form: 6  cos  i sin 
 3 3

i
Exponential form: 6e 3

Polar form: 660

Example 11: Express the following in rectangular form:

(a) 5  sin 30   i sin 30 


i
(b) 4e 4

(c) 3120
1 3 5 5
Solution: (a) 5 sin30  i cos30   5   i    i 3
2 2  2 2



i     2 2
(b) 4 e 4  4  cos  i sin   4  i   2 2  i2 2
 4 4   2 2
 

 1 3 3 3
(c) 3120  3  cos120  i sin120   3    i     i 3
 2 2  2 2

Example 12: If z1  r1  cos 1  i sin 1  and z2  r2  cos 2  i sin 2  , show that

z1 z2  r1r2  cos 1   2   i sin 1  2   .

Solution: z1 z2   r1  cos 1  i sin 1    r2  cos 2  i sin 2 

 r1r2  cos 1  i sin 1  cos 2  i sin 2 


 r1r2 cos 1 cos 2  i sin 2 cos 1  i sin 1 cos  2  i2 sin 1 sin 2 
 r1r2  cos 1 cos 2  i sin 2 cos 1  i sin 1 cos 2  sin 1 sin 2 

 r1r2   cos 1 cos 2  sin 1 sin 2   i  sin 2 cos 1  sin 1 cos 2  

 r1r2   cos 1 cos 2  sin 1 sin 2   i  sin 1 cos 2  cos 1 sin 2  

z1 z2  r1r2  cos 1   2   i sin 1  2  

Integral Powers of a Complex Number

In the previous discussion, we learned that it is convenient to perform multiplication of complex
numbers by means of polar or exponential. Specifically,

i 1  2 3  n 
z1 z2 z3  zn  r1 ei1 r e  r e r e   r r r r e 
2
i 2
3
i3
n
i n
1 2 3 n

14
In particular, if z1  z2  z3    zn  z  rei , then we have

z  z z  z n  (rei )n  r n ei n

 z 
n times

Using Euler’s formula, we obtain

z n  r n  cos n  i sin n 
, n

Putting r  1 , we have

 cos   i sin  n  cos n  i sin n

which result is well-known as de Moivre’s formula.

de Moivre’s Theorem:
For any integer n ,

 cos   i sin  n  cos n  i sin n

Remark: When n is an integer, de Moivre’s theorem gives a unique value for z n , even
though  is not uniquely determined.

4
Example 13: Find the value of  cos   i sin   .

Solution: Applying de Moivre’s formula, we have

 cos   i sin  4  cos 4  i sin 4

6
     
Example 14: Evaluate cos    i sin    .
  12   12  
Solution: Applying de Moivre’s formula, we have
6
             
cos    i sin     cos  6    i sin  6    cos  i sin  0  i  i
 12
  12
   12   12  2 2

8
Example 15: Find the value of 1  i  .

8
Solution: First, we re-express 1  i  into trigonometric form and then apply de Moivre’s

formula. Thus, we obtain

8
     8
1  i 8  2  cos  i sin    2 cos2  i sin 2   16 1  0   16
  4 4 

Expansions of cosn and sin n as Powers of cos  and sin 

To transform cosn and sin n into powers of cos and sin  , respectively, use the fact that

15
 n
cos n  i sin n   cos   i sin  

and apply the binomial expansion to expand the right-hand-side of the equation and express the
result as
cos n  Re  cos n  i sin n 
sin n  Im  cos n  i sin n 

Example 16: Express cos4 and sin 4 in terms of powers of cos and sin  .

4
Solution: We put cos4  i sin 4   cos   i sin   . Expanding the right-hand-side of the

equation, we have
cos4  i sin4  cos4   4i cos3  sin   6i2 cos2  sin2   4i3 cos sin3   i4 sin4 

  
 cos4   6 cos2  sin 2   sin4   i 4 cos3  sin   4 cos  sin3  
Noting that cos 4  Re  cos 4  i sin 4  and sin 4  Im  cos 4  i sin 4  , we
obtain the required identities
cos4  cos4   6cos2  sin2   sin4 
sin4  4 cos3  sin   4 cos  sin3 

Transforming cosn  and sinn  in terms of Multiples of 

To write the integral power of cos or sin  in terms of multiples of  , we let z  cos  i sin  ,
then
1 1

z cos   i sin 

1 cos   i sin 
 
cos   i sin  cos   i sin 

1
 cos   i sin 
z

Adding and subtracting the two equations, we then have

1
z  2cos  (1)
z

1
z  2i sin  (2)
z

n
From the fact that z n   cos   i sin    cos n  i sin n , we also have

1 1

n cos n  i sin 
z

1 cos n  i sin 
 
cos n  i sin  cos n  i sin 

16
 1
 cos n  i sin n
zn
Again, adding and subtracting these equations, yield
1
zn   2cos n (3)
zn
1
zn   2i sin n (4)
zn
These four equations will aid us to express cos or sin  in terms of multiples of  .

Example 17: Express the following in terms of multiples of  .

(a) cos4  (b) sin4 
Solution: (a) Applying equation (1), we have
4 4
 1 1  1
 2 cos  4  z   or cos4   z 
 z 16  z
Expanding the right-hand-side of the equation, gives
1  4 4 1 
cos4   2
 z  4z  6  2  4 
16  z z 

1  4 1   2 1  
  z  4   4z  2   6
16  z   z  
Using equation (3), the right-hand-side of the equation above becomes
1
cos4   2 cos 4  4  2 cos 2   6 
16 

1 1 3
cos4   cos 4  cos 2 
8 2 8

(b) Applying equation (2), we have

4 4
 1 1  1
 2i sin  4  z   or sin4   4 
z 
 z 16i  z
Expanding the right-hand-side of the equation, gives
1  4 4 1 
sin 4   2
 z  4z  6  2  4 
16  z z 

1  4 1   2 1  
  z  4   4  z  2   6
16  z   z  
Using equation (4), the right-hand-side of the equation above becomes
1
sin 4    2 cos 4   4  2 cos 2   6 
16 

1 1 3
sin 4   cos 4  cos 2 
8 2 8

17
Roots of Complex Numbers
Consider the equation,

  n z for positive integer n  2 (1)

We call any solution of equation (1) an nth root of the complex number z . We can write this as

z1/ n  (rei )n  [re 

i  2k  n
]  rn e 
i  / n  i  2k /n 
e

where k  0 , 1 , 2 , 3 ,  Observe that the factor r n ei  / n  takes on a unique value for any
choice of k . However, the factor ei  2k / n  takes on n distinct values for different choices of k .
Hence, the z1/n has exactly n different roots.

Theorem on Roots of Complex Numbers

If z  rei is a nonzero complex and   0,2  , then z has exactly n different roots 0 , 1 , 2 ,

 , n1 . These roots are given by

    2k     2k  n    2k 

k  n r cos    i sin  n   r  n 
  n     
for k  0 , 1 ,  , n  1 . This gives the roots of the equation  n  z .

Proof: Employing de Moivre’s theorem to k , we have

n
     2k     2k   n     2k     2k  
k n
 n r cos 
   n   i sin 
  n   
 
 r
n
cos n 
  n   i sin n 
  n 


 r  cos   2k   i sin   2k    r  cos   i sin  

The right-hand-side follows from the periodicity of sin  and cos functions. Therefore,
k is an nth root of z .

Remarks: 1. If we put k  n , n  1 ,  , we find the values of k is repeated all over again.

2. Geometrically, the roots are the vertices of a regular n -polygon inscribed in a
n
circle with center at the origin and radius r .

The Principal Root

DEFINITION
The principal root of the complex number z is a complex number k nearest to the positive x -
axis and is given by

18
  
0  n r    for k  0 .
n
 
4
Example 18: Find all 1  i and represent them in the complex plane.

Solution: We seek for 4 distinct roots for the fourth roots of 1  i , namely, 0 , 1 , 2 and

3 . First, we compute for r and  , we then have r  12  12  2 and

1
  tan 1  45 . Thus the roots are computed as follows.
1

 45 
For k  0 : 0  4 2   6
  211.25  1.101  i0.219
 4 

 45  360  6
For k  1 : 1  4 2     2101.25  0.219  i1.001
 4 

 45  720  6
For k  2 : 2  4 2     2191.25  1.101  i0.219
 4 

 45  1080  6
For k  3 : 3  4 2     2281.25  0.219  i1.101
 4 
Using rectangular coordinates, the geometric representations of the roots 0 , 1 ,
2 and 3 are

P0 1.101,0.219  , P1  0.219,1.001  , P2  1.101, 0.219  , P3  0.219, 1.001 

The resulting square P0 P1 P2 P3 is shown on the Argand diagram below.

4
Note: Observe that the root 0  1.101  i0.219 is the principal root of 1i .

Cube Roots of Unity

If  is the cube root of 1, then it is equivalent to  3  1 . Then, we proceed as
3  1  0

  1  2    1  0

19
Implies   1  0 or  2    1  0 . Therefore, either   1 or  2    1  0 . By Quadratic
Formula we have

1  1  4 1  3 1 3
    i
2 2 2 2

1 3
The roots   i are commonly known as complex cube roots of unity,   1 . Thus, the cube
2 2

1 3 1 3
roots of unity are: 1 ,   i ,  i .
2 2 2 2
Remark: One of the cube roots of unity is real and the other two are two conjugate complex
numbers.

Theorem:
If  is a complex cube root of 1, then  2 is also a complex cube root of 1.

2
1 3  1 3 1 3 1 3
Proof 1: If     i , then  2     i     i or if     i , then

2 2  2 2  2 2 2 2

2
 1 3 1 3
2     i    i . Hence  2 is also a complex cube root of 1.
 2 
 2 2 2

1 3
Note: Similar result holds, if     i .
2 2
Proof 2: If  is a complex cube root of 1 implies that  3  1 . Then, we have

( 2 )3  ( 3 )2  1

Remark: Therefore, in terms of  , the cube roots of unity are represented by 1 ,  ,  2 .

Properties Cube Roots of Unity

The following properties are valid.
1. 1    2  0
2
2.    2 and    

3. 2  1
4. For any positive integer n ,  3n  1 ,  3n1   and  3n 1   2
5. The product of the cube roots of unity is 1, i.e. 1     2  1 .
1 1
6. Each complex cube root of unity is the reciprocal of the other, i.e.   2 or .
 2
7.    3 ,   e2 i /3 ,   e 2 i/3

20
8.  and  2 are the roots of x 2  x  1  0 .
a 1
9. A complex number a  ib , in which  or 3 , can always be expressed in terms of i ,
b 3

 or  2 .
10. The cube roots of unity when represented on the Argand diagram lie on the vertices of an
equilateral triangle inscribed in a unit circle, having center at the origin, One vertex lies on
positive real axis.

Proof: We prove properties (1), (2) and (10) and leave the proofs of the remaining
properties as an exercise.

1 3
1. If     i , then
2 2

2
 1 3  1 3  1 3  1 3
1    2  1     i      i   1     i      i   0
 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
       

1 3
Conversely, if     i , then
2 2

2
2
 1 3  1 3  1 3  1 3
1    1    i      i   1     i      i   0
 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
       

Thus, 1     2  0 .

1 3 1 3
2. From the results of proof (1), we have     i and  2    i . This implies
2 2 2 2
  2
1 3
Using the fact that     i , we have
2 2

2
2  1 3  1 3
     i
 2      i
2 

2 
  2

10. The Argand diagram shown in the right

demonstrates the cube roots of unity as
vertices of an equilateral triangle inscribed in
a unit circle, having center at the origin. The
two roots appear as conjugate pair.

21
Example 19: If a  b  c 2  0 , show that a  b  c , a,b,c   .

Solution: Applying Property (2) to the given equation, we have a  b  c  0 . If we let

1 3
   i , the equation becomes
2 2
 1 3  1 3
a  b   i   c    i   0
 2 2 2 2
   
1 3
a b  c   i b  c   0
2 2
Equating real terms and imaginary terms, respectively, gives a pair of equation

1
a b  c   0 or 2a  b  c  0 (1)
2

3
b  c   0 or bc (2)
2
Solving the above systems, we obtain
a bc
Example 20: If  is the complex cube root of 1, determine the value of  4   8 .

2
Solution:  
Write  4   8  w 3   2  3   . Since  3  1 , then

4   8    2
Adding 1 to both sides of the equation and Property 1, we then have
4  8  1    2  1  0
Hence, we find  4   8  1 .

nth Roots of Unity

The roots of the equation z n  1 are called nth roots of unity. To find the nth roots of unity, we
write z  11/ n . Since 1  cos0  i sin 0 , then
1/n 1/ n
z  11/ n   cos 0  i sin 0    cos2k  i sin 2k  ,

then it follows from de Moivre’s theorem, we get

k
2k  i 2 
2k 2k i
z  cos  i sin e n  e n  , k  0 , 1, 2,  , n  1
n n  
 

Remarks:
2
1. If we let   e n , then the nth roots unity in terms of  are 1,  ,  2 ,  3 ,  ,  n1 .

22
 2. If n  3 , then the roots of the equation z 3  1 are the cube roots of unity, that is, 1 ,  ,
2 .

Properties of nth Roots of Unity

The following properties are satisfied.
1. The nth roots unity, namely, 1 ,  ,  2 ,  3 ,  ,  n1 are in geometric progression.
2. The sum of these roots is zero, i.e., 1     2   3     n 1  0 .
n1
3. The product of these roots is  1 .

Example 21: Find the four fourth roots of unity in the form of ei .
Solution: Applying the formula, the four fourth roots of unity are
 3
i i
1 , e 2 , e i and e 2 or 1 , i , 1 and i

Example 22: Find the solutions of 8z3  27 .

Solution: Take the cube roots of both sides of the equation; keep in mind to multiply one
side of the resulting equation by each one of the three cube roots of unity, taken
3
one at time. In this manner, it is convenient to multiply 27 by three cube roots.
Then, we have
2z  3 1  3
3
We learned that 1 has the following values:
2 4
3
i
3
i 1 3 1 3
1, e and e or 1,   i ,  i
2 2 2 2
3
When 1  1 , we have
3
2z  3 or z
2

3 1 3
When 1   i , we have
2 2
 1 3 3 3 3
2z     i
 2  3  or z i
 2  4 4

3 1 3
When 1   i , we have
2 2
 1 3 3 3 3
2z     i
 2  3  or z i
 2  4 4

3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Hence the solutions are ,  i ,  i .
2 4 4 4 4

4
Example 23: Find the solutions of 16z 4   z  2 .

23
Solution: Take the fourth roots of both sides of the equation and bear in mind to multiply
one side of the resulting equation by each one of the four fourth roots of unity,
taken one at time. Then, we have
 24 1
2z  4 1  z  2  or z
2 41

From Example 21, we learned that 4 1 has the following values:

1 , i , 1 and i
4
When 1  1 , we have
2
z  2
2 1
4
When 1  i , we have
2i 2 4
z  i
2 i 5 5
4
When 1  1 , we have
2  1 2
z 
2   1  3
4
When 1  i , we have
2  i  2i 2 4
z   i
2   i  2i 5 5

2 4 2 2 4
Hence the solutions are 2 , i , , i .
5 5 3 5 5

Analytic Geometry of Complex Numbers

We learned that we can associate complex number z  x  iy as an ordered pair of real numbers
 x , y  . Using this information, we can relate this to some standards results and equations found
in Analytic Geometry. The proofs of the subsequent formulas are obtained following the same
ideas we learned from our earlier mathematics. We prove (1), (3), (5) and (14) leave the proofs of
the remaining formulas as an exercise.

1. Distance Formula
The distance between z1 and z2 is given by
d  z1  z 2
Proof: Let z1  x1  iy1   x1 , y1  and
z2  x 2  iy2   x 2 , y2  , then the distance
between these points is given by distance
formula

d  x1  x 2 2   y1  y2 2   x1  x2   i  y1  y2    x1  iy1    x2  iy2   z1  z2

24
2. Division of Line Segment
(a) The point P  z  which divides the segment P1 P2
joining points P1  z  and P2  z  internally in the
ratio m : n is given by
mz2  nz1
z
mn

(b) The point z which divides the segment P1 P2

externally in the ratio m : n is given by
mz2  nz1
z
mn

3. Midpoint Formula
The midpoint z which divides the segment P1 P2 is
given by
z1  z2
z
2
Proof: We use the result of 2(a) and setting m  n
, we then have
mz2  nz1 z1  z2
z 
mn 2
4. Parallelogram
If z1  z3  z2  z4 , then the four points z1 , z2 , z3
and z4 represent the vertices of a parallelogram.

Proof: To prove that the four points z1 , z2 , z3

and z4 represent the vertices of a
parallelogram, we need to show that
opposite sides formed with these
vertices are equal in length, that is,
z1  z2  z4  z3 and z1  z4  z2  z3
The equation z1  z3  z2  z4 is equivalent to
z1  z2  z4  z3 and z1  z4  z2  z3
Taking the modulus of both sides of the systems of equations, we have
z1  z2  z4  z3 and z1  z4  z2  z3

25
 Thus, the given four points z1 , z2 , z3 and z4 represent the vertices of a
parallelogram.

5. Centroid
The centroid z of the triangle having vertices z1 , z2 and
z3 is given by

z1  z2  z3
z
3

6. Incenter

The incenter z of the triangle having vertices

A  z1  , B  z2  and C  z3  is given by

az1  bz2  cz3

z
a b  c
where a , b and c are respective sides BC , CA
and AB of the given triangle.

7. Circumcenter
The circumcenter z of the triangle having vertices
A  z1  , B  z2  and C  z3  is given by

2
z1 z1 1
2
z2 z1 1
2
z3 z3 1 z1 sin 2 A  z2 sin 2 B  z3 sin 2C
z 
z1 z1 1 sin 2 A  sin 2 B  sin 2C
z2 z2 1
z3 z3 1

8. Orthocenter
The orthocenter z of a triangle having vertices
A  z1  , B  z2  and C  z3  is given by

2
z12 z1 1 z1 z1 1
2
z22 z 2 1  z2 z2 1
z32 z3 1 z3
2
z3 1
z
z1 z1 1
z2 z2 1
z3 z3 1
z1 tan A  z2 tan B  z3 tan C

tan A  tan B  tan C

26
 or
z1  a sec A   z2  b sec B   z3  c sec C 
z
a sec A  b sec B  c sec C
9. Area of a Triangle
The area of a triangle with vertices z1 , z2 and z3 is given
by

z1 z1 1
i
A  z2 z2 1
4
z3 z3 1

10. Equilateral Triangle

The triangle with vertices z1 , z2 and z3 forms an equilateral triangle if and only if

1 z1 z3
z12  z22  z32  z1 z2  z2 z3  z3 z1 or 1 z2 z1  0
1 z3 z2

11. Complex Slope of a Line

The slope of the line joining the points z1 and z2 is given by

z1  z2
m
z1  z 2

12. Equation of a Straight Line

(a) The equation of the line making an angle  with the
real axis is given by
arg z  

(b) The equation of the line passing through a fixed

point z0 and making an angle  with the real
axis is given by
arg  z  z0   

(c) The equation of a straight line joining the points

z1 and z2 is given by

27
 z z 1
z  z2 z  z1
 or z1 z1 1  0
z2  z1 z 2  z1
z2 z2 1

(d) The equation of a straight line joining the points z1 and z2 in parametric form is given
by
z  tz1  1  t  z2 , t 0
(e) The general form of a straight line is given by
az  az  b  0
where a is a complex number and b a real number. Here the complex slope m of the
a
line is  .
a

13. Perpendicular Distance From a Line to a Point

The perpendicular distance from a point z0 to the line

az  az  b  0 , where a is a complex number and b a

real number is given by

az0  az 0  b
D
2a

14. Equation of a Circle

(a) The equation of a circle with center at z0 and radius r
is given by
z  z0  r or zz  az  az  b  0 , where

2
a  z0 and b  z0  r2

Proof: To prove the first equation, we let z0  x 0  iy0   x0 , y0  and z  x  iy   x , y  ,

then the distance r is

r  x  x 0 2   y  y0 2   x  x0   i  y  y0    x  iy    x 0  iy0   z  z0

Thus, z  z0  r .

To prove the second equation, we take the square of both sides of the equation of

2
the first, to get z  z0  r2 .

Now,  z  z0   z  z 0   zz  z0 z  z 0 z  z0 z 0  zz  z0 z  z 0 z  z0 2  r2

28
 Then, zz  z0 z  z 0 z  z0  2

 r 2  0 . Letting a  z0 and b  z0
2
 r 2 , we have

zz  az  az  b  0

2 2
Here, the center is  a and r  z0 b  a b .

(b) The equation of the circle having z1 and z2 as the end

points of diameter is given by

 z  z1   z  z 2    z  z2   z  z1   0
Proof: If z1 and z2 as the end points of diameter, then

z1  z2
its center is z0  and its radius is
2

1
r z1  z2 . Since z  z0  r , we have
2

 z  z2  1
z  1   z1  z2 or 2z  z1  z2  z1  z2
 2  2
Squaring both sides, we have

2 2
2z  z1  z2  z1  z2 or  2z  z1  z2  2z  z1  z2    z1  z2  z1  z2 
Simplifying, we get

 2z  z1  z2   2z  z1  z 2    z1  z2   z1  z 2 

4 zz  2zz1  2zz 2  2z1 z  z1 z1  z1 z 2  2z2 z  z2 z1  z2 z 2  z1 z1  z1 z 2  z2 z1  z2 z 2

4 zz  2zz1  2zz 2  2z1 z  z1 z 2  2z2 z  z2 z1   z1 z 2  z2 z1
4 zz  2zz1  2zz 2  2z1 z  2z1 z 2  2z2 z  2z2 z1  0
2zz  zz1  zz 2  z1 z  z1 z 2  z2 z  z2 z1  0

 zz  zz 2  z1 z  z1 z 2    zz  zz1  z2 z  z2 z1   0
Thus,  z  z1   z  z 2    z  z2   z  z1   0
(c) If z1 and z2 are two fixed points, then

2 2 2
z  z1  z  z2  z1  z2 represents a circle with z1

and z2 as extremities of a diameter. Note that z , z1

and z2 forms a right angled triangle.

29
 (d) The equation of a circle passing through three non-
collinear points z1 , z2 and z3 is given by

 z  z1  z3  z2   z  z1  z3  z 2 

 z  z2  z3  z1   z  z 2  z3  z1 

15. Condition for Concyclic Points

Four points z1 , z2 , z3 and z4 will lie on the same circle if

 z4  z1  z3  z2  is purely real.
 z4  z2  z3  z1 

z  z1
16. Let z1 and z2 be the two fixed points, then k
z  z2

represents an:
(a) Equation of the perpendicular bisector of line joining
points z1 and z2 for k  1 .
(b) Equation of the circle k  0 and k  1 .

17. Let P1  z1  and P2  z2  be the two fixed points and k  0 , then z  z1  z  z2  k

corresponds to:
(a) An equation of an ellipse with foci at P1  z1  and P2  z2  and length of major axis is k for
k  z1  z2 .
(b) An equation of a line joining P1  z1  and P2  z2  for k  z1  z 2 .
(c) Does not represent any curve in the Argand diagram for k  z1  z2 .
(d) An equation of a hyperbola with foci at P1  z1  and P2  z2  for k  z1  z2 .
(e) A straight line joining the points P1  z1  and P2  z2  but excluding the segment P1 P2 .

Example 24: Describe and draw the graph of z  3  2i  4 .

Solution: It is a circle with center  3,2  and radius 3. The
graph is shown in the right.


Example 25: Describe and draw the graph of arg  z  1  .
4
Solution: It is a straight line passing through a fixed point


1,0  and making an angle with the real axis.
4
The graph is shown in the right.

30
Example 26: Describe and draw the graph of z  2  z  3i .
Solution: It is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining
2 to 3i .

Example 27: Describe and draw the graph of z  12  2 z  12i .

z  12
Solution: Rewrite the given as  2 , then
z  12i

k  2 . Since k  2 , thus the given

equation is a circle. To find the circle,
we find out two points which it
intersects the line joining z1 and z2 ,
in which z1  12 and z2  12i .
Setting z  x  iy , we have

 x  iy   12  2  x  iy   12i or  x  12   iy  2x  i  2 y  24 

Solving, we get 12  24i and 4  8i . These two points make out the diameter of

the circle. Thus, the center is z0 

 12  24i    4  4i   4  16i and has radiu
2

r  4  4 2   4  16 2  4 13 .

Therefore, its equation is z  4  14i  4 13 . The graph is shown in the right.

31