----------------·-·

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I [,
Table of Conte~ts
I "The Ouibbean Sea both units and divides" ..•................ ._..;:···--····--····--····-··;•.. ~---~---·····•···.1
0
MODULE 1: cAruBBEAN SOClliTY AND CULTURE.-...........-.....-••.-.......-..-..............5 l
OVER.vffiW ...............~ ..................................................... ~...• ~ ............- .....~ ..... ~...:....................5
I GENERAL OBJEC11VES(G0)..•...•......•••..•.....•...•..•. ~ .......:.•...•..•••....:...•••.....•, ...................5
SPECifJC OBJECTIVES (SO) .............................................. ~ .............................................5
(Ii) DefiDitioris of the Caribbean region: ..............................................~ ..;......:.....................1
I GeoiraP-hical Location and Definition: ····--·····················--·-·-········~----·······--········--··········8
Geo.logical Definition ..............................................~ ...........................:.............•... ;........... 10
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Historical Definition: ..........................................................;.................;...;·.......•.....•....•....• 11
I Political ~on: ..............................•......•.•..........•...............-...•.- .........••.••.-..................... 12
The Historical Process ........................................................~ ••:•••••,••••,.::.••• -: ••••_;.................. 14

I Migratory Movements and Settlement from Pre-Columbian Times To

18 3·8 ·······'···:......................................................................:,.......•....-.·..:.......-..•.........•........ 14
.Patterns of settlement (pre-Columbian) ................•...........•......................•.....................•.. 15
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I English, French and Dutch Interlopers ...................-.-..·..............,....................................... 15

Spain Anival & Settlement .................................................................~ ..•.••... ~.................•15
I
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.English. •••••...:..•;.............................................................................. ~...................................... l6
,,
I Migiation and the evolution ofOuibbean Society 1938-present•...........~; ........................ 16
Migmtiori & Diasporic Communities ••.......................•;...........,;;..•.......•....."......•....••......•.•.• 17
·In search ofCheap Labour •.•.••••••.•...•••..•••..••••...••.••..••••:.••...•.••:•••.•.•:•..••••••••••.•.•••••...•.•••.••. 18
I The Development of Systems of Production ...........................................,•....•.................•. 18
Encom:ienda. ••••••••••·••••••••••••·••·••••••••••••••·•••·•••• .............................:.......................................18
Slavery ..........-............••...............................•.............•........................•........•.•..................... 19
I lndeD.tllred. ~gration ...................................................................................... ~ .................21
Summary:. Development of systems of Production ..•.••.•.•.,...•...•..;..•:.•.•..:.........................22

r Response of the CaD.'bbean People to Oppression & Genocide•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••23

Resistance, Rebellion & revolution: Pre-1807 ..•..........................•....•.•.•..•·....•.............•....23
Resistance, Rebellion & Revolution: 1807-1834 .............................................................23
ResiStance, Rebellion & Revolution: 1838-1930s............••....•.•....••.....;..........•..................24
I Haitian Revolution: The Ultimate Reaction against Oppression.... ~ ....•••.........•••..•........••..25
Legacy of Haitian Revolution............................................•.........•.............•.......................25
Resistance: Rise of the Peasantry .............................................~ .••.•.•.••.••.•••.••.••.•...•.••.•.•.•..26
I Movements towards Independence.......................,............................... ~ ............................27
Process towards Political Enfranchisement .......................................................................29
The Role of the Moyne Commission in Internal SelfGovemment of the Region ...;........30
I Economic enftancbisement.. ~ ..................................•...............................••.•..•.•...•.........•....3 i
Entrepteneurial ~ctivities ...................................................................................,..............32

I Caribbean identity & Culture.............................................................................................33

MlS03: Characteristics of Society and Culture..................•...•••..•..•.....••..•................•••....34
Culture .••.....•.•....................................••.............•.........••.......•........•..........•............•............ 35

I Cultural values ....................................................................................................... ····· ...•.. 35

Noons .......................-.........................................................................................................36
Guide to Behaviour: lnstitutions: .....;,................................................................................37
I Gendered Practices .•.•..............•...........•......................••.....••.....•.•....••.•.•....•.....•....•....••...•.. 37
M1S04: Identity and Social Formation ..........................•..............................................37 '·

I
 ·Cultural Diversities ...•., ............,:.••... ~........~ .•.••.. ~ ..•.......................................•.-.•................. .37
••••• ... •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••~•••••••••••••••••oa••••••••••••••••••u••••••••••~••••••••••••••••••••39
Stratification of a Plantation Society .•••• ~•.•............••..•.•.....•.•..........•........•.....• ~ ...'............39
Important Concepts in. Social Stratifi~tion: .•.............................................•............-..........40
Hybridization ..• ~~ ................;.•........,...•.. ;~ .............................................:••......•...,.•...... .'.....~ ..41
...•...........•..•..•....•, ........•.•..............•......................... :..................................•......:.•.•.••....•......42.
Creolisat;ion.••••••• ,••• ~ ••• '""!·····. "'!. ··'t•• .•.••••..•••••••.•.••.•·................................................................... ~42
Cultural Etasure, Retention and ~ewal of Cultural Practices .........................:.....•...•....43
Impact of geographical ~mena. .............................................................................;..,.45
Plate Tectonics .......•...;.....•........•.•... ;.......•.•...•.. ;........•.•.................................•.....;..•...••.•...-45
HURRICANES- Social·& EcOnOmic Conseql,leilCCS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~·••••:••:..............: ••• 50
[l SOIL: ero'sion & conservation~ ........~ ..:..:....•.;..............................................:.:.....•..............51
CORAL REEFS: coastal proteCtion & $ustainability of fishing industly ;~ ..•..., ••. ..,•..••.,....53

l\ The Impact of Droughts on Caribbean Culture & Society ......•.......................... ,•.•. ,.........56
Impacts of Social rnstiiutions oiJ. Cart'b:bean J:»eople .•..••.........•.................:......•.•••,.-...•.....•.62
The Justice System. ...........~.; ..;•••,....•••:._.:..•...•..............................•.......................•..............62
I
tI Religion. ............................. :.~ '! •• ~ 63
............... ": •••••••••• ...........................................:: ......................

Family ................... ~ ........... ~ ........................ ~ ...................................................... ~ ....................~.64-

Ed.ucation .......•.~...•.. -:··············-···~·······················································"·········,.~·.•.•......·.........65
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Caribbean Arts & Popular-Cui~ in the Region & Diaspora ......................, .......••..........67
Contributions J:ll8de by Indivi~ to Arts & Popuiar Culture ...................;.•.•.•..•............68
I
Caribbean Globallnteiaction:....•...••......•.....•............................................ ;...•.......•.•......:...69
II-.,
::J )
Can'bbean Influences on Extta-Regional, Countries ..............................:...•....•..••..............69
The Impact ofR.astafari on Countries Throughout the world...........................;..••....:.......72
·-· Influence ofExtr:a-Regional Societies on the Caribbean.-....................................,...........74
tl Education .........................................;.;..........................................................................;..:.74
•.....•.•..•••.•...••.•••••••••. ~ •••••.••••••.••••.• ~ ...............................................................~.·••• ~ .................';;.76'
Political Influences ...............................................................................................•............76
II
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A FURTHER CRITIQUE OF TIIE WESTMINSTER SYSTEM .........•.........•....•........... 80
ELECTORAL PROCESSES ......._......•.......................................................•............•....•..... 81
...............................:................................................................................................;............~ ... 82
II
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TilE RULE OF LAW ..•..............•.....•...•••.......•..............................•..•..•............•.•..•..••:.:.... 82
MIGRATORY LABOUR•...•.•..................................•...•...............................•.........•••..•.....84
DIRECT IMPACT: R.en:iittances & cOnsumptiOn patterns .........................••.....•.•.•..........86
1.1 MIGRATION & LABOUR: Brliin Drain verse Brain Gain...................................•..........87
SPORTS- U.K. (CRICKET, SOCCER) & USA (BASKET BALL, TRACK & FffiLD)
II
·'
.................................................................................................................. ~.......................... 89
Cricket.....................•..................................;...................................................•...............89
RELIGION .....•.•.....•...........•....................•.......................................................•....•..•.......92
II
II
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 I
MODULE 1: CARIBBEAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE
-_ .I
-~
OVERVIEW··

:Module 1 introduces learners to the role played by geography in

_· shaping the so.ciety and culture of the Caribbean region as well as
~
.. the .historical evolution of Caribbean society, the cultural · -----~
characteristics of the Caribbean peopie, tl1id ihe ways in which
: Caribbean society and culture· influence .and are influenced by
.socie.ties and cultures outside the region: . . . . .-.-~

~
GENERAL OBJECTIV'ES(GO)
· · On completion of this Module; stude~ts should:-
1. understand the factors ~hich have shaped Carfbbean society
. and culture, i_ncluding Caribbean diilsporic communiiie5; ll
2. appreciate how cultural traits evident di._roughout the region
· have resulted from Caribbean peoples' experiences:; tJ
3. . understand the common features which exist within Caribbean

4.
diversity; .
understand the relevance of concepts encountered within the
'd-1
Module, to their own lives and to the. liv~s of th.eir
communities. 1~1
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES (SO) II
Students should be able to:
·- 1. locate and define the Caribbean region and ·its d_iaspora; I:1
.....:2. analyse the impact of the historical process in Caribbean
society and culture;
· 3. analyse the caracteristic features of Caribbean 'society' and
i .I
'culture';
4. analyse the process of identity and social formation in the
!il
Caribbean; '
5. assess the impact of geographical processes on Caribbean
society and culture; I
6. evaluate the ways in which societal institutions impact on
their lives;
7. Evaluate the ways in which the Arts and popular culture
I
impact Caribbean society;
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8. analyse .how the global community and Caribbean society
tl=>
j
impact on each other.

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II J

II J

III
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II '

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..

LOCATION AND DEFlNITION OF THE CARIBBEAN REGION

J
'~
MISOI:

ORIGIN OF CARIBBEAN

The word 'Caribbean' is said to be derived. from what the Europeans J

called the indigenous kalinago p~ople that is 'Carib.' The term · .
'West Indies' which is often tised interchangeably with Ca.rib~ean is ..
the name given to the ~egion by Christopher Columbus in. 1492 ...
J
·~
As with the inexact name of the. region so to is there little
agreement on what area is included within the Caribbean. Different
criteria are used to define the region. ~
. .
(H) Deftnltions of the Caribbean region: ~
Definitions of the Caribbean: u
d1
rJ
.
~

-~ ..
•
IJ
Geographica ~
.
•
fl::
... I:J
Geological ~

Historical
..
()
I} I) I, I
Political II
,
.2 II! '
1'1
-------------------:11 ' .

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7
 . ·--- ·---- -------

Geographical Location and Definition:

The Caribbean can be defined geographically as described by
.;.._----,the following:
rerritories
washed by 60°W-90°W to the Gteenwich Meridian and 5"N to 23~ 0 N the·
the Tropic of Cancer (refer to map on next page). These cardinal
·Caribbean
sea pomts covers those te.rritories 'washed' by the Caribbean S~a
described as the Caribbean basin.

Problems with Geographical· definition:

With these coordina~es the Caribbean would be bounded to the south ·

by the coast of Venezuela. Columbi~ and Panama to the west by Costa
Rica. Nicaragua. Honduras. Guatemala. Belize and Mexico. to the
north by Cuba Jamaica and Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto
Rico and to the east by the Lesser Antilles chain of island. The·
common link is the caribbean Sea. (N.B. the problem is that coqntries.
underlined are not traditionally . defined as Caribbean). Also
countries that are normally associated with the Caribbean such as
Barbados and the Bahamas should be excluded under the geographical
definition because they .are completely surrounded by the Atlantic
Ocean and not the Caribbean Sea •. Also South American countries of
Suriname, Guyana and French Guiana have coastlines bordering the
Atlantic Ocean and not the Caribbean Sea.

A refinement of the Geographical definition:

a) Included: all the islands of the Greater, Lesser and

Netherland Antilles as well as all other islands in the general
area, such as the Cayman Islands of the Bahamas as well as
some mainland countries - the Central American country of
Belize and the South American country of Suriname, Guyana
and French Guiana.

b) Excluded: -The Atlantic Islands of Bermuda, Central

American countries such as Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua,
Costa Rica and Panama as well as South American countries
such as Venezuela and Colombia.
 '.

Names and Position of Territories as

~
well as Sub-regi()ns
·.i~::~---~- · ·->VW- -- .. ----;o"ii ------·'rio ------~fiN- -
_!'I
.,:.: ... :"'···!">·c"
----N· • - ·a·, (j
... ~-;____ ._____ -. ---- --------·-··. ___ ; __ · --·-.ltfl:/PYIIC -·
.. [J
.. ·.·:L•: :.'~-•-; Gre•i:~r11103 . oefAN. ':f .
-- ....-~-
· · . ·-.::<.;;--:...,_._
~~
-'· ~
.
Le·....-,,~-,r:-
__ 1 · ~- ...
= ,.-· I'_J
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-
t'f

...- .. :.;,:_~_---~ ~ ...: . :_·;~:·f~==----~- --~-'tt,/3",;!.

: ·_. ~~~ . ~{•. ·-··;;...,o:.:::,:· f..:-~-~-?"::-·
. .
;
~,--.-.:---.· .. -:;,·
//"'1....,..-~1-
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--
STfltnSancl~' / '·' . ~-
_
-.:;;,t)~·-·" ·-·-····--·..;...-..,.~•..;,,., ---~n/ -:----~- '·---"· --,;.,
-~·--·-·-- ·-:=:.:.:.::;w.:....:--~~-
-~ .
-:(ICARAGUA
. . , . SEA,
STVINCIWTMdbE~
STI.UOA ----'; ..

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~-~-~~ ·· :,,·_·,:t_ :"·::_;)._<.·_._.......
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,·

.,___ .. -._ ~ --~~ i';.: ~i

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·-:-: . ~ ; ;Win .(.,-on)

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soomaa
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·.... , _ _..:::--~
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_..• \...._
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;h-... .....,.
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~ ThegecigraphicCarfbbean .kS!e.r An,fjJ/eJ.= \Jii~ 1- ~ . ...........
L.l
.e.~r, s·~, T-fT,f>dil.c.,~,s....:I\.<VI"W:.-~tk. ·
Further,(in. terms of population geography). the Caribbean is. a
region of approximately 25 countries and 25 ·million _people but
cJ'I
only 6 Caribbean countries have a population over 1 million
namely: ::1
• Cuba i:l
• Haiti
• Jamaica ·_'I
:!
I
• Dominican Republic
• · Puerto Rico
• Trinidad and Tobago !.I
The region's 4 principal languages are:
:I
1) Spanish (22 million with Cuba 11 million, Dominican Republic
7 million and Puerto Rico 4 million)
·I
2) French ( 8.15 million with Haiti 8 millic;>n and Guadeloupe and
Mar~inique 0.15 million)
:I
I
9 .I
1u'1
1 !

3) Engl~sh ( Approxiinately 4.5 million led by Jamaica 2.5 million,

Trinidad. and ·Tobago 1.3 million with Barbados and. the
Bahamas with 250,000 each and th~ US. Virgin· Islands, ·st.
Lucia, St. Vincerit and the Grenadines, Grenada, Dominica and
Antigua a littl~. urider the 100,000 mark) . · .

4) Dutch ( Under a quarter million- The Netherhind Antilles)

Bright spot: . M~st oi the r~:gion is a collection of island rocks and island
It is all
about
groups. The Catibbean Plate is approximat~ly locat.ed at. the
territories centre of the Caribbean region. Thus, territories bordering this
around the plate, .located below the Caribbean Sea can be geologically
'' Caribbean
.
Plate defined as Caribbean countries .
I·, I The theo.ry is that the smaller Caribbean Plate at a particular time
IIi moved. under the larger North American Plate. As a result, there
~~) was a re~meltin·g .of the Earth's Mantle causing volcanic activities
and other cataclysmic developments that lead to the fonnation of
I~,/
the. Greater, Lesser and Netherland Antilles.
,I
II . I •

,
. -:-". ...
~ i· ~
COCOS PlATE

II ..... SOUTH AMERICAN PlATE

-I
i,(
 I
I
G
J
s
J
J
I cocos
PlATE
I .tl
·Caribbean Plate TectOnics
J
. ·.. . . Ge.olo~lu:oJ
Problems with 'hqp=aphioe..J definiti_o.:
. . ..
ll
Simijar to the geographical definition, the geological meanin.g- of the Caribbean i,ncludes
· counttiesnotno:nnally associated with the Can"bbeaDnimlely: Costa Rica,
Lj
. Nicaragua and Honduras (because the western edge of the Caribbean
plate is located in the Pacific Ocean). Also it excludes some
· countries traditionally associated with the Caribbean, nauieiy: Cuba
cil
and·Bahamas as well as the South American mainland countries of:
Suriname, Guyana and French Guiana •. I. I
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,:1
I.
Bright Spot: Generally, the Caribbean region lias. a common history of
A sh11red
Hl.rtory from
C olu.mbu.r to
colonialism, that is, they were all controlled initially by
the Spanish. Later on, as a result of inter-loping activities
1:1
C olont.iatton and wars, some territories became British, French and
by
Interloper.r Dutch. I
Further, many colonies experience various forms of :,1
indentureship and slavery. Historically, the Caribbean region
was the mid-point of the triangular slave trade also known as : .•
the Middle Passage. .1
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·:
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_j

The historical definition would include Guy~na and the

Bahamas. It should also include the French, Dutch and Spanish
speaking countries of the Caribbean and Central America.

11
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Problems with, Historical definition:

II
•,'
Countries not normally associated with the Caribbean, namely in
cen~ral ·and south America may have to be included in the

r. I
,,!
definition.

Political Definition:
II .J
In the Caribbean, 3 types of government can be found:
Bright Spot:
From Colonial
Dependencies _ • Independent States
to Independent-
.ftattM • Associated States
II_
I • Colonial Dependencies

I !.; The Independent states are: Antigua, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize,
Cuba, Dominica, The Dominican republic, Grenada, Guiana, Haiti,

IT Jamaica; St; Lucia, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the
Grenadines, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago. The combiDed
population of these independent states makes up 90% of the region's
I\ population.

I! The Associated states are: Puerto Rico and associated states of the
U.S.A., French Guiana, Guadeloupe and Martinique are overseas
departments of France and the Netherland Antilles is an associated
li state of Holland.

Il Colonial dependencies: the remaining islands are British colonies -

The British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat and the
Turks and Caicos Islands.
ll J
Problems with Political definition:
II I There are other independent states, not mentioned above, such as
those in Central and South America that may be included in this
II definition. Therefore, a problem of proper delimitation exist.

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I
Diasporic Definition: 0
The concept of diaspora is derived from the Greek verb
"J
Bright Spot:
There are 'speiro' meaning to sow and the preposition .'dia' which :i$
more Guyanese means 'over' (Cohen 1997: iv). Persons outside their !I
living
overseas than country of origin and covering· diverse groups such as
in Guyana political refugees, migrant workers, ethnic and
L--,..,..--.--;--m.....t,...n_.orities and overseas communities. (Wickramasekara 2009).
~
Modern Diasporas are ethnic minority groups of migrant origins ·~
residing and acting in host · countries but maintaining strong
sentimental and material links with their countries of origin-their
homelands" (Sheffer 1986).
ll
·Cohen (1997: 138) lumps migrant groups from the Caribbean region
tQgether as a single 'cultural diaspora' and this is due to the fact
l!
that the inhabitants of the Caribbean ha:ve shared experiences of
colonization, have descended from other ·diaspora groups namely the lJ
African, Indian, Chinese diasporas and so on

Problems with Diasporic definition:

dJ
This is the broadest possible definition of the Caribbean with no know
I_J
estimate of total population. Therefore this definition adds more
controversies and uncertainties to the debate of what countries
constitutes the Caribbean? How can we delimit the Caribbean? What
II
countries should be excluded from the. Caribbean?
1:1
.... II
'··
2009:
Caribbean
migrants into
I
·--
·~-w.-
..... _,r .•
·----IS·f
"·'t-
u.s.

·~..........-·'l1·"
. a... :lf•"

13
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1
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The Historical Process

Migratory Movements and Settlement from Pre-Columbian Times
To 1838

There lire links between Amerindians and hunters who fust entered America around
18 000 years ago. They followed anim~ls across the land or ice bridge which joined
Alaska to Asia 12 000 years ago the ciossed the Isthmus of Panama into South America,
as seen in map below:

II
' I
·' \

'\Ii

;~·····-···· ----
~ .....-.....-......-
·~-
:-'I .....,llmi'ao. hunting
L__, ... Qllllhldng
:1~ ....--
.........._;CIII . . . .......

Early Settlements
• Mayan: Today modem Mexican states of Yucatan, CampeChe and Tobasco, as
well as all of Belize, Guatemala, and the western edge of Honduras.
• Inca: Today modem Peru.
• Aztec: centered on Lake Texcoco (fenochtitlan)
1.'' • Tainos & Kalinagos: The Caribbean Islands (mainly the archipelago oflslands)
 I

Patterns of Settle~ent (pre-Columbian)

dI
•
•
Aztec, Maya & Inca: Advance soeieties based on settled fanning.
Tainos & Kalinagos: MixCd fanning, hunti,ng & gathering J
J
<?,'\} ,, Obonoys
.~~ ... ., ............. J
.
. .
- .
.

-. -.
...
.

.
<::::::::>
... 3 ) -
":P-...

.
d
~ ~
~
1illlloo
,.........._.,..
~-·
•

'"~~
.

1)T.....
.

Ll
~2)--
. tl
ll
.(jl
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--
........ .., _ _ "T'~J

!]
u~e ~ rvr cL<Scove.r ·
f I
Spain Anival & Settlement·
•1492 1st vome: San Salvador, Cuba, Hispaniola r
I.
I
•1493 2nd voyage: Dominica, Puerto Rico, Jamaica
•1498 3rd voyage: Trinidad, Venezuela,
•1502-3 4th voyage: St Lucia, Honduras, Panama II
english, French and Dutch Interlopers
'I
''

•The treaty ofTordesillas: Pope Alexander VI divided the

new world into two zones i.e. I 00 leagUes (640 km) west of 1 I
the Azores belonging to Spain and east to Portugal
id ~~ o.J ~ .;;. tPirateS.\and(Privateers) ~fl"'" b<j Gr>ov ·+;~"to .w.t ~-~ ,aituk,e.fc. . _I
,.x 0 """" ~ VoN •Effective Occupation approach ·
•Wars: the Caribbean as a 'cockpit' ofEurope •

: _.-ttl~ d. IX\ ~ .tu ' •.:h:.<~j...& ~ ~ rv0-i- ~ cb. ,_ ·12.iy oa.up '~IJ'
15
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jl)
_J.
English
. •1625: LeeWard Islands of: St Kitts, Monserrat, and Barbados
•Dutch: treaty of Munster 1648: Aruba, Curacao and Bonaire ~ A-BC. ; slo.r-d~ .
•French 1650s: Martinique, Guadeloupe, Grenada and Part of St. Kitts
1-' 1
' ;

ll
j'
Migration and the evolution of Caribbean Society t\38-
.present
11:.J' Migration is associated with evolution· of society amidst European
proven search for wealth. The history of the Dutch, French, Spanish
ll.J
and English Caribbean begins· with the · violent oppression and
.domination of original Amerindian. Europeans settled and conquered
areas imported labour in from example· slaves and later indentured
. Chinese, liberated Africans, East Indians and Portuguese is the 19th
and 20th century.
ll
··'·~. J Caribbean Migration from 1830's

~~ According to Richardson (1990) the constant movement into and out

')
.J
'- of the Caribbean can be referred to as ~-regional tradition. Trench is
II ·': I
..
the region· can be documented as followed:·

1) .The propensity to migrate tool!: off immediately after

Emancipation in the 1830's. When thousands of men and women
most· notably from notably from smaller. islands migrated to ·\1\-\er--is.~
Trinidad and British Guiana in .search of higher wages and ~­
better conditions.
&,.;. ~ I..Ool'.t/)1 LA.AI" ~ . .
l! 2) By 1945 more than I 0 000 migrants from smaller West Indian
islands had gone to Trinidad and more than 8000 had gone to
II j !
British Guiana. These movements continued for a long time as
a feature of Caribbean, that is, to move from small islands of
II '. I
Eastern Caribbean to larger areas in a complex interisland
migration.

3) Caribbean migration continued in the 19 1h century influenced

largely by economic crises which led to joblessness. The

I! Panama Canal was a major pull-factor. Jamaicans (70 000)

provided the bulk of the labour during the failed effort from

I! .,
 ~
1881-1888. When the Americans took over the task, other West r-._1
Indians travelled there. More than 40 000 Barbadians as well as ~}
men and womeJ;J. from Spanish, French and Dutch islands joined
them.·
I
Migration & Diasporlc Communities
I
Most of the interisland. migration to Panama and Santo Domingo
j
occurr.ed in the later par·t of the 19th and early 20th centuries. These
.
movement occurred as a result of the expansion of US multinational
firms in banana, sugar and manufacturing industries during periods
.
J
of high prices resuited in the establishment of Engfish speaking
diasporic communities .. the majority of migrants into Santo Domingo
;_I
were from across the. border i.e. Haitians. (Additional reading:
Migration in the Caribb.ean: Haiti, the Dominican Republic aizd
Beyond by James Ferguson, 2003- available online).
t.l
Just after .World War II ended in 1945, the first groups of Britain's
:_I
post-war Caribbean immigrants settled in London. These passengers
settled in the area of Brixton which is now a prominently black
district in Britain. From the 1950s into the 1960s there was a mass
\I
migration of workers from all over the English-speaking Caribbean,
particularly Jamaica, who settled in Britain. These immigrants .were
!~
invited to fill labour . requirements in London's hospitals,
transportation. venues- and railway development. They· are widely
viewed as having been a major contributing factor to the re!>uilding
:I
of the post-war' urblin·-~ondon- economy. .. ....... - - - ............ c .... -
:I
Cnlt~Jre of Migration ·I
This culture does not only imply the propensity to move. there is a
common feeling among Caribbean people to think of their migrant
family as "doing well". Closely related to that is the expectation that
some of that good fortune should come back to help out the situation
at home·. This could be as foreign currencies (remittances) or gifts.

17
'·-1"h
u

lr~
u The Development of Systems of Production:

Bright Spot:
Remember the Encomlenda
·plantation
was a 'total
Institution of Spanish labour syst.em of 15th and 16th centuries in.
soclo- Spanish-American Empire, e.g.: Hispaniola and Jamaica .
. eco·nomie
dtmensions The Spanish wanted a cheap labour force and _forceci the.
indigenous peoples to work for them.

• Spanish government divided up land into encomiendas and provided

a number of indigenous peoples, e.g.: Tainos, to work for the
encomendero/owner of land. The 'parcel' or number of indigenous
peoples was called the repartimento. The encomendero was to provide
. housing, feed and clothe and protect liis labourers. However, this was.
rarely the case.

• The 1812 Laws of Burgos stated that the indigenous peoples!

Amerindians were to be Christianised and not enslaved. These laws
were ignored and indigenous peoples were forced to work in mines.

It, ; I
• Las Casas pleaded with Spanish Qovernment on behalf of the
I indigenous peoples and campaigned for :better working conditions.

~~ I
· However, his was one of the few vo.ices arguing for the indigenous
peoples.

The Impact ~f Eneomienda - Failur.e

1. Working and living conditions of indigenous peoples:

crops destroyed by animals brought in by Spaniards; long hours
of work with little food; traditional systems of labour not
followed.

2. Spanish attacked traditional religion and introduced Roman

Catholicism. However, many still continued to worship zemis
in secret.
 ·I
3. Genocide: Thousands killed by Spanish as punishments; hunting .·~
games; diseases like small pox, had devastating effect on the ~-'-
population - mainly responsible for the genocide of the Tainos/
Arawaks
.1
4. Resistance: indigenous peoples commit infanticide· a;nd suicide; :I
run into mountains; attack and kill Spaniards.
·. 101ai;,~./~Qnt(i,__ '~IJV-e,,
. . . .. <-c .
..
. (I
Bright Spot:. ll
The primary
meihod of
Cllltivation. on
. the plantation·
li
was slash. and·
b11rn. ]
]
Slavery

The system of labour of the 16 1b

to the 19 1b
centuries. "In the effort to
.I
maximise profits . for the Empire, cheap labour was· s(nlght. By
enslaving African's to work on plantations, the profits were maximised
I
because the enslaved were not paid wages for their labour .. With the
end of the Slave Trade in the 19 1b century, planters found it more
difficult to maximise profits - it was argued that paid labour was
I
cheaper than slave labour. Yet slavery continued until 1888:
TI8DS-Atlantic Enslaved Trade
I
I
I
I
~

. .
;,· i
-~ :.
:1 i

. ~·· .

.. '
:·. .,.
.·~
.
.~
_.'.
19
I
Impact: Steady Labour Supply while it lasted but Very Inhumane

.llo It is now sometimes called the 'forced migration' of Africans

from the continent across the Atlantic via the Middle Pa~sage
to work the plantations of the .Americas. Yet conditions of
enslavement on the coast ·and .on the ships were a . clear
indication that this labour system rejected the humanity o{ the
Africans- they were merely units of labour.

4 European empires passed slave laws which regulated the

conditions under which the ·enslaved worked. Yet the laws
ensured that the plantations . got maximum labour from the
enslaved and did little to· protect them. The Enslaved were
known as 'chattel' and were the property of their masters .

.4 Working conditions: field~

factory, domestics: gang system on
plantations; cruelty of drivers ./rangers; in Bahamas extreme
conditions for extracting salt, in Belize the logging of wood;
extracting dyes.

4 Treatment ~f th·e enslaved: punishments were cruel and very

inhumane; the enslaved had little or no recourse in the justice
system, especially in the British system:

4 Religion: the traditional religious practices of the Africans

were attacked and outlawed. so·me continued to practise in
secret .

... Resistance: enslaved revolted. in all European colonies

throughout slavery. The San Domingue revolt was the most
successful ending in the Haitian Revolution 1804. Other forms
of resistance were also employed: e,g. destruction of cattle,
faking sickness.

4 Maroonage: the enslaved left the plantations and settled in

mountain or forest areas. In Jamaica, the maroons negotiated
with the British for their survival- agreed to return enslaved
peoples who ran away from the plantations.
 I
Indentured Immigration <~~
~--
.The labour system of the 191 b and 20 1b centuries.
1
Planters argued that with Emancipation, there was a
loss and/or shortage of labour for the plilntations. I
They argued that they needed mo.re .labourers,
especially in British. Guiana, Trinidad, Janiaica.
··. Other territories, such a~ Cuba aU:d Suriname
.I
utilised indentured labourers. Once · again·; · the
labQur sought was to be cheap to maximise. profits ..
.I
Yet authoritl.es qid not want 'a new system of slavery.' ·

Regions of Origins
.I
~i.l\.~
.. ·.· . . ,· t
Labourers were sought in India, China, Java, Europe and Africa. I
Though Africans were preferred, Indian immigrants soon · were
actively sought after b~cause of their numbers. They formed the ;~
.largest group of immigrants. ·

Agents sought labourers in country of immigrant- many given false I

information of . conditions of labour in the Caribbean; many
immigrants experienced poor living conditions on board ships. to the
Caribbean.
I
As early as age seyen but usually about age twelve the children of ex-
'I
slaves and indentured·. labourers usually started to work :on the
plantation - usually. blacks and Indians .. They were paid children's
wages.
I
Terms and Conditions
:I
Contracts regulated the system of labour in the attempt not to enslave
the indentured immigrants. Yet many of these were drawn up to ensure
e
that the, owner of the plantation got the maximum benefits from the
labourer. Many were forced to work beyond the indenture. i
Working conditions: examples of cruelty by owners of estates, long !I
hours of labour, harsh environment to work in, harsh punishments.

I
21 ~~
 [.:./1
-,
1 \
Religion: immigrants allowed to practice their religions and rituals~

i?
i..J
Yet Christian missionaries targeted them for conversion, accusing
them of satanic worship.
! .

I\
..J
·Impact of Immigration

4 Immigrants often clitshed with other ethnic groups - riots; also

11;
..J
acquiring land in villages. according to terms of indenture .

4 Masses and Servants _act 1838 - late 1930 replaced the slave
laws in regulating labour sC.rvice. The tenants were duty bound
to work on the plantations· in ~:eturn for living on the plantation
land. It was one way of ~xtQrtion labour.

H
.I

I:
!
Summary: Development of systems of Production
I 1
I
o ·Labour systems in the Caribbean made the labourers into units
of labour. They deliberately attacked the humanity of the
II wor_kforce.

Ii o Resistance: labourers always found ways to resist the dominant

powers of the planters.

o Yet labour was exploited for benefit of owners of plantation and

empire.
I .
I
. I
I
, I
 'I
r-~
L
Resistance, Rebellion & revolution: Pre-1807 I
Bright Spot .
Resistance by
the enslaved:
. The earliest form of resistance in the Caiib~ was from the ·Tianos, .
whereby ,many committed infanticide and su1cide; ran into ~ountains;
I
Active-
violence vs:
Passive-non
aitack. and kill Spaniards in response to the most cruel treatment and I
violence . genocide at the hands of the Spaniards..
'---~=--=---::--::-'
Maroon.
' .
(Jamaica) war ended in 1739 - primary pmpose
'
was to
.
fight for their I
right to ~as freed peQple; S~nd Maroon war took place in 1795 in respo~ to unfair
·punishment of a feW Maroons in the town ofTrelawney. ',I
The 1760 tacky's .rebellion in Jamaica had arevoluti~ aim ~fthe total ·..was~cre of a11
:.!
. . .. . ; . ..

whites. He and his Aslianti

. . followers were defeated by the militia and.the niaroons. Impact
- 30o.4oo Africaiui. and ()o Europeans died.
.
,)I

Cufi'y's ·rebellion of 1763 in the Dutch colony of Berbice was. in response to ,I

crueUoppiessive condttions on plantations. Eventually it evolved into a .call for freedom
and self-rule, J
Resistance, Rebellion & Revolution: 1807-1834 J
Bright Spot:
A revolution is a
social change that
Post abolition of slave trade (1807) revolts were mainly about
hastening the process of full emanci~on: Barbados 1816; I
happens relatively Demerara 1823- 13 ooo revolted with 100 killed; Jamaica 1831 -
fast and in which
a society goes
from one so.cial
Christmas Rebellion (Baptist war) 400 died and 100 of the enslaved
were executed.
I
system to another
I
I
I
:I
23
I
~~
!1
1J0 I .

l"l
~ Resistance, Rebellion & Revolution: 1838-1930s
ll.
' I
J 4 Before the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica in 1865, crown colony g()v~ent

'III
J

.l
(more direct control from the British monaiCh) was limited to TriDidad and
Lucia. .Afu:r the rebellion it was mandated for all British Colonies.
St.

Structure of CroWD. Colony Government:

~I::J
~I
~~
r~
.I
:.J
I·l
J,
'
{I .r&. The 1930s riots, revealed labour discontent with economic and political conditions.

f, I
" '
.r&. The economic distress suffered in the colonies through the 1930s brought about the
II rise of trade unions whose leaders made a bid for political power, for example,
gl
J
Butler in Trinidad and Tobago; Bustamante in Jamaica.

~~
 . I
,~I
·L;
Haitian Revolution: The Ultimate Reaction against Oppression
...........
....:
I
J Began on August 22; 1781 with the enslaved uprising against the French.
I
1
I
I Fljllllcois Dominique Toussaint L'Ouverture organized a small military
'
1 group. ·In order to overcome powerful cotintries wanting to c~aim Haiti
(France, England, and Spanish) Toussiant played powers off one imother. ·
il
~~
--- il
·--
-·....,~-
* .............

-·--
---~

..... .. ----
. .. - .
~
. -- -·.. :
........... !
II
i'.
1..

! r:l
·.~
!' t_tl

('j . I·
\.._, __.

:I
··I
'

:'1
'

''

:I
Legacy of Haitian Revolution
'I
I. Symbol of freedom and hope to the rest of the enslaved iD the region
2. Planters in other counties became aware of the chance of revolution. especially in
light of their oppressive treatment of the enslaved.
I
3. The only successful revolution in the New World by the enslaved
I
il
25 ·.I
n
LJ

n
p
;::)
Resistance: Rise of the Peasantry

The peasantry. be may be defined as member of a traditional class of

fanners, either laborezs or owners of small farms-: legally or ille~y.

1w1 Mintz (1985) argued that Caribbean peasantries emerged alongside of and
'prolbablly like nowhere else in the world. ~fining these as "reconstituted"

I
LJI
1
because they began as something othei than pea.•umts.

Acknowledging the diffiCulties in defining "peasantry," Mintz pointed to the Caribbean

Ii
_J
experience, stressing intemal peasant diversity in any given Caribbean society, as well as
their relatioriships to landless wage-earning agricultural workers or "rural proletarians,"

II
. I
and ho.w the experience of any individual might span or combine these categories.
_j
Composition of the Peasantry
l!
..J Such groups varied from:
o the "squatters" who settled on the land in the early days after the Collliilbian.
I!
.J
conquest;
o EUropean indentured pJanmrion worlcers who finished the terms of their contracts
I :. -
' ' !
•11
i...... '
(early yeomen);
o to the "proto-peasantry," hQDing farming and marketing skills while still enslaved;
and
1! o the "runaway peasantries" or maroons, who formed communities outside. colonial
authority, based on subsistence farming in mountainous or interior forest regions.
li
' J

II
II ' I
Bright Spot:
Reason's for the
Peasantry: for Mintz.
Ii ' '
these adaptations were
a ''mode of response"
to the plantation
:

.
,.
'~
. ·. .':

. ·. :.. .

II system and a "mode of

reslst11nce" to superior
power.

\\

II
!!
 I
Movements towards Independence
C}
·~
Movement towards Independence ~
·~

~
ll
fj
[J

., . 1.1
i'.J··
'
The abolition of slavery was also a major watershed in Canobean history in that it
initiated the long, slow process of enfranchisement and political control by the non-white
ll
majorities in the islands. The old representative system of government which granted !I
great power to local assemblies was replaced by the crown colony government where the
British appointed governors had more control and power (see diagram on next page). 1 I
I
I
r
27
I
 J SYSTEM OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT I
The old Stnic:ture of Crown
representative .Colony Government:
lbegovemor assemblies
who represe~
the monarch

Crown
·. im.appolnteci
· upper house

an elected lower electorate:

house wealthy male
property holders

The history of the colonies from then until 1962 when the fust colonies became
independent is. marked by the rise ofpopular movements. and labour organizations and
~

. of leadership
the emergence of a generation of politicians who 8SSQilled positio.l;lS . . when

II
J J
the colonial system in the British Caribbean was diSmantled.

lr
.i I
Despite shared historical and cultuial experiences and geoiraPhic, demographic, and
economic similarities, the islands of the former British Caribbean empire remain diverse,

I! and attempts at political federation and economic inte&ration both prior to and following
independence have foundered. Thus, the region today is characterised by a proliferation

lj of mini-states, all with strong democratic traditions and political SYstems cast in the
Westminster parliamentary model, but all also with forceful individual identities and

~I interests. It follows that nationalism has trumped regionalism.

II
Il j

1\
 !I
. ·I
Process towards Political Enfranchisement
cl
1. The·effects of the 1930s riots, including labour discontent with economic and
I
political conditions;
I
2. The growth of economic institutions giving a sense of self~sufficiency and self"
detennination to each Countty (econom.ic enfranchisement); I
3. The economic distress. suffered iJ;J. the
' '
colonies through the 1930s brought about
the rise of trade unions whose leaders made a bid.for political power, for
'
J
L~
example, Butler andRieJU;i (see piCtures above) in Trinidad and Tobago;
Bustamante in Jamaica. . ·. . .

The Road to Full/UniverSal Adult Suffrage in the Caribbean

L~
• Adult suffrage allowed the participation of a significant mass of the JlOPulation in
a process whereby they could detezm,ine their political future.
• Voting rights were now conceded to the population.
• Members of the population were now eligible to participate in the govemment.
cJ
• In 1944, Jamaica obtained home rule.
• Trinidad was granted universal adult suffrage in 1945.
L-
I:P
I
1:.

r:
L
~o

I
·~

I
29 il
 The Role of the Moyne Commission in Internal Self Govenunent of the Region

A hastily dispatched Royal Commission in 1940, dominated by Falru!ns and chaired by

·Lord Moyne (hence called the Moyne Commission), toUred the re~on and reported on

'I'1I
··'
the disn\aJ co,nditions, making strong recommendations for significant political reform.
The Moylie Commission
. . noted as causes ofthe riots increased
. politicizatiori
.
of workers
..J
in the region, deriving from the war experiences of West Indian soidiers, the spread of
elementary ed~on, and the influence of industrial labour unrest. in the United States.
ll
~.i .After the riots, the reforms sought by the union of the middle classes I!Dd the workers
were fur:ma.1ised.
ll•"(.
--~

'ItI
Impact·

I
In 1940 the British Parliament passed the Colonial Devdopment Welfare Ac~ .the first .
foreign assistance program legislated specifically for the islands. The British government
also extended the franchise to all adults over the age oftwentY-onC and set about building
li,,_,/l- ') the apparatus for
.
modified self-government with greater
' .
local
·.
participiu:;On.
',,- . ':
In 1944,
Jamaica obtained home rule. Trinidad was granted uriiversal adult sgffiage in 1945.
J
II Impact: Crown Colony (Government)

'~II Following the report of the Moyne Commission in 1940, the cirown colony system was
further modified to make local councils even more representative and to give local
officials more administrative responsibility. Nevertheless, defence, foreign affairs. and
internal security remained the prerogatives of the crown. The Crown Colony
~~ Government refers to a system of British colonial administration under which Britain
retained control over defence, foreign affairs, internal security, and various administrative
~~
,,
'I
and budget matters. Crown colonies are governed internally by a British-appointed
governor and a locally elected assembly. In late 1987, the British crown colonies in the
Caribbean consisted of the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat, and

'I. the Turks and Caicos Islands. Prior to the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica in 1865,
crown colony government was limited to Trinidad and St. Lucia. Over the next thirty-five

~~
 I
I
years, however, Britain abolished the old representative
many of the islands, and the colonies were
Britain and by a Britislrappointed
.
..
. governed
.

govexnor on each
.
assemblies that had flourished on
directly by the Colonial Office in .
.•

island who was assisted by a. local

,
. council, most of whose members were appOinted by the governor. As the nineteenth
century progressed, however, an increasing number of officials were locally elected J
rather than appointed. This S<H:alled system of modified crown colony rule began in
Jaxnaica and was eiD.uliued in.other West Indian colonies in the 1920s and 1930S.:
Li

Impact: The West Indies Federation

J
II
(C)
The short-lived West Indies Federation commenCed in 1958 and was politically
unsuccessful. By the early 1960s, the larger territories, starting with Jamaica and ]
Trinidad. were finally achieving independence.

ll
dJ
IJ
IJ
Econonrlcenfian~ement·
L.:I
A history marred by slavery and t;he exploitation of people for economic gain based solely il
on their racial character has helped to cement in post-colonial Caribbean countries- such
as Barbados, Trinidad and· Jaxnaica - a deep reverence for the notion of economic !:1
enfranchisement and equal opportl,lnity.
tl
From the moment of independence from Great Britain, these territories have been
committed to the financial empowerment of those elements of its population traditionally 'I
excluded from enjoying the benefits of economic activity and financial prosperity.
:I
31 'I
1L)l'.
' I
1

SuccesSive government policies have been aimed at expanding the middle class in these

19
,I
D~
countries an4 creating the sorts of educational opportunities that allow indivicluals to aspire
to ownership~ entrepreneurship and the creation of real wealth.·
.!
I . I
'
.!.J
I
J

1 ,_1
!'J
. I
J •

1\ .: l
.J

Entrepreneurial Activities

Colonialilm', post-colonial experiments and disillusionment With seif-sufficiency, U.S.

I'I I
mid Conw:apitBlist hegemony, peripheral dependency status, excessi\'e indebtedness:
these are the regional realities of Caribbean small islmids and their external relations
ll.. ' throughout the post-world War IT period. On the other hand, e\idence of communal

II~ JJ
collective action at. local and regional scales, of self-help activism, of entrepreneurship, of
innovation and creativity counter the despondent mood that such powerlessness might

ff '·
engender. The following entrepreneurial activities emerged:

self-help initiatives like credit union associations (a major savings cooperative

I'I •
society for the newly Independent masses),

ll • home self-building,
• communal farmers' market activities and
i, I • shop keeping have prospered.

tl
1. I

1, I

1. I
I· I
 'I
(_~
]
Caribbean identity&. Culture.
. . . I
Although the Caribbean is a region marked by
.Bright Spot
A ccu/turation:,
the process by
tremendous diversi(y.there is much in common. As we·
saw in the historical definition, that we all came fro;n
l
. which original
cultures
become
.hybridized into
similar places/origin. Furthermore Caribbean countries .
acculturate. each other's culture leading to a mixed J
culture. Within each, culture there are some defining·
a ul'lique

______
Caribbeal'l
.__Culture
characteristic·s.which are similar to many countries. We
_. have a similar purpose of being 'Caribbean.'
ll
. ·'. . . . .

tl
'

Also we have undergone a.~imilarprocess or culture of overcoming,

from: resistance, rebellion; ·resilience to independence. Thus, "the·
area [the Caribbean] is a .culturai sphere where a great d.eal of the
manifest difference is but a complex ·working out of common themes
ll
- origin, purpose and process. "(J .Mohammed (2007))
d.I
IDI
Ll

II
II
1_1
II
'1'1
: ··•

I
.,.'··
33
I
 M1S03: Characteristics of Society and CUlture

· Soc.iety: a collection of people occupyini a defined geographical

area over a long period of time. Additionally, society can be -
definea as people havina- a shared common purpose. Therefore, the
unit or group to which an individuafbelo;ugs can be called a society.

In search of a Definition of
Society & Culture .
'Bright Spot:
The
rdatlonshlp
beiween
·socleiy 4'·
cdture. .Is .
seen In this
Venn diagram·

Caribbean society: identified as groups of islands occupying a

b.ounded geographical zone. Additionally, ·l:l sub'-group of this

I Ii larger ·zone can be referred to as a national· society: E.g. Trinidad

and Tobago belong to society that is usually limited by the national
border~ of the islands.

II
. I
Within this large group an individual would belong to a socio-
economic group, religious affliction ethnic gro.up or geographical
l', I area e.g. Chaguanas.

II
_, '
In the Caribbean, people belonging to a national society feel that if
they become incorporated with another state, chances are that their
way of life may be adversely affected. Even though they stand to
gain economically from an integrated arrangement, there exists a
'deep sense in which people values, the traditions of their land, and
feel that sharing statehood would jeopardize that.
 (11
It is widely regarded as the way of 1ife of a peoplQ.. that is, learnt
through socializatiQn . into· . the
.. values and norms of the .. .society.
.
I
Sometimes culture can be.:better understood when divided i~to.h
.. · ·. t~,biliB ·· . . . ··.. . I
------.1) Matedal culture- refers to the products of a .people
Bright Spot:
Culture:
material
such. as their styles, architecture, types of ·food,·.
economic organization, and their forms of technology,.· .... · ·
ll
and non
material
ote:
· · · · · ··
is a ·broad. term referring to any tool or prodtict to. ·
ll
make man's livelihood· easier or supply his needs. It also includes the.
scientific thinking and research to everyday life for practical living
I
e.g. Fertilize leads to mass production and then a demand.

2)Non- ma~~fat'k*~ure-
refers to cherished ideas. beliefs, values and ..
I
norms which becomes tangible in the form of behaviour and J;nateri~l
objects which they give rise. All forms of learnt behaviour like
,J
cultural behaviour refer to what collective society believes is true. · - -. i
(__..
I
:I
CULTURE
I
I
This refers to the set of rankings people in a society give to numerous I
social behaviour. Practices are ranked highly if they perceived as
something good or of value to the society. For example, high positives
are conferred on persons who demonstrate equalities such as heroism
I
and patriotism or those who have performed great feats such as
winning Olympic medal, becoming Prime Minister or even self- I
sacrificing acts of the mother and father.
Sum Box: ·J
Values: ranklngs people in society place
on social behaviour. Norms: culturally
accepted social behaviour 35
1
ll
.JI
Strongly condemned are: murder, treason,. incest, adultery and not so
I{P
j'
strongly condemned are: unmannerly behaviour, untidiness, cheating
and bragging. Therefore, values are sh~red ideas on how behaviours
and disposition are to be ranked. N.'B. som·e values of a society
I;.J changes· with time. According to Selwyn Ryan (2013) in an article o.n
Youth at 'Risk: "what was once considered scandalous and unthinkable
ll
jl
20 yeats ago may now be considered the· norm.,

IJ_I Norms·

1: I
These !lre )ltandards of behaviour that are culturallY accepted and
. emanates from t_l.!.!:~!lm. of cultural values that we share,. Cultural
.J
values form an abstract set of values against which social behaviour
I',, I
_,
and attitudes are judged. The importance of norms is that they evoke
arrangement of awards/rewards and sanctions to be conferred on
li
~ ':
I
:members of society accorcting to behaviour. Thus in this way, norms
are tied to social behavio~rs and give support to. cultural values.

)i' ! .....
I ' \

ft'
, I
' I
Relation§bip between
Values.& NOPD!!
N017113 are culturally
accepted standards of
behaviour thtJt.j;omes
from cultural Yalues
thaJ we share

I
I
~·
'
!
I '
Values Norms r
!' ~. ........... ·......'... I·
'
 Guide to Behaviour.. Institutions:
A societal institution is a sociological concept that tries to explain
how society .works. Sociologists also explain our willingness to obey
and conform, largely throug~ tlie power that social institutions. make·.
on our lives. These. institutions are the family, education, religion Ll
and the justice system. Other institutions ·include business
organisations, governm.eiJ.t and hospitals. Each institution,. lias a :u
direct effect on . the· society ·in which it exists. For exaniple·, . the

,,l'
attitudes and the ·goals of an. entire society are in.fl11enced by •. the
transmission of leaniing and knowledge in educational institutions.

Gend~red Practices. :I
Child re8ring is still considered~ predominantly female led funCtion in Can"bbean
societies. Gaining cultural.~ and becoming a norm are working m~ I
breadwinning IDOms and single parent households. In terms of employment the line is ·

c:: i
being blurred on what was considered traditional male and female jobs.

M1S04:.Identity and SoCial Formation .

I
Cultural Diversity and Soc:W Stratification
I
Cultural Diversities I
Bright Spot:
Cultural diversity
In order to define Caribbean culture one must bear in mind
the population that makes up each territory and its culture.
I
is the existence Within the .region there are some cultural differences. In
of sub-cultures
within a main
cullure or
most instances a particular culture which is indigenous to
an island/country diffuses to other Caribbean countries.
I
different cultures
in a farge area
such as the
Furthermore Caribbean countries acculturate (absorbs the
culture of othe~_.groups) giving rise to a mixed culture. i
Caribbean Within each culture there a;e some defining
'-------~
characteristics which are similar to many countries. I
,J
37 I
 Also the Caribbean can be defined as a plural society because many
cultural groups occupy the same territory but maintain their separate
cultural identities.

This . is due . to the · shared historical

experiences as well as the environmental
factors exemplified within the Greater
Antilles. TlJ,ese include their 'discovery' by
CollllJlbus and the later .arrival of the French
and English, the destruction of their
aboriginal societies, slavery, indentureship
· apd then .the struggie for independence. Within this melee was the
introduction of European agricult,ural capitalism based on sugar cane
· cultivation, African ·labour and. the plantation system.

There ate of course similaritieS. as there are differences. Jamaica is

.the only one in a group . (Greater Antilles) that had British
colonization and, similar to. Haiti, a predominantly black population
in. excess of 90%. Cuba, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico were
Spanish colonies. Spanish is the.ir primary language and they have a
· more balanced racial mix between blacks. and European descendants.
AJl ihese territories have dialects due to racial mixes and the need to
communicate. Cuba is the only communist territory in the region and
..
tlie. only one where the strong religious heritage is not encouraged .
II'·I
The Spanish speaking territories have tended to embrace Roman
' Catholicism while in the British· dominated territories the Church of
II), I England (Anglican) and to a lesser extent Methodists have had
influence. It was the Baptists· in Jamaica that the enslaved were able
to identify with mostly and this attraction later led to the development
II.\ I.
of the evangelical movement .

~I
~I
1.!
IJ
~I
 I
;I
POSITIVES·
j cm:rURAL DIVERSITY .

NEGATIVES
i
!)Diffusion of other cultures can
lead to tolerance
1) Attempts to enga,ge in .·
protection o·f c.ult~re may cause I
separatist/ clan: behaviour'..
2)lncrea.se harmony amongst ..
''
.. ' ' ,I
differing.groups over time/next 2)Short run discrimination' b'ased
generations. on ra~e. · religi'o~:aild ti'ass .·
.·.· . ' ,I
3 )Leaning new cultures 3)Risk of loss of indigenous

. . .
Social stratification
culture to a dominant culture tl
I
O:ll····
'
,. . ·: ' -
. I
Social Stratification refers to the division of society into layers. or
strata. When we talk about social stratification, we draw attention .to
(
~-·
."I
'

the unequal position occupied bY individuals of society. An

individual class position is in some parts achieved. and not simply I
given.

Social mobility both upwards and downward the class structure is the
I
fairly common feature of class stratification. A distinction is made
between intra-generational and inter-generational. The first of these, I
intra-generational, refers to movement up and down the social scale
within the individual's life. The second, that is, inter-generational is
the movement upward and downward across generations.
I
I
Stratification of a Plantation Society

Within the plantation system developed an insular social structure in

which there was sharply differentiated access to land, wealth and
political power and the use of physical differences as status markers.

39
Iu
I\
!J, These experiences have effectively created ·multi racial societies with
1~?- mixed culture and a social stratif{cation based on race, education and
wealth.
J

IIJ' George Beckford (1972) the plantation as a total institution - both .

. economic
. and social i.e. organized with weil defined boun.daries, self-·
.
. containing and with a hierarchical structure similar to a caste system.
llJ'
··In its original form the society as a whole was rigidly stratified by
IIJ r_ace and colour directly correlated with occupational status on the
plantation and without upward social mobility.
..--'--

ll
j
Sum Box:
II The Sugar
Plalr#tlon was a
-' microcosm of

I'jl [larger] We.rt

1mlltln Social
Slnu:biH.

I Poor Whites

Freed /Former African enslaved :

I

II -.~
Domestic enslaved

II'.1
:.·
.
Field enslaVed

II l I

II I
Important Concepts in Soclal Stratification:

IJ Plantocracy: Belonging to the planter class and also members of

the representative and crown colony governments
II Intelligentsia: A social class of people engaged in complex, mental and creative
labolir directed to the development and dissemination of culture,
II
. 11 .'
 I
encompa~sing intellectuals and social groups close to them (e.g., . --~
artists and school teachers).
Ll
Bourgeoise: Upper middle class. According to Marx a member

Middle Class:·
of the property-owning class i.e. a capitalist,·

The ~oeconomic class between the working class..and. the upper

I
class, usually inCluding professionals, highly sk,illed labourCrs, and
lower and middle management.
I
Working Class: The socioeconomic classconsistingofpeoplewho workforwages,
especially low wages, including unskilled and !'Cmiskilled labourers
I
and their families.
.I
a class beneath the usual social scale consist.Uig of the most
Underclass:
disadvantaged people, such as the unemployed in inner cities · .I
Caste: any social class or system based on such distinctions as
rank, weal~ profession, etc.
heredity, I
·"···I
(__,. .

Hybridization I
Hybridization refers to mixtures in t«;.!!J!.S
and cultural expression:
.
of people's racial, heritage
·- . . . . ···-· -·-·-··-- ;
1)
2)
religion
language
I
These mixtures of people and culture began with the era of discovery. I
However, plantation society was the institution under which
hybridization became deeply established in Caribbean society and
culture. It was not necessarily an expected outcome because the
plantation as an institution sought to control the relationship of
· various groups of workers. The governance and management practices
of white plantation owners tried to keep the races apart.

Hybridization has deepened cultural diversity in the Caribbean. One

must remember that it was not only the physical person that was
I
41
I
 involved in the union of someone in another race but it. was as well
two cultures meeting and mixing. Therefore, in the Caribbean, as a
result of racial admixture, the following terms arose:

I) Mulatto: of European and African origin/ancestry.

2) Mestizo:of European and Amerindian· origin/ancestry

3) Dougla: of both African and East Indian Orig~n/ancestry

4) Trans cultura ti on: the intrOduction of foreign elements into an established

li
I I
_) .
culture: In extreme cases can Cause cultural erasure-

5) Interculturation: refers to the mutual exchange of cultural traits between

. cultUres in long_~ close contact It contributes to the emergence of a new
culture- such as Caribb¢anfWest Indian culture

6) Creole: a simplification and modification of standard E~~Iish

that can be traced back to
the plantation ._,__

Bright Spot
The historical definition
f·
I!<
•'!
I
of creole refers to a
person ofEuropean
lj

heritage/parentage that
It
.!. I
was born in the Caribbean

~I Creollsation

lr ' I
Edward Kamau Brathwaite (1971) in his article: the
development of creole society in Jamaica (1870-1820)
referred to Caribbean society as neither purely British nor
I II . West African, but creole. The term 'creo~· as used by &,n, ~
-·· Brathwaite denotes, when applied to persons, both whites c 'ht.o.r\ -f-r
and blacks, freeborn and slave, "born in, native to, committed to the ~'"j f,(J._+; 0v
I i· . ' area of living." When applied to the general society, it denotes both nlt .c>r\,~ "f
a colonial relationship with a "metropolitan European power, on the €w<:pUtf'\.
li. .!. 'I
one hand, and a plantation arrangement on the other." Creole
 l
Jamaica, Brathwaite is explicit, was a society in which there was a
'"juxtaposition of master and slave, elite and labourer, in a culturally
(4
\._.;
heterogeneous . relationship." Although "multi-racial,~ it was J
"organised fi:om the benefit of a minority of European origin."

ACtivity:
Locate and define following terms:
• · AcCUlturation
• · Plural sOciety
• Cteoloisation
•
•

Cultutal Erasure, Retention and Renewal of Cultural Practices

ll
Cultutat Erasure .
·~ This refers to the discontinuance/diminishing of
cultural practices. In the Caribbean, in general and
. ,,. within individual countries, there are
. ''·-~- ' .
many
:. · . examples of cultural erasure. This can ~e seen in our
· architecture whereby we no longer build houses with
. primitive "wattle and daub" of early settlers. Wood
:. :'.~was a replacement, then the use of concrete blocks
and steel.

In terms of food, fast food restaurants such as K.F .C., Burger King,
Wendy's and Me. Donald's have diminished restaurants and other
eating places that serve local dishes. Indeed so persuasive and
powerful has been the invasion of these food chains from abroad,
more and more people are no longer relying on home cooked meals.
!I'.
In terms of family, erasure ha·s been seen by the practice of the "whole ll
community" bringing up a child has given way to parents/guardians
alone taking full responsibility for nurturing of children. The use of . m.
godparents is fast disappearing as practical and even more so for
.fi!
effectiveness. Many tribal/folk cultures such as burial sites, worship

43
 of supernatural and use of "obeah" have generally become unpopular
or erased,

'1\
' I
' '
Cultural Retention

:J,' This is where cultural practices of the past continue into the present.
11 No society will continue to e:x;ist unless it retains cultural practices
~~ from one generation to the next in spite of modernization. Caribbean
culture depicts several ex!lmples of retention from our colonial past.
ll
:1
Wherever there has been, strong ethnic settlement of on~ klndj, many
, cultural traits have been retained. E.g. Amerindians, Africans
Europeans and Asians have left their stamp on Caribbean culture from:
II
,J
music, dance, religion, food, dress, economic activities to norms and
values.
li
_...
::J Cultural renewal

II
J
This refers to instances to practices discontinued
have been revived. In Trinidad , and Tobago, the

~~
II -I
'-" - introc;luction of Sbouter Baptist Liberation Day as a
holiday has revived recognition/awareness of this
group. In Jamaica, the reintroduction
LE:iiU~:tiitJiOill~ emancipation day as a holiday and opening'of
of

ark are good signs of renewal. In Barbados - "crop

II J
, I
over" is another good example of efforts at cultural renewal.
Additionally, the recent re-kindled interest in folk medicine/herbal

II, I !
medicine is' the renewal of the once popular practice in the Caribbean.

II
II Cultural
Renewal,

I! ' J
Cultural
Erasure
Cultural
, Retentioq
..........._ _ _8/--,.-"' • --'" ·. .:·~

II /

Hybridization

li
tl
 ·. B
c_-j
I
Impact of geographical Phenomena
I
"Travellers think ofthem M paradise_; the beautiful Caribbean blanda -bUt jJermanent
resident8live with the constant threat ofhurricanes and earthquakes, floods and dro.Ughta, and
,J
· volCanic eruptions~ a condition that he/pas~ not only their daily lives, but. political and
. . . .

economic .decisions at home and abroad."[http://www.reseatch.vt.edu]

.
.

I
Culture was earlier defined as learned behaviour that contributes
lJ
Bright Spot:
Disasters can
be natural
to the way of life of a people. Geographical phenomena [i.e. plate ij
and/or man tectonics (eartlvjuakes & volcanoes), hurricanes, soils, coral reefs
made.
"--...,------' and droughts] affect tbe non-rilaterial component of culture via lj
learnt values and norms centred on our need to protect the physical environment. The
material part of culture is also impacted as it can cause cbm)ges in architecture and
settlement patterns (issues of relocation). When these cultural changes occur in a
defined geographical space, such as a specific Caribbean territory, .then the entire society I: I
is affected.
:I
Plate Tectonics
II
The theory of plate tectonics is an explanation of how plates move in relation to each
:I
other, thereby, creating certain tectonic activities at their margin. Plates meet each other
at three kinds of margin (see Map 1- The Caribbean plate and its neighbours). ~I

•!• Transfonn (fault)- plates slide past each other. Generates earthquakes (e.g. in I
Trinidad, Jamaica, Haiti, Puerto Rico)
I
/.1'/
¥ /
:.1
y
,/ 45
'.I
 + . Divergent (constructive margin) -the plates move away from.~ other.
Generates volcanOes. (e.g. in Cayman Islands)

/ ...... , ~
(
··.,
v
•> Convergent (destructive margin) -the plate collideS and one is forced
downwards. Generates Volcanoes & Earthquakes. (e.g. in the Arc of volcanic
islarids. such as St Vincent, St Lucia and Martinique)

••
•

1!
J '

~I
III I

III J
. . SOUTH AMERICAN PlATE

~I Mapl

~I
-I· ~

-~
 An Introduction to the Geophysical Process: E~quakes & Vo)j:&Does

lb.e Caribbean territories are prone to natural disasters since two major transformation
plate margins demarcate the northern and southern boundariesofthe Caribbean plate (see
.Map 1), as a result earthquakes occur at theSe margins. · The Lesser Antilles being
situated .on a convergent plate I®rgUi experiences volcanic activity much like the
Greater Antilles

EAR1HQUAKES: Social displacement

Earthquakes are sudden and rapid vibrations of individual tremors along the
. earth's crwit, both on land and sea. The earthquake zone extends from Grenada to
St. Kitts and up to Jamaica and west of TrinidAd.

IMPACT:
• Earthquakes are destructive to life and property (social displacement). It can also
cause many to be physically displaced and psychologically traumatised. It can
cause portions of the sea to rise above water level and thiS results in flooding,
destroying both property .and lives. ·

• . Earthquake tremors c3n cause landslides and catastrophic rock fall. This results in
the destruction of bridges and nillway Jines disrupting comm1mication lines.
Landslides may also result in the removal of top soil essential for providing
nutrients to plant and the stability of the soil will also be lost I
• Tsunamis or gigantic waves also result :from earthquakes and these results :from
:I
depressions or large holes in the sea floor. Tsunamis are very disastrous and the
most damage occurs along the coastal regions. An example of this occurred in
,I
1962 when Tsunamis damaged Annotto Bay, Buff bay and Port Antonio on the
North Coast of Jamaica.
i
I
47 I
 .,,·
.
1J
VOLCANOES: Social displacement

Voleanoes are natura} ventS of fissure or gap linking the earth's inteiior to the
surfaee tllro.uch which an assortment of pyroclastic materials of hot ash, lava, debris
and poisonons g!m are eieeted.

IMPACT: Ni:gatiVe:

• . VolCanic activity results in havoc and c;levastation to propexty. crops and lives due
to tUroulent avalanches of hot volcanic debris and gases. ExpaJiding hot gases
l :.i'' I
!
and delms travel at great speed and over long diStances and caUse Pollution to the
environment.
li I I.

• Volcanic activity play a major role in the Caiibbean islands to which it occurs.
1: 1 . '·
'
1
.
Most are neptive effects but some are positive. When volcanoes ate active in the

fti Can'bbean islands there is a displacement of population since individuals either

WJ' I migrate to another country or migrate internally within the island,· This results in
certain partsfareas of the island becoming overpopulated
l·i
' Volcanoes also destroy crops and the econoniy as ash. debris and molten lava
I! i •
i.

from the Vent covers the ground and restricts growth of crops.
ll
I I ,
•!

1:! • Volcanic activity also disrupts tourism and changes the weather patterns as
clouds of ash ejected from the vent of the volcano decreases the sunlight's

1:1 intensity.

I; l • Landslides are also common with volcanic activity and this destroys houses,
vegetation and crops. Serious flooding also occurs when drainage channels are
1.'' I' 0
1

I! I
 I
approaches the shore, and low lying coastal areas are flooded. Combined with Strong

winds and heavy rains, the.effect is devastating..

d
I
FLOODING I
In flash floods, a torrent rushes down a: river valley or a narrow gully. The power ofth~.

. flood may knock down buildingS, wash away cars, or drown those in its path.
J
I
I_

~
On flat land, wide areas can be flooded by slowly rising waters. Furniture may be mined,

vehicles damaged, and crops destroylid Floodwater also threatens disease, by spreading

sewage and anjmal waste into the drinlci:ng ~- . Ll

J
SOIL: erosion & conservation q]
Soil erosion is the ac:tilal removal of soU by mnning water, wind or other agents of .
'I
L.

erosion and transportation .<denudation). When the ground is covered with some kind LJ
takes place which is unavoidable and is going on
of vegetation, only normal erosion

everywhere around the globe. .When men interfere with the course of nature by
I. I
cultivating the land, the rate of soil erosion is often greatly accelerated. According to :I m·.
''..
Leong & Morgan (Human & Economic Geography, 1983) "it may take 500 to 1000 years
. . ------- •.. .. -- r.W
rl
for 25~-Ef soil to be fonned by natural~··· but when man misuses the soil in
----·-·--·
careless cultivation or indiscriminate removal of forest, 251l'lm of soil or even more may ':I
be permanently lost within a generation."
:.1
Soil erosion can be caused or a.ggmvated by bad farming practices. These a,re as follows:
<I
51
'I
 --- -

r
I' 1.

.,;s=~ut· · c 1---~by fire . Thisharmful

I'I.:!P
•'
_..
- ·. · Wherehy, the .orest
.g c tivation: " 1s C<Ucu

means that the soil is no longer protected from the full force of heavy tropical
act

xaiD, nor is it consolidated and held together by plant roots. It is therefore quickly
''

I washed away.

A .Overgrazing: The number of animals'that can be.grazed depends on the carrying

I . capacity of the pasturage that is the number of animals Which can graze on the
I II .pasture without completely killing out the grasseS or other plants. Ifthis number

is exceeded the vegetative cover becomes too thin to protect the soil and rain and
11 wind ~ able to erode the soil.

~I .4 Deforestation: When land is cleared for cultivation or timber, soil is eroded

~ ,f· )
quickly. Areas where soil erosion and landslides have followed deforestation
\ __
include the Northern Rang in Trinidad, and the Y allahs river in Jamaica, where

II · . steep slopes have been cleared for cultivation and housing in a high rainfall area.

~I .,. Slope cultivation: Soil erosion is always enhanced when the cleared area of the

land is on a steep slope, because this allows gully erosion to take place.
ll Additionally, the soil on slope is easily moved by gravity.w!Wn it is loosen.

II
SOU. CONSERVATION
II
II Sound fanning practices such as those describe below, are moSt important for

conserving/preserving the soil and for improved crop yields and money returns for
ll farmers.

I\
II
 [
}> Contour ploughing: If ploughing is done at right angles to the hill slope,

following the natural contour of the hill, the ridges and furrows breaks the flow of
c_i
· the water down hill. 1bis prevents excessive soil loss and reduce run-off.
I
}> Terracing: Slope may be c\lt into a series of terrace or steps with sufficient level
'I
ground on each terrace to allow cultivation, and an outer wall (retaining wall) at .
j
the edge to retain the soil and to slow down the flow of rain water down the slope.

}> Strip cropping; Whereby, crops are cultivated in alternate strips, parallel to one ,I
~

another. The crops should have differing rotation periods to ensure .that at no time

will the entire area be left bare or aposed. Thus tall crops may act as wind breaks

and strips of other crops, parallel to the contours, slow down soil run-off.

}> Cover cropping: In some cases, as in plantations, cover crops may be •

inteiplanted between the young trees. These crops protects the top soil from the

full force of the tropical do\vnpours

CORAL REEFS: coastal protection & sustainability of fishing

industry ·

Coral Reefs are large strips of wave resistant coral rocks (calcium carbonate) built by

carbonate organism (coral polyps) lying close to the surface of the sea.

In the Caribbean there are generally three types of reefs:

• Barrier reefs: are found parallel to the coast and are usually separated by shallow

but wide area of water called lagoon. The second largest barrier reef in the world

is located off the coast of Belize

53
 g~(<-0"0 ~~-~
• Fringing reef: are low platforms of corals, 0.5Jan to 2.5km.. wide, lying close to

the shore of an island or continental shelf: but sq)anited by narrow lagoons; its

outer edge descends sharply into the sea. In the airibbean located off the coast of

J81Dllica, Barbados, Tobago & Antigua

• Atoll reef: tend to form a Horse shoe. They are usually linked to a sunken

volcamc cone.

COASTAL PROTECTION & TIIREATS

Coral reefs. protect the shoreline from high eneigy waves, alloWing a beach to form

(e.g. the South-eastern coast of St Lucia. Thus C:qral reefs ate important for the

development of other coastal landform by supplying material for beach sand and provide
.. ·
a blinier to destructive waves.

II Coial reefs also protects sea beds and nat'liral habitats iD the undersea world from

II destruction by creating a buffer effect, thus preventing ba•'klash and surface erosion.

li
ThC following are various threats to coral reefs:
li > Chemic:al Pollution: Herbicides, and other chemical pollutants may poison coral

m:
!1,
and marine life when they run-off into the sea

> Organic: pollution: from sewage or fertilizers damages coral. It promotes the
ll growth of other organisms. Corals may be starved of oxygen, or smothered with

li algae and eventually die

I\
II 'i4
 &

~ Too much fresh water: coral grows where the water has the right amount of salt
c~
~
(SALINE}. Thlis the destruction of parts of the Lagoon barrier at Bucco0 Reef in

Tobago b)' man has resulted in fresh river water from rivers enterblg the reds

and reducing the salt l:ontent causing a decline in the coral population. m
~ Fishing: damaged may be caused by anchors, by over fishing or by badly placed
I
fish traps and nets. Causing serious and lasting damage to reefs

~ Recreation: visitors may damage the reef by walking on it or breaking offpieces · I

to take home with them. Dive boats may cause anchor damage. Buccoo Reef in
I
Tobago has been seriously damaged in these ways.
I
I
PROTECTING REEFS & COAS1LINE

• Careful environment management is needed in coastal zones. Such as

c E
monitoring water q~ty. and the state of offshore coral reefs. Also, I
educating the pub6c and advising on shoreline protection and

management. These activities are extensively done in Barbados.

I
• The development ofa proper sewage system can help protect the marine.. I
environment as most organic material and some chemical are removed at

the treatment plants.

I
• Engineerblg measures can protect corals or restore eroded beaches. -I
Well-designed artificial structures can reduce wave energy·and protect
~
beaches from erosion. E.g. earthen embankment, sea walls ...
~
I
55
I
 ECONOMIC, CULTURAL & SOCIAL CQNTRIBUfiONS: Tourism & Fishing

Coral reefs are important for the Caribbean and other tropical marine environment in

many ways:

I\
~·
•> Fishing industry: Coral reefs proVid~ a habitat for marine life, including fish and

rl: shellfish. Species such as conch and lobster are an important resource for the
[!,
~ fishing industry. However, in many Caribbean countries, damage to coral reefs

~I has reduced the number of fislL With small populations, the danger of over-

ll
_j
fishing is greater, because there is a smaller }>reMing population.

•:• Recreation: Reefs are a recreational resoun:e for local people and for tourism.

Scuba diving and snorkelling are an attraction for visitors.

<- Beautiful beaches: Much of the sand in many Caribbean beaches, e.g. on the

west coast of Barbados, is derived from coral which have been broken up by

waves. Further, the reef protects the coastline and beaches from erosion.

l,i '
Therefore, in closing, coral reefs are very much part ofthe Caribbean culture and we

have learned to use them to enhance our ecoT/Omic wellbeing through fishing and
~I tourism, conscious oftheir value in sustaining the physical environment

1\
It The Impact of Droughts on Caribbean Culture & Society

II "Drought is3 cnoditianofmoisture deficit sufficient to have an adverse effect~

II vegetation, animl!l~. and man over a sizeable area."(Warwick, R.A., 1975)

II .I

56
 .
m.

The equatorial location

.
of.the Caribbean islands supports the fallacy that this region of
the world with its lush vegetation and "laid back" life style is exempted from the.
l~
scourges of drought and desertification. ~
Unfortunately, semi-arid conditions in many parts of the region results in serious land I
degradation- biologiCal, chemiCal and physiCal. The following are major causes and.
impacts of drought on the region: I§

Causes & Impact: Human Factors I

The history of the Caribbean: written with the blood, sweat and tears of the indigenous .I
Indians and the enslaved Africans, speaks of the rape of cultures and landmasses. For
example, ninety percent (9QO/o) of the vegetation of Barbados was destroyed by the.
M
colonists in an effort to expose lands for sugarcane cultivation. The denudation of
Barbados is largely responsible for the 'gullying' and erosion experienced today. A
i
similar situation occurred in Antigua with the same consequences. Both Antigua aud
Barbados now experience serious water shortage. The calciferous nature of the soil in
i
these islands supports
. ~ve leaching and Joss of fertility creating semi-arid
. .
.~
·conditions that support erosion and loss of productivity.

·~
In the more moun~us islands like St Vincent and Grenada, the land was devoid of .
vegetation in all but the most precipitous and inaccessible areas that were unsuitable to
~
agriculture. The Joss of stabilizing vegetation in the lower elevations caused movement
of the unstable volcanic soils in the upper elevatious leading to landslides and the
exposure of subsurface water sources. With time, much of this water has dried up
I
completely leaving the soil dry and exposed except for patches of scrub vegetation and ·~
constructed contour barriers. In the larger islands like Haiti, Jamaica and Cuba much of
~e land was also cleared for sugar cultivation but the impacts were less severe than in the I
smaller islands. In Jamaica for example, there was so much forest remaining that the
Maroons were able to develop a subculture totally independent of their former colonial ~
masters who continued to occupy the island and exploit its wood and water resources.
m
57 Q
[
L.J

Haiti was not so fortunate. The deforestation Cc:intinued

. into the. nineteenth century
resulting in the creation of a virtual desert on large portions of that country.

Other Causes & Impacts of Drought:

o Population pressures: Many islands are facing the stresses of mpid human
population growth increases the region Vulnerability to droughts by putting
pressure on an already geologically young insular landmasses.

o The high levels of pesticide: e.g. use in bananas in the Windward Islands have
rendered the lands unprodUctive without further chemical inputs.

o Governments' lack of a clear policy ·on son 1:9nservation: haS not been enough
to avoid leaching, erosion and land ~on in general. The problem is .
eXllcerbated by the paucity of scientific data on soil loss and the nnfumiliarity
with droughts in the region despite the temporary dry spells that nat1n'e inflicts
from time to time.
II'J

II':I Causes & Impact: Physical Factors

II o Climatic changes (ENSO effect): and their associated impacts have conspired to
create semi-arid conditions and droughts. The canals and seawalls of Guyana,
ll though very effective in dmining the coastal lowlands, could do nothing to stave
off the drought of2001. In recent times, the El Nino Southern Oscillation
tI (ENSO) has emerged as a key indicator of severe changes in weather patterns.

li' .
The fact that it can be measured from in situ conditions makes it appropriate and
acceptable as an indicator. El Nino is spawn from increases in surface

ll temperatures of the centml tropical Pacific Ocean. These increases in tempemture

are the forerunners of abnormal air pressure patterns that result in abnormal

I\ minfall patterns or complete shutdown of the normal easterly winds resulting in

I!, I
 I
.droughts and bush fires. Under normal conditions, however, the Caribbean
bas a very active wind system which in addition to dl')'ing out the 1-.ad SJ!eeds
c~
up the rate ofsoil erosion/land degradation (a worsen effeet). · ~
o RainfalL One of the best indicators of drought for small island states in the ~
Caribbean is tht: rainfall pattern. Many of these islands have no.real underground
store ofwatel' due to their size and geology hence they depend exclUsively on ~
rain-fed surface streams. Where some underground~ exists, it.i$ pmne to
saline intrusion hence rapid and frequent repienishment is a necessity. The. l~
islands of Barbados, the Bahamas, Antigua and Barbuda and the Grenadines of St.
Vineent are good CXlUllples. Given the islands' limited capacity to retain surface i.l
and sub-surface fresh watel' and the increasing demands for this commodity, it is
imperative that there be a regular and reliable replenis,hment mechanism.. The l.~
· only such source is rainfall. When the rainfall is delayed, red11eed or
"inappropriately" distributed, the result is drought imd land degntCiation. ~
.I
~·-~
[.
Therefore, rrumy Caribbean islands are facing the stresses ofrapid human population
growth, increasing vulnerability to natural disasters, and degradation ofnatural ·g
i '}\
i'
•• • J
~

resources. Droughts andfloods are among the climate extremes ofmost concern as they
qffect the amount and quality ofwater supplies in island communities and thus can Ju:tve if!,
,fi
significant health consequences. Due to their small size and isolation, many islands/ace
chronic water shortages and problems with waste disposal. :I ~~.·•
;;;

. -~

J
ffi
·E

I
59 ~~
·: ~
 -----·--

Key terms:
Agriculturnl drought: A climatic excursion involving a shortage of precipitation sufficient
to adversely affect crop production or range production.

Coral polyps: These are Small, soft-bodied creatures which use the calcium
carbonate in sea water to build a hard limestone protective casing.

Crop rotation: ·This is the constant use of the land by alternating crops yearly or
· longer. As a resUlt of this diversification method the dllnger of
depending on a single crop (monoculture) is reduced especially
IIJ when world commodity price are falling. · ·

Ground fissures: In a powerful earthquake the ground splits and cracks.

IIJ Hydrologic drought: A period of below average water content in streaJ:ns, reservoirs,
ground-water aquifers. lakes and soils.
lij
Lava flows: A hot, molten rock which may flow to the surface from a volcano

li
' j
Liquefaction: When reclaimed land or loose sediments which are saturated with
water may behave like a liquid during an earthquake. Buildings.
1,-<._~-)../ may sink to the ground

Meteorological drought: A period ofabnormally dry weather sufficiently prolonged for

II ."l
the lack of water to cause serious hydrologic imbalance in the
affected area;

II Monoculture: This is the growing of a single crop, year after year, such as sugar
cane or bananas.. The crop is constantly using up mineral from the
soil cansing.soil exhaustion.
II Natural Disaster: When a hazard causes deatbs, ~uries, or major damage to
property.
II Natural Hazard: Unpredictable threats arising within the physical, climatic or biotic
environment.
Ia(
e,
Pyroclastic flows: Viscous lava in the form of gas, ash and fragments, which rushes
forward at up to 700 km/hr, with a temperature of 300-800 °C,
fi1
[g II
killing everything in its path.

II Soil conservation: To protect the bare soil from wind and rain- by covering it with
vegetation (afforestation).

~l
iii·.
~ l ' /'..()
 I
Soil erosion: The removal of topsoil by natural agents (runniilg water, wave
action, wind ...) Assisted in many cases by human activities,
especially in the removal of vegetation acting as a soil protection.
:''I
\.,;,.

Storm surge: An unusual rapid rise in tide level, above nonnal heights, usually
· caused by a storm ofhmrican~. · · · ·

Tremors: The vibration of the ground due to earthquakes. ..

I
Tsunamis: A powerful submarine thrust -fault earthquake of magnitude 7.0 or·
. more producing a giant wave or tsunami, devastating low-lying I.
coastal regions. ·
tl
J!URRICANE IVAN- Grenadll t7' Sqtember. 2004): A Case Studv- Economic &
Socilll Conseguencea: · ·~
· 4 HoUsing: On some estimates, 80-90% of houses were damaged or destroyed.
& ElectriCity & water: Power lines were brought down in.' most communities. The
water supply intakes at reservoirs were clogged With debris. Theie was also a
water cOntamination risk. ·
il
4 Other structures: The recently built national stadium was wrecked. Most schools
were damaged or destroyed.
4 Agriculture: Tree crops- the main focus of Grenlidian agriculture- were hit
!I
hard. Nutmegs are the main farm export and 90".4 of the trees were felled or '
badly damaged . ~~
• Environment: Trees were blown down over wide areas. This incident increased
.· nmoff after heavy rains, with a risk of flooding and soil erosion.
4 Transport: Roads were blocked. and the ailport was cloSed. i.l
4 CommuniCations: Most land line telephones were ·out of action. Radio
transmitters were blown away.
• Tourism: Of the 1,700 hotel rooms, only 300 were still in service after Ivan.
& Law & Order: Looting created further disruptions after the hmricane. The prison
!I
roofs were blown off and most prisoners left the compound.
4 Economic damage: Agriculture and tourism, the main sources cif foreign · 'I
exchange, were badly damaged many farmers and hotel staff lost their livelihood.
N.B. there was generous international help for relief and reconstruction.
fi Trauma: The power of the storm, lost homes and possessions, and a devastated
;~
island were powerful emotional shock. Tune was needed to recover.
.. Total cost: Total of39 killed, hundreds injured. Estimated damage US$815
. million. 200% ofGDP, or eight times the government's nonnal tax revenue. I
·I
I
I
61
I
 Impacts of Social Institutions on Caribbean People

A societal institution is a sociological concept that tries to explain

how society works. Sociologists also explain our .willingness to obey
and conform. largely through the power that social institutions make
on our lives. These institutions are the family, edu.cation, religion
and the justice system.

II The Justice System

11 : This refers to the interaction of.those institutions that are

closely identified with social control. It involves the
ll interaction of crime, the law and the judiciary as well
as the protective services in an intricate system of

I! rewards and punishment.

Problems and Impacts of the Justice System

1[
;!1
1) Rapid social and economic change brought about by
industrialization and urbanization in many ur~an·.areas, there
II .are higher incidents of crime and different types· ofc.J:"ime
than in other areas. The largest offenders for the mo~t~'part
II are young adults who have not been adequately socialized, at.
home or school into norms and valu.es required for observing
the law.
II
2) Increase in poverty in environment where there exists an
II increase need to acquire the means of social capital such as
"brand name wear" and "bling bling" have led many young
people most of them drop out of the educational system into
II life of crime. All of these combine to present enormous
challenges to the justice.
II 3) The seemingly ineffe!ll.Lveness of police and judiciary to deal
with violent crime and even political figures cast the justice
ll system into shame for ordinary citizens. The challenge to
regain respect and loyalty depends on the perception that the
I! justice system is serious about decreasing crime. However,

ll
 I
this aim is eh,Isive amidst corruption at the higher levelS
inadequate funding of the protective services and the apparent .
r·~
....... _ .

need for.more training on. the part ofpolice officers.

4) Citizens of lower socio-economic levels are convinced that

inequalities exist in the justice system- regarding who is
convicted for the crime. A capitalist system of social relations
convinces many that laws. are mainly to entrap the poor and
powerless and that elites who are probably just as guilty
(white collar crime) remain difficult to detect and correct ..

5) The justice system is s.upposed to protect the innocent and

contribute to social harmony and integration. It is. also
supposed to rehabilitaie . offenders: Our prison system,
overcrowded and· under resourced is challenged to
inmates into law abiding ·citizens.

t;~
Religion
il
Edward Tyler ( 1932-197())- saw religion primarily
involving beliefs in deities or supernatural beings ~I
or s·pirits. ·

Emile Durkheim rejected. Tyler's approach and in so doing, sought a ·:I

universal definition: "religion is a unified system of beliefs and
practices relative to things that are sacred." He emphasized those .:1
. beliefs and practices unite persons who hold them in a moral or '
religious community.

Carl Marx viewed religion as "the sign for the oppress creature, the
••
sentiment of a heartless world and the soul of soulless condition. lt
is the opium of the masses."
i
Religion in the Caribbean ·I
Religion is linked to colonialism and indenture ship as well as to the
efforts of the missionaries to convert African slaves and indentured
I
labourers to protestant Christianity. The larger territories of the
·'I·,
63
'I
 . 1

m,
[J

Caribbean have a more diversified mix of Caribbean denominations

than the smaller one. With Trinidad, Hinduism and Isl~m as a result
of East Indian indenture ship .
. l

I\!
I',
li In the Leeward Islands and Jamaica, the contemporary period presents
religious cha1;1ges moving away from traditional Roman Catholic and
Anglican towards· to North American denominations such as
;I Pentecosta:Is and Evangelist. In the Car.ibbean, . the concept of
syncretism or the merging of different systems of beliefs has been
~~ used in the Caribbean to describe the blending of natural beliefs and
religious practices that were transplanted from. countries of the
emigrant population.
ll
II Famlly

ft] 1ftt' One of the most commonly known definitions of the

family has been advance by .George Peter Murdock. He
defined the family by "a social group characteristics by
II common residence, economic co-operation and
reproduction. It includes adults of both genders, at least 2 of whom
II maintain a socially sexual relationship and one or more children,
owned or adopted by the sexually cohabiting adults.". Further,
Murdock noted that this form of the family is universal, that is, it is
~I found in every society and is the basic unit. However some family
forms in the Caribbean do not meet 1 or several of these criteria
ll used by Murdock to define a family.

Family forms in the Caribbean and reasons for their Diversity

II Caribbean theorist question the view of a single nuclear family

II formed in modern society looking specifically at the Caribbean

region, they provide evidence of a range of family types that do not
.conform to a single standard such as:
!l
II
 I
1)
' 2)
Common law union
Visiting union
cl
3)
4)
Multifocal family
East Indian family I
Traditional family forms existing in the Caribbean are: I
1) Nuclear family
2) Extended family I
I
. Education
L~
Historically:
Ll
a
Education has historically been social institution that was us·ed to
stratify the population according to race and class. In this way it is
a tool of socialisation. The historical process of education in the ·
il
Caribbean can be traced as follows: 'I
• During slavery education was largely denied to the Africans. i
··.. ~~
!2j
After emancipation, with indentured immigrant labour,
education was denied to the Asians. lfJ
. l
~~
• Secondary education - an avenue for upward mobility wa$ also
largely denied to both Africans and Asians.
• Educational qualifications were needed to access white collar il
jobs -education is seen as an agent of stratification.·
• Religion especially Christian religion was used by the colonial
state to exclude persons in the colonial society from certain
II
jobs.

Education & Gender during Colonial Times

'I
Nineteenth century education in the British colonies emphasized 'I
class, race and gender divisions, separated secondary education for
boys and girls, and entrenched sexist stereotypes and images of
women that were detrimental to Caribbean societies. For example,
I
from adolescence most girls were socialized, in the school and at . t:J.··
·~
home, to adhere to their assumed roles within their societal context.
As a consequence, the curriculum for girls was focused on subjects
I
65
·I
 · such as home economics or domestic skills and clerical skills, while
young .boys were socialized towards enginec;ring, math and science.
(Walker,l999).

Today:
• With universal primary education and increase in proVisions at secondazy level,
social mobility is evident, but social stratification is again evident in that many
students leave secondary school with little or no qualifications. Some may turn

u
j
to crime (strain on the justice system).
• This stratification may be aligned illong race and class as the wealthier classes are
better able to afford investulent ill dctta l~br resources to.help their children
achieve academic credentialS. · .. .
• With CXC. a Caribbean Perspective ~···brought to . Caribbean education,

u replacing colonial based cumculum. This form of educatiOn works to instil an

understanding of a Caribbean identity~
• . UWI provides tertiary education and plays an active role in
I.J i encouraging regional unity.

~~
u
• The impact of education on other
Ii societal Institutions: Justice system.
family & religion
• Colonial vs. pre-colonial education
I: • Education & gender

I I\
I
I
' '
 I
. _,
'

Caribbean Arts & Popular Culture in the Region &Diaspora c._·

Can"bbean Art Forms I
• Popular music: soca, calYPso> chutney, reggae, zouk....
•
•
Culinary practices .
Festivals
· I
~
Impact of Caribbean festivals the diaspora

~
J
1.1
Festivals in the UK such ils Nottjng Hm Onniyal. Bristol <;arniya!. Ueds Carnivalare
significant events on the UK. rultional calendar. The carnivals aue based on traditions · [I
within the Caribbean like Trinidad eamival and St Kitts masquerade. Notting Hill attracts
over one million participants each year. Also Festivals such as Caribana.(foronto),
Labour Day (New York), Carnival in Miami and Boston. Also, Hindu Cetetmiiion8 in
' lj
.I

North America- though not as vast. · --- -· ----- ·

Further festivals brings revenues to and other cities s with visitors from other parts of
u
England, and overseas. It can be argued that it is only for one day or seasonal. Caribana is
a major nioney earner
for Toronto for that one weekend. u
Also, tourism benefits; foreign exchange; hotels filled, services benefit (transport - air ·
and land). However, it can be argued that the festivals and carnivals are seasonal and so
II
have limited impact. ·
&l"!'t.~" lNY)- W2-lf Ir ,-;". ""'"':1 p,_,.,d~ . iI
The Impact of Caribbean culinary practices

The Caribbean is known for its diversity of culinazy delights especially spicy foods.
iI
Moreover, there are large Caribbean population in North America and EnglaBd causing
the impact of Caribbean cuisine to greatest in these countries. In general however, there
has only been limited acceptance of Caribbean culinary practices (foods, seasonings and
I
drinks) in mainstream North American and Europe.
. . (
:I

.' ' '

"
----• J/ "
:I
67
 Contributions made by Individuals to Arts & Popular Culture
Rex Nettleford \J.W-!0
....:;:..;.---

Nettleford's importance to tl;le Caribbean and its diaspora derives

from the fact that his master project has been the decolonisation of
the Caribbean spirit and imagination. His writings, lectUres and
choreographies reflect a profound conviction in the creative power
of the peoples ofthe region, a power struggling to unleash itself
from the conjunction of historical and neo-colonial forces.
J
The coiillJlitment to contesting the idea of the colonial fo\IDd expression tb,rough the
. creation of 1111 indigenous dance fo:rm prOmoted by the National Dance Theatre Company
of Jamaica (NDTC), Nettleford co-founded and haS been, artistic director since 1963.

Jamaica's most loved Folklorist, Writer, Artiste. She has appeared

in leading humorous roles in several Jamaican Pantomimes and
television shows. She has traveled throughout the World
promoting the culture of Jamaica by lecturing and performing.
I.~
.(__j
Although her popularity is International, she enjoys a celebrity
status in her native Jamaica; Canada and the United Kingdom.

Ji ... Beryl McBumie -·

\t :r,.

Beryl MdJumie (November 2, 1915- March 3, 2000) was

I 1 a Trini~an dance legend. She established the Little Carib
Theatre,. and promoted the culture and arts of Trinidad and Tobago

I! as her life's work. McBumie helped to promote the cultural

legitimacy of Trinidad and Tobago that would ultimately ann its
people to handle independence psychologically and healthily.
1: McBurnie dedicated her life to dance, becoming one of the ~est
influences on modem Trinidadian popular culture.

ll
I\ Marshall wrote a series of poems reflecting impressions of
Barbados, later, she turned to fiction. She has published short
stories and articles in various magazines. She is best known for her
11 novels and collections of short stories: Brown Girl, Brownstones
(1959), Soul Clap Hands and Sing (1961), The Chosen Place, the
J:· Timeless People (1969), Praisesong for the Widow (1983), Reena
and Other Short Stories (1983), and Daughters (1991).

I!
 i
Aubrey Cummings '--~
\.:.·
An important commentator bas stated that the most innovative .
sector of music in Guyana during the 20th century was in the I
popular. music/dance music sector. These dance bands created the
· soundtrack for~ of passage - falling in love, marriage,·· .
christenings. and death. Some personalities are indeliblY associirted
I
· With these bands. ·
j
Martin Carter
J
..Martin Wylde Carter (7 June 1927- 13 December 1997) was
· a Guyanese poet and political activist. Widely regarded as the grCatest . J
Guyanese poet, and one of the most important poets of the Can"bbean
region, Carter is best known for his poems of protest, resistaJice and ..
revolution. Outer played an active role in Guyanese politics,
J
particularly in the years l"t'ding up independence in 1966 Bod :those
following immediately after. · · ·. · il
He was famoUsly imprisoned by the British government in Guyana in October 1953
under allegations of "spreading dissension", and again in June 1954 for taking part in
:I
1 ••

a PPP procession. Shortly after being released from prison the fust time, Carter published
his most well-knoWn poetry collection, Poems ofResistance from British Quiaiw (1954). :&
il
'

Caribbean Global InteraCtion:

Caribbean Influences on Extra-Regional Countries
:I
f
I
. ~.
The Cubans: i/o;.:: . ·.' >'t
Cuban immigrants, especially in Miami, are powerful pressure groups that have affected
voting and governance in the US. From the days of Jose Marti in 191h centuiy Cuban
immigrants have influenced the US government in its international relations with Cuba: I
e.g. the Spanish- American war, the Bay ofPigs incident
I
I
69 I
 -----------

The Cuban Political & Cultural Influence:

4 Migrants supported the 1996 Helms Burton Act against the Castro government in
Cuba.
4 Migrants ensure that their concerns receive international attention: e.g. the case of
the child Emiliano received international publicity.
6,. Cuban immigrants have influenced langwtge policies in some North American
States:
4 Cuban- U.S. relations have become a U.S. national concern. States like Miami

r
j
have been transformed to Little Hav~ Cuban and Puerto Rico artists and music
have become part ofUS culture. Spanish is acknowledged as the second language
of the U.S.
ll
j llaitiails: ......
ll '
a!
~!
'BOat people' of Haiti and Dominican Republic-thousands of people from these countries
I: ...
1-
....
' \
!
leave and risk sea journeys to the U.S. These groups have greatly contributed to US
immigration policy on 'refugees.' US navy patrols the area and these migrants have
become a priority in US domestic and foreign policy. Some migrants do succeed and
.II become part of the labour force which the metropole.haS been-affected by the migration
·process.
II
:·J/1.··-------------------------------------------------.
Ii i Activity: .· . ·.
l Refer to 'Caribbean Arts & Popular
. i
i
i culture' section and evaluate the impact !
I' I
1 ofCaribbean festivals on J:Qeti;opolitan i
i countries · i

I''
~------------------------------------------------------------1
I l
: I,
J '

' I
i

lr
 I
The Impact of Migrant Labour on the Metropolitan Countries
c~
SITUArtON ll
1) Caribbean migration to the United Kingdom·
increased in the early 1950's in respoilse to post-wwn
demand for labour. Migrants, especial]y oiale
1) The resultant impact of migrant workers was that they
filled in vacuum left Or
by JosS able bodied men and
women as a result of the war. Esseatial services were
I
lllignmts. took jobs in the.lnmspclrt industry as
conductors, bus driveis; ·and train driven. FCliiAie
migrants tralned to be nmses .amWorked in hospitals
staffed by West Indian m~fs whlcb were vital to
the economy and society. · ·· :. I
in the uK. Also at placeS Such as Lyons Tea House.
In laterPeriods. migriims also wOJked lis teaChers.
'I
2) Labour: North AmeriCa: Carillbean migrant laboiD'
to Nortb America- seasonal labour in 1950's and to
2) Persons needed to worlc these jol)s - filled in vacuum in
I
key states where such labour was needed, socb as New
Florldi eic; to pick oranges and other fi:ui( Also, post-
1950's~ to work in US- as do!iiestics, DID'SCS,
artislins. Sk:illed workers ·also, mignlted to Canada and
York.
Social change: in the UK racial11msions occor:red in some
areas where migrants settled. For example, the Notting
·
I
the US especially in the 1960s period and beyond.
Hill riots and the speeches of Enoch PowcU serve to
highlight race tensions in the OK.
Brought racial tension to the fore Which occor:red in a
I
series of laws passed to~ race relations in the
United Kingdom. However, it can be mgued that racism . ·
is stiU rife in die UK despite Iegistation and social·
change.
' .. I
3)Canobeaa t•and2"' generationS have leaders in the Provides a visible presence of the Can'bbean
I
UK and Nortb American societies in areas such as
trade llllions, med,ia, writers, artists, and politics. For
example in the UK Bernie Grant of Guyana and Diane
migrant especially in the UK and to a leSser
extent, North America. I
Abbott of Jamaica were the fust two Caribbean
persons to be elected as Members ofParliament in
1987. Bill Morrison ofJamaica is leader of Trade
Union Movement. In North AmeriCa, second
I
generation Shirley Chishohn was the tint Black
woman to run for Congress. Also, second generation
Jamaica Cohn Powell was US Secretmy of State.
I I

I
I:,

'Ii
. 1 !1

71 ··I
f
{? The Impact of Rastafari on Countries Throughout the
world

l:
t:
r Chevannes (1995) suggest that Rastafarianism began in the 1930's in Jamaica as a result
l :. of the protests for improved !iying and workjpg C9!Jditions for the black masses. fn this

l!
socioeconomic and political; coutext arose a. millenarian movement that spoke of
· jmminent -
escaee from the batsh realities of life in Jamaica to a better life in Ethiopia,
~

Africa.

Chevannes sums up the main elements ofRastBfurianism as follows: as a spiritual

' philosophy Rastafarianisin is linked. to SOcieties of the runaway slaves or maroons, and
derives from both the African Myal religion and the revivalist Zion churches. Similar to
the revival movement, it embraceS the 400 year old doctrine of repatriation. Rastas

II
J
believe that they and all Africans who have migrAted are hut exiles in "Babylon" and are
~
_destined to be delivered out of captivity by a return to Zion or Africa- the land of their
·-
II ancestors, the seat of Jah Rastafari himself: Haile Salassie I former emperor ofEthiopia.

BELIEFS
• That Haile Salassie I is God
• Repatriation of black people to Ethiopia, Africa is pre-ordained
• The bible of the Judeo-Christian faith offers spiritual insights and truths about the
history of Africans
I
• That marijuana is a sacred herb that God has approved for the use in rituals
iI

;"·

!
 i!
'

PRACTICES c·-~ :
--. I

Extensive use of the first person singular pronoun 'T' in their speech e.g. "I and r•
o

or"lman"' . I
o A general withdrawal from mainstream society (Babylon). In Maracas Trinidad
there is a commune known as the "Bobo Shanti" (an offshoot of~) . ~
wbicli has almost completely withdrawn :from participation in the social, political
and eC:onomic activities of the rest of society . .
0
The wea~g ofthe hair in 'dreadlocks' that
·· ~Ccis Uke aloes
are uncut ~d enhanced using natural .
. ·
'l
o A hlgbly patriarchal fan;rlly system and social organization in which women play :I
a subordinate role

EFFECfS /IMPACTS i
l. Global appeal of Rastafarianism partly initiated by reggae supersuir Bob Marley.
,,
He helped forge toleiance and intereSt in the Rastafarian cult via his music even
beyond his death in 1981. Rastafarians dreadlocks are now being wom across the
World by many persons in different walks oflife and many belong to races other ll
than Africa. 'For example in the U.S.A some African American adojJted
dreadlock to the realities of their lives, with modification to blend it ~ih q
American cultural values.

2. Influence of language and ideology of cultures of many countries Using Rasta

;I
terms .and Marley general messages of peace.

3. The ideology and spirit of the Rastafarianism movement has been used to oppose
t
dictatorship in Africa and apartheid in South Africa.
I
4. The Rastafarian's brandishing of the symbol of protest against Babylon and
European hegemony was wom on their heads, with the growing ofloclcs, released .I
from their tongues, through the creation of a new incUgenized Creole lexicon, and
embodied in their walk, which valorized the kings and queens of a regal African
lineage. The significance of their presence in the pivotal moment of Jamaica's
(
independence cannot be underestimated.
!
[
i
73
I
 -------------

'1.
1·u'-
I

( .
,, I .
il' i .
g.,
Nettleford has indicated:
l
t .! .
"More generally the role ofthe Rastafarians has been to bring to attention of
the Jamaican society the urgent need to.root identity and national cohesion in a .
recogrlitio;, ofthe origins ofits black mqjority and to redress the imbalance of
r4· history's systematic weakening ofany claim to achievement which descendants of
!L!.
Africans would otherwise make in the New World In this they have been a

IJ revitalizingforce, albeit a diScomforting and disturbing one."

• These qualities of de~ and self-dCtemrlnation are what illustrate the resilience

l)! and creative ingenuity of the Jamaican people and it is what Nettleford seeks to
express, m8ke accessible and foster among the masses.

l!
Influence of Extra-Regional Societies on the Caribbean
ll
• Consumption patterns: goods and Services
I< I') ~-·
• Creative expressions: festivals. music, theatre arts, culinary practices

li "'
Education

Our colonial education was shaped by the history and values of the Empire (British,
I_ i French, Dutch, Spanish and some may argue American) and thus distant to Caribbean
culture and needs of a Caribbean society. ·One in which:
l.i • only the geography, history and literature of the Empire is taught in the schools of
I i.
•
the colonies;
the language of the imperial power, with allow fits accompanying ideology, is
emphasised;
I • the imperial culture is taught to be superior to that of the colonies and
• is racist, ethnocentric, in content, which emphasises the superiority of the white

I' ruling group and dehumanises the African and Asian heritage.

Institutions that facilitated Colonial education:

li
Schools- e.g: 'Trust' Schools, Catholic Schools and Convents, Tertiary Institutions,
Codrington College; Cricket, Gentleman's Clubs, Established Church: Anglican, Roman

74
 I
Catholic, Moravians, Methodists; Law Cou,rts, Police Service; Military, Scouts, Guides,
Boys Brigade and Ciu:!Cts. . . cJ
~-·

C.X.C & Educational Changes 1

•
•
provided~ :pu!>lieation of Caribbean texts based on Caribbean RlSlities. ·
. '
created syllabi that speak to Caribbean history, geography, environment,
·I
.·sOciology and culture ·I
• Provided examinations set in and examined by Caribbean people
• provided a platfOrm. for research in the diverse cultures of the Can"b})eiiJl. ;I
• facilitated neWorking by Caribbean academjcs-lecturers and teacherS to provide
stimulus materials ~­
• brought together Canobean teachers for the marking ~:Jtercise who share ideas,
experiences and knowledge pertaining to their territory. !l
!1
!j
I

:t
I
il
:I
I
;i

I
il
il
75
I
L
~~
[) • Rule of Law0
(' • electorial p~;cess

It:
(; Political
Influences
• Cubans
• Haitians

t: • migration
• new & old religion
II
_,

I!
I, f'J
"\.
Political Influences
ft:
The Westminster system is a democratic parliamentary
~: system of government modelled after that of the United
Kingdom system, as used in the Palace of Westminster (see
I, i picture above), the location of the Parliament of the United

li Kingdom. The system is a series of procedures for

operating a legislature.
'i .'
. '
I
It is also used, or was once used, in most Commonwealth and ex-Commonwealth nations,
beginning with the Canadian provinces in the mid-19th century. It is also used in :furmer
t: colonies of Britain in the West Indies e.g. Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica,

I. Barbados ....Important features of the Westminster system include:

I!
~~ 76
 I
4 A head of state who is the nominal or theoretical source of executive power, holds
numerous reserve powers, but in practice is a ceremonial figurehead. Such cJ
examples include the British Sovereign or the President of India A de facto I
executive branch usually made up of members of the legislature with the senior
members of the executive in a Cabinet: I
4 Such members execute executive authority on behalf of the nominal or theoretical
executive authority. The presence of opposition parties; I
4 An elected legislature. or a system in which one of two houses is elected and the
other appOinted; The ability of the lower house of parliament to, by default, i
dismiss a government by "withholding (or blocking) Supply" (rejecting a budget),
passing a no-confidence motion, or defeating a confidence motion. The I
Westminster system enables a government to be defeated, orforced into a general
election. independently of a new government beQ1g chosen. ·. I
4 The ability for a parliament to be dissolved and electionS called at any time.
I
Politics of Trinidad and Tobago takes place in a framework of a unitary We. with a
parliamentary democracy modelled on that of the !JK, from which it gained
I
independence in 1962. Under the 1976 republican Constitution. the British monan:h was !I
replaced as head of state by a President chosen by an electoral college composed of the
members of the bicameral Parliament consisting of the Senate and the House of
;
I
·~

The country has remained a member of the Commonwealth. and has retained the Judicial
·I
Committee of the Privy Council in London as its highest court of appeal. ·~
The general direction and control of the government rests with the Cabinet Jed by a il
Prime Minister. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are answerable (at least in theory) to the •

I
77
'I
[1
l1(-)
. House of Representatives. The 36 members of the House are elected to terms of at least 5
I,~ years. Elections may be called earlier by the president at the request of the prime minister
or after a vote of no confidence in the House of Representatives. In 1976, the voting age

f was reduced from 21 to ·18. The Senate's 31_ members are appointed by the President: 16
on the advice of the prime minister, six on the advice of the leader of the opposition, and

IJ nine independents selected by the President from among outstanding members of the
community. Local government is through nine RegionAl Corporations and five

r municipalities. In 2005 Parliament approved a proposal by the independent Elections and

Boundaries Commission to in.crease the number of seats in _the House of Representatives
t from 36 to 41.

v The President is elected by an electoral college, which consists of the members of the
Senate and House of Representatives, for a five-year term. The Prime Minister is ··
appointed by the President from among the members of Parliament; following legislative
~~ elections, the person with the most support among the elected members of the House of
Representatives is usually appointed Prime Minister. The cabinet appointed from among
the Members of Parliament Which constitutes elected Members of the House of
Representatives and appointed Members of the Senate
II
ll
li
II -·

'!
li
r
1:-
l!
 I
BRIGHT SPOT: An Analysis of the Westminster System in the
c~
Caribbean I
Diana Mahabir-Wyatt (fonner Independent Senator ofTrinidad & Tobago) .
I
While I appreciate the stability the system has given us in the past, I do not think
the Wesm;inster system , even in the many variants in which it aPPears in !lie
Caribbean,· is. sbll appropriate for small Caribbean sliites at th1s junclunl in hlstoly, for a
·I
. numbef of~. The first and most obvious is size. Our oountries are too small to :a
. provide large enough parlj_amen!s to mak& the §YSiem WOiit. There are rio. bacl<ben!:hels
to Pf9Vk1e ciealive disagreement in parties, there are not enough pa!liamen!arian to Ll
make·ihe Parf1811lentary committee system wolkable, and the size of the potential
parliatnentWv representative pool it leads us to chose from is Inadequate, aiJd does not
Include the intellectual and skills resources that we need.
:u
What we end up with under the present system Is an inefllcient parfiament, simply
ll
because
. by and lalge !!!aleV1!.9!!~m oroposes. !he other PiHIY. opposes.
. . If the
proposer is the majority party, the measure 90!*1 through. If it is not, it doesn't The
,···t,l
'-'

major motiVating factor is not what is in the best Interest of the cotintry, but what is in
the party interest We have an elected dictatoJship.
:,
• Po$ in the UK, the members are told how to vote in the party caucus that takes place il
before Parliament mee!s, and the only freedom they have is how to say what they are
told to argue. In the Senate in T&T, they don't even get that choice. Except it rare cases i'l
for people whose power is not questioned, both government and opposition senators
were asked to submit written copies of what they were going to say before they spoke, ··~
and they could only speak with the consent of the party leader in the House. This gives
rise to a blurring of the distinction between the executive and the legislature, with the :i
exception of the strength of the Independents in the Senate, who, by and large are
listened to by both sides, and whose amendmen!s to legislation are frequenlly accepted,
either behind the chair, or on the floor in committee. In my experience, Opposition
I
Members seldom move amendments, even though they will argue against a specific
provision in a given bill.
.I
I
79
I
rrtj·
I\
a0 A FURTHER CRITIQUE OF THE WESTMINSTER SYSTEM

l_l The OAS Unit for the Promotion of Democracy (UPD), in coordination with the UNDP,
organized a conference on "Constitutional Reform in the Caribbean." H.eld in Barbados
1. : from January 20 to 22, 2002.

1.: A number of participants believed that the full weight of authoritarian mi.ditions and the
degree to. which coloniall~gacies continue to undermiile governance in the region needed
li al:}cJ;J._()'Wledgc:d before any type of reform could be considered.

Cl In the view ofLloy<! Best, former

'
Director of the Trinidad Institute
.
of the
.

M.J West Indies and former Publisher of the Trinidad and Tobago Review, the
structure post-independence mtems had in large part recreated the
ll · ·. colonial of central domination by a.siugle. governor-type figure,

~ ---l-\
namely. the Prime Miuister. In Trinidad and Tobago, he said, "What we've inherited is
a West Indian System i:un by people with a Westminster connection, but at every

11 stage ...essentially designed, sometimes unwittingly, for the control of popular

participation." Sheilah Solomon said that Caribbean societies were the only ones in the

II world originally created to institutionalize inequality, and that after five hundred~
many of the structures and attitudes remained in place.

li The excessive authority and overwhelming oower constitutionally granted to the prime
~ i. minister, to the extent that, in the words of Prime Minister Gonsalves, "parliamentary
government is reduced not merely to cabinet government but to prime ministerial

~~ government." Prime Minister Gonsalves underlined the executive's virtually

untrammelled authority with regard to government appointments-from the cabinet down
li through the public service--and the dissolution of parliament, saying that "all roads lead
to the prime minister."
li..
!lei
~ '.

II 80
 '~iii
i:l
. . :. :I
ELECTORAL PROCESSES .'fi
"-...;

I
Adapted from: http://www.parliament.uk/works/elections.cfin
I
S\unBox: General elections are held in the UK as well as former English colonies of the
The
e.Iectoral
· Caribbean at least every five years; HoweVer not all Parliaments run for the whole I
process for five years, and a general election III!lY be held before this period is up. In the event
the BWI.
. was
influence
. of a government having a miall majority the election may well take place much I
· bv Britain ~er.
1.
In between general elections, by-elections are held as necessary to elect a new Member
of Parliament to an individual constituency. . JI
General elections are el~ons of the whole House of Commons at one time: one
~
Member of Parliament for each constituency in the United Kingdom. Each MP is elected
from the various candidates by a. simple majority
.
'
systeni in Which
. each elector can cast ,-·-+fi!it
• __ J

one vote. The candidates may be from one of the three major political parties, from a
!!I
· minor party or from any other organisation that has been registered with the Electoral '·I
Commimon. If a candidate does not represent a registered party or group s/he may stand
as an 'Independent'.

.. Elections in the Commonwealth Caribbean:

The Electoral Experience of Jamaica and the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago

. Elections as a political process serve as the single most important mechanism for citizens
to participate in the selection of a government. When conducted to international '.1
''
'
standards, elections tend to confer legitimacy on a government. In the Commonwealth
Caribbean, the electoral experience varies and tends to reflect not only the socio-political ~.
ljj
culture of the member state but also its particular electoral system.

W.Long (2012) Page81

 '

to The most distinctive feature of elections in the Commonwealth Caribbean is the use of
the Westminster style of parliamentazy democracy, where the legislative function of the
I.
.. I state Is vested in an elected assembly. Trinidad and Tobago and Jamirl.ca are

1\
..J
Commonwealth meni~ that gained independence from Great Britain in 1962. Both
countries have a bicameral parliament and a prime minister. Trinidad and Tobago
declared itself a republic in 1976 and has a president elected by the Parliament in place of
t;_._1
a governor general.

r.. J
In Jamaica the governor general is the official represc tative of the British inonarch.

t, Both states use a first-pyt-the-post election system, which requires electors to vote for
one candidate ci.nly. The candidate with the most votes is declared the winner, and the
I i party securing the highest number of seats forms the government This type of election
J·.!
.'
system is non;nally credited for its simplicity in terms of administration as well as the
speed that it allows in vote tabulation and the dissemination of election results: On the
other hand, the system is criticized for not operating well in a multiparty environment and
for~nding to exclude small political parties tbSt often fail to achieve any sigOificant
electoral gains in terms of winning seats. It is also criticized for favoUring the
Il development of political parties and policy platforms based on clan, eihni.city or region.

I' i
: I
I

!\i !,
I I

THE RULE OF LAW

r--='-----~ The rule of law is the principle that governmental authority is legitimately
'·I :Sum.Box:
:
: :The rule of exercised only in accordance with written, publicly disclosed laws adopted and
.r law was
I influenced by enforced in accordance with established procedure. The principle is intended to be
I ;Britain & the
:. ·commonwealth a safeguard against arbitrary governance.

' :
' In Commonwealth law, the most famous exposition of the concept of rule of law was laid

i . down by Albert Venn Dicey in his Law of the Constitution.

'·

W.Long (2012} Page 82

 I
.CJ
''The rule oflaw is a political principle the clasSic exposition of which is iii Dicey Law of
the Constitution (lOth Edn, 1959) p 187 et seq. Dicey identified three principles which
·I
. . . ..
together establish the rwe oflaw; (I) the abso~ute supremacy or predoD:tinance of regular
law as opposed to the influence of arbitrary power; (2) equality before the law or the
·I
equal subjection of an classes to the ordinary law of the land administered by the
ordinary courts; and (3)the law oftb.e constitution is a consequence of the rights of
cl
individuals as de1;ined and enforced by the courts." ·~

Ll
..
Another definition of the rule oflaw can be found in - Halsbury's Laws of England, Vol: 1.1
Constitutional Law and Human Rights, paragraph 6, footnote 1 -
~
" ... every official, from the Pri,me ~~down to a constable or a collector of taxes, is
under the same ~bility for every act done without legal justification as any other eli
l~
citizen. The Reports abound with cases in which officials have been brought before the
courts, and made, in their personal capacity, liable to punishment, or to the payment of
damages, for acts done in their official character but in excess of their lawful authority.
[Appointed government officials and politicians, alike] ... and all subordinates, though
carrying out the commands of their official superioJS, are as responsibie for any act which
the law does not authorise as is any private and unofficial person."

I: I
·, I
.. i

W.Long (2012) Page83

I
I
,I
~·· .
ft:..

-
MIGRATORYLABOUR I
v
v Diaspora, Migration and Development in the Caribbean
Keith Nurse

l http://www.focal.ca/pdf/migration caribbean.pdf

r Migration is one of the defining features of the modem Caribt>ean since colonization,
t; slavery and indentureship. In the last fifty years the Caribbean has shifted from being a
net importer of labour to become a net exporter. The caribbean has one of the largest
li diasporic communities in the world, in proportion to population (Staiker 2003). For
example, it is estimated 1hat the Cubans and Dominicans in the USA are equivalent to 8%
of their respective populations of origin (UNECLAC 2002: 23 7). And, in some of the ·
ministates in the region like St. Kitts and Nevis, Grenada, and Belize, annual labour
migration accOunts for as much as 12% of their population, thereby transferring
their population growth (Mittelman 2000: 60).

The debate on the value and significance of labour migration and diasporic economic
relations to the Caribbean has been articulated since the late 1960s. There were several
studies that examined the benefits to the Caribbean from the establishment of
transnational communities (Friedlander 1965; Frucht 1968; Henderson 1970; Palmer
1974; Philpott 1973; UNITAR 1970). The findings from these studies on balance were
quite critical of the developmental efficacy of emigration. In short, the studies point to the
loss of economically active workers, especially the highly educated on account of the
brain drain and question whether migration and remittances go beyond securing an
improved standard of living for some migrants, their families and local communities
to contribute to national and regional development.

W.Long [ZOlZ) Page84

 E
E

cl
The issue of migration and development has resurfaced since the late 1990s with the ,I
rapid growth in workers remittances, the pn>liferation of trans-national networks, the
en>sion of nation-state sovereignty and the emergence of trans-national communities and
hybrid cultural identities (Addy 2002; Castles 2000; Duany 2002)
I
:I
. THE STATISTICS- The receiving countries .

The top labour-exporting countries from the. Caribbean are Cuba, the Dominican
'I
Republic, Haiti, Jamaica and Guyana. Other major sending countries are non-independent ·I
territories like );'uerto Rico, the French Ov~ Departments, and the Netherlands
.Antilles. The international migration of Caribbean people is largely to North America ,I
(the US and Canada) and former colonizer coUntries in Europe. The US is the
· · · number one destii:Jation by a Sigoitic8nt margin, and is estimated to account for as much
as 75% of the Can"bbean-bom and fust generation diaspora (Segal1996). The next largeSt
' '
receiving countries are the UK, Canada, .the Netherlands, and France (see table I). C>l
Estimates from Table 1 put the size of the Caribbean diaspora in the mid-1990s at 6
million (not including undocumented migrants)~

THE IDSTORY & IMPACT

Caribbean emigration occurred in two waves. The first wave occurred during the post
World Warn boom in the Western economies in the 1950s and 1960s oil account of pull .
factors like full employment and labour shortages in unskilled and semiskilled jobs. The
second wave took place in the late 1970s and 1990s as a result of global economic
restructuring and economic and social decline in Can"bbean countries.

Caribbean emigration also had a strong pull factor in the increased demand for service
workers and professionals (e.g. domestics, teachers, nurses, doctors) in the North Atlantic
countries. There have also been political reasons for Can"bbean migration as exemplified

W.Long (2012) Page85

r ~

IL,(_) . by the case of the Cuban Marie! boatlift in 1980 and the "rafters crisis" of 1994 as well as

I; ::1
the Haitian exodus on accotmt of political turmoil at home (IOM2000).

·~· ·
( :
"'-'
DIRECT IMPACT: Remittances & consumption patterns
I :J.

I '-'
The growth of the diasporic economy has made a substantial contribution to a more
favourable balance of payments position in several labour exporting territories in the
Caribbean. The largest recipients were the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Cuba and
M: ·0
. Haiti. In international perspective, Jamaica and Dominicap. Republic are in the top five

~~ J
remittances recipients in per capita tenns. It is estimatffi that approximately US$5. 7
billion in remittances were sent to the Caribbean in 2002 (see table 5). Remittances ·

~I have emerged to be the fastest growing and most stable source of capital flow and foreign
excbl!nge in the last decade
I!
Remittances are a major source of income for many lower-income households around the
li region (Itzigsohn 1995). In the case of Jamaica it is reported, "in some rural areas,400/o
·. ofhouseholds derive significant financial support from relatives working abroad or in one
i! of the major cities" (World Bank 2003: 45). In many respects, remittances. are filling the
gaps that the state and development agencies have been ~le to plug.
li
On the other hand, it is observed that remittances and other transfers of goods increase
li external dependency, promote Western consumption styles and cause inflationary
pressures. After expenditures on food, education and housing there often is not
i: enough to be invested in productive assets although it is observed that remittances are
being used to fund some small business investments (Chevannes & Ricketts 1997).
I!
li Importantly, rather than stemming the tide of migrants, remittances tends to encourage
the outflow of new migrants. This relates to the deepening culture of emigration that acts

I!
1. I W,Long{2012) Page86.
~~
 I
as a disincentive to home investnient and human capital formation. The.problem also
relates to the structure of accUmulation in the sending societies. The problem is
cJ
that traditionally the injection of foreign capital has had low levels of retention and is
therefore tmlikely to generate. new business and employment in the sending societies.
'I
I

I
MIGRATION & LABOUR: Brain Drain verse Brain Gain .
·I
Mignrtion can ease piCssure on labour markets, and reduce uneniployment; J}overty an~.
social inequality if it is surplus labour that is exported. It is also suggested that return
i
migrants aie mi im~t source .of skills, expertise and ideas (i.e. brain g~ circulation
or exchallge) to be drawn on for rultional and regional development. The problem fc:ir the .
·i
Can"bbean is that it is not surplus or UDder-employed labour that is the main groUp of
migrants. Instead, it is the highly skilled and educated. The evidence for braiD gain~
··I
limited relative to the outflow.
I
The well educated and skilled are the most mobile group of migrants because they are in
high demand in OECD. countries, but also because they can afford to migrate. The cost of
!
c
mignrtion is less of a factor for thoSe countries that are in close proximity to labour.
importing oountries.
I
I
It can be argued that the departUre of highly skilled migrants reduces productivity in .
specific sectors of the economy and creates labour gaps even in a context of high ·~
unemployment. This is exemplified by the loss of human resources that are not easily .
replaced, as is the case with the migration of teachers and medical professionals from the ·~
Caribbean.
I
The problem is more acute due to the wider income gap between the sending and the
receiving countries. lhis is because the sending societies are becoming increasingly ·~
uncompetitive in the global labour market for these skills. The exodus of valuable
professional skills compromises broader development goals. For example, many I
government and development agencies find it difficult to recruit local Professionals
W.Long {2012) Page87
I
I
l
Ell
~.-~. because the 'best and the brightest' have migrated. illtimately, these agencies have to
\ )
resort to employing expatriates from a lower wage teaitory. For example, Cuban and
L~
African doctors and Cuban nurses are fimng the labour shortage of medical professionals

l; in J~ca and Trinidad and Tobago. Cuba has a labQur swplus in the medical field but
cOuntries in Africa have lower doctor/patient ratios than the Caribbean.
MIGRATION ANALYSIS: Good or Bad?

g ~
i
!
These observations reinforce the argument that remittances are only one element of the
diasporic economy and it raises the qliestion whether remiUatiCes alone can outweigh the
loss of inve$tment in human resource development and the replacement and opportunity
l,i cost undertaken by labour exporting countries.

IJ\ .DEPORTATION AND SECURITY: A real test for the Justiee System & Rule of

I,: Law

l,i Contemporary migration has generated a new context of international security for the
Americas. One issue that has become of utmost importance to the Caribbean is the

I! deportation of criminals who are non-American nationals. The introduction of

anti-crime and anti-tem>rism policies in the 1990s is part of a more aggressive
g: criminal deportation policy to reduce crime and lower the US taxpayer's burden
in terms of incarceration. Large shares of the criminals removed :from the US have
Br been deported to MeXico, Central.AI)lerica and the Caribbean. In 1999 and 2000,
21,000 or two-thirds of the violent criminal illegal aliens that were removed
r were Mexicans.

li The Caribbean saw a total of34,411 persons, 71% of whom had c:Ommitted criminal
offences, depOrted from the US between 1993 and 1999. The Dominican Republic, Haiti
fti and Jamaica were the main source countries for the deportees (Griffin 2002: 73).
Criminals have also been deported from Canada. In 1999, Canada deported
1: approximately 1,1 00 people on criminal grounds, most of who were returned to the
Caribbean.
I!
W.Long (201Z) Page88
I!
 m

The impact of the Canadian and US deportation policies on the Caribbean is claimed by
d
governments to be among the main causes for ~e increased incidence ofviolent crime. It ·~
is often argued that the deportees are introducing new skills .and trans-national networlcs
into the region that contribute to drug trafficking, money laundering. kidnapping and
immigrant smuggling. Caribbean govemments have also expressed pve concem that the
I
repatriation of criminals has occurred without proper notification and identification of · lM
deportees and there are no support mechanisms to reintroduce them intO Caribbean .
. .
society. Canobean governments also point out that many of the deportees have lived in lm
the us and canada for so long that' they have. no family members and social netWorks in
~
the countries that they have been repatriated to.

However, based on the crime data from Belize, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago,
,,
Griffin concludes that the data is either inconclusive or there is no statistical significant
relationship between criminal deportation and the increase in crime in these territories.
He also hastens to add that this "does not mean that there is not a substantive
relationship" (2002: 73-74).

!~
SPORTS- U.K. (CRICKET, SOCCER) & USA (BASKET BALL, TRACK & FIELD)
:I
Cricket ~I
I

Cricket in the Caribbean is unique as a sport because it has a West Indian team, rather
:Q
than teams from various Caribbean islands. However, this is less surprising when one
considers the background of the game, which is largely based on social hierarchy.
ri
Teams are divided into Players and Gentlemen, and the Gentlemen are the leaders of the
team. The social structure of the British colonies went a long way toward making it easy I
to define these teams along racial lines.
W.Lon,g (2012) Page89
I
I
rr
lL) As children grow up immersed in this popular game, cricket is played in the streets. Some
1\j
(

of cricket's most famous champions have been from these West Indies teams.
~

Furthermore, the game has served for an outlet against racial issues through more recent

I":
Though many other sports have been popular throughout the Can"bbean, the5e four truly
l.i transcend national barriers. They've become popular with many islanders regardless of

li
_,
the race,· income, or even language of the players.

The gan:ie .of cricket has a known history spanning from .the 16th centwy to the present
R!
'-' day, with international matches played since 1844, although the official history of
international Test cricket began in 1877. During this time, the game developed from its
I·,
"' origins in England into a game which is now
. played. professionally
.
in most of the
Commonwealth ofNations
I .! '

II
·'
Fo(;tbaJI

II ·'
The history of association football can be traced back into ancient times, but the modern

II game has its roots firmly in the traditional football games played at the public schools of
England: By the mid-19th century, the enthusiasm that some fonner public school pupils
II still had for the games of their youth led to them forming amateur football clubs, each
playing to the rules of a particular school. When teams froi:n different traditions played
each other there were often disputes about exactly how the game should be played. In
1863 some of the English clubs met at the Freemason's Tavern, London to form the The
li Football Association (FA) with the aim of creating a universal set of rules that would
allow clubs to play each other without dispute. The impact of the FA was not immediate
li as football was still very much an amateur activity. The first professional clubs were

II formed once the working classes took up the sport, and businessmen saw an opportunity
to make money from spectators coming to see star players. Once professionalism took

II
I! W.Long [2012) Page90
 I
hold the popularity of the game became. immense and was soon spread tlu"oughout the . ...Jm.
world by British expatriates/Coloniaiists:
v.
fij
E
Track & Field A-v-.A-1.4-f\J ·
··f1··'i.
·~;
,,~

Modem athletic events are usually organized around a 40() metre running track, on which
most of the ruDning events take plaee. Field eventS (vaulting, jumping, and throwing)·
often take plaee in the field in the centre of the nmning track. i
Many athletic events have an ancient origin and were already conducted in competitive I
form by the ancient Greeks. Athletics wa8 included in the first modem Olympic Games in
1896 and has been part of the progr;.m
.
ever shlce, ~viding the backbone of the
. .
.~
Olympics. Women Were not allowed to participate in track and field events in the .
Olympics until 1928. An intemaiional governing body, the IAAF was founded in 1912. ·I
The IAAF established separate outdoor World Championships in 1983. Other major .
events include the World Indoor Championships and the European Championships. The ~
sport has a very high profile during major championships, especially the Olympics, but r..-'1 ~
\_.A{!
otherwise ranks Wen down the list of sports by pUblic interest in almost all countries. The
Jeading regular circuit of events takes place in Europe each summer, and includes the I
tj
Golden League events.

The diffiJsion of track & field into a west Indian/Caribbean mainstream sport was in part 1.1
mainly due to the mass media disseminating information of the success ofUSA athletes
at various Olympics and World ChampioDships. II
Basketball C {' •· " I" il
I
il
Dr. James Naismith is known world-wide as the inventor of basketball. He was born in
1861 in Ramsay Township, near Almonte, Ontario, Canada
I
m
W.Long {2012) Page91
:I
I
 Naismith watched his sport, basketball, introduced in many nations by the YMCA
movement as early as 1893. Basketball was introduCed at the Berlin Olympics iD-1936.
Today bas]cetball bas grown to become one of the world's most popular sports.

In 1946, the National Basketball Association was formed, organizing the top professional

II teams and leading to greater popularity of the professional game which was closely
followed in the Caribbean via media transmissions.

ll
II
;
[RELIGION I
g\ Religion in the Caribbean is linked to the exte.mal influences of colonisation, immigration
and indenturesbip as well as the efforts of the missionaries to covert Amerindians,

~~
African slaves and ln.dentured laboms to Christianity. The larger tenitories of the-·
English speaking Caribbean have a greater mix ranging from traditional Catholicism to

II conventional Christians intermix with the Asian backed Hinduism and Islam as seen in
Trinidad & Tobago and Guyana

li
In the Leeward Islands and Jamaica the contemporary period presents religious

It affiliations moving towards North American denominations of Pentecostals and

Evangelists.
II
In the Caribbean the concept of syncretism or the merging of different systems or beliefs
I! have been used to describe the blending of beliefs system that were previously suppress
(e.g. African religious practices) with European and American religious denominations.
II
IJ
I~.
~] W.Lon.9 (2012) Page92
1-l
_,

IJ_ CAPE CARIBBEAN STUDIES SEMINAR

ffi~-? 2013 Series
~t Wendell Long

IJ
1_1 Module 2: Issues in Caribbean·
Development·
l_i
It Regional Integration

1: Sustainable Development
·Globalisation

II
ll1
..... \
·

m!-
II
II Caribbean

I\ Monocrop - Bauxite, Oi~ Sugar, tourism

II ~~1l::>"=»c,..""'---...

I! '; M'-r-

I!
l!-
~1
W. Long (©2013) Page 1
 H

Table of Contents
GENERAL OBJECTIVE ········'·································································-························5
ol
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ..........•...., .....:...•......,.........•....................•.•.•................................ 5 ' if.
ml
Development ...•...•.......•.•.....•..•.....•...•......•........•..•..................•.........•............•.•....................7
Sustainable Development: .•...........•..........•..................................................................••,.....7
Economic Development. ......•.••.........•.:.....•.••.•.,.••..,.............•........•...•..........•........•.....•••...... 8
. Indicators of Development .•..•.........•........••....•..••.,...............................................:··············8 .
· ECONOMIC FACTORS: GDP, GNP, per capita, Gini coefficient, HDI, Productivity ...•.9
OTIIER FACTORS: modem technology, internet penetration, good governance and
responsible environmenUII factors .....•.•......••...•..:....................................•.......•..............•..•~9 ~
Environmental factors ............•....•..•.•.... ~ ..............................................................................9
Intemet Penetration............................................................................................................ ! 0
Good Governance ................................................ ,............. :............................................... 10 ·
cl
Human Development Index ..................................... :......~ .................................................. 11 l.l
· Technology ....................................................:................................................................... 11 I

Gini Coefficient ................................................................................................................. 12 .

National Income (GDP & GNP) ........................................................................................ 15
Ll
Productivity.....................,.................................................................................................. 15
Per Capita. ...........................................................;.......... :..............................................,........ 15
(1.1
Social .................................,............................,.....;........~ ....................................................... 16
Technological Factors .•.... ::.;...•:.•;...•.•:.: .••.•..:.:...:•• ;•. :: .••:..••••..•...........•.•......•.•.....•.••........... 17 '-1
Economic Factors: Distribution ofWealth, Resources and Income Gen'erated •............... 18 I

EnvirOnmental Factors: Natural and Man-made Disasters ..........................•.•.....:.......•••... 18

Li
Political and Popular Culture/Movements ......................................................................... 19
Towism and development: Contributions and Challenges ...•...........................••...............20 I: I
Contributions .....................................................................................................................20
Challenges ..........................................................................................................................20 rm
Impact of globalization on the Caribbean: Benefits and Disadvantages...............•...........22
Facilitators of Globalization .............................................................................................. 23
The World Bank: ......................................;........................................................................23
:e
The World Trade Organization (WT0): ............................................................................23
The International Monetary Fund {IMF): ..........................................................................24
!I
Technology: .......................................................................................................................24
Ideology: .......................................................•................................................................... 24
I
W. Long (©2013)
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Page2
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 Multinational Organization: ................................................................................. .'.............25
Impact and Respon.Se to Globalization .......................................:...................................... 26
Technology ·····················································································:··; ............................... 26
Distributional Sector ... ,............................................................•............•.............................26
Commerce and Industry ............................................................,. ........................................ 26
Labour ............................................................................................................................•...21
Ideology ...........•......•......................................................:... ;·,: ............................................. 21
Popular Movements ............................................................................•.............................. 27
The West Indies Federation .............................................................. :.......-......................... 28
CAR.IFfA (The Caribbean Free Trade Association) ......................................................... 29
CARICOM ................................................................................:....................................: ...30
Association of Caribbean States (ACS) .............•....................................:......................... .30
Organization ofEastem Caribbean States (OECS) ...................;.......................................31
ii) Achievements & Challenges of the following: .............................................................33
Generation of income: .......................................................................•...............••..•...........34
Health and Fitness: ..•............................................................................. ;.......................... .34

~~
Educational Opportunities .................................................................................................35
Sense of Caribbean Identity ............................................................•.................................. 35

II Discipline and Momle ..............................................•......................................................... 36

Presence on the World Stage .......................•.................................................................... .3 6
Sports Tourism. ................................................................................................................. .36
II African Caribbean Thought .............................................................................................. .37
Pan Africanism •......•.....................................•...................................... :.....••.•.•.......•....•.....3 7
II Negritude ......... ,................................................................................................................. .38
Rastafari ....... ~ ..................................... ·················· ............................. ~ ................................ 3 9
I! Indo Caribbean Thought ....................................................................................................40
Econ. & Pol. Thought ....................................................................................................... .41
II Marxism & Neo-Marxism ................................................................................................. .41
Marxism/N'eo-Marxism in the Caribbean ..................................................•....................... 42

II Fidel Castro Cuba ..............................................................................................................42

Maurice Bishop- Grenada .................................... ;...........................................................43

II Michael Manley Jamaica ................................................................................................... 44

Cheddi Jagan - Guyana ......................................................................................................45

l I- Industrialisation by Invitation ........................................................................................... .45

W. Long (©2013) Page3

II
 ~
Dependency Theory & Development ........;.............:..........•.............................................. 46
. Tiellds in Caribbean Feminist Thought & Theories of Gender ..............................•.. ;.......48 d
Indigenous Perspective ...........................................•......................................................... .50
Santa Rosa chief wants recognition: .....•......,;............................................•................. 52
I
The role and Function of the Mass Media ...;...............•.................................................... .53
Social Justice ...........................•........:........................•.............................. ,........................56
I
Social Justice Concepts......, ..........., ....•.....••..;....;.. ~·····,·····················································•.56
~
,.

~ ..
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·~
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Cil
II
II
II
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!,'1
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W. Long (©2013)
:I
Page4
_, I
 MODULE 2: ISSUES IN CARIBBEAN DEVELOPMENT
OVERVIEW

Module 2 introduces students to different conditions which satisfy

the definition of development; to interrelationships among social,
cultural, political and economic factors in the development of the
I_ \ Caribbean region and its diaspora and examines key individuals and
!!.J institutions which have shaped the region's development.

II
_)
GENERAL OBJECTIVE

On completion of this Module, students should demonstrate an

mi
11!1·
understanding-of the relationship between:
-.~

(i) politics, economics and development;

1.1
_;
(ii) culture and development;
'(iii) technology and development;
l,i
-'
(iv) social justice and development.

li SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
II Students should be able to:
1. describe the concepts of development and the indicators used
II to measure development;
2. evaluate how development in the region is influenced by
political, economic, social, cultural, environmental and
li technological factors;
3. assess the ways in which globalisation affects development in
II the region;
4. explain the ways in which the evolution of the integration
movement in the Caribbean has influenced development in the
I! region;
5. evaluate the importance of sports to the development of the
I\ region;
6. assess the significance of Caribbean thought to development
of the region
lr
W. Long (©2013) PageS
II
 I
7. critically analyse factors which impact on the mass media's.
contributio.n to the development of the region;
ol
8. formulate reasoned responses to issues of soCial justice
within their con;tmunities.
,I
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'·I
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01
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I
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'B
W. Long (©2013) Page6
I
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 1) Concepts and Indicators of
·development

Development

Development is sustainable economic and social advancement The term has both a
i
i.
i material and non material component i.e. ecoq.omic and non-economic
_J
THE CONCEPT OF HUMAN DEVELOJ.>MENT
li
_J The Human Development Index (HDI) is a summary measure of human develQpment. It
measures the average achievement in a country in three basic dimensions of human
II
.• .1
development

1) A long and healthy life, as measured by life expectancy at birth;

II ) . 2) Knowledge, as measured by the adult literacy rate and the combined primary,
secondary and tertiary (Mean & Expected years of schooling); and
!
,,
!
;-' .. 3) A decent standard of living, as measured by GNP per capita (PPP $US).

II
Sustainable Development:
II Refers to development that meets the needs of the present without
I! compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own
needs. It contains within it two key concepts: the concept of needs in
particular the essential needs of the world's poor to which overriding
II priorities should be given and the idea of limitations imposed by the
state of technology and social organization on the environment's

li ability to meet the present and future needs.

Additionally sustainable development can be known as balancing the

li need for development and growth to protect the natural and built
environmental whilst meeting the needs of present generation without

~I compromising the needs and aspirations of future generations.

II
II W. Long (©2013) Page7
Economic Development
ol
Refers to sustained increa-s·e in the economic standard of living of a
country's population, normally accomplished by increasing its stocks ·-1
of physical and human capital and improving its technology.

Economic Development is typically measured in terms of jobs and

i
income, but it also includes improvement in human developmtmt,
education, health choices. and environmental sustainability. ~~

-1
In search of a Relation@ip
between economic and sustainable
~ 'I
wJ1 11

I
E<monric
Ilmiopmalt
lbc:uses 011 tbc
. economic
I
.. ·,~·
I
I
·;
The EIGHT GNP 2 Factors:
• Environmental Factors: responsible I
• Internet penetration ;\ p-;if ~ )t~·
•
•
Good Governance
HDI
vr/Jiror--I'Y\Mk \s ~j.S'~cr 1 ftceJ. ·I
.
~~·~~e.~·~
•
•
Technology - Modern
Gini Coefficient I
•
•
National Income: GDP & GNP
Productivity
·g
• Per capita
!:ti
'J:
W. Long (©2013) PageS
tt··
,p
I)
'1
m:
i1t EIGHT-GNP:>.

0 ECONOMIC FACTORS: GDP, GNP,per capita, Gini coefficient, HDI,

Productivity

I) 0 OTIIERFACTORS: modem technology, internet penetration, good governance

lill
-_ .... ....
and responsible environmental fuctors

IJI Environmental factors

The environment plays a major role in our development as small

I, I
I
islands on low lying coastal states. Our ·population and most of our
Social and Economic activities are located at Ecological Sensitive
Coastal regions. Therefore, pollution and destruction of the
1.1 environment are now included· as Indicators of development. For
example, if a country is getting richer but the environment is being
II exploited, that country would not be ab.le to sustain its current level
of wealth into future generations (intergenerational equity) because

li its stock natural resources may become depleted. Thus development

decisions and plans must incorporate the. effects of growth on the
natural environment, ·especially when scarce, non-renewable
II resources are being used.

li
!I
ll W. Long (©2013) Page9
 :~

d
Internet Penetration
I
Internet Penetration Rate (P.R.) is the number of Internet users divided by the population,
and expieSSed in percentage. Trinidad and Tobago internet penetration in 2010 was
39.5%. However with a ~t policy of providing a free laptop for every entrant
I
into secondarY school the is in place to facilitate a rapid expansion in internet
usage in the near future. St Lucia leads the Caribbean with an internet penetratiOn. rate of I
88.8%. Jaiim.ica's Minister ofindustry, Commerce, Science and Technology (with
Energy), Phillip Paulwell, emphasized the need for Jamaica and the rest of the region to
continue on a path of proWess in information communication technology (ICT)
ll
developmeD.t. The Minister, who was speaking at the May 17 opening ceremony of the
World Telecommunication Day Symposium at the Hilton Kingston, noting that with the I
developments takiJlg place across the globe. "it is imperative that we take stock of where
we are, and where we rieed to be in terms ofiCT development." . ~
"International Telecommunications Union (ITU) statistics," he added. "show that over the
last lt ye~,~IS,·the digital diVide between the developing and the developed countries has
,J
been narrowing in terms of fixed telephone lines, mobile subscribers and Internet users."
('!!i
\,_ ..i.iJ

Gelitl GOvernance ;,1

Caribbean governments should pursue Pro-Growth Policies for
example: these policies can. include reduction in unemployment, :I
poverty, low-income housing and temporaryjobs such as U.R.P. and
C.E.P .E.P. Also, there should be a focus on development and support
on our Small Business Enterprises, The above polides should be
;
coordinated or work in tandem so as to achieve an overall objective
of sustainable development. Also governments have a responsibility
to stamp out corruption, be transparent and accountable. According
I
to Reginald Dumas (2.011) "there is a considerable difference between
government and governance. To simplify matters, I usually say that I
- -
government is what you do, while goyernance is how you do it."
...__
I
However, general governance in the Caribbean often· follows a top
town approach and somewhat autocratic under the Westminster
system. According to Dumas (20 II) "the conviction that the I
government knows best, that the voters have placed their faith in the

W. Long (©2013) PagelO

!
I
L'
iJO government's ability and willingness to think and act for them, that
pt• the government must lead from the front, that the government's leader
:1,·.
is all-seeing and all-knowing, and that serious consultation with the
voters who put the government there in the first place is therefore

t unnecessary and, indeed, a sign of weakness." Unless this approach

is significantly modified to be· more people centered, development

Li can be restricted; ·

~·
:u
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'I Human Development Index
~

The 2012 Human Development Report ranks Trinidad and Tobago's level of human
development 8s 60th among 175 countries. Trinidad and Tobago's Hunian Development
Index (liDI) is 0. 764. Barbados is the top rank Caribbean country at 3~ with an HDI of
0.825. The HOI is a comparative measure oflife expectancy, literacy, education, standards
of living, and quality of life for countries worldwide. It is a standard means of measuring
well-being, especially child welfare. It is used to distinguish whether the country is . ~
~h
-1 ._>
· a developed, a developing or an underdeveloped country, and also to measure the impact
of economic policies on quality of life. The index was developed in 1990

li
.J
by Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq[3) and Indian economist Amartya Sen.

I, I Technology

tl The branch ofknowledge that deals with the creation and use of technical means and thei
rinterrelation with life, society, and the environment, drawing upon such subjects as
industrial arts, engineering, applied science, and pure science (dictionary.com).
II Advancement of knowledge or 'know how' associated with technology is a good
indicator of development. This process is known as technical progress which can
~~ transmit itself into economic growth. For example when a country uses new machinery
or equipment it is able to produce more goods and uses more capital national income will

~I ~~
.-~
Y=Tf(N,
c;t. ,
increase. The role of technology in the production function can be expressed as:

~SJ(;~, I
..... 4--r;·'.'·'

~l where 'N' and 'K' denotes the inputs of labour and capital respectively, 'H' human capital
and T denotes the state of technology and Y refers to economic growth.
li
l\ W. Long (©2013) Page 11
 E
Gini Coefficient

According to the World Bank (2013): Gini index measures the extent to which the
d
cllstribution of income or consumption expenditure among individuals or households E
· within an economy deviates from a perfectly equal distribution. A Lorenz curve plots the
cumulative percentages of to~ income received against the cumulative number of
recipients. starting with the poorest individual or household.(see graph below).The Gini
I
·~
index.uieasures the ~between the Lorenz cmve arid a hypothetical l,ine of absolute
equality, exPressed as a percentage of the maximum area under the line. Thus a Gini
index.ofO represents perfect equality, while an index of 100 implies perfect inequality.

LORENZ CURVE FOR TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO 2005:

·I
li
ConsumptionDisbibution (Lore~ Curve} .
,[;i
100 . ..L'i
90
:j
c: so··
0
:g_ 70
E
::J
CJI
~ 60
0
<.>
'0 50
!J
0~
~
:=
40 ~~
(U
"S 30
E
8 20
10 I
0 :i
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cumulative %of population I
Obtained from: Ministty of Social Development (2007)
I
·~
W. Long (©2013) Page 12

~
r
• J

~ ;

L.-.
ll)
~1
Income
earners%
L!
r
,..J Coefficient:
~-~-~~q/7the ratio of
Gini

l; theareaA to
~J

,,
_!
AreaB

li
._.1
% of income receipts
li
_J

~.~-.
'
···~-·'
J \.
The Gini coefficient can be represented as the ratio of area A to A and B, that is

II
.J Gini
A 100
x-
A+B 1
II
II Whereby a value which tends to 100 indicates that the level of income inequality is
higher whilst a lower level of inequality is represented by a Gini cosfficient which tends
jl towards 0. T&Thad a Gini coefficient of39 in 2005 and 40.3 in2007 (UNDP, 2009)
suggesting a marginal increase in inequality. Haiti bas the highest Gini Coeffieint in the
Caribbean and thus the highest inequality of 59.2- 'J'b highest in the world (2012)
II followed by the 30th rank Dominican Republic at 47.2.

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II W. Long (©2013) Page13

 ~

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MEASURES TO REDUCE INEQUALITY: Subsidies & Transfers
· We can analyse these types of government Ui.tervention and the impact they will have on ·~
..
the distribution ofincome via Loren,z curves, as. seen below. For Gini coefficient to indicate
reduced
. . inequality and thus improved develO})ment . ~bsidies
. · such as welfure ·I
. payments/gnmtsltransfers and reduce taxes ·should be provided for lower income
households. The graph below shows the impact of this action.
:~

~~
Impaet of subsidies & transfers
:i
Income
earners%
c~~ 1
Lorenz curve
I
after transfers
and subsidies !l
Lorenz cmve
before, transfers
..-+--and subsidies
lI
il
:~

; ~
% of income receipts

·I
·~

W. Long (©2013) Page 14

I
. ~
~.
.,

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·'

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( ) National Income (GDP & GNP)
a 1.---
g· Income, in this CQntext of development refers to national income ~ expressed via Qross
Domestic Product (GDP) or Gross National Product (GNP) usually in per capita (per
a:II head) terms (GDP/capita; GNP/capita). If national income is increasing, an important
ca~ponent of econoniic development is expand with it i.e. economic growth. (N.B
eXpansions in economic growth does not necessarily mean rises in economic
1
i development). ·
J·
1.

Additionally, if incomes are very unevenly distributed towards the rich/wealthy, then the
J, lll1\ioritY of the population may not feel better off even ifnational income is increasing.
)! Thus indicating that the benefits of economic growth may not be "trickling down" to the
lower income individuals.
m.:
I\ Productivity

II This can be expressed as the total output of a country in proportion

to the levels of inputs used to produce it. Inputs can be defined as
land, labour, capital, enterprise combined, that is, factors of
II production.

~I Productivity= Total Output

Total ln.put
= per unit of goods and services

~~ = Gross Domestic Product CGDP)

Capital, Enterprise, Land, Labor (CELL)
II
J! Per Capita

II Per capita is Latin for "Per head". The term is used in a wide variety
of social sciences and statistical research contexts, including

I! government statistics, economic indicators, and built environment

studies. It is commonly and usually used in the field of statistics in
place of saying "for each person" or "per person".
II variable
per capita = l . .
~I popu atlOn szze
~.

~
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I' W. Long (©2013) Page 15
' I
 a
2. Factors that promote or hinder development . (~
·The STEEP Factors:
Social
I
Technolo.gical
Economical i
Environmental
Political and popular/movements
·~
Assessing impact using PESTEL .
Analysis as an alternative:
t
Political ~
Economical
Social
Techlwlogica/
ll
Environmental
Legal
/~
1-f!
The STEEP factors
Social - changing class boundaries; gender inequality; education;
Caribbean experience & ide:Q.tity
Technological - use of technology
Economic - distribution ·of wealth; resources; income generation,
entrepreneurship
Environmental - natural & man-made disasters !~
Political - political ideologies; popular movements; gov't policies,
global conditions ~~
Social
I
Most Caribbean territories have the legacy of slavery and this has
served to reinforce class structure on economic statues perpetuated
by race, color, education, wealth and marriage. Thus every country
I
~
in the Caribbean is significantly stratified. Due to this stratification,
there is a sense of inferiority between the vast majority of lower class
verses the small minority of upper class. This class boundary or
stratification can hinder development because it can lead to high
levels of worker-manager dissatisfaction and result in several
m
industrial disputes and strikes. An example of this event is seen in

W. Long (©2013) Page16

·I
·~
 the recent prolonged strikes in T &T in the petroleum [Petrotrin] and
manufacturing sectors [TCL]. Consequently, production .is adversely
affected and economic growth as well as development slows down.

One great challenge Caribbean people and leaders face is to be more

u tolerant to people of other races, colour or different religious view

than the political party. Intolerance hinders productivity and
consequently quality of life may be negatively affected. Thus a
!I
"
culture of teamwork needs to be applied in the fields, factories,
homes, offices, schools and in the market places. Other critical social
challenges are; inequality in the justice system, unfair discrimination
!.1 including racial and gender, poor quality of education and unequal
access to education and training.
II
I'
:I Technological Factors

~I
These relate to the use of mechanical and electronic instruments and
I ' equipment to solve practical problems of produc~ion. The influence
of technology has always been closely tied to productivity. The
Caribbean has specifically suffered fro.m falls in demand for its
. primary products in sugar and bananas. Other countries have been
able to use advance technologies via efficient machinery to increase
their productivity. For example, as seen in both Latin American
producers of bananas and Brazilian producers of sugar. Hence, there
has been a fall in. demand for bananas and sugar due to a fall in world
prices and better quality goods by other competitors. Had it not been
for the ACP-Lome agreement to purchase· Caribbean bananas and
sugar at preferential rates in Europe, the products would not sell on
the open free market at current prices.

Due to technological progress, we have seen a variety of products

flooding our markets. These have competed effectively forcing many
out of business.

W. Long (©2013) Page 17

 r
l
Economic Factors: Distribution of Wealth, Resources and Income Generated (
\ ·j
.. :

Economic factors relate how· we use limited resources to satisfy need

and unlimited wants. Our resources may be classified as land, labor, [
·capital, enterprise (C.E.L.L.). A country can increase its resour.ces
by: {
1) Discovery of natural resources lr
2) Increase in foreign hivestment II:
3) Expansion of skilled .. labour force and technological
lr
advancement
4) Developing and using p'reviously unused resources as factors of
t
production
~~
To promote development, a country mnst have these factors:
!'f
1) Capable leadership
2) Administrative efficiency
3) New technology
lrt
I
When the distribution of wealth and resources are uneven, this ·
represents a barrier to development. Therefore, to achieve sustainable
.ll
I'
development wealth should be evenly distributed amongst the nation.
q
Environmental Factors: Natural and Man-made Disasters [:l
I
Environmental factor relate directly to nature but indirectly to
economics. The 2 concepts are closely related because econo.mic
q
growth relies to a great extent of nature both for the supply of i
materials and the absorption of waste. This is because the economy is [
piut of biophysical system thus Caribbean countries in pursuing I

economic growth and development policies have on the physical :[

environment. Therefore if economic growth is pursued without care
for the environment, several man-made disasters may happen such as : I
air, land, water pollution destruction of vegetation and natural I
reserves causing future generation to be disadvantaged (non
sustainable growth). "I
I

W. Long (©2013) PagelS

' The Caribbean is prone to natural disasters. such as earthquakes,
J hurricanes and volcanoes which devastate small island states causing
a decline in economic growth and development. · ·

Political and Popular Culture/Movements

Politics ltas to do with acquiring power, allocatic>Jf of resources and

administration of public affairs. Most Caribbean countries have a
government system called West Min-ster Model. ·cuba is a communist
country with a one party system and unlike the West Minster model;
the government is given unlimited power to. manage "the country and
lives of its people.

It follows that if a country has political instability, that this would

,I be a hindrance to development mainly due to a reduction in business
activity and general productivity occasion by a fair of the labor force
to work as well a businesses to produce. n an environment of
\._
' )
prosecution and lawlessness.

I A popular movement occurs when there is a mobilization of

disenchanted .· groups in society . e.g. the working class being
represented by the trade union movement out of the 1930's riots. Also
the "black power" movement of the 1970's in Trinidad was another
example of. a popular movement. In terms of movements against
gender discrimination there are: Caribbean Association for Femiqist
Research (CAFRA), _Women's Action for New Development (WAND),
There are numerous environmental (e.g. highway re-route movement
in T&T) and social justice Non-Governmental Organisation (NGOs).

Popular culture such Carnival throughout the region fosters a sense

of .identity and· union that can be nationalistic and thus provide the
attitude and environment necessary for development .

W. Long (©2013) Pagel9

Tourism and developme~t: Contributions and Challenges

Contributions ... .

tourism represents the· biggest industry in the world. There is

constant growth of tourist and tourism receipts over the decades since
international travel became accessible to the public and has convinced
many developing countries thatthey can profit from tourism.

Today, tourism is still seen as an emerging sector more so in Trinidad

than in Tobago and is regarded as one of the key pillars of J<.!EOnomic
diversification. Afs a_ means hof econofmic development, the tourism c·:l
industry earns JJretgn exc ange ( orex), ~ and revenue of
governments. Additionally, traditionally unexplored areas are now
being explored. For example, important niches here are ceo-tourism
and Yacht tourism. .:ot~ .•<t 1\..J.~.. 1 • . . .r ·
· ~.fV·r~ u"""""' 1'll~"- ·•. 11 ~ ,.,117 ;·.t-D--cN_, ~orr~ f.XU'al'j'-·

Challenges

However, intellectuals question the dominance of the region by

foreign interest amplified by increased tourism referring to it as
d~olonization or sometimes called "Whorism". This is a phrase
commonly "Used. Additionally, as a result of tourism, s:nvironmental
destruction continues to be most prevalent and thus a hindrance to
cieveloptnent throughout the region.

Also, profits are repatriated to their homelands inN orth America and
Europe because the major multinationals who own most of the hotels
and resorts have their headquarters located in their foreign region.
thus, critics believe that individuals of the host country especially

W. Long (©2013) Page20

 the poorer ones do not benefit. Further, it has been argued that the
growth· of tourism in the Caribbean has created a new mono-
commodity system that is just as vulnerable to the _whims of the
outside. In fact, currently the Caribbean is four times ~ependent on
·tourism than any other part of the world.

Recommendations: The way forward

The idea of sustainable tourism would only be achieved once continuous and careful
research and exploration of the sector is earned out in the· Caribbean. This exploration
·should involve looking at other niches besides yacht/cruise tourism special-events tourism.
One such niche-market that should be given serious consideration is eco-tourism: this type
of tourism involves promoting the natural habitat and culture of the island while
safeguarding the eco-system and promoting environmental conselvation. This activity
reduces the problem of environmental destruction that has been associated with this sector
since. its inception. Other niches that have proven to be successful in other regions are
health tourism With the development of spas & nature resorts. DevelopJ;ilent ofthese niches
would mean further employment and contribution to .the country's Gross Domestic
Product. leading to economic growth and development.

One of the great downfalls of tourism development Within CAR!COM countries is that
citizens have not been benefiting fully from the rewaxds of the industry as a result of the
industry being mainly extemally driven. Attempts should.be made to get the citizens more
involved within the sector and encourage them to develop their own nature resorts. cottage
(handicraft) industries, hotels etc. In an attempt to stimulate this investment more public
awareness programmes dealing With tourism should be undertaken.

Cmuhe
promt1llon qf
-ctlU$11Q
commoJlflcotion
·'· qfculture?

~
'I

W. Long (©2013) Page 21

'I l
 c
3. Globalization and Development

This is a term used to describe changes in society and the world

economy that are a result of a dramatically increased ·trade and
cultural exchange .. In ·specifically eco.nomic context, it is often
understood to refer almost exclusively to the effects Of trade,
particularly trade liberalization or free trade .

. Impact of globalization on the carlbbean: Benepts and Disadvantages.

Globalization is expected to provide new opportunities for Caribbean

because they will now·have· access to larger markets. However, many
of our businesses are not· ready to . take advantage of these l
opportunities due to their small size and inefficient production.
I
l
Globalization has resulted in· the deepening of Caribbean integration
as seen by the establishment of a single market and economy (CSME).
Therefore, creating a larger economic space that can help companies
become stronger and more efficient as they seek t o compete
regionally and globally.

Globalization encourages innovations and improvements in standard

of living and quality of products as businesses are forced to be more
creative in order to compete and individuals are given a wider choice
of goods and services. However, globalization has a negative side
effect, in that its benefits are not equitably distributed, going
primarily to larger and. more developed economics.

As societies become more open to trade, they become increasingly

exposed to the cultures of their trading partners. This exposure can
result in the importation of negative norms and values from abroad.
However, Caribbean culture can benefit as greater exposure is
achieved on a world scale as a result of globalization.
•

W. Long (©2013) Page22

Facilitators of Globalization

Tbc BWI·TIME
faoors

The World Bank:

This is a bank that lends and guarantees loans to developing nations

to assist them in increasing their capital sto.ck and thus achieving
economic growth. E.g. this bank would finance construction of roads,
schools, hospitals, bridges and general infrastructure of a country.

The World Trade Organization (WTO}:

It has over 140 countries as members. Its major function is to oversee

trade agreements reached by member nations and apply their rules to
trade disputes. It also provides a forum for further rounds of trade
negotiation with an emphasis for promoting free trade thereby
facilitating movement of goods and services across nations with little
blockages. This process is very important in facilitating
globalization.

W. Long (©2013) Page 23

 The International Monetary Fund (IMF): ·

It is an international organization of 183 member countries .

c
established to promote international monetary co-operation, exchange
rate stability and to lead to nations with temporary balance of
payments deficits. This institution . facilitates globalization by
· providing temporary financial assistance to countries in need so that
. they can continue to trade in a globaliz\~d world.
. . ~

Technology:

This refers to the set of tools,. both hardware and software, that helps
··us act and think better. Technology includes all objects from paper to
the latest gadgets. Electronic an.d computer technology help us share
· information or knowledge. quicker· and efficiently thus speeding up
the globalization process making the world a smaller place. For
example advancements in internet technology: satellite, cable, and
fiber optic revolutionized c.ommunication.

Ideology:

These are codes that reinforce or are associated with structures

·power. They take the form of a collection of ideas, Facilitators
ideology can be considered as follows:

The Socialist Option_;, this option was always going to be a challenge

given the geopolitical context of the Caribbean . Any Caribbean
country attempting a .socialist/communist option may suffer possible
sanctions to those imposed on Cuba. Therefore such countries may
not benefit fully from globalization and remain isolated

The Statist Option_: from 1950 to late 1970, countries attempted to

have the state control most of the resources such as land, labor, and
capital. Key characteristics of most these economics were that they
were mixed with a strong state sector and weak private sector.

Liberalization option: this refers to the process whereby barriers to

trade are reduced or eliminated in a systematic way. As a result of
policies from WTO and IMF that promoted trade liberalization most

W. Long (©2013) Page24

 countries in the Caribbean today prescribed to this ideology. It is also
() known as free market capitalism.

Other ideologies:
I. Gender
2. Social

Multinatlorud Organization: ·;1¥\p.::tol:l FIll

These are often referred to as multinational organization or
companies and are characterized by having :a headquarters in one
country iuid subsidiaries or braches in many other countries~ Most of
the big companies in the Caribbean are international transnational
organizations with headquarters in North American and European
territories. These companies facilitate globalization in· the diverse
countries they .service. However, a major disadvantage of this type of
organization is that most of its profits are repatriated away from
I.' developing countries to developed economies. However, many local
economies don't have the capital/money to develop their industries
and raw materials, thus TNCs facilitate this process .. Additionally,
critical employment and downstream and · upstream business
opportunities are created by the participation of TNCs in critical
sectors of the economy.

Economic Partnership Agreement (2008-present)

CARIFORUM group of countries signed an 'Economic Partnership

Agreement' (EPA) with the European Union. CARIFORUM is a group
of I 5 countries, 14 of which are members of the Caribbean Community
(CARICOM) and the fifteenth is the Dominican Republic.

Major aim is to create a free trade area (FTA) in response to the WTO
rejection of the protectionist ACP-Lome agreement. For more info
open the following link and follow threads:
http://www. normangi rv an. info/economic- partnership-agre em en t-epa/

W. Long (©2013) Page 25

Impact and Response to Globalization
0
1D-CLIP
0 Technology
0 Distribution Sector
0 Commerce & industry
0 Labour·
0 Ideology '
,_
0 Popular movement
i
(._

Technology
'
IL
The revolution of information technology: Has made it possible to co-ordinate
ttansactions around the world resulting in a decentmlisation of manufacturing activities.

Distributional Sector

Due to the globalization process the distributional sector of the

economy has expanded. This sector as it relates to the Caribbean
normally takes the form of using foreign currency to import foreign
goods that they have sold or .exclusive or shared rights to. This sector
facilitates globalization by increasing the number and variety of '
I.
goods that were previously unavailable in Caribbean territories.

'\. ..'
Conunerceandlndustty

As a result of globalization, industries have expanded across the

globe. Industries such as mining, petroleum, iron and steel, bauxite
. I
and so on are constantly in search of cheaper raw material, labour and
government incentives such as tax holidays and other subsidiaries.
Therefore, governments are forced especially in developing countries
to offer high concession in order to attract certain industries to settle
in their country thereby hastening the development process.

Additionally, commerce, that is, general business activity and trade

has expanded as well as become more advanced as a result to
globalization. Thus, it is easier to conduct international business
transaction with other countries due to a decline in trade barriers and

W. Long (©2013) Page 26

!
'~ -

u
. \

government regulations, thus facilitate .increased local and

international business transactions .
.J

Labour

As a result of globalization, the major.respo.nse.of labour was to look

' i
i'. ', fo.r new careers and opportunities in not only their home country but
. .J their foreign ones as well. This process is made possible as a result
i
of iiu;reasingly free movement of labour. The major impact of
' , globalization with respect to labor has been the increased use of
technology to advertise vacancies across the world. Also, with the
\
advancement in information communication technology (ICTs),
_l
gr.eater numbers of people are increasing their· qualifications in order
. l
to become globally marketable. This tr.end has facilitated
electronic/distance learning as well as the obtaining of online degrees
. from international tertiary level education· institution.

r) Ideology .
. ·.. ,_ ..

Currently the predominant ideology in response to globalization is

.the capitalist/liberalization option. This movement was stimulated by
the_ World- Trade Organization and International Monetary Fund in
_promotion of Free Trade as the partway towards global financial
prosperity.

Popular Movements

A popular movement occurs when there is a mobilization of disenchanted groups in

society e.g. the worldng class being represented by the trade union movement out of the
1930's riots. Also the "black power" movement of the 1970's in Trinidad was another
example of a popular movement. In tenns of movements against gender discrimination
there are: Caribbean Association for Feminist Research (CAFRA), Women's Action for
New Development (WAND), There are numerous environmental (e.g. highway re-route
movement in T&1) and social justice Non-Govemmental Organisation (NGOs). As a
result of ICTs associate with globalisation regional movements such as various feminist
organisations have been influenced by similar international institutions.

W. Long (©2013) Page 27

 .---,''
4. The Integration Movement u
'~
L
The West Indies Federation

Established in 1958, It comptised ten territories of: Antigua and

Barbuda, Barb'ados, ·Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, . (the then) ·St.
Kitts and Nevis- Anguilla, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, . Trinidad and \.

Tobago and Jamaica. Its major aim was to establish a political union
amongst its members.· The federal government was headed .by· an
executive governor general appointed by Britain, the ·first 'governor .
general of the Federation w·as Lord Haileys of Britain and the Prime
Minister was Sir Grandy Adams of Barbados. i

Contributions of the F~eration to Caribbean development

1) The federation had ·a. limited development, because it only

.--~ ··., i
lasted for three years. The federation faced several _probiems. (,____ .: ~
These include the g·overnance and administrative structures.
imposed by the British government (anti-nationalists).

2) Disagreements among territories over policies particularly with ·

respect to taxation 'and central planning.

3) Unwillingness on the part of the central government to give p

power to the Federal government

4) Disagreements over the location of the Federal capital

W. Long (©2013) Page28

 The decisive development which led to the demise
of the Federations was the withdrawal of Jamaica
(the largest member of the Federation) after a
nationaf referendum in 1961. This led to the now
famous statements of Dr. Eric Williams, the Prime
Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, "one from ten
leaves naught."

~f'ec<!.f\~M.- f...d" ::lb -te-.e. v-oT(.._. ~ is ru-e vio. ~ ~ ~·

._\! I
·' .,~ (),{" (\P

CARIFTA (The Caribbean Free Trade AssocJation)

A free trade area or association means that goods are allowed to be

,· traded amongst member countries without .attracting tariffs or custom
I duties (that is tax on imports). This association was founded in 1965,
J with the intention of encouraging balanced development of the region.

· CARIFfA and Caribbean Development

i
CARIFT A effectively developed the regio!l by:
I .
I) Increasing trade, that is, buying and selling more goods among
member states.
2) Diversifying trade- removing tariffs and quotes on goods
produced and traded within the area
3) Ensuring fair competition- setting up rules for all members to
follow to protect smaller states or lesser developed Caribbean
countries (L.D.C.)

W. Long (©2013) Page 29

 ·.'

CARl COM

The Caribbean community or the Caribbean common market followed

the collapse of the West Indies Federation. It continued some acts of
co-operation· that existed during the Federal period. r'n 1973,
CARICOM was declared in Trinidad and Tobago by the first meeting
of the heads of government of the Commonwealth Caribbean. This
meeting was. attended by the leaders of Barbados, British Guiana,
Jamaica and T.rinidad and Tobago (the so called big four).

CARlCOM; and Caribbean Development

CARICOM contributed greatly to the development of the Caribbean

by fostering ec.onomic ·and non-economic co-operation. As a result of
CARICOM, th·e following objectives were achieved:
1, Economic integration of the region through the common
market
2. Co~o~dination of foreign policy
3. :ft1nctional co-operation, including the efficient operation
of ce~tain common services.
14- IYlUI'\W CO<AAtr·,e~ oe c.A~ tc..wY\ .

Association of Caribbean States (ACS)

The ACS was established July 24th 1994 with the aim of promoting
consultation, co~operation and concerted actions among all the

®
countries of the Caribbean. It comprises 25 member states and 3
associate members.

ACS and Caribbean Development

l1f~ ,_
~ ACS
ASSOCIKTIONOFCARIBBEANSTATES
rlj"'tU' O'='C£.
ACS has contributed to Caribbean development as follows:

1) The strengthening of the regional co-operation and the integration

process with a view to create and enhance economic space within the
region

W. Long (©2013) Page 30

J -
(..__...)
2) Preserving the environn;1ental integrity of the Caribbean Sea
j
3) Promoting s·ustairiable development of the greater Caribb.ean

I
Organization of Eastern Caribbean States {OECS) ~ A-~S·
J

The OECS was established by treaty of Basseterre signed on June 18 1h

1981. The treaty WllS so named in honor of the capital city of St. Kitts
and Nevis. Its members are: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica,
Grenada, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent arid the
Grenadines. Anguilla was admitted to the organization as an associate
member in 1995 and 1984 respectively.
f.c..:DoU&u- - ~c. ~.

fre-v\N..] 1M'\. ~.e. fc ~. GktU?I'Y\ ~·

~·

/ ·"
!

W. Long (©2013) Page 31

 '. . ~
. '
'-~

The OECS has contributed to development of its member com1tries as follows:

1) Promoting co~operation among nieniber states and defending

their sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence.
2)" Assisting member states in meeting· their obligations to the
.international community, with. due regard. to the role of L
. international law.
3) Est.ablishing and maintaining, whenever possible, arrangements
L
for joint overseas representation and common services.
4) Promoting economic integration . among member states,
especially via the adoption of a single currency (the EC dollar). !..

SUMMARY: Levels of Integration in the Caribbean

An EcoD u with TheW.!.

one bead of state
Federation

A CM with a single
cum:ncyaod O.E.C.S
economic policy
union
_4IV1\IIIJ--~FT~A but with
e.o~"' a aod free
CARlCOM:
~ movemeot of Common CSME
labour
Market
No tariff
amongst .
members; no CARIFTA
Common
Etemal Free Trade Area
Tariff(

W. Long (©2013) Page 32

 ii) Achievements & Challenges of the following:

J Est. in 1973,
aims tO
promote
regional
integration

I
Est. in 1970assist the
borrowing member
countries to optimise the
Usc: of their resources,
develop their economies
. and expand production
--- CARJCOM

...
_,·;•
,.
.. ~
UWl
Est. in 1962 to
enhance the
region's human
resources
and trade capabilities

Est. in 1982 for

the defence and
security of the
Eastern
Caribbean
-- RSS
Achievements
& Challenges
O<C.

Est. in
provide
1m to
internationally
~on recognized
secondary level
CSME WICB
c:ertificatc
Est. in 1989 tO / ,/ ~'---.
createa.single .ft€L ~··o; ···~
CCODOIIIIC space • , _ __ ....J. .' ~~ , ,
(economic onion ~ .M A¥~'""' .·- ::· ;·._. ... Est. 1926 To develop and
in the Canbbean ~ . promote cricket for the benefit

Est. in 1974 created tO give

regional communicatOrs a
/ and cqjoymeDt of West Indian
people. .

Caribbean orientation with

professional gronoding while
cosnring that Can'bbcan media
and commuoication performed
while assisting the region's
develoomcnl

i
·~~·
. './"·..
-·

W. Long (©2013) Page 33

 . ··~
'\.._,...·
5. Contributions of Sports to
Caribbean·Development

1) Generation of l_ncome
2)Uiealth
. . . and Fitness
3) Jiducational opportunities
4) Development of CaribbeanJdentity
5) Discipline and Morale
. 6) Inteniational ..!.ecognition
7) Sports .,!ourism

Generation of income:

Major sporting activities as cricket, football and other sports

contribute to the inflow of income that impacts positively on a
country's development. Major revenue sources of income are
derived ticket sales, advertisement and government so.urces.
Additionally, wages and salary are· paid to professional sporting
personalities and their supporting cast of majors, coaches, grounds
men, security, maintenance personnel as well as commiss.ion paid
to agents. Therefore the GDP of the country increases .facilitating
development.·

Health and Fitness:

Generally, a healthier and fitter population means a more productive

and efficient labour force thus causing advancements in the region's
development. Therefore, the government should promote greater
nutrition and physical education in primary, secondary, tertiary
educational institutions. Generally healthier practices should be
promoted to prevent incidences of non-communicable diseases for
example: cardio vascular disease and obesity all of which can be
reduced by promoting the increase in exercise and ingestion of a
W. Long (©2013) Page34
 --·---····- ... --·-·---·--···-·--··--·-·--··------·
: 1

· balanced diet. Additionally, he.alth facilities such ashospitals will be

...
less burdened financially if the population was fitter and healthier as
a result of the promotion of . sport and sporting activities.
J
. Implementation of these actions can reduce worker down time and
increase worker efficiency or productivity. Further; there is a
J reduction in financial medicinal expenses as fewer will need
hospitalization and medicine.
J Harvard
.I =
J . Educational Opportunities "':.:0
!:i
I
Many students in the Caribbean have received academic and
=·
sports.
I
l scholarships mainly from US · universities. Additionally, local
I universities such as UWI and UTT are offering sports scholarships
i and degrees in sports management and administration mainly for
I students who have interests in sports. Also, for those who desire to
I advance in fields such as management . of national and regional
i
sporting themes as well as international administrative positions in
I institutions such as FIFA, the Olympic Commission, NBA and the
I NFL.

i.

SenseofCaribbeanldentity

·sport is a major component of . culture and identity and has

helped to promote the integration movement in areas where
politicians have failed. Additionally, Caribbean identity and
integration has been achieved particularly by regional competitions
such as Caribbean cricket, football, hockey and netball tournaments,
This integration process has been fostered by the commitment of many
regional teams to the Caribbean unity. Further success of sporting
personalities and teams on the international ~tage has led to a strong
sense of nationalism; pride for one's country.
T JV nr :"" p"""""T-r.
- -
-- -·-
J. .1" ._.

W. Long (©2013) Page 35

 ·I

Discipline and Mo~e . .i

··L

By promoting team work, communication and patriotism, sport has . ~

advanced discipline and morale among Caribbean people. Therefore,

the effective· implementation of team and individual sports on the
.curriculum of schools and other institutions can help promote a more
disciplined and productive citizen with strong self belief resulting in
sustainable development. · i;

·Presence on the Worl~ Stage

Sports unquestionably have helped the region in being .identified by

other nations as a result of va.rious successors. Achievements of major
sporting activities such Brian Lara, Dwight Yorke an'd Usain Bolt
have placed the Caribbean on the world's sporting map and increased
its exposure to countries all over the world. The Caribbean is seen as
a leading mass producer .of sporting talent per capita especially in
areas such as track and field;- Cricket per capita.

Sports Tourl~

Hosting of various international sporting activities such as cricket

world cup, soccer world cup has helped regional marketing of the
Caribbean as a major tourist destination (tourism). This occurs
through events marketing of world cups and international sporting
events to participating countries from abroad.

W. Long (©2013) Page36

; :)
·-·
6) INTELLECTUAL TRADITION
It's acronym
time::rN PI Pt- F,.,e.M .

1) Pan Africanism} .
2) Negritude · AfricanCaribbean
3) Rastafari Thought
4) Industrialisation by invitation} .
5) Marxism . Econ. & Pol.
6) Dependency theory · · . · .· . Thought
7) Caribbean feminist thought & trends in gender
8) Indo-Caribbean thought·
9) Indigenous Perspectives.

African Caribbean Thought ·

Pan Afrtcanism

This refers in one sense to a united movement of countries in the

African continent but in a broader sense it encompasses the collective
consciousness of African people that makes up the diaspora. Many
pan Africanists looked to the teaching of Jamaican national hero
Marcus Garvey who advocated closer links with Africa as far back as
the early 1900s and rallied thousand with messages of black pride and
empowerment at a time when Africans were anything but empowered.

Globally there has been a renewed force over the past few years of
Pan Africanism. The small countries of the Caribbean are also now
W. Long (©2013) Page 37
eager to strengthen the historical and cultural links that have always ···.

existed between the region and African continent. Therefore the Pan
Africanism philosophy is based on the belief that. all African people
i
-
··.....
)

share common bonds and benefits and advocates unity to achieve these
objectives. ·rhus Pan Africanism can positively impact on regional
development b.y improving by improving social justice a~d equality
where eleme.nts of discrimination and exclusion.exist.

.Negritude

~ This concept refers to the literary and ideological

&... movement of French speaking ·black· inteil~ctuals. The
term 'Negritude' was coined ·by Aime Cesaire from
Martinique. Other intellectuals. include: Leopold Sedar
Senghor (former Senegalese President) and Leon-Gontran
. Damas (French Guiana). It reflects the important and
comprehensive reaction to the colonial situation .. This movement
which· represented Africans regionally and around the world,
specifically. rejects the political, social and mor.al domination of the ,'
i
west.

In contrast to.· this broad definition a. narrower one relates to art1sttc

expression.:'The literature of Negritude includes the writings of black
intellectuals ·such as C.L.R. James; who affirmed black personality
and redefined collective experiences.

Therefore negritude attempts to rehabilitate African around the world

from Europeans ideology that held them inferior to the whites which
was a rational for Western Imperialism. Thus by implication achieve
greater social justice and equality.

W. Long (©2013) Page 38

J Rastafari

,_...,.......,..,..=~ Chevannes (1995) suggest that Rastafarianism

be~an in the 1930's in Jamaica as a result of the.
protests for improved living and working conditions
for the black masses. In this socioeconomic and
political; context arose a millenarian mov.ement that
. spoke of imminent escape from the harsh rea~ities of •
l.ife in Jamaica to a better life in Ethiopia, Africa.

Rastafari & Devel~pment

That all people of the Caribbean must stand up against oppression and
discrimination ... the Rastafarian movement has demonstrated to the
wider Caribbean the need for social justice and general equali.ty i,n
achieving betterment .and by implication greater development via the
process of inclusion.

"The Rastafarian's brandishing of the symbol of protest against

Babylon and European hegemony was worn on their heads, with the
growing of locks, released from their tongues, through the creation
of a new indigenized creole lexicon, and embodied in their. walk,
which valorized the kings and queens of a regal African lineage."
(N ettleford, ·1998)
i
i
"More generally the role of the Rastafarians has been to bring to the
attention of the Jamaican society the urgent need to root identity and
national cohesion in a recognition of the origins of its black majority
and to redress the imbalance of history's systematic weakening of any
claim to achievement which descendants of Africans would otherwise
make in the New World. In this they have been a revitalizing force,
albeit a discomforting and disturbing one." '

W. Long (©2013) Page39

 Indo Caribbe~n Thought

The Asians who came to the· C~ribbean as contract labour mainly from
China and India in the 1800's experienced the restrictions of
·colonialism and the hardships within their contractual arrangements.
Indo- Caribbean thought was largefy a response .to these conditions
· ·and an expressions of their culture within the Caribbean.

To date; Guyana, Trinidad and· Suriname have the largest

concentrations of Indians in. the region. Guyana and Trinidad have
two major ethnic groups (Indians ·and Africans); while Suriname has
ai least four ethnic groups (Hindustanis o·r.East Indians, the Creoles
or Africans, the Javanese or Indonesians, and the Maroons)

Most whites who researched and analy.sed ·.indian. communities in

• Guyana and Trinidad centred their studies against the background of
·. coloniltlism, oppression and poverty (and how to reverse certain
. trends that emerged).

Themes in Indo- Caribbean thought foeused on:

Identity- which covers religion and rituals e.g. marriage

• East Indians have retained their religions of Islam and
·.·Hinduism. Although they hav·e accepted Western dress, religion
still prescribes a code of conduct, rituals, food preparations etc.
• Customs and religion also reinforces endogamy (choosing
. prospective wives or husbands for children from the clan)
• However, the caste requirement of their culture had to be
· ·.abandoned as Hindus and Muslims begin to intermarriage and
the "mixed" population in Trinidad and Guyana begun to grow.

W. Long (©2013) Page40

- '
'· I

Indo- Caribbean writers (intellectuals) include:

• V.S. Naipaul, Samuel Selvon and !smith Khan (lndo-

Trinidadians)
• Clem Seecharan an~ David Dabydean (Indo- Guyanese)
. .

~ ' According to Prof. Frank Birbalsing I.D.do-Caribbean

literature has generally centred on · themes of
.c
. indentureship. It focuses on the harsh and dramatic
,conditions and the tactics of the colonists. tlie hurt and
· the trauma have been great and have resulted. in Indo-
Caribbean literature expressil\g this theme over the last
15years. This reaction coincided with a period marked by
an intensification of alleged political oppression ·.of Indo-
Trinidadians and Guyanese resulting in an increased in migration of
East Indians to North America. Similar. to Pan Africanism this
' ;
perspective can aid in vromoting social and economic equalisation.
!

Econ. & PoL thought

-· !
i Marxism & Neo-Marxism

' i >Marxism refers to the belief that socialism/communism is the best

(l
fsystem for achieving a classless society in which all means of
~production would be commonly owned. Neo-Marxism is an expanded
. I
; 'form of Marxism that emphasizes Lenin's concept of imperialism as
!the final stage of capitalism and shifts the focus of struggle from
I
I
i developed to underdeveloped countries.
; !

>'Therefore Neo-Marxism is frequently used to describe the opposition

.·to inequalities (can achieve a reduction in the Gini coefficient
:towards the line of perfect equality) experienced by lesser developed
'i countries such as those in the Caribbean.
I'

• I
:I
,I

'.
i'

! W. Long (©2013) Page41

I
 l
··.__...·
i
Mai'XismjNeo-Marxism in the Caribbean I
L

0
Fidel Castro- Cuba - - - -
'
0 Mamice Bishop- Grenada · L
0
Michael Manley Jamaica,
0
Cheddi Jagan - Gu1lllilllt-1--- JL;

Fidel Castro Cuba

t:,_
According to Eric Williams in his book Cohimbus to Castro (1972) L
"The.Castro revolution.in 1958 was an attempt to catch up with the
nationalist movement in the rest of the Caribbean. The essential It ~
feature of Castro's ·revolution · was his anti-Americanism against
Yankee Imperialism." ·Castro advocated for a form of Marxism
different from Russia and. China as well as anywhere else in the world. l:
Under Neo-Matxism Castro proclai:d!.ed: "it may take a long time but
we do not believe in materialistic concepts of capitalism or of any
. type of communism in which money .is the incentive."
I

During the years 1956- 1958 he seizled power through a revolutionary

gu~rrilla army. The United States rl'taliated and imposed an embargo
on Cuba. This action leads to Ca tro forming an alliance with a
natural enemy of the US that is Russia. However, this embargo
severely hindered the economic. dev lopment of Cuba due to the loss
of its major trading partner.

''·
;

W. Long (©2013) Page42

The Bay of Pigs Invasion

The Bay of Pigs Invasion was in response to Cuba's growing

relationship with Russia in the 1950s-60s and now involved the
supply of military equipment. According to Ro·semarie. Stewart the
American government therefore began preparations for a military
invasion of the island to prevent further solidification of soviet power
in its 'sphere of influence.' The CIA was given a free hand to make
the necessary preparations for the invasion. A sectic:>n of the invasion
force .landed at Playa Giran in the Bay of Pigs under the directive of
President John F. Kennedy. It had been hoped that the invasion would
. have sparked off some internal insurrection by 'disc.ontented elements
still in Cuba. However, the Cubans, rather than joining the invaders,
rallied to the defence of their country.

The Bay of Pigs invasion was a failure. It was defeated by the. support
given to Castro by the Cubans in Cuba, ·by the disunjty among the
invaders and also by the fact that it was given no support by the U.S.
armed forces but even more because of the mistake of the CIA in using
the ill-trained and inadequate force of Cuban exiles in the expedition.

The Missile crisis (Oct 1962)

American intelligence knew that the Russian government was

installing missiles in Cuba. President· J.F .K. declared his
government's intentions of instituting a naval blockade of the island.
This was to be complemented by additional aerial surveillance. Under
a US resolutio.n the Organisation of American States (OAS) called for
and succeeded in getting the immediate withdrawal of all Soviet
missiles from the island.

Maurice Bishop - Grenada

In the book Politics and Development in the Caribbean Basin by Jean

Grugol "the revolution in Grenada in 1979 was a reaction against the
Westminster model of politics imposed on newly independent ex-
British colonies in the Caribbean." The Maurice Bishop led New Jewel
Movement (NJM) describe the Westminster system as only taking the
people into account for a few seconds every five years when citizens

W. Long (©2013) Page43

 make a cross on their ballot paper. Maurice Bishop therefore argued
for a series of non-capitalistic, state base measures to rectify ·-'
Grenada's structural underdevelopment and to counter colonialism
and imperialism. _ ·
According to Payne and Sutton in their .book Grenada Revolution and
Invasion: "from April 1981, the party began· to introduce principles
. of the neo-Marxist Lenin into its structure." Firstly, the membership
structure :would be similar to that of the Soviet Communist party. He
also agreed to intensify _socialist education and strengthen the
Leninist structure of the party;

Under Bishop Manist rule, the following landmarks occurred:

1. Grenada was the only country to experience a Socialist .revolution
in the 1950s
2. Grenada is the only Caribbean island to experience an armed
socialist revolt.
3._ Grenada is the only Caribbeanisland to have been subjected to.
I.
direct military intervention by the US in October 1981
I
L

Michael Manley Jamaica

Manley was a social democrat who often went to great lengths to

explain that he was not a communist. However, when he was elected l
by the majority under the People's National party (PNP) he eventually I
. declared socialism as a worthy goal. Hence forth he became marked
as an enemy of imperialism and· the local capitalist class. Michael
Manley was the Jamaica Prime Minister from 1972-19 8 0, ·he vowed to
take a non-capitaiist path to development. His administration _ushered
in domestic and foreign policy changes that angered rich Jamaicans
and the Americans. Under his rule Jamaica's relation with Cuba grew
closer, the imperialist felt their interest threatened by these measures
therefore, Manley obtained political office not through a
revolutionary struggle but via elections. However, because of his
progressive programmes that showed sympathy for Socialism he was
targeted and ousted after violent imperialist destabilisation by U.S.
and Britain.

W. Long (©2013) Page44

j
\
'
} Cheddi Jagan - Guyana
\,_./

According to Hinizen "Jag an spent his entire political life

j
highlighting the evils of Capitalism and particularly the brand of
Capitalism that have taken route in the U.S. In the 1960s the US lead
j a campaign of violence and destabilisation against Jagan and his party
-the People Progressive Party CPPP). U.S. involvement was justified
on the grounds that Jagan's leftist ideology and his close association
J
with Cuba represent a threat to the US interest. To support their
·claim, rumours were spread that Jagan was attempting a Communist
takeover of Guyana.

Neo-Marxism & Development

The spread of Neo-Marxism in tqe Caribbean is frequently used to

J
,I .describe the opposition to inequalities (can achieve a fairly even
distribution of income) experienced by lesser developed countries
· such as those in the Caribbean.
,_
' 'i
Industrialisation by Invitation

This principle was first advocate by Sir Arthur Lewis of

St. Lucia. He recommended that small scale open
economies of the Caribbean invite foreign Multinational
companies (MN Cs) and other companies so as to develop
the backward manufacturing and indust:dal sectors so as
to improve and expand these areas. Therefore,
tion by invitation was a policy to be pursued by numerous
Caribbean states in the 1970s-1980s. It involved offering tax holidays
and subsidies as incentives for MNCs to locate in these Caribbean
countries.

The result of this policy on development can best be described as

mixed for e.g. many countries gained from advancements in
technology, development and processing of their raw material, a more
skilled workforce and so on. However, many countries suffered a Lost
in revenues as a result of giving tax breaks and subsidies to these
foreign enterprises also, these companies normally repatriate their
profits to the host/metropolitan countries rather than circulating it

W. Long (©2013) Page45

locally. Further, the nature of the resultant attempts of
industrialization did not provide great employment opportunities
because of the capital intensive structure of the operations.

Dependency Theory & Development \-)Q.W..,

·l(e_p(M.4( !3r 1·t, ~ t

~---'-
"~"'--
,...._

i.

A theory of how developing and developed nations interact. It can be I

l
seen as an opposition theory to the popular free market theory of
interaction.

Dependency theory, in contrast, holds that there are a small number

l
of established nations that are continually fed by developing nations,
at the expense of the developing nations' own health. These
developing nations are essentially acting as colonial dependencies, iI
sending their wealth to the developed nations with minimal '
compensation. In dependency theory, the developed nations actively
keep· developing nations in a subservient position, often through IL
economic force by instituting sanctions, or by proscribing free trade
policies attached to loans granted by the World Bank or International
Monetary Fund.

Dependency Critique

• A Neo-Marxist perspective that maintains that Third World

countries are Underdeveloped because of the activities of the
First World.
• Dependency theory holds that "the condition of
underdevelopment is precisely the result of the incorporation of
the Third World economies into the capitalist world system
which is dominated by the West and North America" (Randall
and Theobald 1998, 120)

W. Long (©2013) Page46

 • Dependency Theory emerged in the 1950s as a critique of
Modernization . . .
• Argues that these Classical theorists failed t~ recognized that·
Imperialism, Colonialism and Neo-Colonialism is solely
responsil)le for the development of the First ·.World and ·the
subsequent underdevelopment of the Third World ..

Features of the Dependency Theorization

• The eidsten,ce of a Capitalist World System . .

• In this capiialist system countries are div~ded into Metropoles
and Satellites ·(Frank) or Core and Semi-perip~ery . and
Periphery (Wallerstein)
• Core Countries/ are the Rich Industrialized Countries of the
West, whose·GDP and per capita incpme exceed 7% per annum·
• Peripheries are those countries whose annual rate o{ growth is
·less than 5-7% and are primary producers of goods and service.s
• Semi-peripheries: Newly industrialized . countries, China,
Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea (Asian Tigers), Cuba, Brazil,
Venezuela, Mexico, Indonesia, Egypt, Portugal, Spain and Italy.

Dependency Theorists in the Caribbean

~~\ tl~i""S:o~ •'
Lloyd Best & Kari'tevitt Clive Y. Th9mas

'TilE P-00 • .tlfD

THE POWEI.LBSS

Norman Girvan

W. Long (©2013) Page47

·. Trends
. in Caribbean Feminist Thought~ Theories. ofGender
'

· The intellectu8t tradition of feminism is based 0n th~ d~ire for equality between men and
.Women in the workplace, politics, and the family or in leadership positions. It is not about
rille by women. Feminist writers argue 1:fu\t in aiiDost every area of social life, men are
. over oth~.which reSult in an imbalance of power.
· .· .8ble to exert influence and controi
.

There are several strand oi feminism: ·

1. Liberal feminism- they hold the· view tbat nien and women. are equal and should
both enjoy political, social and ecoliomic ~ty. They believe that legislation and ··
education can bring about gender equality · ·
· 2. Radical feminism- stress that the oppression ofWI>men by men is the root cause of
inequality. Society is organized ~ on ~ nuil.~ sYstem
of power that encourages
sexism.
3. Mandst feminism- the view that by· its nature, the system of capitalism oppresses
\Vomen. The economic, political, religious and education systeins are all dominated
· by the patriarchal system of beliefs.

Gender Theories

Marxist feminism:

This is a sub-type of feminist theory which focuses on. the social institutions of private
property and capitaliSm to explain and criticize gen4er inequality· and oppression.
A~g to Marxist feminists, private property gives rise to economic inequality,
dependence, political and domestic struggle betWeen the sexes, and is the root of women's
oppression in the current social context. II
Modernity & Post Modernity

After the World War IT, feminists continued to struggle to implement equal rights and
benefits in all areas of society, which continues today in the effort to break the "glass
ceiling" that separates women from their male colleagues when it comes to high-level
administrative jobs of various sorts. (Refer to:
http://www.cla.purdue.edu/eog!ish/theory/genderandsex/modules/introduction.html)

W. Long (©2013) Page48

) Caribbean Gender Movement

The issues conceming women in the Carib~ ~ SerioUsly brOught to the fore in the
. 1960's and 1970's and came out of the f~ mov~ in the USA. Throughout the
Caribbean. women's organisations have be'JD created to promote ~e cause of women such
as: The National OrganiZJition of Wo~ S~ (NOW) and Caribbean Women's
Association (CARIWA) .

· The volume of feminist writings has bro~ about sonie positive change in the
Tbere·r·
. attitudes of society towards women. now giowing acceptance of
women in managerial positions and politics · . · ····. ·
'
1 .

Some Caribbean Feminists include:

• Mary Seacole (Jamaica)
· • Amy Ashwood Garvey (Garvey's ~e)
• E1ma Francois (St. Vincent)

Patricia Mohammed assesses ways in which men and

women collecti.vely relate to each other and among
themselves in the Caribbean. Her research revealed
a concentration of power with respect to access to
resources, privilege, knowledge and status. Under
this perspective ways were suggested in which men can support the
efforts of women to create change in the nature of gender relations.
She also discusses the pervasiveness of violence between men and
women with a focus on domestic violence, public harassment and
sexual harassment in the work place and the need for legislation.
Therefore, this feminist thought observed the inevitability of change
in gender relations and encourages men active involvement in the
construction of new processes of social interaction for the overall
economic development of the region.

W. Long (©2013) Page49

Women & the Mass Media

According to Hila~y Hikenson (2002) the media has a rolCin shaping

and just reflecting reality. She uses examples of Jamaica's print visual
and audio media In order to illustrate the ways women and men react.
Various w:ays and. methods· were suggested on how the media should
handle secrecy and the portrayal of women in a .negative light. She
also uses examples from the media to reveal ways in which they value
women and men· and reinforces the idea of traditional sexual division
of labour .. She ~~ggests that the media should itself undergo scrutiny
towards pro.ducing a more gender sensitive approach which .b.alances
male and female experiences in society to promote . equality, social
justice and thus development.

Feminist Thought and Development

Feminist prosp.ective promotes a gender sensitive . app.roach to

development that balances male and female experiences and
contributions in society to promote equality, social Justice· and !hus
development.

r
I.

'Indigenous Perspective

For many years Amerindian groups were portrayed by Europeans as

childlike (Arawaks) and vicious cannibals (Caribs) ..Writings with an
indigenous slant have rejected these ideas. Beginning in the first half
of the 19t'!> century West Indian scholars sought to reverse this
perception. One ·critical objective of indigenous perspective was to
correct the view· that the natives did not have a· history. Several
writings or histories have sought to place indi s on the
historical tnap.

Works by the lnte1Iectuals:

• A history of the Guyanese Working People- Walter Rodney

• The Black Jacobins- C.L.R. James
• The Slaves Who Abolished Slavery- Richard Hart

W. Long (©2013) Page SO

 • Black Rebellion in Barbados-
. Hilary Beckles.
.

I
The Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean have also sought to change
the myth started agains~ them by the Europeans that they are extinct
and that the small survivi~g populations are not "pure" Amerindians.
,. Another objective of the writings was that Amerindian ari-d Afric·an
contributions must riot be understood only in the capacity of labour.
but for their cultural contribution.
' - ' .

!
I

i.

Issues of concem to Indigenous

.
peoples especially in Dominica, Guyana U:d
. Belize
..
relate to:

1. Marginalization- social, economic and political

:-~
E.g. Guyana is often said to be divided between the Indians- (Indo-
Guyanese) and the Africans (Afro- Guyanese), the Amerindians are
usually forgotten. They are seen as a separate group located deep in ·
the interior of the island arid are referred to as just Amerindians.
Amerindians in the region live in poverty and isolation

2. Land Rights- Indigenous groups have been engaged. i-n

i
I protracted struggles with national governments to recognize and
respect their ancestral claims to land
• E.g. in Dominica Carib Chief has tried to oust non- carib men
off their land and this became a politically sensitive issue.
• In 1997, the Wai Wai and Makushi of Guyana were concerned
that their lands were being infiltrated by mining and timber
companies. However, their cries were ignored by the
government.

W. Long (©2013) Page 51

 We cmmot simply think ofOUY survival; eoch new genertJtiOflls ruponslble to;,.;;,;,· o,; .
suMvtJl ofthe sevent.h genertltion. lndige11aus people tire the poorest Ofthe poor tJIIII the
holden ofthe keytothejimue survival oj'hvmttnlty. [1ISD (1992)]

Tbe ~situation Of Indigenous people arouuci the earth: cin the one bmid, pciUcics ..Mt institutions have pushed
them to the 1Hngc of society and economy: on the either band, the world iS Comin3 to understand their f.,;,llng that the {
cutttnt ~path is not sound and that the suivmd ofhumanity is a·stake. Tbe Voices of Indigenous people
Slrike a resounding note, since their appeal is JOOtcd in. a cJeep and long tim<l ~to tlic earth. ·

· USD bclievcs'thai their message reinforces a fundamental value of sustainabie de:Yclopineni. Their call for ensuring
[
Or
1e$p011Sibility to the seventh' generation and fur restoring ihe balanoe between the dit!l:mtt clements life on earth
mates direetly to the principles offilimess and equity. It Clllphaslzes the need ~'cn'rin!nmenlal ~p and the f
requirCIIIcnt of linking the IICO!lOtD)!, the cnvironmcnt and the well being ofptople wiihln decision-making.
. . .. . ' .
t
. : : ·.

·' . ....

l
We do not have an equal place in T&T
[_
Santa l'tosa chief wants recognition:
.l
By by Julien Neaves ..·'
\.~
Sloly ~Mar 10,2013 at 10:54 PM ECT
SIGIY\Jpllallld: Mar12,2013at 1:11PM ECT
ANY rafo1n1 of the ConstitUtion must irlcluda the reeognltiol\ of the sta1us 'Of lnlfagenous peoples, said Chief
r
L
of !he Satda Rosa First Peoples Comtnunily, Ricardo Bha~emandez.
He w8s one of the attendees at the third meeting of the National Consullation on Constitutional Reform on
Saturday evening at the Arfma Town Hall.
Bhatath-Hemandez noted that the United NatiOns has adopted the Oec:laratlon of the Rights of indigenous
L
Peoples. In September 2007. He said, looally, they have begun to see
some l'oml of recognition for the first f
I.
He pointed oUt lhet while the National Anthem ofTritlidad and Tobago seys "ever'y creed end race finds an
equal J)hlce", he did not feel the indigenous peoples had an equal place.
Bharath-Hemandez recalled that he salVed as People's National Movement councillor and deputy mayor for
18 years and had lobbied unsuccessfully for Indigenous people.
He pointed out in 1982 when Canada had their Oonslitulional reform they recognised the rights of the
abot'l91na1 peoples Qndien, Inuit and M6tis). He precf!Ctad that his lobbying efforts locally would have been
more successru1 if Indigenous peoples were included In the Constltution. ·
Another attendee notad that late Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez waS being praised for championing the
rights of indigenous peoples In his country. He noted tl)at indigenous people have long been marginafised
and they needed to be included in this country's reformed Constitution.

W. Long (©2013) Page 52

) The role and Function of the Mass Media

• Provision of information
• Entertainment
• National, regional & diasporic identity
• Cultural experience & exchange
• Cultural Imperialism
• . Defence of rights & citizens

The mass media . refers to those channels that · can :be ·USed to
communicate messages to large numbers of people simultaneously. It
refers to the collection or transmission of data through various forms.
Examples newspapers, magazines, satellite, cable, internet dominates
the Caribbean mass media

Provision of information

A major function of the mass media is to let people know what is

taking place in their immediate environment and their wider
community. For example, important issues in the Caribbean such as
crime, business .and natural disasters are transmitted .via, the mass
media;

..

Entertainment

Role of the media in Caribbean focused cu•c•

• Festivals
• Concerts
• Sports

W. Long (©2013) Page 53

 . .

:-,;>J:tc.,- .

,""'": ~~ .*
..->~ ~
National, regional & diasporic i.dentity
.11\\1. -~

National identity and regional can be developed when the mass media
help to combat insularity which we demonstrate in our attitudes and
policies as well as to emphasize .our understanding of ourselves as
truly Caribbean people ... inclusive of the diaspora.

Cultural experience & exchange·

The media fosters community amo·ng · members of society and the

global village. This transmission is. very important because
information can be deduced on how. to maintain a healthy lifestyle,
preserve the environment. (instances of dealing with 'negative
culture') or prepare for a naturd disaster ..

. ___
..,.. tnim.._..............
Risks Smoking

·-
·-
~- ~,..._

·--
"'"""'"
......
.........
._·-
··--
·-- _ ......

-·......··-·
I
Defence of rights & citizens [

The mass media is an important institution in sustaining democracy ['

because it pro.vides persons with context and content so as to make
informed choices.

Therefore, leaders in the Caribbean have a responsibility to ensure

adequate information reaches the people in a timely manner to make·
rational choices (freedom· of the press). Effective mass media should
provide an opportunity for a two way flow of information between
decision makers and the general public. J

W. Long (©2013) · Page 54

\
'
, ·) Cultural Imperialism
.............

Greater local media content results in a decline in the. dominance of

foreign media causing a decline in cultural imperialism.

"PoD"
.... '
,_
'\

Culture ·~
•

Mass Media & Development (Summary)'

There has been significant effort by the region in terms of

I development, political and popular culture such as festivals.
i )
Therefore, the impact of the media on the Caribbean is as follows:

1) Regional development: effectively promoting the ,region as a

premium tourist destination
I
I
2) Changing technologies: increase information of new processes,
I.
inventions and other technologies used in other parts of the
world
3) Changing social roles: have promoted gender equality and
increase coverage for mower income and poverty stricken
communities ·
4) Regional identity and popular culture: give the region a sense
of nationalism by portraying positive aspects of our society,
culture and achievements gives people a sense of pride and
belonging to the Caribbean. Similarly, sense. of pride and
belonging to the Caribbean. Similarly, the portrayal of popular
culture of Carnivals, Reggae festivals and various Zuke
festivals.
5) Political process: highlights general and other elections to the
region and the wider world thus promoting democracy and free
fair elections. Also, investigative journalism can expose

W. Long (©2013) Page 55

 _,.''
corruption· and misbehavior in the public office to the voting
population.
t.
--

Social Justice .
I"' '\\VC\'Y, .... - . . . ·. . · . . : ·.
r· '-eou• \ i.
,.'if!· . The fair and pxoper administration oflaws contbrming to
. \':.~c{:~~. the~ law that all persons, irrespective of~c ,·...··. ··
;, ~f~ ~~~~ .~ origui. gender, posses.sions, ra~, ~ligion, .etc:,~~ be :· ·. ·
L. ~~~~.:~:~.treated equally and wtthout preJUdice.(busineSsdiCtionary.com)
....
Also, social justice refexs to the idea that all groups in society should be treated
fairly. Anybxeaclies in social justice are acts of discrimination (J. Mohammed)... ·

Social Justice Concepts

I '
·.)

Natnral Wghts: \ '--··

. .

• Are God-Given or inalienable rights -all human beings are equal and thus entitled .
tO human rights enjoyed by others .
• Refer to the UN declaration of Human Rights.

Welfare:
• Refers to a fair distribution of resources in a society that leads to well-being and
satisfaction.
• To close the gap between the wealthy and the poor.
• E.g.: wages, job opportunities, training, housing, social security and
unemployment relief.

W. Long (©2013) Page 56

 Mutual Advantage:
)
• Refers to welfare with reciprocation. Thus recipients of welfare payments should
· ·. be able to take advantage and elevate out ofpoverty. This will be mutually
beneficial to the sate and its citizens.
• Reiilfotces the concept of a 'social ~ntract' (as seen below):

Social Injustice in Caribbean Societies

• ColoniaHsm
• Social Stratification
• Minorities groups
• Prejudice
• Discrimination

Discrimination

Refers to acts or behaviours that treat others unfairly, often arising from prejudice or
negative attitudes towards each other.

W. Long (©2013) Page 57

.Discrimination on the Grounds of:
(~
Ageism
· o

o Sexism I
o Racism
o Classism [
0 .Creedism
o Police brutality • [

l
l
IilClicaton of Developmmt ~ B~chei of 8odaJ j1utfee
. .. ' ..
[
0

o
Productivity LevelS .
Levels of social inequality t
o Qualityoflife
o Democratic life [
[
[_

L
I' .

!
I

i
l.
'

W. Long (©2013) Page 58

't)
!. i
MODULE 3: INVESTIGATING HUMAN & SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
IN 1HE CARIBBEAN
W.Long

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 1

Table of Contents
NATURE & PURPOSE OF RESEARCH ···-····································································.2
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH OBffiCTIVES ....................................................3
TIIE RESEARCH PROBLEM- Identification .......................................... ~ .....................~.3
Research QueStion and Problem Stliteinent vs. Hypothesis ............................................... .4
· SOURCES OF INFORMATION- Identifying and Accessing Sources.......................... ~ .•S r
a. Existing Literirture ........................................................................................................5 I,,.
· b. Internet Sourees ..................................~ .......•..................................•....•;........................5
c. Oral History/Historical Research .... ~ ..•.................•.................... ~ .................................:.6
d. Archives/Archival Analysis or research ..•.•......... ;...........................•..•.~ •......................6
e. Newspapers Reports •....•...........•..•.....•...••......•...........•.............:•..•.•••••....••................ ~ ...7
f. Minutes of Meeting ......................................................................................................7
METHODS OF ENQUIRY & INSTRUMENTs OF DATA COLLECTION ................... 7
SURVEYS: ......................................... ,•...............................................................................8
Sample Survey.(Sampling) ...................~ ...•....;.....................................................................9· .
PROBABll.ITY SAMPLING ..................:..........................................................................9
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING ................................................................................. 10
PARTICIPANT & NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION ........................................... 11
USE OF PRIMARY & SECONDAY MATERIALS ..................................•..................... l1
IN-DEP'll:IINTERVIEWS ......... :..........................................................:.......................... 11
Structure/Phrasing & Sequence of Questions ..•................................. ~ .... :.......................... l3 ,.. '! '
\ '
Evaluating the Use of Questionnaires as a Survey Technique .......................................... 14 '· -... •..• • ...JI~

FORMAT OF PRESENTING DATA ........................................•.....•,............................... 15

Frequency D~bution- Using Graphs and Charts ......•...................•.....•......................... l6
wruTI'NG Tim FINAL WORDS- CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION............ 16
PruNCIPLES OF ETIDCAL CONDU~ ......................:.................•..........:....................17

j:
 2

,. ' \
\,_/
NATURE & PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

Research can ~ defined as the syste11UIIic process of collecting and analysing

information (data) in order to increase ~derstanding of certain phenomena, for the
pUrpose of validating a theory or solving a problem.

Research can build upon previous knowledg!' 8$ wellll$ genqate completely new
knowledge. The various forms of knowledge are known in philosophy as epistemology
(theory ofknowledge). Traditional knowledge can be broadly defined as a cnmnlative,
collective body of knowledge, experience and values held bysocieties with a history of
subsistence. Another form of .knowledge is experience- based on empiricism
(experience based on observation) and a posteriori (knowledge that is known from
experience). The final form of .knowledge is scientific based mainly on deductive logic
i.e. reasoning from the general/abstract to the particular. It is important and ethical that
the data generated from the ~process is reliable and 'VIIlid.. Therefore, research
:uiethOdoiogy or data collection sources should be thorough and all forms ofbiasness and
faulty conclusions should be filtered out of the project. ·

A systematic enquiry involves research or investigation of an issue. It uses

procedures which are rigorous/unbiased/logical/coherent. It can be quantitative or
qualitative. Therefore a summary of the nature and pwpose of research, as posited by
CAPE C.S. Syllabus (2012) are as follows:
a) Forms of knowledge: traditional, experience, scientific
b) Systematic enquiry
c) Generation of new knowledge
d) Reliability and validity in research
e) Problem solving
 3

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

.;,&,. Research should be relevant: it is guided by and logically stem from aspecific
research problem, question, or hypothesis. Therefore, to include topics or
analysis not related to the reSean:h problem will be irrelevant.
;;I. Direct link to research problem: AS it relates to problem statement and sub:-
problemi!lresearch queStions•.
'* Research is informed by sources.: it requires the collection and interpretation of
data originating from plimaxy and secondary sources in an attempt to resolve the .
problem that initiated the researCh.
.._ Resedrch should exhibit claritY. it reqUires a clear articulation of a goal. ·It
requites a clear articulation of a goal.

•, • ..., . _ . . , _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ...;.;.;_~.~.' • · - - - - - - - - - - - · ... ••V · -

ITIIE RESEARCH PROBLI!M- Identification I

Guidelines:

> Researchable: avililable!accessible data exists about the problem

> Clear: the problem should be unambiguous
> Feasible: the problem should be manageable and completed in a timely way
> Ethical: it should be morally acceptable. It should not be a scam. But it should be
a genuine and honest attempt for achieving self -enlightenment
> The research issue should address an important question so that the answer can
make a difference in some way.
 4

'() .Research Question and froblem Statementvs. Uypotllesis

;'
A hypothesis is a tentative prediction or estimated outcome or reasonable guess or
an explanation of a relationship between two or more variables; whereas,.a problem
J
statement or research question shows or states what researchers want to find i.e. it gives
the .actual problem for a problem statement and it gives a related problem for the research
J
qUestion.

Stating the Problem Statement

J
The problem statement must be identified clearly and concisely. The problem
must be identified either in the form of a question or a statement/sentence. Problem
· statements are best constructed showing the relationship between cause (independent
variable) and effect (dependent variable)
. ~ariable 1: iDdepeodeot
I ,cause) ..

Variable 2: dependent (effect)

Example 2: Has the increase in~ Cb.aguanas caused the decline in the

~ .

Given that the growth in tourism is negatively dependent on crime (T = - C) then these
variables can be graphed as follows:
 5

POSSIDLE CORELATION BETWEEN

VARlABLES
0
tourism
("/o)

'-

''
•-,

I'
L~
0
crime(%)

~=-· -·-.···...~-~------ ....,._

SOURCES OF INFORMATION- Identifying and Accessing Sources .

a Existing Literature: Text books on the topic/chapters in a book, Articles,

JoU11lllls. All of these sources are used in the literature review. The following
highlights the importance·of a literature review
)> To relate previous study/ies to your problem for investigation.
)> To highlight .areas of agreement and disagreement froin previous research.
)> To identify the most successful methods used in researching a similar
problem
)> To show how ~ous studies point to the need for further research.

b. Internet Sources: The internet can be a useful source of literature but the
IDJiterial must be carefully evaluated. The following is a checklist for evaluating
internet sources: •
~
~~·
~ ,..~~"

_ _,,
 6

)
> Authority~ is the author reputable? Ar,e his or her credentials or expertise .
clearly identified? Is contact information provided for the a1itbor? Has it ·
been reviewed by an editorial board?
> Adequacy -Is the date provided. is it current? Is it relevant i.e. is the
topic very similar to yoQI' own. even if it is non-Caribbean? Are there
sources or referen~?
> Objectivity -Is there a level ofbiasness? Are opposing views
represente4? Is it reliable i.e. are the description of the methods and
results cleat and unbiased? Is evidence or example provided to support
the points made.

c. Oral History/Historical J{esearcru This research technique is appropriate in

circumstances where the researcher has no control over, or access to events. If,

) for instance, you Wilnted to deal with an event that occurred in the distant past,
where there existed no documentation or literature
then you would conduct oral history.. Whereby, you
would rely on testimony from someone who
· witnessed the event or who I was privy to hear-say
information from previous generations. That is the
event may have been told in stories, songs, poems or plain words that has down from
generations to generations. A major disadvantage of this source is that the further
removed testimonies are form the original source (i.e. the further back in time), the
greater the risk of the information becoming distorted or unreliable.

d. Archives/Archival Analysis or research: This technique refers to the

examination of existing documents and data to determine patterns and
relationships. For example, statistical investigation carried out by newspapers,
government departments or census bureau. Also, and journals held in
a library or research facility.
 7

e. Newspapers Reports: Clippings from newspaper articles must be relevant to

the problerb. being
(
. . research.
. . In using this source the following infonnation
.
must
be included: name of author or writer, name of newspapCz-s and date of
public;ation. In using newspaper sources care should be taken in uSing one-sided
or biased articles- especially written by politicians or those with apolitical
l:igenda. Good articles are those which presents a balanced discQurse on an
• . issUe/topic by presenting both sides and engaging in logic8l conclusions or
obserVations. .
·. '.

· f. 1\iinutes.ofMeetmg: Information can be obtained froin various.forms .of

1lleeUngs that Were typed, written or recoded by a secretary, typiSt or
.·. stenographer, Care m~ be taken by using material that are relevant mid. can be
. ttace<f· to its source. Proper ethical procedures should~· observed ~efc: in terms
of obtaining permission form the personls you are quoting•

......,. ..- ..........ft,..;..._ _ _ _ _ _ __

.... ....-

METHODS OF ENQUIRY & INSTRUMENTS OF DATA

COLLECTION

According to CAPE C.S. Syllabus (2012) methods of enquiry are:

a) Sllt"Veys
b) Focus groups [quota sampling]
c) In-depth interviews
 8

d) Use of primary & secondary materials

J e) Participant & non participant observation

SURVEYS:
A survey is a broad investigation of a problem that allows the
resCatcher to make general conclusion about the problem. It is ~ .
·,

. research technique, in which information is gathered from' a sample

· of people by uSing instruments such as a questionnaire. It is a

primary method of~ data coiieclion based on communication with a represenU;Itive .

sample of individuals called the target population. The target populations m\ISt be
specifically defined, as the detiniti~~ ~es whether sampled cases are elig~l,ie or
ineligible for the survey.

Types of Surveys

Given that the collection of information from the element of a population is called a
survey, there are two types of surveys namely- a census and a sample survey.·
~ Census: a survey: that includes every member of the population. In practise,~.
census is rarely taken~. it is very expensive, time consuming and
sometimes unattainable.
~ Sample survey: the technique of colleCting information from a portion of the

population. A survey can be conducted by personal interviews, by telephone or

by mail.
 9

Sainple Survey (Sampling)

This technique is used in most research designs, since it is not ix>ssible in most
.instances to study the total population to which a problem relates. Sampling therefore is
. the systematic selection of a representative group of a given papulation.to obtain data to
be analysed for the pmpose of generalisation. ·. · ··. ·

ni~
'
~ twl>•. broad types of sampling, namely. .- probability. and n~n-probability
. . . . . . .

sampling:

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
..........

this is a sampling technique in which every member of the population will have a ·.......
known or equal chance of being selected for the sample: The following are major types
ofproba~ty samPling:
4 Simple random sampling: a sampling techniq"Qe that assures each element in the
. .
· . JlOilulation has an equal chance ofbeing included .in the sample.
4 ·Systematic sampling: A sampling procedure in which every an initial starting
.poiltt is selected by random process, and then. every nth number, n is a number
you choose, on the list is selected.
oil. Stratified sampling: Given that a population contains layers/stratum such as
male/females; old/young..• a researcher decides how much of each layer should
be in the sample. Random sampling is then used to select the required number
from each layer.
,. Cluster sampling: An economically efficient sampling technique in which the
primary sampling unit is not the individual element in the population but a large
cluster of elements. For example, a grocery researcher may randomly choose
 10

several geographical areas /clusters as the primary sampling units and then
interview all, or a sample, of grocery stores within the geographic clusters.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

This is a sampling technique in which units of the sample are. selected .quit
. arbitraty,

as research rely heavily on personal judgement or convenienc~. It is often uSed in case

studies, where the subjectls is chosen because they have the c~teristics being studied.
The various types of non-probability sampling are:

,.. Purposive (Judgement) sampling: A non-probability sampling technique in

which an experience researcher selects the sample based tipOn some appropriate
characteristic ofthe sample members. Therefore, the researcher selects a sample
to serve a specific pmpose e.g. attempts to forecast election results.
4 Convenience sampling: The sampling procedure used to obtain those units or
people most conveniently available. Rg. it may be convenient and ec<iilomi.cal
(cost effective) to sample households in a nearby by community thali. one !Urther
·.,
away.
4. Quota sampling (Focus groups): A non-probability sampling procedui-e that ·
ensures that certain characteristics of the population sample will be represented to
the exact extent that the investigator desires. E.g. an interviewer in a particular
city may assign I 00 interviews, 20 of which are with small busine.Ss owners, 18
with professionals, 10 with managerial employees, 7 with supervisors and the rest
with hourly employees.
I

'
i ,j. Snowball sample: A sample procedure in which initial respondents are selected
by probability methods, and then additional respondents are obtained from
information provided by the initial respondents.
 11

PARTICIPANT &NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

Firstly there is a difference betweeii p8rticipant (P.O.) and non-participant (non
c
P.0.) observation. In P.O. the observer/reseakher joins a group _and observes their
activities, while at the same time taking care to observe what is going on. Often that
__ means writing notes _and reflections 1~ on. .

··In Non P.O. the re8earcher simply observes: the activities, but doesn'ttake part in them.
.· Now, there's another tricky bit; both of these methods can be done covertly (secretly)
withoUt
.
telling
.
the other participants what's going .on or overtly
.
(openly) so that they
laiow exactly why the observer is there.

_But basically the researcher has four options:

You can do Covert P.O., or Covert Non P.O.

OR

· YoucandoOvertP.O. orOvertNonP.O.
r
i_
USE OF PRIMARY & SECONDAY MATERIALS

According to University of California Berkeley Library (2013) Sources are the l

materials researchers obtain to support their project Sources may be either direct/primary
r'.
(first-band) or indirect/secondary (second-hand). "Research gains credibility and
~ty when it is founded on primary sources. ResearcherS achieve stature by gaining
readers' trust. Citing secondary sources demonstrates a researcher's knowledge of other
scholars' work'' (UC Berkeley, 2013 p. 1).

IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS

•
 12

() Interview Techniques
!

Interviews can be highly structured (fo171Ull) or informal, more of a casual

dialogue. When the interview questions are open-ended they allow the persons being
interviewed to respond freely to. questions phrased in a general way.

When conducting an intervieW "ice breakers" or non t1Jieatenjng questions should

be used to make respOndents feel comfortable. Avoid the use of probing queStions.
Discussions must be kept flowing logically from on point to the next. .

Evaluation: Strengths and Weaknesses of Interviews as asurvey technique

Interviews have the advantage of allowing individuals to contribute their own ·
views of the topic being studied. Due to the direct contact, they can explain what is
important to them, and immediately correct any possible misinterpretations of a situation
that you may have developed.

A significant weakness of this method is that it is suscePtible to self-presentation

bias. Respondents may wish to please you, or appear to you in a favourable light . ~Y ·
of their responses therefore may not reflect their true thoughts and behaviours.· Further, it
does not allow for anonymity and questions asked may lll!lke tb,e respondents
uncomfortable or even embarrassed.

Questionnaire Construction A survey Is on/y as good as the questions it asks

In designing a questionnaire, a brief introduction should be prepared to explain

what the questionnaire is about, why the research is being undertaken, and what it hopes
to achieve. It should also seek to gather details of the age group or income level
categorization of respondents.

Five basic principles should be observed in wording survey questions:

 13

.. :> Relevance and accuracy: a questionnaire is relevant if no unnecessaxy infonruition

'\_.
is collected and relates directly to the subject matter or Problem being
investig!lted.
:> Avoid complexity: use simple conventional .language so. that all respondents can
. understarid the questions. Hence avoid all technicaljarg~.
:> Avoid leading and loaded questions: a leading qu~stion suggests or implies
certain answers. A loaded question suggests socially desirability answers or is
emotionally
. ~ged. Thus questions should tJe neutral in
. . structure.
.

:> · Avoid ambiguity: questions should not be too general. ConSid~ indefinite words ·
such as often, occasionally, usually, regularly; frequently, many, good, fair and
· poor..•in order to focus responses.
:> Avoid double-barrelled items: these are questions that may induce bias because it
. covers two issued at once.

Stru.cture/PbraslnJ & Seqyepce of Ouestiops

Open-ended verses Closed ended Questions

We may categorize two basic types of questions according to the amount of

freedom respondents are given in answering questions•. opeD. ended questions pose some
problem or topic and ask the respondents to answer in his oi: her own words. Closed-
ended questions or fixed -alternative questions give the respondents specific limited
~tematives -like multiple choices - and asked to choose one closest to his or her

viewpOint.

When one is not sure as to the likely responses to a particular question, then open-
ended questions should be used. Your questionnaire must not include too many open
ended questions.
 14

Question Sequence
)
.. -
It is very important that questions are properly ordered or sequenced. The
sequence should be logical and progress from one question to the next with ease. It is
always important to make respondents feel comfortable; one should start with opening
questions that are interesting, simple to comprehend and easy wunderstarui

Summary Ratings Methods: The Lilrert Scale

Rensis Likert developed a measure of attitudes ranging from very positive to very
negative designed to allow respondents to indicate how strongly they agree or disagree
with carefully constructed statements. This. Likert scale can be used to avoid siJnplistic
yes ·or no responses as follows:

Strongly agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly Disagree

./

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Extremely Quita S1lghtly -
ISemanticDifferenllal Scale
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Slighlly Quite Extremely ;
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 15

Questionnaires provide a quick and efficient way to eollect data. It guarailtees

anonymity and can be used to reach a large number of persons. It allows data to be
. sorted and snminarised quickly for reporting and ~ysis.

However, it is difficult to ~ fue 'motivation of the respondent, they may be

trying to please you and theiefore not be objective ~r truthful. Also, it is very difficult to
clarify ambiguous responses. QueStionnaires are limited in the type of questions they can
elicit; they have only short spaces for responses and most items tend to be of forced-
choice.

~====~~1.~~
COft~ ..,... ..,....,..,.
.....
-'·
FORMAT OF PRESENTING DATA
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+ Trends/patterns •
·:· Comparisons I; ..~-~.......!..·-:--~1
l"
·:· Categorisation h .I
•
•
• •
,.... .,.:.. __ ., ~

-
The data must be presented thoroughly and accurately. They may be organised
itrto tables, figures and appropriate fonnat. A table or tabular presentation is usually an
arrangement of words, numbers, signs, or combination of them in parallel columns for the
purpose of exhibiting certain information in compact and comprehensive form. A figure
is any kind of graphic illustration other than a table: a chart, photograph, drawing, sketch,
semantic or other device to convey an idea, often in a non verbal way.

Regardless of how the data is organised and presented, it is extremely important

that you present them with evidence for the conclusion that you draw from them if the
 16

data was extensive and you choose to present them only in a summary form in the body
of the study, you should present them in their entirety in an appendix. This would allow
anyone who wishes to reproduce the study to Arrive at similar conclusions.

Frequency
.
Distribution
. - Usin~ Graphs and Charts

Included with the mean, standard deviation and va,riants, simple frequency
distribution can be useful in summarising statistical data. The individuiil scores in a
distribution are tabulated, according to how many respondents gave each iesi)Qnse, or fell
into each category. Actual or absolute numbers or percentag~ can be~ or depending
on the overall range of scores, the scores can be grouped into ranges of scores (e.g. 1-20,
tl
21-40 ....•N); The results of the frequency distribution. can be shown aS .fi-equency tables,
histograms, pie eharts or horizontal bar eharts.
-· ...... - ...-"'--------~.. ,,_

WRITING THE FINAL WORDS- CONC:LUSION &.

RECOMMENDATION

· The report should end by bringing closure to the intetpretation /analysis of data. The
conclusiOns should be entirely supported by the data presented. It should state whether
the hypo~ was supported or not; identifY possible implications of the study; make
recommenihrtions for additional study; and make practical suggeStions to solve the lI
problem studied. The following is a checklist for conclusion and recommendations i
obtained from syllabus (CAPE 2012, p. 23): !
a) Main findings in relation to research objectives
f
'I
b) Areas of contention in relation to research objectives
'
!
c) New & interesting findings, if any \
d) Limitation of study
I'
e) Areas of further research

'i,,j,
.,,,
i.
'I

\l
 17

PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL CONDUCT \ .

I ~~-

il. Consent of research subjects: Respondents should know what you are doing
and that you are doing a research Project. ·No undue pressure should be exerted
on people, particularly minors 1111d any one or group ofpeople who may be
vulnerable or afraid to say th~ !io not wish to participate in your research project.
' .
.,._. Respect for privacy and confidentiaHty: The privacy of persons should not be.
invaded. Any information~ data gathered by verbal communication; observation,
or by aUdio-visual means should b&ve the pennission of the respondentbefo~the
data is collected. In terms of coDfldentiality, one should not inform others about
the identity and location!addressc:S:.ofyour respondents. Thus when the report is
being written every attempt should be made to disguise the identity of your
respondents.
·,___ ...

,j.. Integrity and transparency: In terms of transparency you should reveal what ·
you intend to do with the data collected; and what are the reasons for the research.
They have the right of knowledge of outcome.. Further, a researcher must have
integrity i.e. there must be honesty with colleagues. You must report your
findings as in a complete and honest fashion, without misrepresenting what you
have done or intentionally misleading others as to the nature of their findings.
Under no circumstances sh~uld a researcher fabricate data to support a particular
conclusion.

,j.. Avoidance of plagiarism: Plagiarism is the unacknowledged presentation of the

work of others as one's own. To represent such work as self-created is dishonest
and academically unacceptable. Example of Plagiarism are:
1. Quoting verbatim or almost verbatim from a source (such as copyrighted
material, notes, letters, business entries, computer materials) without
acknowledgement;
 18

2. Adopting someone else's line of thought, argument, arrangement, or

supporting evidence (such as, for exainple, statistics, bibliographies) without
indicating such dependence;
3. Submitting someone else's work, in whatever fomi (such as film, workbook,
artwork, computer materials) withQut acknowledgement;
4 .. Knowingly representing as one's own work any idea of another

i
l~
 11/04/2013
• •

...it
;;

• Wendell Long

' .

ESSAY & SHORT ANSWEJlS WRITING TECHNIQUES

FOR CARIBBEAN STUDIES .. .

Students often ask the following questions for i

!
C.S. essays:

c What should I write?

o How mucbllong should I write?

. I
 11/04/201~
• •

WHAT TO·WRITE? IN SEARCH OF A HIGH

QUALITY ESSAY

For the.exam you are required to write: ..

o Two 20 marks essays \.owu Q<"J..u ~I'C\&4"\J LA»ttls -:-:e.& tUpk.il\ Q.:t-<-.
0 Two 30marks eSSayS~ 9'\J.u. c.oM'NifMIJJ rtXll'ltll-riu\lil.t. ':l'•JOCI,JW"JW~
(weigJ;t~d to 33 %)
. '
The 'best starling point for writing high quality . ·
essais:ls to understand the criteria used by ·
examinexs io mark your scripts.

i I ..

THE MARK SCliEME FOR PAPER 02 CAN BE SEEN IN

THE FOLLOWING PYl!.AMIDS BELOW:

LEVEL 3: Sound and

complete tnowledee. ~ ~
knowledp & rommunlC&tiOD

LEVEL 2: Partial to
mo..ledp.useorknowledp
& communication

I 2
'

I
 11/04/2913

j'

FuRTHER BREAKDOWN OF A LEVEL 3 (THE BEST) ·F 'j"·.

ESSAY: ·f'
l,;,
'.

Knowledge: Unde~ding of essential

Skills/Concepts (nurit 7 marks for 20 mark
essay & 10 marks for 30 mark essay):

c The student show~ a strong un,de:n;tanding of all

the•
tl!e cspiypts critical t<) discussion and =-
consis~ntly shows ~levance to the issue being
discussed. [E.g. it's ]?est to present these
knowledge/content skills as topic sentences].

FuRTHER BREAKDOWN OF A LEvEL 3 (THE BEST)

ESSAY (CONT'D):

Use of Knowledge: Analyi!I~S, Synthesis &

evaluation (max 8 marks for
20 mark essay &
12 marks for 30 mark essay):

,· The student presents a sound discussion of the

issues. Arguments are logical and clear; strong
supporting evidence is provided for position
taken. [E.g. provide solid supporting points for ·
your topic sentences].

• !''
.
 . .
11/04/2013

~ ::r;;
'\.
FuRTiJ:ER BREAKDOWN OF A LEvEL 3 (THE BEST) j;
EssAy(coNT'D): . . •i\
'1l.
Enquiry & Communication: Reporting (JJJJix , }!. ·
• ~!
5 marks for 20 mark essay & 8 n:i.arks for.30 ·
:mark e8say): · . ,.; 7
o The stUdent demonstrated a sound co~and ~f !:
~lt:-
•the skills necessary to convey m.e!ming. Ideas are · · 6 i }(:
. clearly·sequenced, and the student is ableto . · ·F
. mampulate vocabulary, sentence struCture and . . ;•!
. paragraphing to convey ideas effectively. [TliJ.ls . ·. ; ;lr
·· . proves why before you start any essay you MosT . Ji
do an esiiay plan first!] · • . ; fr·

·e!;lf~';..r
~
: 'ji•.
1 "J j .

WHAT MUCH TO WRITE? IssUES OF 'l'IME AND

SPA<JE.

o After knowing what to write, it is often important . ·

to manage your time wisely and insure that for .
. all essays the minimum quantity required for ·
levelS grades to be achieved. N.B. to have
three perfect essay and one bacL.could cost .·
you the distinction or grade 11
:;·
.rI

•
4
 11/04/201:
I '

.;
..
f: ..
20 MARKS ESSAYS (TYPE A)
:·.
1:..

o Test lower order skills i.e. uses command, words

such as outline, describe, explain, state why etc.
r.!'''
...."'
o Not more than a, few marks for the introduction •'·'
...
= 1.
!
,,,: '
and conclusionlreeommendation. g
Q ·..I I
l! ·. 11:.
o The introduction should define key terms (about i;
.;: .
I
2 or 3) and/or two general comments. You lnay . .(~.; iI'
i want to incorporate E1 ~ook' as your first · !
: l
I sentence. State in the last sentence of the !. : .~ I,
introduction your point of view on the question F:
;·-
. i.e. your thesis statement. . i·;· ..
r·,,
:

•
,: .
.·;
'
I
I,
~
'I
I

;,

\
!
\

'·

'
THE INTRODUCTION
\

i \
I:!·. I
,;
i;' ',. (
...
=
"e::!
 . .,... ,
~

i .

THE BODY i .

o The body of the essay: 5 to 6 major po~ts or

topic sentences (general statement) With 3 to 4 ·
supporting points or examples..Remember oii.ly •
. one major point per para~aph and this l'6int ..
should be the first sentence of each new . ·
paragraph. (A lesson pw;. helps!!!) ·S~pporting
points must be. mutually exclusive, i.e .. Shoiild be
somewhat separate from othe~ points tO be
l:fedited. . .

,! ..

~ ·.
''

30 MARKS ESSAYS
o Test· higher order skills i.e. use command words
·such as analysis, access, evaluate, to what exte:D.t,
· discuss and so on.
o Same characteristics for introduCtion and
ci>nclusion
o 'l'he body of the essay: 7 to 8 points or topic
sentences with 4 to 5 examples and supporting
details (A lesson plan helps!!!)

6
. . ~ , 11/04/201:

ExAMPLE OF PARAGRAPH BREAKDOWN (30

MARKS):

o 1•t Sentence
. .
-·Topic
.
Sentence
o 2nd Sentence - Definition of key terms within
topic sentence or a further breakdown
o 3rd Sen~nce -Example 1 (application) a local or .
. regional example . . .
• · . o 4th SE!ntenee ~~ample 2 opposing example if
possible (contrast with example 1)
o 5th SentenCe -'-Judgement
ESSAY & SHORT ANSWERS WRITING TECHNIQUES FOR CARIBBEAN
STUDIES

A GUIDE TOWARDS BEITER RESPONSES (2013)

Wendell Long

-·----r--------------------·---·---·---
1
·-------~
W. long (2012)
What tQ Write? In Search of a High Quality Essay

For the exam you are required to write:

· ,._ Two 20 marks essays
,. Two 30 marks essays

The best Starting point for writing high quality essays is to understand the Criteria used by
examillers to mark your scripts. These essays are marked using a three level system with level one
representing the weakest response and three the strongest. The mark seheine for paper 02 can be
seen i:D. the following pyramids below: · ·

lEVEL3: Sound and complete .

I
knowledge, use ofkliOwledge
· · ~ cointnunlcati<m I
LEVEL 2: P:~rtial knowledge,
tO
use of knowledge &
communh:ation
. •..
I ..
LEVEL~: Poor knowledge, use
of knowledge &
conimunicatitin

---,.--------·--~·-.... _..------------·--~----·-'...
2 I W. Long(20U)
 •:• The introduction should define key terms (about 2 or 3) ancVor two general co=ents.
You may Want to incorporate a 'hook' as your. first sentence. State in the last sentence of
the introduction your point of view on the question i.e. your thesis statement. E.g:

I The Introduction
Hoole an interesting or emotional
content about the topic

General comment
definitions and/or
badiirond

The Conclusion should open with a restatement of your thesis. Followed by a summary of your 3
major p<tints fm! to three JIUUQf_.:>!mtences) and end with 2 or 3 recomm~dations rela.ted..to your
major points. See pyramid below:

I The conclusion

Gfw: il summary of rnajDr pg&nt5 from

your major topic s:ent.Pcti (maximUm
of tine)

............ .....,
Give 2 or 3 ~ conslslentwlth yourfindinp in the

. --.. . 3!. .
.... ·-
·r~·~---~-'""1·-··---·------ --.---"... ··---------...--------
..-~---

W. Long (lOU)
 +:• The body of the essay: For a 20 mark. e5say 5 to 6JDl\iorpoints or topic sentences (general
statement) with 3 to 4 supporting points or examples. For a 30 m~kS es5ay: 7 to 8 points.
· or topic sentences with 4 to 5 examples and supporting details Remember only one major
· point per paragraph and this point should be the first sentence of each new parilgraph. (A · ·
lesson plan helps!!!) Supporting points must be mutually exclusive, i.e. should be
somewhat separate from other points to be credited.

Example ofParagnph BreakdoWD with wmmud wordS: discuss, ualyse, evaluate,

justify ud related terms (30 marks):

. 151 Sentence- Topic Sentence

· 2nd Sentence- Definition of key te!'JllS within topic sentence or a further breakdown

3"' Sentence- Example 1 (application) a lOcal or regional example

4111 Sentence- Example 2 opposing example ifpossible (contrast with exainple 1)

5111 Sentence- Judgement

. ··-'-'------
GLOSSARY OF COMMAND WORDS (BEHAVlOURAL VERBS) USED IN TilE I
CARIBBEAN STUDIES
[
Analyse: Examine methOdically and in detail the elements, of a process, a situation or a theory,
and then draw (a) conclusion(s); I
Apply: Use knowledge and/or principles, approaches or theories to solve problems.
Assess: Present reasons for the importance of particular structures, relationships, processes or .
approaches.
Comment: State opinion or view with.supporting reasons.
Compare and contrast: State, describe and elaborate on the similarities and differences.
Define: Provide a precise statement giving the nature or the scope or the meaning of a tenn; or use
the term in one or more sentences so that the meaning is clear and precise.
Describe: Provide a detailed account, including significant characteristics or elements of an issue
or situation.

-w~•--·4~~-----------------·----------------·----- ................-W-.L-on-g~:;-
 Develop: Elaborate on. or expand an id~ or argument with supporting reasons. ·

. Differentiate or Dlstinguish: State or explain briefly those differences between or among items
or situations which can be used to define them or place them into separate categories.

Discuss Write an extended answer de~ key concepts. stating what is, exploring related
· · concepts and issues, present reasoned arguments for and against, using detailed examples but not
necessarily drawing a conclusion.

Evaluate: Weigh evidence and make judgements based on given cri.teria. The use of logical
SUpPorting reasons is more important than the view held; usually both sides of the argument should
be considered.

E~ami.ne: Write an extend answer defining key concepts, stating What is and exploring related
concepts and issues.

Explain: }>rovide statements on what happened, how it happened and why it happened. Provide
elaboration of partiC1J}ar terms, concepts, approaches.

Justify: List Name Outline Plan Suggest

Formulate: Develop a hypothesis.

Give/State: Provide Short, concise statement&•.

Identify: Name specific components or features. Point out, indicate with( explanation or recognise
and select. . · ·

Interpret: Explain the meaning of.

I
Investigate: Use appropriate procedures to observe, research, record data, anal\ and draw logical
conclusions. · · I
Jnstify: Explain the correctness ot7give reasons for the selection of.
List: Use headings only.

Name: Provide actual names (but no other details).

Outline: Provide main points, or features only without details.

Plan: Prepare to conduct an investigation.

Sn~est: Of!er an. explanation deduced from infonnation provided or previo knowledge and
CODSistent With subJect knowledge.

------...5,·-------.. . . . ._.______,..___ ~-- ...------·... -·........ __

.,.. ....

W. Long (2012)
~

I
. ESSAYS: In Search of LEVEL 3 (Best) Answers (Module 1) ·

1. Location and Definition of the Caribbean (Specific Objective ; Conte~t 1

3•. Characteristics of Caribbean Society and Culture (Specific Objective, Content 3

Question: May/Jnne 2006

Q6. "~ali. we isone."

Discuss the social chalienges fuced by Canbbean people in achieving ~bbean unity: (30rriks) .

MODEL ANSWER; What to write?

Sol, c..~ SC>'\-, c.t+"' bli

. K!wwledge (SOl ,CHii &: 3i; i() [10 marks] 5 er- "' fJdnfs-:
Commoo experience; Canbbean. identitY; transculturaticm; eth~icity; --discrimination;
pigmentocracy; historical circumstances; class distinction; plantation legacy; gender; cultural
diversity; religious differences; regional integration; ethnic groups, language.

Use ofKnowledge

Any FOUR fully developed [12marks]

• Statement reaches for the goal of 'one' Caribbean people sharing a coiiimon destiny; i.e. diverse I

peoples who sbare a common history, geography and culture. Language implies a pan-Caribbean
I
reality-'all Oh we is one.'

• Race and colour continue to provide distinctions for Caribbean people. Race continues to divide
in territories where those who possess capital are historically of a different race: e.g.: the white
creole. Also where historically groups have sought ideological space for their existence: eg: Indo-
Trinidadians and African-Trinidadians. Pigmentocracy prevails in situations where traditionally
it was believed that those with a lighter hue were to be accorded certafu privileges. Indeed,
historically, race and colour created a rigid stratification for Caribbean society.

• Class distinctions: underclass, middleclass and working class-these divisions create barriers to
the realisation of the 'all ah we is one' concept. Class distinctions provide a varied understanding
of what it is to belong to the Caribbean.

---.;,....--------~-~-----~---------r-,.:
G! W. Long (2012)
1,

i The 'we' in the statement is gender 'biased. Traditionally, women were not given a voice in the
I
! historiography of the Caribbean and were not treated as equals to men in the society. Only now
are the concerns and achievements of women being inclu(}ed. ·

The 'we' in the statement also tiaditionally excluded the indigenouS populations of the Caribbean.
These are not given equal status, U$Willy. referred to in derogatory language, very much an
underclass in society.

• Common histQric experience: indigenous populations, .slavery indentureship, riots of the

. .

1930s, independence. Yet, all Caribbean territories do not share historic events to the. same degree, .
e.g.: not all territories have an indigenous P9Pulation. not all territories are independent, and much
is often made ofth~ differences in history as against the similarities, ·
1,
• Parochialism: the tradition of seeing one island as 'better' or inore influential than the other: ie .
I 'big island' v~rsus 'small island'. Islands and territories have traditionally competed against each
other and still do today e.g.: in tourism. Also, some territories not traditionally included in the
concept of the Caribbean: e.g.: Belize, Bermuda, Suriname.

• Territories ~ _geograpl¥c space yet the space __serves to divi®- w.atm' between the islands
creates a barrier for some. An isolationist stance is created as a result Modern day travel can reduce: ·
barriers but ideological stance remains.

• Language: with different linguaphoruli;, regioDal unity tends to be sought after in the Anglophone ·
Caribbean. Creoles and dialects differ, but the use of standard English serves to unite peoples in
the region. However, it can be argued that sometimes creoles·are used to provide distinctions
among peoples: e.g.: St Lucian and Dominican creole cannot be understood by Antigua-",is and ·
Kittitians. Here language serves to create a ~er. . .

• Festivals, such as carnival, CARIFESTA, unite Caribbean peoples - each festival emphasises the
common elements in Caribbean culture. Yet festivals, by their nature, are held for short periods of ·
time- it can be argued that this sense of unity is temporary.

• Culturally- music serves to unite Caribbean peoples-calypso and reggae are played across the
region regardless of the country Of origin. Such music forms as zouk are becoming more familiar
to all Caribbean citizens. Also, Caribbean peoples share similar foods. sayings/proverbs, stories.

• Examples where the Caribbean functions as a unit: U.W.I., R.S.S. C.X.C., Caricom, West Indies
', Cricket Yet these examples are for the Anglophone Caribbean and often exclude some territories
e.g.: University of Guyana is not part of the UWI.

~--""""-------·

7
..., .., _______ ..,.._.._ __________
... ...... ~ ... -.--~--

W. Long (2012)
Enquirv and Comnumication [&marks]

• The comment represents the dream of Caribbean unity. Th~ task is to work against traditional
divides to achieve this.

• Culturally, spaces are created for Caribbean unity, as in the festivals. and in ~- !
I
• Students can argue that because of the historical circumstances of the Caribbean, the comment
reflects a desire that may never be realised.' Race, colour, class, ethnic groupings, parochialism
will continue to divide the peoples
. .
of the Caribb¢an.
.. ' .
·

• Students' arguments must be logical and cl~mr in present~Jtion. They ~ust demonstrate.good L[
writing skills.

l
Question: May/Jmie 2004

1) Discuss the cauSes of social stratificati~ in Caribbean countries. (20 marks)

I
l
MODEL ANSWER: What to write?
I
I
'

Knowledge (SOlCif~c) (6marks) I

• socio-economic status (SES); social class I
• plantation sOciety; imperialism; colonialism i
• social mobility
• cultuml alid racial hybridization
• cultural pluralism; cultural diversity
• social stratification

Use ofknowletlge (8 marks)

• Historical legacy of plantation society (rigid stratification according to race and class)
that survives today.
• Stratification of social groups aligned along SES, race, colour, class (limited interaction,
intermarriage) and caste.
• EducatiQD, one of the avenues to social mobility, historically denied to the masses.
• dominaru:e of certain groups in the contest between different groups for space, political
and economic power and social visibility.

----~-----------------------------------=-~----
81 W. Long (20U)
Enquirv and Commrmlcqtion (6marks)

The candi~ should abte to traCe continuity and change in the factors that haVe historically
be
supported stratification. . . · · '·

~- Characteristics (){Society (Speclfic: Objeetive , Content .

Question: May/June 2004 .

. . . . .

1) Describe THREE ~rei)! ways in which the ten:iJ. 'culture' is used. Refer
to examples
from Can"b~ ~iety ~d culture to illustrate your answer. (20 marlc;s) ·.· · ·

MODEL ANSWER; What to write?.

Knowledge (SO C . ) (6marks) ·

Culture, society, no~, values, beliefs, behaviours, artistic expressions, .mat:eri81 and non~
material cultUre, socialization. 'high' culture, cultural erasure, renewal, retention. exptessive
culture, populat or mass cultme, heritage, ancestral heritage, artifacts, landscape; plantation ·
culture.

Use o(Knowledge (Smarks)

• 'High' culture or 'high society' - refening to the life-styles of the rich and famous. Examples of
'high culture include ballet, opera, haute couture, cordon bleu. In Can"bbean society, the
'cultured' person is one who is cast in this image of education in the fine arts, histocy,philosophy
-a historical and colonial image. This assumes that 'grassroots cultu@' or the folk culture do not
attain this kind of perfection.

• Cultural expressions or expressive culture, for example dance, drama, festivals, songs. music,
the way language is used. Examples from Caribbean society and culture.

--g~rr----------~-···~·-----------
w. Long (2012)
 .• Material Culture, monuments, artifacts, culinary arts.

• Ways of life of a people- the norms ofbehilviour stemming from the values the society holds
dear. These norms iDfluence behaviours so that c~teristic and typical patterns of behaviours
and beliefs emerge which are deScribed.as the non-material cUlture. Examples include the v8Iue
· accioxded to being hospitable, fun loving. having a spirit of ciunaraderie; in village life there is a
sttonS feeling of communitY an'd helping one's neighboUr; there is also strong internal rivalry
betweeD. Caribbean countries; an appreehrtionJor foreign consumer durables.

• Culture is also used nowadays in more specific coirtexts as in Amerindian culture, community
culture, urban culture, youth culture, politiCal culture, 'WI: culture', popular culture, cyberculture,
Culture of migration, culture of poverty- all these 8re based on an understanding of cultures as
· •the 'wayS of life of a people', built ori. their socialization into cer1ain norms and beliefs.

· • • 'We cultme': popular phrase in some Caribbean tenitori.es used to denote belonging to the
territory, or region, integrity of the cultural form, repiesentation of the 'people', authenticity.

· ~Some R.astafari culture: e.g.; Bobo Dread and NYabbingi in Jamaica, practice an exclusive
Culture within the broader R.astafari complex, featuring a ~al reliance on African
traditions. ·

• Ciittute - as m cylier or internet Culture .and the creation ofvirtnal CaribJJean communities on
.
· ·the Intemet where a number of Canobean people, especially in the diaspora, gather to 'chat' on
issues, current affairs, or life generally

• Diaspora culture - or travelling cultoles, in which the Caribbean recreates itself in metropolitan
cities such as Brooklyn, London or TorontQ. Subsequently, Canobean language, festivals, or
culliwy arts such events as Caribbean funerals present the opportunity to experience Caribbean
tt'aditions and customs.

Enguirv and Communication (6marks)

An overall theme can be that culture is a much abused word, used in a variety of ways. However,
. there is some consensus that its use as the 'ways' of Ii.fe of a people is fairly widespread. The
understanding though that culture is a permanent and stable entity is also popular. However, the
reality is that constant change is transmuting many cultural acts - altering them, erasing them,
renewing them - and therefore there should be a recognition that habits, beliefs, values and norms
are in a state of change.
[candidates should clearly and logically descn"be different ways in which the term 'culture' is used
in the Caribbean Setting. Good writing skills should be displayed for full marks].

w. Long (2012)
Question: May/June 2009

5) Account for the changing role that race, colour and ethnic affiliations play in Caribbean .
. sOciety and culture. (30 marks) · ·

MODEL ANSWE~ What to write?

(6marks}

Cultural divemty, Plantation soc~. HybridiZation Retention, and renewal Prejudice,

· 'PigmentOcracy,' Social class. Racism, SocUll stratification, S~ mobility, Cultural erasure
Etbnicity, Discrimination, Elites. Mass public education. and Phenotype..

Use ofKnowledge [12 marks]

• The role played by constructs of race, colour and ethnicity in the planta~on ~ety from arrival
of COium6u8"UI1tif OOI:itemporary thiles - rigid -Social stratification by caste and class. whiteS,
coloureds. Africans, and later East Indians and other indentured J.aPou,rers- Chinese, Javanese;

• Contemporary arguments stress that race is a social cOnstruct. i.e.: that concepts referring to race
change with changing attitudes and perspectives in societies. Traditional arguments place
emphasis on biology and genetics as key definers of race and coloUr. Yet these markers do not
adequately explain the shifting notions of 'black', 'negro', 'coloured', 'brown', 'red', 'white',
'Indian', 'Chinese' and the various admixtures such as 'dougla' and mestizo' that are also
acknowledged in the Caribbean.

• While the classic pyramid of social stratification remained relatively intact at the beginning of
the 20th century, there were some changes becoming evident

:> Mass public primary education made a few of the poor and oppressed classes eligible for '
free secondary and tertiary. \i
I:
:> education at Oxford, and Cambridge. These were coloured and individuals. particularly I I

boys who came back to the Can"bbean to be teachers, doctors, writers, phannacists,
· politicians and who were seen as good marital prospects -white and near white whites, or
I'
!
'pass for whites.' ·
\
:> Education also afforded social mobility to previously oppressed groups by allowing
access to jobs, other than the plantation, as well as higher paying jobs because of

11( --~-----
W.Long (2012)
 qualifications. However, some jobs were restricted even with qualifications e.g. bank
jobs, but hiring and firing practices have become more transparent with the rise of trade
unions and more avenues to seek redress. · · ·

• The local elite, with considerable resources in land, capital and bUsiness, continues to be a high
coloured, high status group but now there are other groups of different race, colour and ethnicity
who are similarly plai:ed; however, alliances such as maniages tend to be forced with groups of
similar colour e.g. Syrians, Lebanese, Chinese, and others of 'fair' complexion. .

> !mer-group and interracial unions and maniages wbile alweys present have never been .
· widely accepted today, the conditions of social life e.g. the eciucation and independence
ofwomen are making such options more possible. ·
> Growth of national corisciousness and identity and with it black pride steadily thtoughout
the 20th century have led to an appreciation and celebration of the African heritage and a
deliberate •attempt to exorcise the image, con~ and trappings which Privilege
Euiocentric ideas of beauty and those who are valued and considered aceeptable.
> Members of the Indo-Caribbean have worked assiduouSly to make their voices and their
con~ heard- e.g. works oflitetature have debated .issues of race, cOlOur, and ethnicity
in Caribbean society and the eomplex relationships with the Indo-Canobean.

• Chinese poplila!ions ~.tl1e Caribbean have beeg. marginaljsed in the discourse...They are seen as
the retailerS and as psrt of the capital base of society. Egs of discrimination in the historical
narrativti- ibe· Angel Gabriel Riots of issos British Guiana. Present popular understanding is
that the Chinese J'C?Pulation is part of the exploitative capitalist class that controls the masses in
Canobean society.

•. Legitimacy was accorded to concepts of "whiteness" and European culture and ways of . .
thinking 4uring the period of slavery and later as colonial rule continued. However, there were
always individuals and popular movements that challenged this. world view and sought to· replace
it with an Aftican model e.g. the Rastafarian movement and the efforts of Garvey, even during
the colonial regime.

• Rastafarians have been traditionally marginal:ised in Jamaican and Caribbean societies. This
marginalislilion has been based on their projection and belief of Africa as the spiritual and real
space of belonging for black people of the Caribbean.

• Rastafarian lifestyles have led them to be discriminated against. They have been disqualified
from accessing jobs in hotels, banks and other establishments. Rasta children were forced to cut

12,
----~-------~------·-----------------·-------
w. Long (2012)
their hair to attend school. preSent practice iillows them to keep their locks and wear a covering-
nonnally of the colour ofthe school uniform.

• The rise of political parties also ensured that the leading political figures. o(the time were
increas~gly African, wielding much {lOwer, status and prestige. Tiii.s however, in territories .like
Trinidad and Tobago and C3uyana has led to ethnic and racial tensions.

• The candidate may also pomt out that in co\mtries where there is a vecy diverse j:!opulatiOD, voting
and electoral politics tend to be polarized along ethnic and racial lines continUing an old theme in
Caribbean society and cultUre. ·. •
• However, the organizing thCJiles for the essay must include the point that th.e white, Creole class
continue to maintain their position as elites even though they may not be highly visible e,g. as
political figures. They use their money and influence to finance political parties which would
facilitate the demands of big b'IJSirtess. · · .

• Even with all the above occurreilces for some Caribbean territories, it is perceived that race,
· colour and ethnic affiliation continue to a large extent to organize who is biredlfired, who· gets
ahead, who is considered a worthy mate, friend, business associate, and so on.

-----::-····
Enqutrp and Co/iiniimication (8marks)

The candidates should be able to demonstrate a clear understanding of the historical narratives of
social s1Iatification and howthe various groups have been privileged or margina1ised in Caribbean
society because of race, class and ethnic concerns.

-713::::-111 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . . ~~---- ..-

w. Long (2012)
 Question: May/June 2009
....
6) "1beie is no single Canobean culture."
. .• Do Y9U agree? Provide arguments and exarripieS to support your answer.. (30 marks)
,• ..

MODEL ANSWER: What to write?

Knowledge
. . .. (S c ) (lOtnarks)

HistOrical ~ences, Plural Society, HistoriCal. c&n-bbeaD, ~graphical Caribbean,

· lndigmous'religion, Festivals, Art, Music, Lan8uage;t:ar:Dival, Religion, Sports, West Iridies
Cricket, ~enous, ~arian, West Indies, Cui~ tnii~ CulWial diversity, Nationalism,
P~hla1ism, Diaspora, Values, norms, behaviourS, Identity, c:uiinary practices, Pan-Caribbean
Mimic~ · ·
Use o(Ir:nowle4ge (12marks)

--..JTh.A~ students to reflect on whether the cultmai haih. of the Caribbean a«:
sUfficiently strong enough or cohesive to be named as one culture. they are expected to use
· contextual experiences to be able to draw conclusions and justify them. Students must provide
. definitioi:ts for the terms 'Caribbean' and 'culture'. · . .

Defining the Caribbean: students can argue that this is a complex exercise which is not satisfied
· by any one categorisation: i.e. history, geography, the Caribbean.sea, islands, spiritual
. connections, inclusion of the diaspora.

Yet there is an understanding of a Canobean and of being Canobean that allows nationals of the
region to feel a oneness and a sense of belonging. Often the very factors that are used to argue
against this (history, geography, policies) are also used to argue for a Caribbean oneness and a
Cl\ribbean culture.

Candidates may choose to write about:

• How Caribbean culture expresses itself differently across different territories;

• The Amerindian heritage serves to assist in forming an indigenous understanding of the
Canobean. Their word 'hurricane' is integral to the activity which marks the annual bracing

,r------
of the region. Other cultural items like cassava, canoe, pepperpot are integral to the region.
Names like Chaguanas in Trinidad and Wadadli for Antigua projects their identity.
--1-4
w. Long (2012)
• That there is ~entation and pby~ical separateD~ which outweighs knowledge of the
Caribbean in the minds of the ordinary folk; ·
• The link and desire to ~etropolitan ideals negates the acceptance of one Caribbeap cu}ture
by many citizens ofthe Caribbean; . . . . ..
• Naipaul ariues tbllt the Can~bean is comprised of 'mimic meJ;l' and. therefore this can be
read as cultu!alnili!:rlcking rather than a distinct Caribbean culture;
• Plural society in tenns of separation of certain peoples an4 chisses culturail:Y;
• An argument can be made for many 'Caribbean cultures' following from the diversity of
ethnic groups from. indjgeJ;lous peoples, the enslaved to Asian indentured yvolkers and the
20th century migrants to the region, such as the Syrian Lebanese, who have popUlated the
Caribbean and have left their mark on the region; · ·
• Culinary practices e.g.: eating of curry, roti, p~tties, yam, . ~t potato,
dnlamna/Conldeslbll.le jaws, coo coo, fungi, pepperpot, callalou, use of coconut IPilk in !
Caribbean di.sAes.
• Sports such as Cricket en:geDder a feeling of being Wets Indian- otten seen as synonymous .
with Caribbean. Other sports such as athletics, netball, football bring Caribbean nationals
together in sports to~ents such as CARIFfA. · ·
• Festivals: such as Indo-Caribbean Phagwa/Holi, Hosay/Mubanam allow Cari'bbean
peoples to experience the divemty of the region. Carnivals and other festivals bave many
COIDDl()!!.aJities.
• Mortuary and funeral practices eg: nine nights and wakes speak to. a Caribbean continuum.
throughout the region.
• Rastafarianism has imim¢ted across the Caribbean eg: foods, lifestyle, wearing oflocks.
• Afro-Creole religions speak to the process of syncretism: eg: Santeria,·Vodun, Pocamania,
Spiritual Baptists, Obeah. .
• Religions such as Hinduism and Islam, Buddhism, JudeoChristianity are practised in the
Caribbean. .
• Diversity is in itselfis a common feature that links the region and culture; .
• Commonalities in the.Carlbbean based on common historical experiences and identity built
on exploitation. ·
• Similar socialization processes; Common geographical location;
• The common features of Caribbean culture in terms of cultural traits or expressions in \
language, such as the creole languages of eth Eastern Caribbean and Haiti and the standard )
languages of English, French. Spanish and Dutch which the inheritance of colonialism. I!

\
I
!
---1-5,~~----------------------·----------
w. long (2012)
 Enquirv and Communication · (8marks)

The candidate should communicate .in. clear ·~d logi~ ~er that demonstrates reflection and
aDalysis of the key concepts related to the definitionofthe Caribbean and its culture. Further, there
·should be a clear statement abOut agreement or disagreemeD.t

. who support both positions with clet~r

Candidates . .
&rgunlerit. and e~ples should not be penalised.

. If candidates answer that there is ONE·culture they muSt be able t0 demonstrate the ~nnections
· ·. ~ defurlng
.. .
characteristics which they agree are
.
centm.l
.
to their uilderstanding of the Caribbean.

If candidates argue against the notion of a sitl8Ie Caribbean cultUre, they must demonstrate an
Und-ding of the diversity of the Caribbeari. ·

· ...

__1_6,...,-·-·---~-----------~·-·~---
W. Long (2012)
 Question: May/Juile 2009

6) Drawing from your own experiences, discuss the extent to which the concept of."Caribbean
Identity" is a niyth or a reality. ~30 marks)

MODEL ANSWER: What to write?

(10. marks).

• Society, Culture; Identity, Norms, Values, Sports, Food and food prepar8tion practice, West
Indies Cricket, Music ·and language, Diaspora, Socialization, Cultw:al .traits, Cultural !fiversity,
Nationalism and p8rochialism, Geography of the Caribbean, History of the Canobean

Use ofKnowledge (lOmarks)

. '..

The question is calling On. the candidate to engage in personal refection and to give some conte_xtuai
_ _ __
1
1·----experienceswjustify his or her opinions or conClUSions. · · · ·· ---·

The candidate must write about:

• What is a myth as against what is perceived as reality.

The candidate may choose to write about:

• How an identity develops, e.g.: through a process of socialization into the norms and values
of a reference group; learned experience
• How the evolution of an identity relates to the wider Caribbean context in which an
individual is situated; e.g.: local vs. Regional or national vs. Regional.
• How the understanding of a Caribbean identity may change from territory to territory, or
among various groups in the Caribbean according to, for example, such factors as race,
colour, gender, class, education and economic status.
• 1bat commonalities may be found in a Caribbean identity that arise through socialization
practices, geographical and historical experiences.
• 1bat Caribbean identity may be in evidence in the arts, for example, the literary arts: ie:
West Indian novels and poetry. Also in the music, dance, visual arts.
• That Caribbean identity may be in evidence in the support of West Indies Cricket and other
sports, such as football and athletics.
-~-------~------·- ·~-.,..~~., .. ......~.
W. Long (2012)
 ·• That in the Caribbean diaspore. e.g.: Brooklyn. London and Toronto, the emphasis is
placed on being of the Caribbean region. There. is a strong sense of a Caribbean identity in
· the diaspora. · · ·

the candidate may choose to argUe: . .

• That a Caribbean identity does not exist and that it is not a ~ty. They must give
supporting evidence to j11Sti1Y this, .eonclusion (fragmentation, physical separateness;
disparate European influences, and unequal levels. of development) ·

Enquiry and Comm1111iCIItion (lOmarks)

• The candidate should commuriicate hi a clear and logical manner that there is a reflection,
the natUre of reflection demonstrates through it that the concept of a Caribbean identity is
a myth or a reality.
• The stance that the candidate adopts on~ question should proVide the basis for synthesis
of points.

The candidate should communicate in a clear and logical manner that there is a rC:fleCtion,
the nature of reflection deinonstnites
. . through it that the concept of a Caribbean
.
identity is
-----'---amyth..or a reality.

• The stance that the candidate adopts on the ~on should provide the basis for synthesis
of points.

Total30 marks

18 r
,.--.....-----------·- ------- .,_..

W. Long (2012)
 4. Impact of Historical Process (Specific Objective 2, Content 2C)

Question: May/June 2006

5) "The histQry of the Caribbean is a history of the exploitation of ~ur." Discuss with
reference to TWO of the following labour systems:

(i) Enromienda

(ii) Slavery

(fu) . lndentureship (30 marks)

MODEL ANSWER: What to write?

. Knowledge (SOl Cliii, S02Cli) (lOmarks)

f - - - - · -· - -
Indigenous Peoples, Spanish-American Empire, Encomieilda, Repartimento, Genocide, Sugar
Revolution, Slave Trade, Slavery, Slave Laws, Plantation Economy, Monocrop Culture,
Apprenticeship, Maroonage, Indentureship, Labour Contracts, Exploitation, Colonialism,
Resistance, Riots, Revolution, Missionaries, Pnnisliments, Peasantry.

Use o(Knowledge (12marks)

Encoritienda

Any FOUR concepts fully discussed. (refer to page 20 in Module 1 Lecture Notes)

Slavery

Any FOUR concepts fully discussed. (refer to page 22 in Module I Lecture Notes)
Indentured Immigrants

Any FOUR concepts fully discussed. (refer to page 20 in Module 1 Lecture Notes)

-·,19·r~---·--..:·- ~..-~~::- . .. . --~~.,""'"" ,~-------··"'~---- . . . . . . . . _. . ..

W. Long (2012)
 EnquirY and Communication (Smarks)

• Labour systems in the Caribbean made the labourers into units oflabour.. They deliberately
attacked the humanity of the workforce. · · . · ·. · ·

• Resistance: labourers always found ways to resist the dominant powers of the planters.
•Yet labour w~ exploited for benefit of owners of plantation and empire.
· • Students' must demonstrate 1:br0ugh the use ofbistorical facts/ data and With referenceS to the to
examples the histOry of exploitation oflabour in the CanbbCan.

• Students' arguments. should be logical and clear in presentation

•. Student can also argue

.
against the fact/ data in
. statement but must give relevant historical ..
support of their cilse. ·

Knowledge [Specific Objective: 4 Content (ili) and (iv)] {6marks)

Resistance, resilience, self sufficiency, society, cash crops. multi-crop farming, plan~on
system, social stratification. peasants, underclass, caste, fisbiilg, log wood cutting, chllrcoal
--~,--..·""lmm""""l""ng, land use, economic diversificadon; Jndependelice; poHtleal ~cbisement, economi.r----
enftanchisement, adult suffrage, entiepxen~al spirit, inteniiil marketing system, freti villages,
labour, local leadership.

Use ofKnowledge (Smarks)

• The free peasantry's involvement in growing food and cash crops such as bananas, cocoa,
coffee, cotton, arrowroot, ginger, pimento, citrus, - movement away from sugar cane and reliance
on one crop

• becoming self sufficient, developing export and domestic distribution networks in rural areas
(e.g. Sunday markets) and market towns

• amassing savings, buying lands, individually and collectively as when bankrupt plantations
came on the market

• establishing freeholds and free villages; also squatter settlements on crown lands where the
former enslaved began to establish social and cultural institutions of life as free persons (savings
and friendly societies, village schools ___________ _ ....

W.long (2012)
• traditional and syncretic forms of worship
• resistance towards the efforts of the planter class to block their move away from the plantations
and being able to buy land: the planter class charged high rents for lands, frequently evicted the
ex-slaves, refused outright to selll.and to the peasants, and blocked their efforts to seek credit
facilities,
• Collective associations, trade unions, political Cnfranchisement

- Black consciousness and the development of nationalist sentiments were lllso stmtegi.es of
resistance
- Working class labour movemetltS bent on improving living and working
.
conditions
.. for the poor
. '

-Trade unions led to the development of political

.
parties seeking independence. from Europe
. .
\
- Associations with missionary and CbUfCb groups assisted with the purchase ofland and
establishment of villages and lifestyle Development of a tradition counter to the plantation \
dominant model (development of the peasantry is both complimentazy and paradoxi~ to the
plantation model) · I
Enquiry and Communication [6 :marlcs].
-
The overall theme.is the ~ve and determined efforts of Caribbean people to develop a free
society in the midst of opposition from colonial authorities. The end of enslaved and bonded
labour did not see a minimizing resistance - but this time strategies of resilience utili-red
economic, political and religious enfranchisement against the oppressor.

Also, the forging of new societies in the Caribbean with goals and achievements which differ
from past realities. i
[Candidates should clearly and logieally describe the contribution of peasants to
development of Caribbean society. For full marks good writing Is should also be displayed]
I
i
lt
 · ... Question: .Evaluate the contribntl.ons to Caribbean .identity from~ and popular culture
in the region and its diaspora. (30 marks)

A Caribbean identity can be defined as a sense of belonging amongSt people who have in some
way shared similar experiences or beliefs which the Caribbean region is part. These experiences
. may be. in the foim of art. sport or music •The persons may not necessarily live in the Caribbean
and
. thus be
. part of the diaspora but they ma:y display behavioilrs or attitudes that reflect those of
the inhabitants.

Caribbean art or creative expressions consists of festivals, foik stories, dances, traditions and
.c'ulimirY practices_ Two major festivals are CarniVal and emmcipatioD, not omy are they .
c~lebratect by Caribbean but also by foreign countries. cainiVai is sometimes synonymous with
.the Caribbeim. and its origins are traced to the pagan festivals of ancient Rome and Venice.
'Came Vale', a farewell to the flesh, is a celebration that reflects the resistance of an oppressed
----.t!peQ"'ip)e BQ.r;l~ludes anti colonial sen)iments as Wc:ll as the~- Qfj:he Caribbean and wid~.'----­
. world. There are representations of it in the Notting Hill CarniVal in England which attracts
. 500,000 visitors and has become one ofEurope's largeSt festivals, the Caribana festival in
· Toronto and the Brooklyn Labour Day celebrations in the United States. Emancipation is a major
uniting factor among the Caribbean territories as well as countries which have experienced
slavery. It was :first celebrated on the 1st August 1834 and was a release from full European
dominlu!ce over the lives of approximately 668,000 slaves.

Theatre arts can be described as a wide array of cultural forms and expressions through dance,
stagecraft and drama. Plays, musical productions, folk stories, pantomimes, stick fighting, story
telling and dances incorporate themes of fudependence, d~lonialization and nationhood.
Culina1'y practices fu the Caribbean result from a fusion of traditions from Europe, Africa, India,
Chfua, the pre Colombian peoples and slavery. Durfug the times of slavery parts of animals that
were not deemed fit for human consumption are now popularly used fu makfug dishes. These
include: pig foot, tail, snout, ears and face, cow heel, goat and ox belly. They are used in a
variety of sauces, soups and have even become prized fu making souse especially fu Barbados.
Pepper sauce, herbs and spices which are unique to the Caribbean are not only used to season
meats, but also rice and peas as well.

Cricket can arguably be the single most important factor in which the people in the Caribbean
region can identify with. It was brought from Britain in the 19th century and evolved from an
---.,------------------,__._-.-
22 l
...·-----·-
w. Long (2012)
'
Englishman's game to the most celebrated sport that consists ofexciting personalities,
complicated Caribbean strokes, rituals involving spectators notably the blowing of the conch
shell and music at the Ioatches. The West Indies cricket team dominated t.he cricketing world
from the i970's to thel980's and were the subject or"calypsos such as 'Cricket, lovely cricket'
by Lord Beginner. "nwY populari?.ed cricket throughout the region and gave Canobean nationals
at home and abroad a sense ofpride and joy due to their accon1plishments~ Decades have past
and still it is played iri almost anywhere in every Caribbean country especially among youths be
it at the beach, in school, in parks or in the road.
. . . ..
Music in the Cari\)bean notably Reggae, is mostly known fori~ reSistant themes caused by
slavery, coloDiaHsin and social stratification. Reggae is so popuhu: wOrldwide that there are even
concerts held iri places such as Japan and South Africa. It beclinie the doniinan' ~usic genre of
Jamaica anil.is slow, hauiltlng and relates feelings of oppression, yea;,ings and eravings. Bob
Marley songs and his deliveries of'No Woman No Cry' made him an iliternationai sensation as
the world identified With its meSS8$e.

In conclusion, it was found that there was a Caribbean identity riot orily among the inhabitants of
I
\

the region but also among foreign persons. Slavery was a unifying theme with the region and the
outside world as ItS experiences are transposed in the form of music, popUlar foodS and festivals
native to the Caribbean: and which are part of our
. ... ·-----·

~·--··-2-3......
,-----·----·---~~~·-----·---
w. Long (2012)
 Question: Examine a~ least four challenges being faeect by the Justite System in Caribbean
Society and culture.

The Justice System is a social institution (a building block of society) comprising of~ beliefs
and values of the people which Protects and presetves the rights and obligatio~ of citizens. The
RUle of' Law states that adherence to the law of the land applies to everyone and is fair and~
·to all. However, challenges faced by the Justice SyStem are social stratification, judiCial
enfranchisement and discrimination based on gender and age.

. Slavery, colonialism and the plantation Sy~ haVe entrenched social injustice and left a legacy .
.of social stratification and unfair praciices based 0~ class. religion, race and colour. They are .
. SUnilar to colonial societies where thOse :Who wield economic power in society are given
me
.privileges and do not receive the full bruD,t of law and are able to afford the most expensive ·
ht~:lp. Those oflower socio-economic positionS h~weVer, do not receive the same treatment as .
their higher ranked counterparts. :rn addition,. pOlitfcill power continues to reside with the elites
.·. and the poor are the ones most often incarCeiated bY the judicial system. As a result, there is a ·
continued lack-offaith in the system.

The Caribbean justice system has inherited its don1inant ideas :from European systems ofjustice
· and they have been merged with our own ideas of rlglits eamed through resistap.ce and
_ _ _ _ oppression as well as cultural di:vGSi.ty am~le. At-independence, to attain politi.eeallll----
freedozn, the Caribbean people sought to remove the1riselves :from the British judicial system. ·
However, the Caribbean has retained that judicial-system until tOday but there have been
attempts to replace the British Privy Council as the final court of appeal with the Caribbean
Court of Justice. Although, it has a lack of funding ·and there is still debate whether it can deliver
the fair and just rulings as the Privy Council.

· In addition, there is still the issue of discrimination on the basis of gender in the Caribbean. The
incidences of domestic violence, harassment and abuse among family members are becoming
more common. There is the Family Court where these matters can be settled. However, it has
been found that men are manipulated by the system. Almost always, women are awarded child
custody even when there are incidences that the child may be mistreated by the mother. In the
society, there is the entrenched belief that most men are abusers of harassers. This then
contributes to discritnination on the basis of gender where a man may be wrongly judged.

Ageism is a practice which is part of Caribbean society. Legislation has put compulsory
retirement at age 65 and over. Older persons who have much to contribute are shut out of their
jobs not for health but for age reasons. This practice to the elderly in society hinders
development at all levels as the skills, training and experience achieved through years of practice
has not been fully utilized and the younger generations are not able to benefit :from these persons.

~;r·--~---------------·-··
' . W. long (2012)
 . " ---------------~------~----

.· 1
i

'-'
In conclusion, it can be inferred that the justice system is bindeled by dlscriminatory as well as
historical factors such as_coloniaHsm and a plantation society where social stratijication is
promoted up ~til tOday_

.,1

''J

''
'
:'I
'

'
i
1--- ·' ---------

~2...,5jr--------~···-.~---·------
~- ___
.....

W, Long (2012)
Question: Write an essay on the topic: "Creolization leads to the development of new
cultnres." Examine this point of view nsing mmples of religion, language, and muSic in
Caribbean society and culture. ·

Creolization is the tenn used tO describe the mixing that took place after European colOnization
in the New World among the various ethnic groups. This began with the arrival ofCbristQpher
Colombus and continues today where new creations are made via the fusion of different cultuml
practices. It may be in the form of religion, language and music.

From the early 16th to the 19th century, slaves.were brought from Africa to the New World for ..
labour. As they arrived from the interior, the captured slaves were separated into different tribes.
so as to make communication difficult among them. The fact that they were separated lis well as
prohibited from practicing their religioD, led to cultural erasure. They were encultured into the ·...
European beliefs and values which was tb~ mixed with the less dominant African religiorui: It
then created new forms of which included Myal where Christian elements were blended with
African world Views, the Shouter Baptists whose faith is derived from the mixing of Baptists ·
from the South of the United States and traditional African belief systems such as Rada, Shailgo
and Obeah. Also, the Rastafarians bei.ieve that Jesus was an incarnation of iah. The Santeria of
Cuba has a host of saints renamed in Yoxuba.

However, there are more Aftoeentrio Caribbeaareligions such-as the Orisha faith in l'rinidad and-
Tobago, the Vodun of Haiti and the Wmti of Suriname. In more Afrocentric religions, there is a
greater emphasis on.going into trance like states, being a medium for spirits, animal sacrifice and
magic compared to more Christian .dominated ones. The hybrid Can"bbean religion is something·
new, created in the Caribbean under certain conditions of subjugation where resilience and
resistance played a part in building on identity.

Caribbean lang\lages contain a mixture of the standard language spoken by the former colonial
powers brought Europe and the persons brOught from the East mainly the Africans and East
Indians. It consists of the basilect (which is the form of the language spoken by the inhabitants
that least resembles the standard ianguage in the mother country), the masolect (which is mostly.
used) and the standard language itsel£ Also, in plural societies such as those in Trinidad and
Tobago, vocabulary that is used to refer to something by one ethnic group, for example, those of
East Indian descent made roti and bhagi and it is used by those of African descent in Trinidad to
refer to the same. Hence, it becomes ingrained in the society and leads to the enrichment of both
cultures practiced by different groups.

In addition, creolization has taken place with respect to music. It has evolved from being insular
in nature to each ethnic group to something that is celebrated by all. It is not more pronounced in
Trinidad and Tobago where, for example, Chutney (an Indo-Caribbean artform) is fused with

--~,..-~',
•· t) l
·------------------------------- w. Long (2012)
 Soca (an Afro- Caribbean artform) to produce Chutney Soca This new and colourful form of
music is filled with pulsating beats that all thoroughly enjoy.

Not only has creolization taken place with respect tO religion, music and language but also with
food. Foods are being morphed into vessels which encompass almost all the <;Ultures of the
various ethnic groups in society. For example, curry, provisions, wild meat and vegetables are
now incorpolllted into dishes that attest to our ingenuity and gives the Caribbean its identity.
Various herbs and spices (for example Jerk seasoning and Shadon Beni) are used in meats,
seafoods and vegetables that are particular u;· our region. The methods of preparation as well as
Cooking the various dishes consists of a blend of those Societies and factions that exist in
Caribbean Society. ' · ·

ID conclusion, it can be seen that the mixing of various cultures occurs iri the Caribbean and they
produce hybrid cultures, what we call creoliZation in the so called 'New World'. It may .be in the
I
form of music, food, religion and language.

--27~1,.....---·----------------
w. Long (2012)
 flow does the c~lture of Caribbean nationals impact on the culture of e~-r.egional
territories? . · ··

Migration can be defined as the movement of persons from one place to another. In this case,
there is a Caribbean diaspoi'a to extra-regional countries. This impacts their culture in texms of
their language, culinary arts, music, festivals and religions.

The Can"bbean is a region of 25 countries with approximately 25 ~ ~Ie.'Jbere are

about
four main languages: English, Spanish, French and Dutch. There isa differenCe in the intonation
as well as a fonD. ~fthe En~ language and it is known as the dialect. simn&rly, in Spanish
as
spealdng countries such Cub~ Hispanola and Puerto Rico have different fo~ of the Spanish
language. In Canada, due to a large influx of migrants especially from Trinidad and Tobago, the
school system has incorporated language courses in high schools Which teach the different forms
of dialects and voCabulary spoken by Caribbean nationals. This is known 8ss secondary .
socia!jzation. · · · ·

In addition, cultural impacts nmy take the form of culinary arts. During slavery, parts of the pig .
such as the head, snout, tail, belly· feet and face were considered unfit for hlllll8Il consun1ption.
These were given to African slaves to eat and have become celebrated dishes today. For·.
example, pigtail and callaloo and other parts of the pig are used in soups, seasonings and pelaus.
V.Mious herbs and spiees bm~a.by-those pcllll9llS of East Indian descent-sueh-as-----
Shodon beni, tumeric, cwzy, geera and other peppers are all brought to these metrOpolitian
countries. These cuisines along with numerous others have combined to give cultural
c;tiversification in these countries. Restaurants and groceries are now open which lead to a greater
appreciation of eaeh other's culinary arts.

Music, in particular. reggae, has had a major impact on the musical aspect of these extra-regional
countries. The Jamaican Reggae Sunsplash festival which started in 1978, continues to be held
around the world. In the United States, Madison Square is using the music to sell products. For
example, Shaggy's Bombastic was used to sell jeans for Levi Strauss. A new cross over reggae
called Jah Rock was developed in the US along with Ska which is Reggae mixed with rock
· music. The influx of pannists or steelband men in metropolitan countries who came to play mas,
often settled. Citizens of these countries are now learning to play steelband music and it is part of
the curriculum in North American countries and fashioning pans is a growing skill there and in
Europe.

With respect to festivals, there are the Trinidadian style Carnival, reggae and dancehall festivals
which are becoming integral to extra regional societies. As Caribbean migrants settle, they drive
the development of Carnivals enhancing cultural diversity and economic life of the places they
settle. In Can'bana in Canada (about one million people attend) and Brooklyn's Labour Day
parade (about two million people attend) are major open air festivals. Austrailia organizes
-------~~~-----------------------------~,~--------------------
W. Long (2012)
·-'

.J'
Sydney Bacchanal (which is a type ofCamival) and in England, there is the Notting Hill
Carnival bas become a way of life for the people. It is the biggest open air festival in Europe
J where more than two million visitois attend spending around ten lninion_ pounds. This stlggests
that one of the distinguishing features of the festival in Europe is the merging of inputs from
different ~bbean countries. ··
J

Rastafarianism is a religion which bas impacted on the religious landscape of the extra-regional
territories. Bob Marley is one factor that the interest in the pzactices of Rastafarianism grew. H~
became an idol for young people all over the world and the Rastafarian dreadlocks is now a .
!
':. po~ular trend Cspeciany in the· United States.; It Contributes to a sense of Black Consciousness
J
and the African Americans Who use the dreadlocks indicate that they Share deeplyhel!i beliefs
I with the Rastafarians.
!
J
In conclusion, it was seen that Caribbean nationals bave impacted on the culture of extra- ·
i regional territories in terms of their language,
.
culinary arts, muSic, festivals
. and religion.
J

I
I
. I

--29...,.,---~-·-·-----------~-~,-~-----
w. Long [2012)
 May/June ;lOOS: Question: Suggest ways in which the tourism industry ean furthei:" advance
development in the region. · . . · . .

The tourislu industry influences developm~ in the region technologically, socially,

economically and environmentally. The tourist industJ.y is that induStry which ~ for the .
. needs of visiting persons from different countries for the purpose of business or pleasure. The
Caribbean's sand, sea and sun are trademarks of this industJ.y and lures many from non- ·
·. Canobean coUntries especially those iii. the temperate regions.· · •

.TechD.ological advancements consist of increased mecbaninrtion of the tourist industry through .

transport, networking and ilifonnation systems. With increases in tecliD.olegy in the 21st century;
people have a greater access to vehicles as well aS boat vessels. These vehicles used to transport
tourists aro11Jld the country can also be \II!Cd to carry them from island tO island (island-hopping).
With this increase in contact between diffelen.t countries, trade, caPital, labour and
communicaiionis itiso increased. This leacts to a greater de~ of regional integration hence
facilitating regional development. ·

Furthermore, Canobean countries have been forced to modernize their telecommunication

services. Cell towers and satellite dishes are just some of the ways in which the authorities in
various countries seek to provide the tourist with the. standard of technology he or she receives in
· his or her coUntry. Wrth.these im~-i.oeals .can-also improve the standard-ef-livin~:­
tl).ey are able to communicate more ·efficiently and broaden their choices so as to make more
informed decisions that will benefit their lives greatly. For example, students can contact various
loCal educational institutions and receive information about courses available.

· ln addition, the internet can be used to package information about hotels which will lead to an
increase in the number of persons being employed as web page designers and computer
operators. This leads to training of individuals in technical knowledge which can transmit itself
into economic growth. With a technologically literate population, a country can be more
competitive on the world stage when industries become fully mechanized.

Tourism impacts on the development of the region economically through employment, foreign
revenue and outlets for Caribbean culture. The tourism industry has opened wide doors for
persons desirous of :finding a job in this sector. There are programs offered in etiquette, hotel
management, hotel services and tour guides. Persons are thus provided with opportunities for the
generation of income and hence, a country's GDP( Gross Domestic Product) will increase.

Tourists generate staggering amounts of revenue in a country annually. For example, in the year
2007, US $34.7 billion was eamed through tourism in the Caribbean. This money can then be
invested in education, health, research and sports development programmes. Hence, the region
has the potential to exponentially increase its developmental if there is no mismanagement of

·-;-0....,---·,---- W. Long (2012)

 - . ---··-~· --

resources. Together with income.derived, tourism acts as an outlet for Caribbean society and
culture. Music, fashion, hairstyles and craft are all promoted when tourists return to their
country. Local artistes can then go on to the world stage when .their music is shared by many
abroad. Intexnatioilal fame, prestige, and riches then aWait them. Also, art and craft, Rastafarian
hairstyles, 'trendy clothing' which is worn at the beach have alSo given rise to job positions such
as fashion designers, artistes, craftsmen and barbers.

Social factors include empowerment and social mobility. Through employment, persons can
become finailcially stable. and are in a better position to handl,e emergencies be it health or
otherwise. Social mobility can result from those peisons who. are empioyed through hotels. They
can then move up ~to higher social circles when they be<:ome propl!)ted and eventually manage
their own hotel.·· ..· .

~vironmental factors include conservation, beautificlition and eco-u;urlSm. Conservation efforts

are now being~ more seriously to preserve the natural flora and fauna of the land. No longer
is the land being exploited only for economic gain in the careless manner dec:ades ago. For
example, the Iwokiama reserve in Guyana is a vast expanse of protected territory spanning over
180,000 hectares. Also, authorities are now being more conscientious on environmental
pollution. Beaches are cleaned by organizations such SWMCOL in Trinidad and Tobago and it
helps to keep marine life safe from manmade hazards such as plastic bags and mesh wires.

· Eco-tourism is also a more prominent feature of tourism as managers ofhotels see the money to
be made in this sector. Tourists wish to experience the diversity of the Caribbean wildlife and the
uniqueness of it. Areas are protected and offer tourists as 'well as hotels a chance to_ view and
'
experience nature in a pristine atmosphere which then offers an escape from the hustle and bustle
c:if daily life. It encourages environmental awareness. l
In conclusion, it can be seen that tourism advances Caribbean development through regionally
I
through social, enviroQmental, economic and technological means~

I
I !

_ _3_1,...,- - - - - - - · - · - - - - - - - , - - - - -
w. Long (20U)
I
I
 May/ June 2005: Examine bow ~dom ofthe press impacts on development in the·
Caribbean. · · ·

The freedom of the press is a feature of m8ny modem societies whereby medili forms both print
. and electronic (espeeililly pertaining to the broadcast news) has the right by lliw, to supply
information which is uncensonid to 1)le masses. This feature of press freedom str<>ngly a:trects the
. development of the Caribbean. ·

Firstly, the freedom of the press iill6W!I for full public awareness of current events. It iillows for ..
persons within the cotmfiy to bC b<rivleclgeabie abOut activity inter and extra regioniilly. ·
Information about activity mthin the region a.Iiow8 for persOns to be more aWare of their .
a
surro1mdings. It facilitates leatni.rig pioceSs and provides a network between the masses of
people atl.d with those in authority. Furthermore, the individual Can"bbean islands are able to be .
united via the. mass media.
Which reduces
' . insularity.
. .

. In the Caribbean region itself, the Ili8Ss lil.edia greatly affects the notion ofNational Identity.
Exterior to the Caribbeatl. media, the cultunil imperialism of eJCtra-regional, developed countri~
is frequently expressed through themass media and in turn, the press. These. cultural forms
provide new pattetns ofbehaviolirto be adopted and integrated into the Can"bbean culture.
Furthermore, the media on those countries represent the Caribbean islands as ideal resorts for
mcrease
vacation atl.d this results in toirrism whiCh..will in.tum, the country's-GDF'.-.- - - - -

Since development encompasses at1. economic factor, GDP, gross endorsement, educational
attainment and life expectancy, one can analyze the above influences in a more critical lens...
Under the freedom of the press, petsons Cim. become more aware of their immediate
sutronrulings, know more about high crime areas arid also about dangers in society. Persons
therefore will be at a lower risk and thus improve life expectancy and hence development rates.

In addition, the press provides information at an economic standpoint. Persons can be better ·
infon:ned about investments and budgeting and this can lead to proper management of the
country's resources.

The press also prints articles on matters important to individuals hence reducing insularity of
those communities and providing a link to the proper authorities. It contains portions exclusively
devoted to education and entertainment. In terms of education, exam practice past papers in the
printed press iillow for students to excel hence providing future development at a cheap input
cost. The entertainment section provides social well- being and allows for development in the
arena oflow life stress and high life expectancy.

The idea of national identity is promoted as seen in the achievement of local athletes on the
international and inter-regional stage. It also provides information about the activities going on in

--·--·-3-2...,1-·- - - - - - - - - - - · - ' " · - · - - - - - - - - -

w. Long (2012)
 neighbouring islands. This reduces ovemationa1ism and promotes regional integration. This
a
reduces the fet:ling of insularity among the islands • alloWing for difi'~ type of development
which encompasses all the islands together which in CARICOM for example, would allow for
actions toward the full development and organization ofthe Caribbean.

· The freedom of the press allows for the exposure of cultures esSemially sourced from developed·
nations which leads to be imposed as culturally conect. These c:xtnt-regional cultures in tom thus
.identifying what people are socialized into believing as CQrrect patterns of behaviour. Hence, the .
freedQm of the press allows culture to be formed. and shaped also by extra-regional

. t• .

-~33:;-,,;--~~---~-------~-·- ----·--
W. Long (lOU)
May/June 2006 P2 OS: " The historv ofthe Caribbean is a history ofthe exploitation of
labour." Discuss with respect to two of the following labour systems: 1. eneomiendal. ·
slavery 3. indentnreship•.

A historic81 definition of the Caribbean defines it as an area thli.t saw the iniplict of. .
European colonization; slavery, indenturesbip and the plantation system and the commOnalities
of the Caribbean territories at the hands of the colonial powers~ Systems such as tb,e eru:omiend.a,
slavery and indenturesbip have .characterlzed Caribbean history. · · · ·

Spanish labom'SysteJ:ns used in the 15th and 16th centUries in the SpaniSh Empire in
the Caribbean OCCim'ed mainly in Hispanola and Jamaica to provide cheap labour. This system ·
was known as the encomienda; The Amerindians were divided amongst the Spanish overlords
where they were requked to provid~ a tnOute to the Spanish and in tum, the Spanish Would
christianize them. The tributes they gave were gold, cotton and a portion of their prodrice. The
Indians were mistreated and·~ 1512, the LAws ofBmgos were decreed by Ferdin8nd and ·
Isabella. It stated that the IIidians were not to be enslaved and were to be taught Christianity.
However, with no one to enforce them, they were ignored by the overlords.

The Spanish superior attitude, their desire for wealth and fame, led to the genocide
of the Indians. They were fmrtr4 as economic. tools and exploited. They..were consid.,...., slmreS-
and they died from overwork, diseases, p(>or working conditions.and starvation. Many
committed suicide and infanticide since they believed they were going to their coyaba or heaven.

·With the death of the Indians, the planters needed a cheap source oflabom who
could work under tropical conditions. Slavery was allowed so that wages were not paid.
Although Adam Smith argued that paid labom was better, slavery continued. Africans, prized for .
their physical ~ and adaptati~ to hostile Caribbean climates were forced into the system
of slavery. They went via the Middle Passage and were packed aboard ships like sardines in a
tin. This was a clear indication of the inhumane conditions they had to endure as the Empeans
viewed them as property and not as pe9ple.

Although the French had the Code Noir, the Spanish the Siete Paritidas and the
British the Ammelioration Laws, they were designed in a way such that they still benefited. The
Africans worked everyday except Sundays and public holidays and they were prohibited from
practicing their way of life they brought with them from Africa. Procreation of newborns among
the slave population was encouraged as this meant a new slave. They were regarded as sub-
human and regarded as chattel or property.

After emancipation in 1838, the Africans left the plantation and many, either
through pooling resources together, the sale of crops or Baptist missionaries or a combination of
these, were able to live in lands away from the plantation and took up peasantry farming. To
.
··-··--3-4-~--~--------·-·- ~~-----------W-.-Lo-ng-(-20_12_)
 replace this loss of labour, Indian indentureship was introduced, The Indians came from Uttar
Pradesh. Madras, Calcutta and were misinformed, bribed or kidnapped. Children from as young
as seven years were taken and contracts were given to regulate the system oflabour to signify
that it wasn't slavery. However, it was to.IIIli:Xiuiize profit to the Europeims and plan• and not
. for the benefit of the labourers. Manyofthem Were forced to workbeyond mdenturesbip and the
working conditions were inhumane. They had to work long hours, they were flogged if caugbt
outside the plantation unless they had a permit and they were paid meager wages. They were·
taught Christianity, European languag~ and cul~·and that their religion and language was
inferior. · · ·

In conclusion, the characieristics of these societies during the 1flh to .19'h centuries
are reminiscent of those of today. The Canobean is thus characterized by a monocultural and·.
rigidly stratified society and one which has a lUStoiY ~fthe exploitation oflabo~ syStems mainl,y
· the encomienda, slave:ry and ui.dentureShlp. .

·Question 2, May/June 2003: Describe how the physical landscape has influenced settlement
. pattems in the Caribbean.

In the -Caribbean, choices of settlement have~ dictated by the topography or physical

structure of the land and the needs of the men and women who settled.

In the Pre-Colombian period, the Amerindians usually settled in large villages on

mountainous territories or near the coast. This is attributed to the communal farming methods an d. .
the need to see into the distant seas to warn of attacks by the Caribs. Most Amerindians also settled '
near water because they were generally sea-filring people who promoted inter-island trade. Also,
the wayer was necessary for car:rying out daily activities such as watering crops, fishing, cooking
and bathing. In Belize, the Mayans settled in forested areas as the land was sturdier than that of the
coast. it provided excellent cover from enemy attacks. the full force of hurricanes and the
necessary building materials needed for their city states.

With the coming of the Europeans, settlement patterns underwent a shift. The European
technological advancements in naval warfare and sea faring created large ships which needed to be
harboured on the Leeward side of the island so as to shelter them from hurricane damage prone to
the Wmdward side. Hence, settlement began on the Leeward side of the island. The initial
Europeans to penetrate into the Caribbean were Spanish. They tended to settle in the Greater
Antilles over the lesser Antilles since there were greater distances of flat land for agriculture. On
the other hand, the Lesser Antilles was mountainous and difficult to use productively.

35,-- W. Long (2012)

 At the enslavement of the Amerindians, the Arawakan people who attempted to escape the
encomierida were fori:ed to move to more mountainous regions where they survived and tried to
settleanew where the Europeans would not attempt to penetrate the unfamiliar terrain. The period
of European domination is marked by land settlement patterns in such a way as to exploit the land
in order to create maximum produce for the IJlOther country and to develop profit from sales,

Slavery of the .Afiicans was a periOd marked by rebellion and marronage. Africans were
largely trained in the Guerrilla tactics ofwatfare and were aci:UstomCd to the difficult terrain :from
their native homellinds. Hence, those slaves that escaped thek plantation. settled in mountainous
regions where they survived off' the land and were able to protect their strOngholds producing large
maroon Setttements. . · · ·

At emancipation; the exodus from the plantations throughout the Caribbean by maSses of
freed Afrlcmis was follo~ by mass settlements away from the plBntation ;m.d the development of
the peasantry. the Africans settled on state lands as squatters and regan· to produce crops for sale
at local markets. However, the peasantry extended to a greater meaning, one ofindependenee from
the plantation system.
During and after indentmeshi.p, many indentured workers stayed in the islands and settled in
much the same way and. fu 5ome cases the same as the Africans. They developed hUman ecology,
holding land in reverence for the development of their well being and sending money back to their
families. The physiud landscape duminatf'li"l1y1hese parties Were fertile~ flilt land on Uie outSkirts-
of the larger communities.

May/June 2004: Discuss the causes of social stratification in Caribbean countries.

Social stratification refers to how a society ranks the various social groups in terms of
criteria that are valued such as wealth, status, prestige, education and colour.

The Caribbean history is marked by a variety of systems which all affected the nature of the
society today. Primarily, the entry of European parties and their violent domination of the native
Amerindians (the Caribs and the Arawaks) was the initiating factor to white domination. It

--·---3-6~~~------------------------------~--------------w-.-~-n-g(-20-U_)_
..··

~·
showed that vi8 the strength of arms, military power and militant Christianity, people of different
rerligions were heathen and their place in society were as slaves.

After the inevitable genocide of the Amerindians, white labour was used temporarily but as
it was seen as unsuitable, it was soon replaced by African slavery. Thjs exploited thousands of
~· ' African slaves shipped across the Atlantic. The ideal beginning of our social stratification~
therefore be attributed to the ideals oftecbnological advancement of one party With respect to
another and via misinterpretation that one culture is better than another. ·

Throughout the slave. period, race became a major issue at hand. Since it unfortuneately fell
) upon those people of negro descent to be slaves, all of their IQDd was marred with the stigma of
low class, evil, stupid and meant to be ruled at the snap of a Whip. This became associated with
the negro identity and is still seen today in the perverse downgrading of their status in society.

. During the time of the East Iridian iinm.igration, the introduction of a new ti~ msociety,

.I
the Indian mass was used to rclterate the filet t1uit via misinterpretation of cultures, there would
·' be turmoil that kept tluit genelal stnitum. from elevating. This was a divide and rule mechanism
that reverberated through time and is :visible today in the political arena.

Over time, thus, the ideals that developed into social sti'atification involved the birth of an
individual (that is, whether or not he or she was high bom). The level and quality ofthe
educatien-tbi:y-reeeived.c.thewealthtiicy attained, the jobs they wo:u; was decich:d-by' their mce,
ethnicity, culture and religion.

After the unpaid slave labour was fully dismantled, education movements for negro and
then Indian children were initiated. These however, provided l.iniited opportunities as the
curriculum was poorly structured, teaChers were poorly trained arid had little motivation in the
small, delapidated and overcrowded classrooms Which lacked basic amenities. Up until today, or
recent timei those schools rega.rded 8s 'upper class' were dominated by rich white boys i>r girls.

All these filctors developed into a social pyramid which has taken different forms after the
centuries but still maintained a basic structure, originating largely due to the enforcement of
European rule through plantation society ideals.

There have been shifts in the sYstem. brought on by Rastafarian and Black Power
movements but the original ideas of race, ethnicity, wealth, religion and culture remain
embedded in the subconscious psyche and take on latent functions within the society of today.
PlantatiQn society has affected many aspects of the modem caribbean. Through the ideals upheld
in the plantation society, those of negro descent were always associated with a lower birth place
in society. Strict lines divided the blacks and the whites but within those sets, there were still
even more subsets, dividing the blacks into different positions and promoting social
stratification.

-----3-7~,~·--------------------·-----------------------------W-.L-on_g_(20-1-2)-
 Via racial discrimination, certain groups of a particular race are downgraded within societal
bonds because of ideals associated with skin colour andthe place one adopts in soCiety is
· detennined.

Q. Eyaluate how development can be hindered in a named country.

· Oevelopment can be defined as the iinprovement of the quality of life for individuals and a
specified state of growth or ~cement. This consists of the utilization ofnatural resources to
· supplement existing resources or to ·cre8te.moi-e secOndary resources. However, there 8re
negative factors which can prohibit the full growth or development on a national scale. ~
· Trinidad and Tobago, tnajor causes that hinder development can be divided into social
technological, economic and environmental.

· In Trinidad and Tobago there~ social factors that binder development. These are based
on a perso1J.'s inability to contribUte~\> ~on building, uneven.d®llnrtion of wealth and . ----·
discrimination.

A person's inability to contribute to nation building can stem from the fact that the person
. tnay be elderly and can be considered 'not wanted anymore' or they are 'too old' and are placed
in elderly homes. Some oftheni are qualified technicians, engineers and social workers and the
·valuable infonnation they possess can ·be passed on to youriger generations. However, in
Trinidad and Tobago, there are no systerils in place whereby this can be done in the form of.
apptenticeship or outreach progralns.

Uneven distribution of wealth can result in social stratification and inequality among
members in the society. People who do not obtain the saine prestigious or high payingjobs as
others may considered inferior. For example Garbage collecting and market vending is looked
down upon in Trinidad and Tobago. However, society does not understand that the roles each
and every individual has a part to play that is important and contributes to nation building.

Discrimination can come in many forms such as skin colour, race, religion and gender.
In Trinidad and Tobago, slavery has embedded discriminatory beliefs in our spciety and even
though it is not as prevalent as before, it still exists. When being interviewed for job
opportunities, people of a particular skin colour or race are sometimes discriminated against even
though they may possess the necessary qualifications. In Trinidad and Tobago, there are indeed
social factors that hinder development

-----3·8~~-----------------------··--'-··-·-··---~ ·--------------·-----w-.-~-n-g-(2-01_2_)
 Technological factors that can negatively impact on development include excessive
taxes on machinery or a lack of a skilled labour force. Immense taxes on machinery can result in
companies referring to cheaper but less efficient_means of production which can cause a
reduction in the GDP (~ss Domestic Product) of a country. In Trinidad and Tobago, this is
more pronounced with companies in the manufacturing seCtor suCh as National Flour Mills,
Nestle, Canb brewery and the Oil Refineries at Point Lisas. Technological factors may also come
in the form of knowledge or skills necessary to C:arry out particular functions. If a population
does not con~ a skilled labour force, it may result in the impartation of persons who ate
qualified.. The constiuction boom in Trinidad fu>m the period 2005 to the present, has seen the
influx ~f ~ labourers from the Guangdong province in China since the govemmei:J.t has
made it ciear tbatlocal contractors are not qUalified enough. Money eamed by these labourers
.,
Was repatriated to their home countries and Trinidad and Tobagonian natiOI!lllS. were left out of
i' those opp<irtunities fo.r social mobility.
Economic factors that hinder development includes external shocks, competitiveness
. and demand ofproducts. The drop in the priee of oil from USD 200. to USD60 has left Trinidad
and Tqbago in an awkward position. Oil and natural gas are the main income earners and with
the pl~ in oil prices, a significantly 1~ amount of money can be spent on Trinidad and
Tobagonian nationals to improve their quality of life. Entrepreneurship in our J!ation is not
largely supported by the government in the form ofsubsidies or loans and unique products
createdJoy nationals fbr export are"fe'W in nwnber. This umqlleness m prodUCtS ~ted from the
Caribbean will result in very competitive market as well as diversification from non renewable
resources.

Environmental problems may come in the form of indiscriminiue development and '
natural disasters. Indiscriminate development in the form ofbeachfronts especially in Mayaro on
the East coast of Trinidad for tourists and nationals alike has resulted in untreated runoff into the
sea. This has polluted it and poses a threat to marine 1ife such as various species of fish, jellyfish
and le;Uherback: turtles. Some natural disasters include hurricanes, floods, earthquakes and
landslides but none is mo.re pronounced in Trinidad and Tobago than flooding. Improper
drainage systems and the pollution ofwaterways has led to this and the loss of hundreds of acres
of farmland to flood waters. Inflation rates spiked, the government increased importation of
goods from countries such as Barbados and the price of basic food items such as yams and
dasheen have doubled. Environmental factors therefore largely affect development

In conclusion, it was found that development is largely dependent on social,

technological, ecohomic and environmental factors with critical sub-factors being the
diversification of the economy and human resource development.
 Question: Describe what is meant by sustainabilitv in development .

Sustainable development refers to development that meets the nee_ds of the ~ent without
compromising the ability offiJt'ure generations to meet their own needs. It comprises of soclal,
political, economic, environment81 and technological factors. ·
. . . . . .

Social fact6ts.in~lude social equalization, a healthy human resource and eduCati~

no
process in the nation so that one feels left 01it. In.the Caribbean, old Persons are samenmes
regarded as inferior, weak or unWanted However, many of these persons are qualifiCd •
technicians, engineers or nurseS that have a Wealth of knowledge. This knowledge ~be passed
on to younger generations sO that goveriunents do .not have to invest huge sums of money for the. ·-
technical education of the younger generations. That is, it saves resources and avOids w.astage to
reinvest in the 1raining of new petsonel.

In order to have a pn>dUctive world'orce, it needs to be healthy, happy and striving for
excellence. Without a productive huma.il resource, development is hindered. Psychologist ·
Howard Gardener (1983) has putfoWard theories that physical education helps individmwuo use
their bodies in a skilled way for selfexpresslon and to .achieve goals. He suggests that if hUman.
u
development to be an lichieveabie gc)al in Caribbean countriCS: then all children shoUldbave a -·
full prognilllttle of physical activity. Scrignar (1991) also states that emotional distress is often
associated with feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem. lfhowever, one Participates in a
sport or exercise programme, it results in feelings of control and improved self esteem.

Technical skills or modem knowledge can transmit itself into economic growth. If
nationals are trained, it removes the need for foreign labour so the GDP of the country will rise.
A wider variety of skills, enterpreneurship and greater self sufficiency are trademarks of
sustainability as amonocrop society is avoided. It (the nation) becomes more competitive and
experiences diversification of resources.
Political factors include transparency in government, the abscence of nepotism and
a stable government. Transparency ensures matters relating to the public are not hidden or
altered so as to prevent the truth from reaching them. This ensures faith in public officials so that
strained relationships between these persons and the public is not created. They are then better
able to serve the people as matters of importance are addressed.

w. Long (2012)
·' The absence of nepotism is crucial to.sustainable development. If friends and
family of high ranking officials are given pOSitions ove,r more qualified and professional persons,
then there will be mismanagement ofresources and sentiments of no confidence in the syStem;
These persons who hold pOSitions of pOwer can then imPaCt negatively on development on a
national scale and hinder development.

A stable government can better serve the neCdS of the people as they are more
familiar with the needs of public office, and relatiOD!I are improved between them and members
of.the public as bonds are created. For example; the CastrQ goverl1inent in Cuba bas ensured the
<:Quntry has prospered with a literacy rate of over 98%, SOcial ammenities such a8 water and
J
I
healthcare are provided to all. However, in Haiti, pOlitical instability is experienced and the
government is helpless to serve the people.
. .
J Economic factors include a diverSified economy and regional integration. With
a diversified economy, there is no single source of income but a multitude of suppliers. For
I example, Trinidad and Tobago can sometimes be termed a monocrop society in that it is heavily
'
dependent on oil. In the present economic crisis, the price of oil bas plummeted and the
government has been forced to cutback ori: its spending However, the country is trying to
diversify its economy by agricultural manufacturing, tourism and Carnival so that SUipluses in
these avenues will compensate for deficits experienced in others. The GDP therefore will
stMdily increase as multiple. goods and services are produ~eced~:~.··.__ _ __

Regional ~on is key for the Caribbean States to become competitive on

. the world market as globaHzation continues to increase. A single union similar to the Empean
Union will be more beneficial as free trade is promoted, goods and services will flow freely
along the Archipelago. Persons can be employed in var)ous countries so there is no strain on one
country's resources but demands for jobs and employment is created among the states. Each
Caribbean State may then advance economically;

Environmental factors include conservation, rationally coordinated pOlicy

measures and renewable sources of energy. Conservation can be defined as the protection of the
natural resources in the environment. If a country is to be sustainable, it must have resources
available for future generations. Legislature that prevents indiscriminate logging, destruction of
mangroves as well as the pOllution of bodies of water is mandatory as these are non-renewable
and therefore irreplaceable.

If Caribbean states want to be sUstainable, they must have rationally

coordinated measures which are consistent and not contiadictory. These pOlicies should
compliment each other in such a way that they all pOint to the same direction of increased
development. This in addition to a country having a development plan, socio-economic pOlicies
must be logically consistent with this plan. If this cohesion is not occurring, then development
may be difficult.

W. long (2012)
 Having reneviable sources of energy such as solar, tidal and wind can reduce the
·need for non-retiewab1e sources of e~ergy thus providing security for eriergy ~ption. This
form of energy will supply !1 cheap and consistent power supply to the public and decreaSed
electricity bills and power outa&es will result. Renewable sources of energy are therefore critical
to sustainable development as it saves resources.

Technological filctors include increased mechanisation of industries and the use

of admced teChnologies. A$ industries become mechani'ZI"'J, human lab9ut is not n~ed. Goods
much
can be Pro<tUced in 1!. faster n¢e and with greater efficiency so that. a co~·can become
more productive and its GDP will. increase. The human resource can then slipplem.mt other areas
which require It
In conclusion, it can be seen that sustainilble devlopmcmt eri00mp3sses social,
economic, political, environmental and technological factors. . ' ·

'• ..

----~---~-· ... ······

--4--2..,-------~···-···~ ··-···~------·------w-.-L:·:~:~:,-
 . The Mass Media is responsible forthe erosion of traditions in the Caribbean. Diseuss

The mass media refers to forms of communication organized to reach large audiences.·
It may be electronic which consists of radio, television, the internet and DVD' or print which .
comprises of books, magazines and newspapers. Since the 21st century, technology has advanced
to such an extent that information about a variety of areas important to them which can l.ead to a
full and healthy life at the same time however, it can bring about cultural erasure to Caribbean
nationals.

The foreign mass media such as cable, direct television and radio stations as' well as
local newspapers. This may cause the ill8SS media of countries such as the United S~ to over. •
run the programming of Caribbean ~untries. the culture of foreign countries then bW>JPtS part
of the daily experience of Caribbean people through constant exposure to it Cultu_ral·imperialism ·
comes about whereby countries of the developin~ world embrace the foreign norms, values and .. ·
ways of life.

In addition, young people will buy into the foreign designer wear and music and
forsake their own traditional Caribbean wear and ~usic. Traditions such as story telling are
dying out and is replaced by video games which are cheaply available to most Caribbean
-....:....teHiteries.-Throughthe camputer, children have become moreisolated-and-don't involve
themselves in traditional games such as marole pitch, kite flying and hopscotch. Traditionally
used implements such as the mortar and the pestle are replaced by blenders which can be
purchased through tele-shopping programs such as Carib World. The music industry ha stak:en ·
hold of Caribbean people. This is especially evident where a large cross-section of youths tUnes ·
into MTV but shows little or no interest when compared to local musical artfonns such as
calypso or soca.

Although there has been continuous cultural erasure, some efforts are being made
to revive local culture. For example, in Trinidad and Tobago, there is channel four and sixteen
which exclusively broadcasts local prognmu~ing such as Mastana Bahar and Cross Country
which serves to remind and renew the population with respect to its culture.

In conclusion, although there is cultural erasure brought about by foreign

programming especially among the youth, efforts are being made to renew and retain traditional
practices.

- '"' · ·--· o-·r-----·--.....·------.

:
.1 '• '
,....,~,
. . - . . . -·-----·----.. ---
~--
W. Long (2012)
 .-

· SHORT ANSWERS SOLUTION (PAPER 1)

·EMPHASIS ON MODULE 3

MaviJune 2008
... . .

Module 1

1. b) State two waVS in which roctigenous people have shmim our understaD4ing of Caribbean identity.
. . . .

. . peoples have contributed to the material and non-material ctilture.

11ldigen:ous . .of the Canobean. The
. . . .

Amerindians~ l?n>Ught the mortar and pestle and the hammock which i~ theirmaterial culture
And the names
. . for . such as hammock has contributed to the non-material. that is the vocabulary
. words

Ofape<)ple. ·

2. a) State two ways in which drongbtaffects foosi production in the f.aribhr.sm

Drought causes.dest:tuction to crops so fanners suffet losses and the countcy hlis tO import goods from extra
Regional territOries. lt~Jses livestock to die and n!'gatively impacts on their breeding cycles. Therefore,

Less anitr~al products .!JS well as crops will be produced. F.arming is hampered as crops wither and die.
b) With the aid oftwq !'!Y!!!!!J\les. state how droughts may affect areas of life. other than food production
in the Caribbean.

·Droughts may cause soil erosion, when vegetation is removed, the soil particles may be blown away.
Minerals will be lost making it less fertile. It can dry up underground wate( sources so that the population

Will suffer from dehydration and they may not be able to carry out their activities such as cooking, washing
And bathing
3. a) Identify tWo religious practices in the Caribbean that have been influenced by Indo- Caribbean traditions.
The worship of many forms of God by the Hindu faith and the worship of Allah as well as fasting by the

Followers of Islam.
 ,Identify two religious practices in the Caribbean that have been influenced by Afro- Caribbean traditions.
I . .
1
The beating of drums and chanting by Spiritual Baptists as well as the period of mourning on tb,e mourning

Grounds have been introduced. ··

:) Explain one way in which either Indo-Caribbean or Afro-Caribbean religions have impacted on Caribbean
I culture. .

. I The Indo- Caribbean religions have brought aboUt holidays for example in Trinidad. and Tobago .for their
! . . . . . . .. .

I . • •

· Festivals such Divali, cultural wear, and niusical instruments. · ·

I, bExplain what is meant by the term 'colonial education'.

Colonial education is that education which is passed down from the colonizers to the colonized. For example,

The European masters encultured EuroPean ways of thought and proliferated the cultural erasure of the

.i Afiiean-people-through-their educati.on system.

~)Name two institutions that facilitated colonial education in the Caribbean.

I
The colonial government a.n4 the Canadian missionary schools.

~ State two ways in which the Caribbean examinations Council (CXC) has contribUted to c~ges in educatio~
. in the Caribbean.

· It has brought about a more homogenized education system to the Caribbean. It focuses more on Caribbean

Society and less on British or other European societies and cultures. This is evident in the subjects offered and

The syllabi.

) Name two festivals held in North America or Europe that have been influenced by Caribbean culture.

The Notting Hill Carnival in England and the Caribana festival in Toronto, Canada

-·~----11~-----------------------"-------------------------
45! W. Long (2012)
b) Outline two waxs in which the festivals named in {a) help North Americans or Europeans to understand
Caribbean culture.

It has provided a forum for Carlbbean culture to be displayed. It portrays aspects of Caribbean culture for
EXlllXlple, the flora and fauna as weii as certain characters.

c) 0\Jtlliie two wavs in which the feStivals named at (a) have had an imnact on the economies of countries in North

An1enca or Eurooe.
· . It bas contributed to the GDP of these countries as huge sums ofm.oney are made when people from. other .

Countries participate
.
and spend their money. It alsO offers
. job positions
.
for persons such as DJ's and costume
Designers which also increases the GDP of the country,

Module2

6. a) Explain what is !l!f;!ID! bv the term 'economic development'.

This is the economic advancement of a country measured by increases in its GDP ( Gross Domestic Product),

Which is the sum of the total value of the goods and services produced in a country as well as its GNP

(Gross National Product) which is the GDP of a country plus any income derived from abroad.
b) State one indicator of development
Technology.
c) Exolain how the indicator of development stated at (b) influences sustainable develomnenl

If a country becomes technologically advanced, it can produce goods and services at a cheaper rate and

More efficiently so that increased mechanization increases a country's GDP. It will be able to compete on the

World market, become a major exporter and its GNP will also increase.

7. a) Explain what is meant by the term' ideology'.

An ideology is a fairly set of coherent belief and values agreed upon by members of a society to meet their
 Needs.

\) Name two political ideologies thitt have influenced Caribbean thought.

·, Communism and the Westminister System of Government have influenced Caribbean thought.
' . .

) Explain how one of the oolitical ideologies named in (b) has hindered or promoted development in the

Caribbean.
I

.The Westminister system of government for example, grants too many power.; on the Prime Minister of a
' I .
I' .
I Country. In Trinidad and Tobago, for example, if he mismanages a country's reso~ he can hinder
ielopment on a national S(l8le.
I

DIdentify two region@ I institutions that were created before the 1958 West Indies Federation.
, The University of the West Indies (1948-1949) and the West Indies Cricket Board (WICB).
i
b) State two reasons for the formation of the 1958 West Indies Federation.

i It was deemed important for British colonies to politically integrate so that they can gain independence
j • • • • • -· • •• - · · · · · .

rrom British rule. It was thought that political integration would give them a stronger voice in the international
''Arena.

) Name one regional institution that survived after the collapse of the 1958 West Indies Federation !llld give one
i

reason for its survival.

The University of The West Indies has survived after the collapse as it provides trained personnel to meet

The developmental needs of the Caribbean region.

t) Identify two sports in which Caribbean oeople have gained international recognition.

Athletics and cricket.

b) With the aid of two examples. explain how sports tourism has contributed to Caribbean development

Sports tourism has provided direct employment through the positions offered as coaches, athletes and

-~4-J.....,.r--~---~~--~·----·--- -~~------.-., . ... ~~----

w. Lo"g (2012)
 Ground staff which offers social mobility and also, secondary jobs. This provides jobs for tour guides,

. Hotel operators, taxi drivers and vendors which increases a country's GDP when foreign revenue is brought
In.

lO. a) Explain what is meant by the term 'ne¢tude'.

This is a literary and ideological movement led by Francophone Black intellectuals, lectuiers and politicians.

b) Name one person aswdated with the negritude movement.

Aime Cesaite.

c) Outline three wav sin which Caribbean people benefitted from the negritude movement.

1. They have gained a greater appreciation for Aftican cultures.

2. It may lead to cultural reni::wal especially in African religions such as the Shango Baptist faith.

3. It has contributed~ cultural retention for example, Aftican clothing and the celebration of all that is Aftican.

Module3

11. a) You are required to investigate the incidence of violence in Caribbean schools. Write the hypothesis

for your research. ·

The incidence of violence in Caribbean schools has increased due to parental absenteeism.

b) Outline one way in which a hypothesis differs from a problem statement.

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for certain facts whereas a problem statement shows what a

Researcher wants to investigate.

12. a) State two methods you would use in identifying a research problem.
I can do a random sampling or I can check the internet to see if the topic pertains to Caribbean society and

Culture.
·-·--481......
----.,...-..,.._.....,.------~···---------~·---
W.long (2012)
b) ExPlain the way in which you would ascertain whether a research problem has already been investigated.

I can interview an expert in the field of research or I can check the newspapers for information/books.

·.The Minister of the Environment has requested that you investigate the reasOns for coastal oollution

.in a Caribbean country.

)a) Identify two methods you would use in your investigation.

A stratified random sampling method and a random sampling methOd.

b) Identify two data collection instruments you could use for this study.
[ Interviews or questionnaires.

f ExPlain why the limitations of a research studY should be included in the conclusion of the rsx>rt. :
It shows what inhibited the researcher from extending his study so future persons investigating the same · ·

~ can improve in their own investigations.

b) State two elements, other than those mentioned in part a) which should be included in the conclusion
I

1-of-the-reoot>t.
1
l.R£commendations

2. Findings.
...
.... :·,

You are conducting research on the health oftemage girls in a private secondary school in the Caribbean.

Identify two ethical issues which may arise in conducting this reseaxch.

.. The consent of the girls as well as their parents.

2. The confidentiality of the information.

•utline one reason why you need to be aware of ethical issues when conducting your research.

t research, the main subjects are human beings and as human beings, they ought to be treated with respect.

-------~-•-••-•-w-------··~·.~·-------
W. long (2012)
 MAY/JU'NE 2007

Modnle3
11. a) What is areseaicb Statement?

This is a clear ~ent of the purpose of a study. It may be in the fonn of a statement or a question.
b) Indi£!!tt; which one of the following is a research statement and give one reason for you! choice.

1. "Caribbean society continues

.· .
to grapple
.
with the AIDS epidemic."
.

2. "Indiscriminate sCxual practices have contributed to the rise of Aids ~ iri. the Caribbean."

Statement (2) is a research statement since statement (1) is an inc.onclusive statement which is just a

Generalized observati()Jl
. ..
with
. . no purpose
. of research. On the other hand. in Statement
.
(2), the researcher

. he is concentrating
Shows that . . . '•
on the
.
indiscriminate sexual practices as being cituse for the rise in AIDS

cases.
12. a) Exo1ain what is.mll!!nt by the limitations of a study.

the !imitation ofastndy is a list of factors or a factor th;rt prf:vented the researcher from. expanding

His inveStigation to gather more infonnation. It may have impacted on findings.

b) Glve two reasons why a bibliomhv is neec:led in a research project. ·

1. It gives readers aS much inforlilation as possible on various texts and articles consulted and cited

so that they may be able to source the information if they wished:

2. It cites the works Used by the researcher of the various authors to avoid the charge of plagiarism.

It documents references used in research.

13. a) In a research study on waste disoosal. a student used observations and unstructured interviews to

collect infonnation on people's actions. What two methods should the student use in the presentation

of data.

I. Descriptive or text

2. Graphical- in the fonn of graphs or charts.

b) Give two disadvantages of unstrUctured interviews as instruments for collecting information in conducting

___5_0_,,--------·----------------:.:n·-g-(2-01_2_)
research.

I. It is very time consuming to carry out unstructuied interviews and difficult to analyze them.

2. It does not lend conclusive data but may give wide and varied responses.

a) If you are conducting researoh on the M'!!9!!al incomes of citiww in your country. What two etbjcal

issues should you consider?

I. Preservation and respect for the persans anonymity.

2. Their part should not contain any confi~taial information and if it did, there should be no way of

tracing it back to the source.

, 3. Consent of the intervie~ should be obtained.

I . .
'b) Name one suitable method of data coJ)ection in cqnducting research stated at I4 a) and give one.· ·

advantage of this method.

I. The use of questionnaires.

--Ad¥antage:-It allows-for relatively quick, short-IWed,-closed-ended-responses-and it also allow for

Anonymity.

a) Ust two criteria that muSt be considered when selecting sources of information in any research.

I. Credibility

2. Biasness

3. Reliability/ relevance

b) Whv do you consider these two criteria jmoortant?

Credibility is needed to ensure that the information is reliable and it comes from a source with the

Necessary qualifications in that particular field of research. Biasness must not be used but instead, a

Balance of the pros and cons must be presented so it would not affect the validity of the findings.

---·-5--1.,,,_-~--·-·--------··~~--,.·-~~~~~~---~,.-·-·-W-.Lo-n-g-(2-012-l
 MAY/JUNE 2006

MODULE~·

11. a) Exolain.what is meant

.
by "systematic enquiry." .

This is research or investigation of an issue using procedures which are rigorous or unbiased or
· logical or coherent. It can be quantitative or qualitative. · · ·

b) I .ist tw'o criteria

. .
tha! are important in identifying a researeh
. ..
moblerp

· 1. Feasibility~ this means if it is manageable and can be completed in a timely way.

2. .~le-the
. .
availability or accessibility of the data
. . that exists about
.
it.
12. List 4 queStions that you should include in a checklist when you are evaluating infonnation from the
internet. .

1. Authority- Is the author reputable? Has he/ she identifi~ his/ herself properly? Has he/she put a
contact number? ·.

2. A~- Is the problem the same as yours?

3. Objectivity-Is .there
.
a level ofbiasness? Are the- pros and cons. wesented?.
.
4. Currency-Is the research date current and is it applicable to the problem today?

13. You are ~-to carry out an investigation about reasons for the closure of a hospital in your

commumty25 years ago. State 4 possible sources of this information.

l.Archives
2. Newspaper reports

3. Minutes of a meeting

4. Hansard Reports

5.Intemet
6. Oral History

14. a) Explain whY sampling is an important procedure used in research.

1. To ensure that the fmdings in the study are generalizable to the larger population from which

the sample was taken.

--5-2-r,--·-·. ~··-·. --~------·-----~ ····- -~·-W-. --Lo-ng-(20_12_)_

 · ·:2. A researcher may not be able to include all the persons relevant to the study, so sampling limits
the participants but still allows for findings to generalized to persons who cannot be included.

3. It saves human resources.

Distinguish between probability and non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling depends on chance in the selection of the sample. Thus in probability or

Random sampling, every individual has an equi-probable chance of being chosen. In

Non-probability sampling, chance is not the important factor in determining who is included in

The sample: for exllJIIPle, in purposive or random sampling, deliberate judgement on the part

Of the researcher or factors such as circumstances or convenience determine who is selected.

a) Give one reason for ethical practices being employed in research.

1. In social research, the main sources of information are human beings and as human beings, they

)i > .·••·. ought to be treated with respect

~ch involves making judgments atevery-stage-wbieh-may-have serious moral implications---

for human subjects.

3. In the case of a research study where a participant experienced harm, then the findings of that
I
J
study are considered to be flawed.

b) Suggest two ethical practices that researchers should observe in reporting research.

I. The subject's anonymity shoUld be preserved-protecting their interests, wisheS and possible

well being.

2. The report should not contain any confidential data and if it did, their should be no Wily of

tracing it back to the source.

3. The report should in no way be used to victimize or cause harm to the participants. Research is

normally conducted on subjects with a view to helping or benefiting them in some way.

4. The report should portray the findings of the study and not the wishes of the researcher,
 I
·I
II
IJ
Ll
~
:J
""'
tl
l'".J

MAY/JUNE 2005
MODULE3

-~
11. a) 1. State why the following statement may be classified as a hypothesis:

"The prevalence of smoking has increased among Caribbean girls in the past decade."
....il

A hypothesis is a prediction between two variables. It is a tentative explanation for certain facts.

2. Use the hypothesis above to fonnulate a problem statement.

Has the prevalence of smoking increased among Caribbean girls in the past decade?

b) Give one reason why a person may want to research the hypothesis above.

1. To generate new knowledge on the issue.

2. To test the validity of the hypothesis.

12. a) State in sequence. two stages in conducting research.

• Identification and definition of the problem.
• Formulation of the research process
• Sourcing and evaluating existing information
• Data Collection

___ .
5_4..,,r---~··-------~---·-------------~-- '~--::ng (201:;-
 -----------------------

• Data Presentation
• Data analysis
• Conclusion and reccommendations.
b) You are required to investigate the m'mber of first formers at your school who eat a full breakfast
L: daily before attending school.

1. State one method that you would use to collect your data.

a) Questionnaires
I ,
I 1,
lj
b) Interviews.

i_;! 2. Identify a suitable format that you would use for the presentation of data.

1 1. Pie Chart
I•J :, 2. Tabular

3. Graphic
·''
4. Text

)~;-~~).Statetwo considerations that should be inelude<Hn-the-"-€onclusion and-Reccommendations" --·-----

j section of a research project.

·'
•
1. A summary of findings
'
J 2. Any new discovery or findings

I 3. Limitations of study

4. Any source of contention in relation to the research objective.

I
•)
b) Identify two ethical principles to which the researcher sbould adhere to:
1. Adherence and respect for privacy and confidentiality..
.j
I 2. Consent of research subjects

3. Maintenance of integrity and transparency of the process.

1,4. State two characteristics of research objectives:

·1.1. Establishing sources of information on the problem

(\~; Determination of relevance
?' ,·
_____s_5_1,..____...__._...________,..,._ ....., . . . . .,_... _.____....__ .,......,..._.__,_________
W. Long (2012)
 ~
3. Clarity

4. Direct link to the problem

i-ll
5. You are doing research on laws passed by oarli'!!!!f;p! in your country. Identify two sources of information
for your research. !I
1. Minutes of a meeting

2. Archives
II
3. Oral history li
4. The constitution

s. Official parliamentary records.

1.1
II
II
_ __,,(1
MODULE3
11. a) State two yariables in the following research moblem.
I
"Is the involvement of Caribbean women in cricket in tenns of regular practice and playing time, I
related to family obligation?"
1. The involvement of Caribbean women in cricket.
I
2. Family obligation.
I
b) Explain one waY in which a hypothesis differs from a problem statement.

A hypothesis is a tentative prediction or an explanation of a relationship between two or more variables I

Whereas a problem statell'lent shows or states what the researcher wants to find out.
I
.,

·I
__ 5_6...,.,-·---····---------------------w-.~lo-ng-(-20-1-2)-
 ---··· _______ ___,_ _ ____,--~----:.- ---~----'----'-----

l2.
, a) You are reauite4 to carry om research into the glDDes played by children in your country over seventy
five years ago. Name two valid soiJrces of information.

· . Oral History

2.Archives
,;
IJ. Newspaper reports

1. rntemet history
!
S. Existing Literature
'i b) State two data collection methods that may be used for the research identified above.
. .

' . . .

1
1. Questionnaires

I 2. Structured/Unstructured interviews.

~- The Ministry of Health bas investif7!!!ed the use of drugs among young persons between the ages
ofl3 andl8.

l) State two formats in which the data collected may be presented.

I. Descriptive
2. Tabular

3. Graphic

b) List two topic areas that should be included in the conclusion of a study.

1. Main Findings in relation to the researoh question.

2. Areas of contention

3. New and interesting findings

4. Areas for further study

.,._.........c . . . r
~
'I
·--·~~--~----~-··· -·--~ ~·---,....--~------
.;J J f W. Long (2012)
14. A researcher wishes to investigate the selling of drugs bx teenage stUdents at Drumbago College.

Briefly describe 2. ethical practices that must be considered in conducting.the research.

1. Privacy and COI$~tiality must be respected

2. The research process should transparent and have integrity.

. . . . . .

3. Consent f~ research subjects and their parents ifthey are under the age of siXteen.
15. Give two reasons why it is necessary for a researcher to conduct a review of literature.

1. To explore the pc)ssibility of generating new knowledge.

2. To understand the lliriititi.ons of previous studies

3. To examine the areas. of contention in relation to the research of the earlier studies.

--------------------------~-------~-~----
ssl W. long (2012)
 ·--

May!June 2006 P2 OS: " 'fbe bistmy of the Caribbeap is a history of the exp)pjtptj.gp Of labour,"

Discusswjth respect to twO oflhe following labouf mtpps; I. mmmimda 2, slavery 3.

indentureship,

The encomieuda system was the Sjli!Disb .labour systems II$Cd in the 15"' and 16"'
L ~ in the Spanish Empire in the Caribbean oc:amed maiJIIy in HispaDiOla and Jamaica to
prowde~Wlom:, ~~~!l'!i:n!S.~~~~~-~~~~~.If\ey ... ·{Co· ''[W4]1Taplo.....,..:......-
were required to provide a tribute to the Spanish and in tum, thc Spallisb would a.rislianize
them. The tn'butes lf\ey gave were gold, cotton and a portion ofthcir produce, The Jndiaos were
mistreated and in 1512, the Laws of Bwgos were decreed by Ferdinand and Jsabclla It stated
that thc Iildians were not to be enslaved and were to be taught Christianity, However, with no
one to enfon:c them, lf\ey were ignoted by thc owrlords: _ . . .... - - ...- .

The Spanisb superior attitude, 1beir desire for wealth and fame, led ta thc genocide
of the Iaeitms~, ~cy were, ~reo,te!)"~-~D.!'!'!.i£ t,<X.ll_s_'¢ .!'XP.I!'i~ J'l.!ey_~ 9o.ns!~.
slaves 3J!d thcy died from overworlc, diseases, poor working conditions and starwtion, Many
committed suicide and infanticide since they believed they were going to thcir coyaba or bcaven,
Therefore. the Tianos were exploited for their labour to th-t extent that as a oeopJe .the became \ .........
e~"tinct

With the ilaam af U.e kliliOilsgenocide of the Tianos, the planters nccdcd a cheap
source of labour who could work under tropical conditions, Slavery w!!S, aJ!.oWJ'C! !!'? 11!&1 ~"!' _
\ ] DSe ofbxtlrtJodge)
were not paid, Although Adam Smith argued that paid labour was better, slavery continued,
Afiic:ans, prized for thcir physical slmlgth and adaptations to hostile Caribbcao climates were
forced into the system of slavery. They went via thc Middle Passege and were packed aboard
ships like sardines in a tin. This was a clear indication of thc inhumane conditions lf\ey bad to
endure as the Ewpeans viewed them as property and not as people_,
 'Although tho French had the Code Noir, the Spanish. tho Sieto Paritidis ~d tho
· ·Britiilh the l•!llllleiiel'l!tleftAtllelion!tion LawS, they were cfesiiJnc.l. in a vmy such that they _still
bencfill:d. ~e-~_C!'!S_ ~~~<laY .."l'~ _S)II!~ ~<! ~}!c_l!o!i!l!>:S.. ~!l.~. ~- . -
prohibited fi:om practieiDg their way of life they bn>Ught wilh them fi:om Aftica. Procreation of
. newbodls among tho slaVe population was encouraged as this 111e1111t a new slave. They .Wl'I'C
·regardedas~humanaodregar'dedaschattelorP..,ptny~- ;_ ·---. ~ _. ___ ---~ _ -~--. _. -~=~~=-"""'..;.....;
· A.ftc:t' emancr--r- in 1838, the Africans left the phmtation ·BBtl t!ASJW. eitker _.;
.......u .... --··
iea:='(Wu):'I'DnddoatoEMtia.l.' r · iL41lp 1
1
threlf!)t peeliRg: reseaPBes tegethet; the sale ef ere,s eJ' BaJ3tiSf missi9'fi&Fi'es. er a·eeml:liflB:tiee ef... ---··
-- . . _ )
these,. '\~e ete te Wte ift twuls &'"&,; fiem Hte plame.fiefl, tmtl tee1E up·.,'eB:S8Mf5' ~ 1!'- ~ . . COca: 1 Jl)n3):--~ ... ftlldloa . . . J
rq>'- this loss of labour, In4ian inclen!ureship was introduced. The Indians came fhim Ullar '-'-=='"=-=<~:..:"*="=' =--------
Pradesb, Madras, Celc:utla and wen: misinfonned, bribed or kidneppod. Clu1drell J):l>m is :Young
as seven yeats wen: taken aod C001niCIS wen: given "io regulate tho sys1e111 of labour to siSnify
. that it wasn't slavery. However, it was to QlaYirn!zc profit to the Europeans and planters aod not
for the ~ ofthe labourers. Many of lhem wen: forood to wotkbeyond indeniureship aod the
wm!dng conclitlons wen: inhnmenc. They had to work l01Ig hours, lhcy wcte flogged if caught
OUISide the pllllltalion unless they had a pcnnit aod they were paid meager wages. They. were
tanght Christianity, Enropean language and cultUre aod that lheir religion aod language was
_ _......;inftzioriiW:rJ'iat.,: . .
"· -~~-.~;;l;:;;~n; ~-~.,; ~f~ ~di.;,;ci.,ri;,g the. i&>·u,-i?i~~:~~
. : • • • ·j·::r:l'11411-....... -..........i
:.:;,:;;:::.:=,~.,.'""'..::.="""~
are mnitriscent of those of toda.y. '.Th.c;_~ .. .i~.!hll!' ~~!¥-.!:'I·.!' .. - . .,.,_(Wl5]o.....,_................-.
MOR901<~ aod rigidly stratilied Society lind o1ic which has a liistoly Of lhc --- .
exploitation of labour ~stems mainly the cncomieflda, Sla.veJY aod indcntureshijl. _____ . _

- • • -{ Foe i1 t1 ad't l.ht spd'lg: Mllllple LIS I