MEANING OF RESEARCH

"Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge."

 Explanation: Research is fundamentally about seeking knowledge and understanding.
It's a broad term used for discovering new information.
"Once can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic."
 Explanation: Research involves a structured and organized approach to find relevant
information on a specific subject.
"It is actually a voyage of discovery."
 Explanation: Research is not just about finding answers but about exploring the
unknown and learning through the process of discovery.
"Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical
sense."
 Explanation: Research is formal and methodical, and should be treated with precision
and in an academic context when discussing its process.
"Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making
for its advancement."
 Explanation: Research adds new information, insights, or theories that improve or
expand existing knowledge.
"The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the formulation of a theory is
also research."
 Explanation: Research involves creating general principles and theories based on
collected data and systematic analysis.
"As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating
the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts
and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the
concerned problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation."
 Explanation: Research follows a methodical process: identifying a problem,
proposing a hypothesis, gathering and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. This
can lead to solving a problem or generating new theories.
The paragraph mentions the following names and their contributions:
1. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English
o Contribution: Defines research as "a careful investigation or inquiry specially
through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge."
2. Redman and Mory
 o Contribution: Define research as "a systematized effort to gain new
knowledge."
3. Clifford Woody
o Contribution: Describes research as involving defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting and organizing data, making
deductions, and testing conclusions.
4. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson
o Contribution: In the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, they define research as
"the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge
aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art."
5. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or achieve new insights
o Type of Study: Exploratory or Formulative Research
o Key Point: This objective aims at understanding or exploring something that is
not well known yet.
6. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or
group
o Type of Study: Descriptive Research
o Key Point: The focus here is on detailing and describing the characteristics of
a subject.
7. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or is associated with
something else
o Type of Study: Diagnostic Research
o Key Point: This objective looks at the occurrence or correlation of events,
identifying patterns or relationships.
8. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
o Type of Study: Hypothesis-Testing Research
o Key Point: The goal is to test and verify if one factor causes a change in
another factor.

To Remember: You can associate each objective with its type of study (exploratory,
descriptive, diagnostic, hypothesis-testing) and focus on what each aims to uncover: new
insights, accurate portrayal, frequency or relationships, and causal connections.

Motivations in research
1. Desire to get a research degree and its benefits
o Key Point: Many undertake research to earn a degree, along with the career
and personal benefits that come with it.
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving unsolved problems
o Key Point: Practical problems or real-world challenges drive people to engage
in research, seeking solutions for unresolved issues.
3. Desire to experience the intellectual joy of doing creative work
 o Key Point: The satisfaction of creating something new or contributing
intellectually can be a strong motivator.
4. Desire to be of service to society
o Key Point: Some are motivated by the opportunity to contribute to society by
solving important issues through their research.
5. Desire to gain respectability
o Key Point: Conducting research may bring recognition, esteem, or prestige in
academic or professional circles.
Additional Motivations: Other factors include government directives, employment
conditions, curiosity, the desire to understand causal relationships, and social thinking or
awakening.
To Remember: The motivations can be personal (e.g., career benefits, intellectual joy,
respectability) or driven by a sense of duty or curiosity (e.g., solving problems, serving
society, understanding new things).
TYPES OF RESEARCH:
Descriptive vs. Analytical
 Descriptive Research: Focuses on describing the situation as they currently exist.
Includes surveys and fact-finding studies. It cannot control variables and only reports
what happens or has happened (e.g., Ex post facto research).
 Analytical Research: Uses existing data to analyze and evaluate information
critically. The researcher assesses facts or data to draw conclusions.
Applied vs. Fundamental (Basic/Pure) Research
 Applied Research: Aimed at solving immediate, practical problems in society or
business (e.g., market research, social problem-solving).
 Fundamental Research: Focuses on generating knowledge for theoretical
understanding, such as understanding human behavior or natural phenomena. It adds
to the body of scientific knowledge without a specific practical application.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
 Quantitative Research: Deals with measurable data and aims at quantifying
variables. It focuses on numerical analysis (e.g., surveys, statistical studies).
 Qualitative Research: Focuses on understanding the quality or nature of a
phenomenon, often through methods like interviews and case studies (e.g., motivation
research, attitude research). It aims to explore underlying reasons and motivations,
often in behavioral sciences.
Conceptual vs. Empirical
 Conceptual Research: Focuses on abstract concepts or theories. It is often used by
philosophers and theorists to develop new concepts or reinterpret existing ones.
  Empirical Research: Based on direct observation or experimentation. It uses data
and experiments to verify hypotheses, with control over variables to establish causal
relationships.
Other Types of Research
 One-Time vs. Longitudinal Research: One-time research is conducted at a single
point in time, while longitudinal research spans multiple time periods.
 Field-Setting vs. Laboratory Research: Field-setting research takes place in natural
environments, while laboratory research is conducted in controlled settings.
 Clinical/Diagnostic Research: Uses case-study methods and deep probing to study
causal relationships in small samples.
 Exploratory vs. Formalized Research: Exploratory research aims at developing
hypotheses, while formalized research tests specific hypotheses.
 Historical Research: Involves studying past events or ideas using historical sources
to understand the past’s influence.
 Conclusion-Oriented vs. Decision-Oriented Research: Conclusion-oriented
research is flexible, with the researcher exploring various paths. Decision-oriented
research focuses on providing answers for decision-making purposes, often in
business contexts (e.g., operations research).
Research Approaches and Significance
Research Approaches
The approaches to research can be broadly classified into two categories: quantitative
and qualitative. Each has distinct characteristics, methods, and applications.
1. Quantitative Approach
 Definition: This approach focuses on generating data in quantitative form, which
can be rigorously analyzed in a formal and structured manner.
 Sub-classifications:
o Inferential Approach:
 Purpose: To form a database for inferring characteristics or
relationships of the population.
 Methods: Typically involves surveys, where a sample is studied
(questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics. Findings
from the sample are then generalized to the population.
o Experimental Approach:
 Characterized by greater control over the research environment.
 Involves manipulating certain variables to observe their effect on
others.
 o Simulation Approach:
 Creates an artificial environment where relevant data can be
generated.
 Purpose: To observe the dynamic behavior of a system or its sub-
systems under controlled conditions.
 In business and social sciences, simulation refers to using
numerical models to represent the structure of dynamic processes.
 Example: Running simulations with specific initial conditions to
predict system behavior over time.
2. Qualitative Approach
 Definition: This approach is concerned with subjective assessments of attitudes,
opinions, and behavior.
 Nature: Results are non-quantitative and not subjected to rigorous numerical
analysis.
 Techniques Used:
o Focus Group Interviews: Gathering insights through group discussions.
o Projective Techniques: Using indirect methods to uncover hidden feelings
or motivations (e.g., word association, sentence completion).
o Depth Interviews: Conducting in-depth conversations to explore
underlying motives or behaviors.
 Applications: Commonly used in behavioral sciences to analyze factors
motivating specific behaviors or preferences.

Significance of Research
Research plays a critical role in advancing knowledge and solving practical problems.
Its importance is evident in various fields, including government, business, and social
sciences.
1. General Importance
 Research promotes scientific and inductive thinking.
 It enhances logical habits of thought and organization, which are essential for
progress in any field.
2. Role in Government
 Research is fundamental to formulating government policies.
 Applications:
 o Governments use research to prepare budgets based on an analysis of
people’s needs and revenue availability.
o Allocation of national resources depends heavily on research outcomes.
o Research helps design programs addressing societal challenges, such as
improving working conditions or solving economic issues.
 Three Phases of Government Research:
1. Investigation: Collecting data on the economic and social structure of the
nation.
2. Diagnosis: Analyzing events and the underlying forces causing them.
3. Prognosis: Predicting future developments based on gathered data.
 Governments employ research experts to assist in these tasks, ensuring informed
policymaking.
3. Role in Business and Industry
 Research aids in solving operational, production, and marketing problems.
 Key Areas:
o Market Research: Investigates market structures to optimize purchasing,
production, and sales.
o Operations Research: Uses mathematical and analytical techniques to
solve cost-minimization and profit-maximization problems.
o Motivational Research: Studies consumer behavior to understand
underlying motivations influencing their decisions.
 Research also plays a significant role in:
o Demand forecasting, which helps firms adjust supply schedules.
o Sales forecasting, which informs production and investment programs.
4. Role in Social Sciences
 Research in social sciences focuses on understanding social relationships and
addressing societal issues.
 It provides intellectual satisfaction through knowledge generation while also
offering practical solutions for improving human interactions.
 Social science research emphasizes two main goals:
o Developing a theoretical framework to predict and understand human
behavior.
o Offering practical guidance for solving immediate problems in human
relations.
Perspectives on Research
Research has diverse meanings and purposes depending on the individual’s role and
goals:
1. For Students: A pathway for achieving academic and career advancement.
2. For Professionals: A livelihood and specialization area.
3. For Philosophers and Thinkers: A platform for expressing new ideas and
insights.
4. For Literary Individuals: A way to develop innovative styles and creative works.
5. For Analysts and Intellectuals: A foundation for formulating and generalizing
theories.
Research Process
The research process is a systematic series of steps that guide the execution of research and
ensure its effectiveness. These steps are closely related and often overlap, rather than
following a rigid sequence. Researchers must anticipate future requirements at every stage to
avoid obstacles that may hinder the study’s completion. The general flow of the research
process includes the following steps:
1. Formulating the Research Problem
2. Extensive Literature Survey
3. Developing the Hypothesis
4. Preparing the Research Design
5. Determining the Sample Design
6. Collecting the Data
7. Execution of the Project
8. Analysis of Data
9. Hypothesis Testing
10. Generalizations and Interpretation
11. Preparation of the Report/Presentation of Results
1. Formulating the Research Problem
This is the foundational step in the research process. It involves:
 Identifying the problem: Determine the general area of interest or specific issue to
be investigated. The problem may initially be broad and general, but it must be
clarified and refined into a precise research problem.
  Understanding the problem: Engage in discussions with colleagues, experts, or
guides who can provide insights. In professional settings, the problem may originate
from administrative agencies or organizations.
 Examining existing literature: Review conceptual and empirical studies to
understand theories and prior findings relevant to the problem. This helps identify
available data and guides the formulation of the problem in operational terms.
The research problem must be defined clearly and unambiguously to ensure the collection of
relevant data and the use of appropriate methods. As W.A. Neiswanger highlights, defining
objectives is essential for identifying relevant data, exploring relationships, and determining
techniques.
2. Extensive Literature Survey
Once the research problem is defined, conduct a thorough survey of the literature. This
includes:
 Writing a summary or synopsis of the research problem, often required for academic
approval.
 Consulting sources such as academic journals, abstracting and indexing journals,
conference proceedings, government reports, and books.
 Using one source to discover others, creating a chain of references.
The literature survey helps understand the current state of research and identifies gaps or
opportunities for further study. A well-equipped library is invaluable at this stage.
3. Developing Working Hypotheses
After the literature survey, the researcher formulates working hypotheses, which are tentative
assumptions made to test logical or empirical outcomes. Key aspects of this step include:
 Purpose of the hypothesis: It provides a focal point for the research, guides the data
collection process, and helps design the analysis.
 Specificity: Hypotheses must be clear, precise, and limited to the scope of the
research.
 Benefits: Hypotheses sharpen the researcher’s focus, delimit the area of investigation,
and indicate the type of data and methods required for analysis.
By narrowing the research scope and clarifying the focus, the hypothesis ensures that the
research remains targeted and meaningful.
Developing Working Hypotheses
The process of developing working hypotheses involves several steps, guided by both
theoretical thinking and empirical investigation. Researchers use the following approach to
develop precise and well-defined hypotheses:
1. Discussions with Colleagues and Experts:
 o Engage in conversations with colleagues or subject-matter experts to
understand the problem, its origin, and the objectives behind finding a
solution. These discussions help clarify the scope and focus of the research.
2. Examination of Data and Records:
o Review any available data or records related to the problem, searching for
trends, patterns, or peculiarities that could provide clues about potential
relationships between variables or underlying causes.
3. Review of Similar Studies:
o Study previous research on similar problems or related areas. By
understanding how others have approached the issue, researchers can gain
insights into potential variables to examine and methodologies to employ.
4. Exploratory Personal Investigation:
o Conduct limited field interviews with interested parties or individuals
connected to the problem. This direct engagement allows the researcher to
gain deeper insights into the practical aspects of the issue and identify nuances
that may not be evident from secondary sources.
Nature of Working Hypotheses
Working hypotheses are informed by prior thinking, available data, related studies, and expert
opinions. The best hypotheses are precise, clearly defined, and aligned with the research
question. However, there are situations where working hypotheses are not necessary,
especially in exploratory or formulative research that does not aim to test a hypothesis. In
most research, though, clearly stating hypotheses is a critical step that helps guide the
research process.

Research Design Preparation

Once the research problem is clearly defined, the next step is to prepare a research design. A
research design serves as the conceptual structure that guides how the study will be
conducted and how data will be collected. It ensures the research is as efficient as possible,
minimizing the use of time, money, and effort while maximizing the quality and relevance of
the information gathered. The design must align with the research purpose, which may fall
into one of the following categories:
1. Exploration:
A flexible research design is appropriate, allowing the researcher to explore various
aspects of the problem.
2. Description:
If the research aims to describe a situation or relationship, the design should focus on
minimizing bias and ensuring the reliability of data.
 3. Diagnosis:
A design focused on diagnosis should aim to identify causes or factors contributing to
a problem, often through systematic data collection and analysis.
4. Experimentation:
In experimental research, the design needs to control variables and use specific
methods to test hypotheses.
There are several types of research designs, such as experimental (e.g., before-and-after,
randomized block design, factorial designs) and non-experimental designs, with each suited
for particular research goals.
When preparing the research design, the researcher must consider the following factors:
 Information Gathering Methods: How data will be obtained (e.g., surveys,
interviews, experiments).
 Researcher and Staff Skills: The availability and expertise of the researcher and any
support staff.
 Organization of Data Collection: The plan for organizing and implementing the data
collection process.
 Time Constraints: The amount of time available for the research.
 Cost Considerations: The financial resources required to carry out the study.

Determining Sample Design

In research, the population refers to all the items or individuals under consideration. A census
inquiry involves studying every member of the population, ensuring high accuracy but
requiring significant time, effort, and resources. However, conducting a full census is often
impractical.
 Sample Design:
Instead of surveying the entire population, researchers often select a sample, which
represents a subset of the population. This is often done to reduce time, cost, and
effort. The process of selecting a sample involves making sure it is representative of
the population and free from bias to maintain the study’s validity.
While sample designs are more common due to practical constraints, researchers must
carefully consider the sampling method and ensure the sample size is adequate to draw
meaningful conclusions from the study.
 Sample Design:
 A sample design is a plan to select a sample from a given population before data
collection begins.
 It can be either probability (known chance of selection) or non-probability (no
known chance of selection).
 Types of Sampling:
 Deliberate Sampling (Purposive/Non-Probability):
o Selection based on specific criteria, e.g., convenience or judgment.
o Convenience Sampling: Based on ease of access, may lead to biased results.
o Judgment Sampling: Researcher selects representative items, common in
qualitative research.
 Simple Random Sampling (Probability):
o Every item has an equal chance of inclusion.
o Methods: Lottery, random number tables.
 Systematic Sampling:
o Selecting every nth item from a list, starting at a random point.
 Stratified Sampling:
o Population is divided into strata, and samples are taken from each stratum to
ensure representation.
 Quota Sampling (Non-Probability):
o Interviewers select items based on a pre-defined quota for each stratum,
typically proportionate to the population.
 Cluster Sampling:
o The population is divided into clusters, and entire clusters are selected
randomly.
o Area Sampling: A form of cluster sampling used when the population is
geographically spread out.
 Multi-Stage Sampling:
o A combination of different sampling methods across multiple stages, useful
for large areas (e.g., states, districts).
 Sequential Sampling:
o Sample size is determined based on information collected during the survey,
often used in quality control.
 Mixed Sampling:
 Multiple sampling methods may be used in the same study.
 Choosing the Sample Design:
 The design is chosen based on the research question, nature of the population, and
resources available.
  Random Sampling is generally preferred to eliminate bias, but purposive sampling
may be used for small populations or specific characteristics.
 Primary Data Collection Methods:
 Experiment: Data collected through controlled experimentation to test hypotheses
(quantitative measurements).
 Survey: Data collected through various methods like observation, interviews, and
questionnaires.
 Methods of Collecting Data:
 Observation:
o Data is collected through direct observation by the researcher, without
interaction with the respondents.
o Limited information and expensive, not suitable for large samples.
 Personal Interview:
o A structured method where the researcher asks a set of pre-determined
questions.
o Depends heavily on the interviewer's skills and ability.
 Telephone Interview:
o Involves contacting respondents via phone.
o Useful for time-sensitive industrial surveys but less common.
 Mailing Questionnaires:
o Questionnaires are sent to respondents, who return them after completing.
o Common in business and economic surveys. Often requires a pilot study to
test the questionnaire’s effectiveness.
 Schedules:
o Enumerators collect data by going to respondents and filling in schedules
based on their responses.
o Requires trained enumerators and sometimes field checks to ensure accuracy.
 Choosing a Method:
 The choice of method depends on the nature of the investigation, research objectives,
time, financial resources, and desired accuracy.
 A researcher’s experience and judgment play a significant role in selecting the most
appropriate method.
7. Execution of the Project:
  Systematic Execution: Data should be collected systematically to ensure adequacy
and dependability.
 Structured Questionnaires: Ensure proper coding for machine processing if using
structured questionnaires.
 Training Interviewers: Proper selection and training of interviewers, with instruction
manuals for guidance.
 Field Checks: Occasional field checks to ensure the interviewers’ performance.
 Handling Non-response: Identify non-respondents and use sub-sampling to improve
response rates.
8. Analysis of Data:
 Data Categorization: Raw data must be classified into manageable categories.
 Coding and Tabulation: Data is coded and then tabulated for further analysis.
Computers can be used for efficiency.
 Statistical Analysis: Use statistical measures like percentages and coefficients to
analyze the data.
 Hypothesis Testing: Test for significance to determine if relationships or differences
are valid or due to chance.
9. Hypothesis-testing:
 Testing Hypotheses: Use statistical tests (e.g., Chi-square test, t-test, F-test) to verify
hypotheses.
 Accept or Reject Hypothesis: After testing, either accept or reject the hypothesis.
 Further Research: If no hypothesis was formulated, generalizations from the data
can be tested in future research.
10. Generalisations and Interpretation:
 Building Theories: If hypotheses are repeatedly upheld, generalizations can lead to
theory building.
 Interpretation: In the absence of hypotheses, findings can be explained through
existing theories, triggering new research questions.
11. Preparation of the Report or Thesis:
 Report Layout:
o Preliminary pages: Title, date, acknowledgements, foreword, table of contents,
list of tables/graphs/charts.
o Main text: Introduction, findings, main report, conclusion.
o End matter: Appendices, bibliography, index (if applicable).
 Introduction: Clear objectives, methodology, scope, and limitations of the study.
  Summary of Findings: Non-technical language summarizing the findings and
recommendations.
 Main Report: Structured logically in identifiable sections.
 Conclusion: Final summary of results.
 Concise and Objective Writing: Use simple language, avoid vague expressions like
"it seems" or "there may be."
 Charts and Illustrations: Only use if they clarify or strengthen the information.
 Mention Confidence Limits: Include calculated confidence limits and constraints
faced during research.
Criteria of Good Research:
1. Clear Purpose: The research must have a clearly defined purpose and use
common concepts.
2. Detailed Procedure: The research procedure should be described in detail,
allowing others to replicate it.
3. Objective Results: The design should be planned to achieve objective results.
4. Honest Reporting: The researcher must openly report any flaws in the design
and their impact on the findings.
5. Adequate Data Analysis: The data analysis should be thorough, with appropriate
methods and checks for validity and reliability.
6. Justified Conclusions: Conclusions should only be drawn from data that can
support them.
7. Confidence in Researcher: Trustworthy research is done by experienced,
reputable, and ethical researchers.
Qualities of Good Research:
1. Systematic: Research follows a structured, step-by-step process, rejecting
intuition or guesswork.
2. Logical: Research is guided by logical reasoning (induction and deduction) to
make meaningful conclusions.
3. Empirical: Research deals with real-world data to ensure external validity.
4. Replicable: The study can be repeated to verify results and support decisions.

∙ Psychological research uses systematic study on behaviour and analysis of individual

or group. Research involves
 ⮚ Inductive method
⮚ Deductive method.
• Inductive method:
∙ An inductive approach is concerned with the generation of new theory emerging from
the date.
∙ Inductive method usually uses research questions to narrow the scope of the study.
∙ The aim of inductive method is majorly focusing on exploring new phenomena or
looking at previously research phenomena from a different perspective (specific to
general, form specific date make generalization).
• Deductive method:
∙ A deductive approach is concerned with “developing a hypothesis based on existing
theory, and then designing a research strategy to test the hypothesis”.
∙ Deductive approach is concerned with deducting conclusions from premises or
propositions (general to specific, from a general theory/hypothesis coming to a
specific conclusion).
HISTORY OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• Research in the discipline of psychology began with the quantitative paradigm,
particularly with experimentation. During the 1880s-1890s period Sigmund Freud was
an important figure and his method of study primarily entailed detailed case histories,
narratives and the sort, basically qualitative research. Freud and Piaget were then
exceptions, who did not conform to the experimental paradigm of their times.
• The origins of qualitative research methods can be traced back as early as the 1890s
when Booth and Webb used a combination of several methods like observation,
interview as well as surveys to study the life and labor of the London poor.
• The emergence of qualitative research was at the start of the 20th century as the
influence of psychoanalysis started to enter into the commercial world. By 1945 the
father of qualitative research, Paul Felix Lazersfield, had shown how psychology
could provide a framework to interpret human behaviour. He introduced the world to
unstructured interviewing and group discussions, and stressed the importance of
answering the important ‘why?’ question.
• More famous than Lazersfield was his pupil, Ernest Dichter, developed his ideas in a
prosperous post-war America. He was , a market researcher and a great advocate of
the interview technique. Similarly the use of field research (an important method of
qualitative research) saw a growth, particularly due to the tremendous importance
given to it by the Chicago school of sociology. The technique went through
revolutionary developmental stages throughout 1910 to 60s. By the 1960s, the
observation method was given great emphasis as a social research method.
 • There was also a growing evidence of awareness within the psychological community
that experiments were inadequate for the purposes of developing a proper
understanding of humans during this time. (1960s)
• During the 60’s and 70’s projective techniques such as word associations, sentence
completion, speech bubbles and role playing all began to gain traction. This era also
saw the ‘qualitative vs quantitative’ debate heat up as qualitative methods started
getting established. Up until this period scientific, provable, quantitative research was
the dominant paradigm.
• This continued up till the 80’s when qualitative research really started to deliver what
clients wanted. The explosion throughout this decade in qualitative research
encouraged people with different skillsets to add to the mix, and it was no longer
necessary to have a psychology degree to be a qualitative researcher.
• The 1990s also saw the emergence of new forms of qualitative data analysis like
content and the integrated phenomenological approach which greatly pushed the
qualitative paradigm further. It also saw the development of the focus group
technique. And from there on, there was an explosion of interest in qualitative
methods.
• In the 1990s, a report of the British Psychological Society acknowledged that future
developments within psychology would be assisted by the increased use of qualitative
approaches in teaching and research.
HISTORY OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH – PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT
• History of psychological and educational measurement dates back to around 2200 BC
when Chinese officials were examined every third year to determine their fitness for
office.
• Later on during the Han Dynasty period (206 BC to 220 AD), the use of test batteries
became very common. Tests – accepted instruments for diverse topics like civil law,
military affairs, revenue, agriculture, etc.
• Ming dynasty (1368-1644 AD) – Multistage testing programme – for public offices
• Western countries learnt about testing programmes through Chinese’s efforts. British
Government encouraged East India Company in 1832 to follow the Chinese system –
method of selecting employees for overseas duty.
• British Government – similar system of testing for its civil services in 1855.
• French and German governments followed suit.
• 1883 – US Government established the American Civil Service Commission that
conducted various competitive examinations for certain government jobs.
• Prior to 1850 – Psychology – was considered to be a branch of Philosophy.
• After 1850 – Experimental investigation of individual differences flourished in
Germany and Great Britain – Beginning of psychological testing – new alliance with
the biological sciences (physics, chemistry, biology)
 • 3 major influences (1850-1900) – Psychophysics, Darwinian Biology and Clinical
Practices
PSYCHOPHYSICS –
▪ Relationship between physical stimuli and experiences or sensations produced by
these stimuli.
▪ 1885 – Hubert Von Grashey – memory drum – as a means of testing patients with
brain injury.
▪ German Psychiatrist Conrad Reiger developed another test for the brain damaged –
demerit – test took over 100 hours for administration.
▪ Early physiologists also influencing the development of psychological measurement –
mainly interested in measuring the process of seeing, hearing, speed of conduction,
etc.
▪ Wilhelm Wundt – 1862 – measuring mental processes – thought meter.
▪ First laboratory for studying psychological reactions – 1879 – Wilhelm Wundt at
University of Leipzig.
DARWINIAN BIOLOGY
▪ Darwin’s theory of evolution – members of the same species are not alike, individual
differences exist between members of the same species.
▪ Sir Francis Galton – wanted to measure the basic individual differences among human
beings and he singled out ‘human ability’ as a possible dimension of study – laid
the ,foundation for psychometrics.
▪ Galton – Father of mental testing
▪ Measurement of intelligence – by means of reaction time and sensory discrimination
tasks
▪ Hereditary Genius (1869) and Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development
(1883)
▪ Brass instrument mental testing – modified to collect data from 100s and 1000s of
testees.
▪ Psychometric Laboratory in London – 1884
▪ Karl Pearson – Product moment method of correlation
▪ J M Cattell – invented the term ‘mental test’ – developed a series of tests – extensions
and additions to Galton’s theory – started his own research laboratory in Columbia
University.
• Students of Cattell – E L Thorndike, R S Woodsworth, E K Strong, Clark Wissler
 • Clark Wissler – 1901 – wanted to demonstrate that test scores could predict academic
performance, however showed no results – redirected the mental testing movement
away from brass instruments.
• This led to the immediate acceptance of Alfred Binet’s useful measure of human
ability.
CLINICAL TESTING
• 1900 – France – Clinical interest in the feeble minded, insane and misfit
• Psychologists working there were deeply interested in developing tests and
instruments which could measure maladjustments and identify possible reasons for
insanity – Alfred Binet – intelligence of school - going children
• Binet – Simon Intelligence Test – 30 item measure of intelligence – 1912 revision and
Stern introduced concept of IQ
• Thorndike Handwriting Scale – American Revision
• 1918 – Woodsworth’s Personal Data sheet – first personality inventory
• During the two World Wars – Army Alpha Test and Army Beta Test were developed.
• During the last 30 years – development of psychometric theory – basics of test
construction
HISTORY OF MENTAL TESTING IN THE 20TH CENTURY – 6 PERIODS
1. Early period: 1901-1915
• Period of tentative exploration and theory development
• Binet-Simon Scale published 1905- 2 revisions
• Lewis Terman- Stanford Binet Intelligence test – 1916
• Arthur Otis – mental testing of children and adult in groups
• S D Portens – Australia – maze test of intelligence for people with hearing or
language handicaps
• Charles Spearman – 2 theories – concept of reliability and g-factor theory of
intelligence.
2. The Boom Period:
• Started with American Involvement in World War I – improve functioning of the army
– recognition of role of psychologists – created a 16 year boom period.
• Robert Yerkes and colleagues – expanded Otis’ work
• Army Alpha Test and Army Beta Test were developed.
• 1918 – Woodsworth’s Personal Data sheet – first personality inventory – identifying
emotionally unstable individuals – deemed unfit for military service.
 • After war – E K Strong and colleagues – Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB)
• 1929 – L L Thurstone – proposed methods of scaling for measuring attitudes and
values
3. The first period of criticism:
• 1930s – Criticism and Consolidation – many new tests were published and some
revised
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Weschler- Bellevue
Intelligence Scale, Kuder Preference record
• LL Thurstone – refined technique of factor analysis
• Some criticisms against use and scoring of tests – Oscar Buros – 1935 – Mental
Measurement Yearbok (MMY) – served as a place for publication for critical reviews
4. The Battery Period:
• 1940s and 1950s – widespread use of psychological and educational tests, statistical
methods and factor analysis
• Taxonomies of abilities – Bloom and Guilford
• During the 1950s – psychological and educational testing became like a business
concern
• Differential Aptitude test (DAT) and General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB)
• 1954 – American Psychological Association released a set of guidelines for effective
use of various psychological and educational tests.
5. The Second Period of Criticism:
• 1960s – A revolt against male dominance in American Society and tests were
considered as a biased tool for male oppression -
▪ Ability tests – females got lower scores
▪ Personality tests – favoring the male personality
• Tests subjected to various criticisms and legal proceedings in the court of law in USA
6. The Period of Accountability:
• Government in USA relied more on use of standardized psychological and
educational test in assessing school achievements of the students
• 2002 – NCLB (No Child Left Behind) bill was passed by the US Government –
public schools must achieve high standards of performance in areas like science,
mathematics, arts, etc.
• Schools held accountable for performance of students – assessment of performance –
standardized tests.