ChE 102 Chemistry for Engineers Review

Avogadro’s number: 6.022x1023

1 mole = 6.022x1023 units (can be atoms, molecules, etc.)

Empirical formula: relative number of atoms in a molecule

Molecular formula: actual number of atoms in a molecule

Solving empirical/molecular formula type questions:

- Find moles of each element

- Divide the moles obtained by the lowest number  empirical formula
actual molecular mass
- If molecular mass is known, will gives you the actual
empirical molecular mass
ratio

Stoichiometric Calculations: use balanced equations, to calculate the proportions of

atoms in a molecule or the proportions of products and reactants in a given chemical
reaction

Solving stoich questions:

- Find moles of each reactant or product if it is given

- Look at the balanced equation for mole ratio between compounds
- Multiply or divide according to the ratio to find unknown
- Limiting reactant will be the reactant that has the lowest number when you
divide the actual moles of the compound by the stoich coefficient
o Example: 2H2 + O2  2H2O
4 moles of hydrogen gas and 4 moles of oxygen gas
4moles / 2 = 2 moles hydrogen
4 moles/1 = 4 moles  oxygen
Hydrogen has a lower number: 2, therefore hydrogen is the limiting
reactant

moles of one species

Mole fraction:
total number of moles
moles of solute
Molality:
kg of solvent
moles of solute
Molarity:
litres of solvent
ChE 102 Chemistry for Engineers Review

%(v/v) means volume percent, ie. ml per ml

%(w/v) – gram per ml

%(w/w) – weight percent ie. gram per gram

Solvent: the compound present in the largest amount

Solute: the compound present in smaller amount

Percent yield: the ratio of the actual yield (what is actually produced from the reaction)
to the theoretical yield (how much is supposed to be produced)

Pressure of a gas: force resulting from the collision of the gas molecules against the
walls of the container / area of the walls of the container
P= ρgh
nC
Boyle’s Law: V = at constant temperature
P

Charles’ Law: V =V 0 [ T (K )¿¿¿ c ] c = 273.15 at small pressures

From the two equations above, PV = nRT can be deduced

R = 8.314 J/mol K or 0.08206 L atm/mol K

Ideal Gas: no intermolecular forces between gas molecules, no molecular volume

Dalton’s Law: P = PA + PB

PA = yA P  partial pressure = mole fraction of gas A * total pressure

For air and other gas mixtures, you can use the average molar mass to calculate the
density:
m
PV =nRT = RT
Ḿ

m P Ḿ
ρ= =
V RT
When calculating average molar mass for a mixture, use yA*MA + yB*MB or mole fraction
of A multiply by the molar mass of A + …

 Study example 5 in Lesson 7*

ChE 102 Chemistry for Engineers Review

KMT – Kinetic Molecular Theory

- A gas is composed of a very large number of small particles in constant, random,

straight-line motion
- Gas is mostly empty space
- Molecules collide with one another and with the container wall
- No intermolecular forces
- Energy of the entire gas remains constant  elastic collisions

1 2 N 3 RT
Mean-square speed of the gas molecules: (from P= m ú )
3 V
urms =
√ M

2 RT
Most probable speed: ump =
√ M

8 RT
Average speed: uav =
√ πM
Non-ideal gases: calculate the compressibility factor (Z = PVm/RT)

Van der Waals equation:

RT a
P= −
V m −b V m2

The constant a accounts for the intermolecular forces; the constant b accounts for the
volume of the molecules

Phase Equilibrium: the phases are stable, nothing is being changed

Vapour Pressure: pressure measured at phase equilibrium

B
Antoine’s equation: log Pvap =A−
C+ T

When system absorbs heat, enthalpy increases; when system gives off heat, enthalpy
decreases

Heat of reaction: ∆ H =∑ H ( products )−∑ H (reactants)

Clausius Clapeyron equation: use it to find vapour pressure at different temperatures

Pvap 2 ∆ H vap 1 1
ln
[ ]
Pvap 1
=
R
( −
T1 T2
)
ChE 102 Chemistry for Engineers Review

Henry’s Law: applies to gas-liquid solutions, ki is Henry’s constant, normally it will be

given in the question
Pi=k i xi
- Increase the pressure of the solution will increase the concentration of the gas
- Increase k will decrease the solubility of the gas in the liquid
- Henry’s law can also be Ci =k i P(Ci is volume of gas dissolved in volume of
liquid, unit: mL gas/L solvent)

Raoult’s Law: applies to liquid/liquid or liquid/solid solutions

Pi = xiPvap,i

- Partial pressure is equal to mole fraction * vapour pressure at a certain

temperature
- For solid/liquid solutions, total pressure is equal to the partial pressure of the
liquid because pressure exerted by solid is negligible
- Solutions that obey Henry’s and Raoult’s laws are considered ideal solutions
(only DILUTE solutions) that possess colligative properties:
o Vapour-pressure lowering
o Boiling-point elevation
o Freezing-point depression
o Osmotic pressure
1) Vapour Pressure Lowering:
- ∆P1 = P – Pvap,1 = x1 Pvap,1 – Pvap,1 = - (1 – x1) Pvap,1 = - x2 Pvap,1
- This can be related to the molar masses:
n2 m2 /M 2
ΔP 1=−
( )
n2 + n1
Pvap , 1 =−
( ) P
m2 / M 2 + m1 /M 1 vap ,1
- This equation can be used to estimate the molar mass of an unknown solid
dissolved in a known liquid of known vapour pressure function Pvap(T)
2) Boiling Point Elevation:
- Normal boiling point is when the vapour pressure reaches 1 atm
- Solid/liquid solution have a vapour pressure lower than the pure liquid
- Therefore, the temperature will be increased to make it reach 1 atm
- For very dilute solutions: 1 n2 1 m 2 / M 2
ΔT b = =
S n1 S m 1 / M 1

m2 /M 2
ΔT b =K b
( m1 /(1000 g/kg ) )
- Ultimately it can be simplified to ∆Tb = Kbm
- To account for dissociation of some compounds, the equation becomes ∆Tb =
iKbm
- i is the number of particles released per unit of solute
ChE 102 Chemistry for Engineers Review

3) Freezing Point Depression

- ∆Tf = -iKf m
4) Osmotic pressure: π=ρgh
n
Van’t Hoff’s Equation: π =cRT = 2 RT
V

Chemical Equilibrium:

- Rate of forward reaction = rate of reverse reaction

- The equilibrium constant Kc is constant at a given temperature, i.e. the initial
concentration does not matter, it will establish the same equilibrium at that
temperature
- If Kc is large, it means the concentration of the product is higher than the
concentration of the reactant
- Adding more of reactant or product will cause the equilibrium to shift, adding
more reactant  reaction shifts to produce more product; adding more product
 reaction shifts to produce more reactant
- For gas equilibrium, Kp is used where it is the quotient of the products pressure /
reactants pressure
- To convert Kc to Kp:
a+b−c−d −a−b+c +d
- K c =K p ×RT ⇔ K p =K c ×RT
- Concentrations of pure solid or liquid is not included in the equilibrium constant
calculations
- Equilibrium calculation questions:
o Use “ICE” table: A  B + C

I (initial) 1 0 0
C (change) -x +x +x
E (equilibrium) 1-x x x
- Reaction Quotient is calculated the same way as the equilibrium constant but at
non-equilibrium concentrations
- Qc < Kc : reaction shifts to the product side
- Qc > Kc: reaction shifts to the reactant side
- Le Chatelier’s Principle:
o Increase concentration of reactant  reaction proceeds to the product
side
o Increase concentration of product  reaction proceeds to the reactant
side
o Adding inert gas to constant volume, equilibrium is not changed
o Increase volume  reaction shifts to the side with more molecules
ChE 102 Chemistry for Engineers Review

o Decrease volume  reaction shifts to the side with less molecules

o Increase pressure  reaction shifts to the side with less molecules
o Decrease pressure  reaction shifts to the side with more molecules
o For exothermic reactions: adding heat  shifts to the reactant side;
removing heat  shifts to the product side
o For endothermic reactions: adding heat  shifts to the product side;
removing heat  shifts to the reactant side
- Van’t Hoff’s equation can be used to find equilibrium constants at different
Kc
temperature: ΔH 1 1
-
ln
2
Kc
1
=
R ( T1
−
T2 )
- Solubility constant Ksp is for dissolution reactions, instead of concentration,
solubility is used in the calculation

Electrochemistry:

- Oxidation state:
o The OS of an individual atom in a free element is 0: l, Cl2, N2, O2, O
o The total of the OS of all atoms in a neutral species is 0: H2O (H: +1, O: -2)
o The total of the OS of all atoms in an ion equals the charge of the ion: Fe3+
(Fe: +3), MnO4- (Mn: +7, O: -2)
o Group 1 metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) have OS = +1
o Group 2 metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra) have OS = +2
o F has OS = -1
o In group 17, Cl, Br, I, and At have OS = -1 except when combined with
with oxygen and other halogens
o H has OS = +1, except when bonded to metals when its OS = -1 (LiH, for
instance)
o O has OS = -2, except for peroxides (H2O2 and N2O2 where OS = -1 for O)
or when combined with F (OF2 where OS = +2 for O)
o In binary compounds with metals:
o group 17 elements (F, Cl, Br, I, At) have OS = -1
o group 16 elements (O, S, Se, Te, Po) have OS = -2
o group 15 elements (N, P, As, Sb, Bi) have OS = -3
o All the other OS are selected to make the algebraic sum of the oxidation
numbers equal to the net charge of the molecule or ion
- “LEO”the lion says “GER” : Losing Electron Oxidation, Gaining Electron
Reduction
- Balancing redox reactions:
ChE 102 Chemistry for Engineers Review

o Write separate half-reactions for oxidation and reduction

o Balance all atoms, except H and O
o Balance O atoms by adding H2O
o Balance of H atoms:
o For Acidic medium: Add H+ to the hydrogen-deficient side
o For Basic medium: Add H2O to the hydrogen-deficient side and OH- to the
other side
o Balance charges by adding e-
o Add the 2 half-reactions to cancel e-
o The final equation should be balanced for both number of atoms and
electrical charges
- Galvanic Cells:
o Oxidation  anode  negative charge
o Reduction  cathode  positive charge
o Electrons flow from anode to cathode
o Charge of a single electron: e = 1.6021773 x 10-19 C (coulombs)
o Charge of one mole of electrons (Faraday constant):
F = (6.022137 x 1023 mol-1) (1.6021773 x 10-19 C) = 96,485.31 C mol-1
Q coulombs
I=
t [ second
=ampere ( A )
]
It total charge passing the circuit
n= =
F charge of a mole of electrons
- Standard Cell Potential Eocell is at 1 atm for gases, 1 M for solutions, and 25℃
o Positive cell potential means reaction is spontaneous
o Half-cell potentials are assigned to a half-cell only.
o When two half-cells are combined to form a galvanic cell, the standard
cell potential of the resulting galvanic cell can be calculated from the
knowledge of the two half-cell potentials.
- The Nernst Equation: 0 RT
Ecell =E cell − ln Q
nF
o R gas constant, 8.3145 J mol-1 K-1
o T temperature in K
o F Faraday constant, 96485 C
o Q reaction quotient
o n number of electrons transferred in the reaction as written
o Nernst Equation at 298 K: 0 0. 0592
Ecell =E cell − logQ
n
ChE 102 Chemistry for Engineers Review

o Nernst Equation when equilibrium is reached:

RT
0=E0cell − ln K c
nF
nF
(
K c =exp E 0cell
RT )
- Electrolytic Cell
o Galvanic cell occurring in the reverse reaction, non-spontaneous
o Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis: “The number of moles of material oxidized or
reduced at an electrode is related by the stoichiometry of the electrode reaction
to the amount of electricity passed through the cell.” Basically means the
electrons are in stoich ratio.