Year 11 Geography Preliminary Notes

Chapter 1 – Biophysical Interactions: Introduction

The Components Of The Biophysical Environment
 The biophysical environment of the Earth consists of four spheres:
o The Atmosphere- The combination of gases and particles enveloping the globe.
o The Lithosphere- The earth’s solid outer shell
o The Hydrosphere- The interconnecting system of water storage in the atmosphere and
lithosphere.
o The Biosphere- the earth’s surface zone and its adjacent atmosphere in which all organic life
exists.
 Each of these spheres plays a vital role in sustaining life on earth.

Atmosphere
 The Earth is surrounded by a blanket of air, which we call the atmosphere.
 The atmosphere consists of four unique layers (the troposphere, the stratosphere, the
mesosphere, and the thermosphere).
 The atmosphere reaches over 560 kilometres (348 miles) up from the surface of the Earth.
 The atmosphere is primarily composed of nitrogen (about 78%) and oxygen (about 21%). Other
components exist in small quantities.

Biosphere
 The biosphere is the “life zone” of the Earth, and includes all living organisms (including
humans), and all organic matter that has not yet decomposed.
 The biosphere is structured into a hierarchy known as the food chain (all life is dependent on the
first tier – mainly the primary producers that are capable of photosynthesis).
 Energy and mass is transferred from one level of the food chain to the next.
 Abiotic - Non-living components of an environment.
 Biotic - A living organism that shapes its environment.

Hydrosphere
 The hydrosphere contains all the water found on our planet.
 Water found on the surface of our planet includes the ocean as well as water from lakes and
rivers, streams, and creeks.
 Water found under the surface of our planet includes water trapped in the soil and
groundwater.
 Water found in our atmosphere includes water vapor.
 Frozen water on our planet includes ice caps and glaciers.
 Only about 3% of the water on Earth is “fresh” water, and about 70% of the fresh water is frozen
in the form of glacial ice.
 Lithosphere
 The lithosphere is the solid Earth that includes the continental and ocean crust as well the
various layers of Earth’s interior.
 94% of the Earth is composed of the element’s oxygen, silicon, and magnesium.
 The lithosphere is not static (unchanging), but its surface (crust) is in a constant state of motion.
 Mineral resources are mined from the lithosphere.

Chapter 2 – The Atmosphere

The Global Heat Budget
 Generally, the temperature of the earth remains relatively constant. This means that there is a
balance between incoming insolation and outgoing radiation.
 Features of this budget include:
1. A net gain in radiation everywhere on the earth’s surface except at the poles, which have a
high surface albedo (amount of radiation/heat reflected).
2. A net loss in radiation throughout the atmosphere. 
 By taking incoming and outgoing radiation into account we know there is a positive heat balance
in the tropics and a negative heat balance in the poles.
 Basically, more heat is absorbed in the tropics and most of it is reflected in the poles. 

What Causes Air To Move?

 Air around the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer is dry.
 This is a zone of high air pressure where the air sinks.
 Air at the equator rises and cools - condensation then forms rain.
 The air then moves north and south until it gets to about 30° north and south of the equator,
where it sinks.
 This air is dry, and no condensation can form, so there is no rain.
 This is known as the Hadley Cell. It shows how air moves around the atmosphere near the
equator and tropics.

Weather And Climate

 Weather is comprised of the elements of:
o Air Temperature
o Air Pressure
o Humidity
o Clouds
o Precipitation
o Visibility
o Wind
 Climate represents long-term (e.g. 30 yrs.) averages of weather.
 Pressure Systems
 When you have a low-pressure system, warm air is rising and rotating inwards.
 As the warm humid air spirals upwards, it cools and clouds form.
 In winter, these may be thick enough to give rain or snow and explain why people living in the
southern states associate low pressure systems with cold and sometimes stormy weather.
 In summer, lows travelling over warm water in the tropics can produce cyclones.
 You can get lots of convection or upward air movement going on in the tropics.
 Air in low pressure systems moves in a clockwise direction due to the rotation of the Earth.
 A high-pressure system occurs where the air mass above the Earth is denser than in surrounding
areas, and therefore exerts a higher force or pressure.
 In a high-pressure system, you have dense air subsiding downwards (sinking) and pushing down at
the surface.
 Because the surface air is being pushed down from the air above it and spreads outwards, which is
why we generally have fair weather [in mid-latitude regions] when we have high pressure systems.
 In summer, high pressure systems are associated with warm daytime temperatures in mid-latitude
regions.
 However, during winter high pressure systems over the centre of Australia bring dry, cooler
conditions with rain along the southern portion.
 Air in high pressure systems moves in an anticlockwise direction (in the southern hemisphere).
 At the surface of the Earth air flows from high pressure systems into low.
Synoptic Charts
 A synoptic chart or weather map is a record of the atmospheric conditions experienced at a
particular time in a particular place.

The Development Of Microclimates

 Significant climatic differences often occur over relatively small areas.
 Urban microclimates are centres of climatic conditions that are significantly different from those
of surrounding rural areas.
 Cities also create heat, alter pattern of radiation and change the composition and moisture
content of air.
 Sunlight - Large urban centres often receive less sunshine and have more cloud cover than
surrounding rural areas.
 Humidity - The relative humidity of urban air is often lower than that of surrounding areas
because warmer air can hold more moisture.
 Cloud formation and precipitation - Urban centres experience an inc. rate of cloud formation
and high precipitation- caused by convection currents and inc cloud cover.
 Wind - Wind velocities are generally lower as building and other structures create friction-
however they can also create a wind tunnel effect.

Consequences Of Human Interactions

 The earth’s atmosphere exists in a state of DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM. Any disturbance to this
impacts the balance.
 The release of gases into the atmosphere disturbs the existing balance either directly (release of
CO2), or indirectly (CFC’s- manufactured gases).
 Issues transcend international boundaries - one of the major issues with atmospheric pollution is
the disparity between the source of the pollutant and the impact.
 Once a pollutant is released its distribution is a function of prevailing winds and weather
patterns. E.g. Acid rain or the explosion at Chernobyl in Ukraine which affected much of Europe
as well as parts of Japan.
 Air pollution- Can cause breathing difficulties and other health problems, aggravating asthma
and pneumonia and contributing to the development of cancer and emphysema. Air pollution
also harms plants and animals.
 Two of the most serious causes of air pollution are the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen- a major
source of these compounds is the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil) in industry and transport.
 Smog- Photochemical smog is a complex mixture of air pollutants that are produced in the
atmosphere by the reaction of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in sunlight. (Car exhaust fumes
are the main source of smog).
 Major environmental issue which can cause damage to plant life, illness and temp inversions.
Cities like L.A, Bangkok and Tokyo are notorious.
 Acid Rain- One of the most extreme results. Sulfur and Nitrogen oxides combine with moisture
in the atmosphere to form sulphuric and nitric acids.

Possible Impacts Of Human-Induced Climate Change

 Sea levels rising- Expected to rise by as much as 1m by 2100.
 Climatic zones shifting
 Increase in global rainfall
 Changes in patterns of agricultural production
 Collapse of fragile ecosystems- e.g. Coral Reefs
 Changes in temp and humidity affecting distribution of disease carrying insects
 Drought, flood, famine inc. refugees
 Increase in extreme weather conditions

Strategies To Contain Human Induced Climate Change

 Attempts to address global warming have generally focused on a staged reduction in the
production and consumption of greenhouse gases.
 Reducing emissions will hopefully slow and reduce the impact.
o Inc in the efficiency of energy production and use.
o Change in the form of carbon-intensive fuels
o Encouraging use of renewable energy
o Elimination of CFC production
o Reduction in rate of deforestation

Chapter 3 – The Hydrosphere

Key Processes In The Water Cycle
Condensation
 Condensation is the process by which water changes from a gaseous state back into a liquid
state.
 This process can only take place when there are solid objects on which moisture can be
deposited.
 Dust particles in the atmosphere act as condensation nuclei; without them there would be no
condensation.
 Condensed water may be visible as cloud, dew or mist.
 The rate at which condensation takes place depends on the original air temperature (which
influences the air’s capacity to hold water), the amount of moisture or humidity in the air and
the rate of atmospheric cooling.
Evaporation
 Evaporation is the physical process by which moisture is lost directly to the atmosphere from a
body of water due to the sun’s heat or the effects of air movements.
 The rate of evaporation depends on temperature, wind velocity, level of humidity and hours of
sunshine.
 Evaporation is a cooling process because it involves a transfer of heat energy from the body of
water to the atmosphere.

Transpiration
 Transpiration is a biological process in which water is lost from the pores of the leaves of plants.
 The rate of transpiration depends on the time of year, the type and amount of vegetation and
the length of the growing season.
 The amount of water vapour in the air is known as humidity.

Precipitation
 Precipitation results when large masses of moist air are cooled rapidly below dew point.
 With continued condensation, water droplets or ice crystals become larger and heavier.
 Eventually, they become so heavy that the atmosphere can no longer support them, and they
precipitate.
 Types of precipitation include rain, sleet, snow and hail.

Infiltration
 When precipitation occurs, the soil becomes moist and absorbent.
 Water enters the soil and the water percolates (passes through successive layers of the soil
profile).
 The rate at which this occurs depends on the amount of water already in the soil.
 It is also determined by the soil’s porosity and structure, and the amount and type of vegetation
cover.
 Infiltrating water eventually collects above an impermeable layer of rock or fills all pore spaces,
forming a zone of saturation.
 Water many gradually be transferred horizontally as ground water flow or base flow.

Human Impacts On The Hydrosphere

Industry And Mining
Hydraulic Fracturing

Agricultural Water Use

 Agriculture is by far the biggest user of water globally.
 Well over three quarters of the world’s crop land is rain-fed, but the remainder is under
irrigation and this uses around two-thirds of annual freshwater consumption.

Dam Construction

Climate Change
 Climate change associated with human activities is impacting on all aspects of the environment,
including the hydrosphere.
 One of the main impacts relates to changing rainfall patterns.
 Climate change is causing some areas to receive more rainfall leading to increased flooding.
 In other places, changes to the climate have resulted in a drying of the landscape.

Population Geography
Changing Nature, Rate And Distribution Of The World’s Population (Dot Point 1)
 During the 20th century the world’s pop grew at a rate never experienced before. It is projected
to rise to 9.8 billion by 2050. (It currently sits at approximately 7.8 billion). Every year the world
total pop grows by approximately 90 million.
 Many experts are concerned about the size of the increases and fear that another 3 billion
people will degrade and even overwhelm the earth’s biophysical environment, the lands food
producing capacity and other natural resources on which all life depends (forests, water).
 There is also a concern that meeting the energy needs of the growing population will simply
accelerate the rate of climate change.
 Others believe that the earth’s population should be seen as a valuable resource. They claim
technology will enable humans to cope with the problems that will result from the increase in
population.

The Global Pattern of Population Increase

 Population growth rates are highest in those parts of the world that are the least able to cope.
 The countries of the developing world have 80% of the world’s population, but they account for
98% of the world’s annual population increase.
 The greatest proportional population increase is predicted to occur in Africa. With fertility rates
of up to seven children per woman and 41% of its population under the age of 15, the source of
this growth in Africa is already in place.
 In the countries of the developed world the rate of population growth has slowed dramatically.
 Europe’s fertility rate is now only 1.5; too few to replenish the population. (Europe’s pop is
expected to shrink by 9% by 2050- from 733 mill (2007) to 669 mill).
 In Asia, growth rates vary significantly. China, the world’s most populous country, has
experienced a dramatic decline in its fertility rate: from 6.5 in 1968 to just 1.7 in 2014.
 By 2050 India will have overtaken China as the world’s most populous country. (There will be 1.7
billion people in India compared to 1.3 in China).
 The Philippines which has only 21 mil in 1950 is expected to grow to 150 mill by 2050 (currently
at 102 mill with a fertility rate of 3).

The Cause Of The Rapid Growth In Human Numbers

 A number of changes have combined to slash child mortality rates and increase life expectancy
without having the same dramatic impact on fertility rates (FR). These include advances in
medical science and public health, nutritional improvements and greater access to education.
 The decline in mortality rates is often hailed as one of the greatest accomplishments of human
civilisation. Since the early 1950’s the death rate for the world has more than halved (from 19.7
to 9.0 per thousand).
 Infant mortality rates have declined from 198 per 1000 live births to 52. (58 in developing world,
6 in developed).
 As a result of these developments- fewer children die in infancy and people are living longer.

Spatial Patterns Of Fertility And Mortality

 The crude birth rate is the number of births during a specific period. The crude death rate is the
number of deaths (usually expressed in terms of per 1000).
 Natural increase is the difference between the two.

The Birth Rate

 Highest in Africa and Asia. Lowest in Europe, Aus, N.Z, U.S.A, Canada.
 Low birth rates are often/can be connected to high standards of living.
 There is a relationship between a country’s birth rate and its level of economic development.
Cultural traditions and the status of women also plays a role.
 The Fertility rate is the number of children born to a woman of childbearing age. This can be
useful because it provides an insight for future demographics.
 The fertility rate in many countries has experienced a steady decline in recent years. Not only
China and India, but also Egypt, Brazil and Mexico have lower fertility rates today than they did
one generation ago.
 The overall decline in fertility has been occurring for several decades. This is why the growth rate
of the world’s population has declined from over 2.1% to 1.2% during the past 30 years.

Death Or Mortality Rate

 The death or mortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths per 1000 people in a given
year.
 Worldwide, the mortality rate is 9, but in Africa it is 14. A high mortality rate usually indicates
that infant mortality is high.

Population Projections
 Current projections are based on the assumption that the fertility rate will decline in those
countries where they are high today and that life expectancy will rise where rates are low. They
are also based on the assumption that the demographic trends of all countries will duplicate the
demographic transition experienced by the countries of the developed world.
 An important variable in estimating future population levels is the point at which a country’s FR
drops to the replacement level of 2.1 children per woman.

Distribution and Density

 The distribution of the earth’s population is uneven- there are substantial differences in
population density.
 At a global scale, population distribution and density are determined largely by biophysical
opportunities and constraints.
 Land makes up 30% of the earth’s surface. Of this amount, 28% is seriously deficient in water,
22% has soils that are too thin for cultivation, 10% is waterlogged and 6% is affected by
permafrost. Only 11% of land offers no serious limitation to settlement and agricultural land use.
 At the local scale, economic, political and social factors are also influential.

Spatial Patterns of Fertility and Mortality (Dot point 2)

 Throughout the countries of the developed world, rates of fertility are now falling below
replacement level, with an overall figure of just 1.6. They attribute this trend to a range of social
and economic changes taking place within developed countries. These include:
 o The status and role of women has changed-i.e. changing structure of the workforce,
changing social attitudes, rising material expectations
o Attitudes to marriage and childbearing have changed- women are marrying later and
delaying starting families
o Growing acceptance of alternative lifestyles and family structures. 
o Methods of birth control have improved and are more acceptable and more widely
available. 

Countries of the Developing World

 In the countries of the developing world the first tentative signs of a decline in fertility rates
became apparent towards the end of the 1960’s. By the mid-1970’s this trend had become more
widespread. In 2007 the Fertility rate was 2.9. Although this decline has been substantial it
remains well above replacement level (2.1). If it is sustained the population of the developing
world will double in 24 years.
 The most widespread decline has occurred in those countries experiencing the fastest rates of
economic development, such as Singapore.
 The relatively high level of education and well organised government sponsored family planning
programs in such countries have been central to their success.
 In countries experiencing slower rates of economic development some success has been
achieved through the application of various incentives and penalties designed to encourage
couples to have smaller families.

Factors Affecting Fertility Rates

 Levels of economic and social well-being- FR generally declines with increasing levels of
development.
 Infant mortality rates- High Infant MR result in families having larger numbers of children
 Importance of children as part of a family's labour force- In the developing world children are
often seen as an asset because of the labour they are able to contribute.
 Levels of Urbanisation- Urban dwellers tend to have lower fertility rates
 Educational and employment opportunities for women- FR tend to be high where women have
little or no access to education.
 Average age of marriage- as the avg age of marriage increases, FR tends to decrease.
Childbearing years reduced.
 The cost of raising children- High cost of raising and educating children in developed countries
has contributed to reduced FR
 Availability of aged services and pensions- less reliance on children to support parents in old age.

Factors Affecting Mortality Rates

o Nutritional standards
o Personal hygiene and sanitation
o Access to safe drinking water and the decline of infectious diseases
o Access to medical and public health technology, immunisation, antibiotics, insecticides etc. 
 High rates of infant mortality are usually an indication of inadequate food (under- nutrition) and
poor diet (malnutrition). 
Population Policies
 The countries experiencing the most substantial declines in fertility are those that have
implemented population-control policies that are well organised, government initiated and
emphasise birth control and family planning. (By themselves, such policies are unlikely to be
successful unless they are associated with programs that promote economic and social
development).
 Family planning programs can be highly emotive cultural and political issues in many countries
(In particular Islamic and Roman Catholic dominated countries). Such programs need to be
combined with improvements in infant and maternal health care programs.

Population Structure
 By studying the age and gender structure of a population we can gain some useful insights into
the prospects for future population growth and a range of issues related to a population’s
economic and social needs. 
 Population pyramids show the impact of migration, war, epidemics, gender imbalances etc. 

The Ageing Of The World’s Population

 In 1950 the median age of the world’s population was 23.9. By 2005 this had increased to 28, by
2050 it is projected to be 38.1.
 Again, this is not even around the globe. In Europe, the median age is expected to be 47 in 2050,
in African developing nations, the median age is expected to be under 24.
 Factors contributing to ageing pop include increased life expectancy, improvements in medical
science, hygiene and nutrition.

Types, Volumes And Directions Of Pop Movements Such As Rural-Urban Migration, Labour
Migration And Refugee Migration. (Dot Point 3)
Population Movements
 Migration is the act or process of moving from one place to another with the intention of staying
at the destination permanently or for an extended period of time.  
 There are two types of migration- internal (pop movements within a country) and international. 
 Migration can also be forced (famine, war, civil unrest, natural disasters) or voluntary (improve
economic or social wellbeing). 

Current Patterns Of Population Movements

o Globalisation of migration
o Increase in the volume of migration
o Growing diversity in type of migration- labour, refugee, permanent settlement
o Increase proportion of women migrating - labour, refugee
o Increase international mobility of highly qualified personnel
o Movements associated with economic and social change

How Has International Migration Affected Regions In Different Ways? 

 (What is international migration?) The movement of people from one country to another. 
 Many contemporary migrations are closely related to the economic, political, and cultural links. 
 Population movements are changing the face of the world: E.g. U.S.A, Canada and Australia are
dominated by European immigrants and their descendants. (Indigenous populations
dispossessed and often marginalised. 
 Central and South America - Refugees from Cuba and Haiti to the U.S. Labour migrations
(sometimes illegal) from Mexico to U.S.
 Africa - Large scale migrations initiated by climatic disasters, military conflict, civil disorder,
famine. Migration has always been a tradition, most of it seasonal.
 Asia - Large scale international movements are common. Millions of Afghan refugees in Iran and
Pakistan. India also receives thousands of immigrants from Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangladesh.
 Middle East - Oil revenues create a demand for "guest workers". These workers come from
other Arab States, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh etc. (Qatar World Cup) Europe- Collapse of
Communism aided movement, creation of E.U etc.

Types of Movements
 Resettlement migration- Conscious choice to migrate and settle permanently. Growth in
number of professionals, technicians and other skilled personnel migrating on a permanent
basis. Work visas, sponsorships etc. E.g. doctors migrating from LEDC's to MEDC's for well-paid
work. 
 Contract migration- Undertaken for specific period. Part of income earnt often sent home. 
 Guest workers- In some countries there are more jobs than people. Governments permit the
entry of guest workers for a specific period of time. Popular in oil rich countries. Most work
within rigid contracts. No settlement, dependants, rights are often denied. 
 Business migrations - Globalisation of economic activity has resulted in a growth of international
movement of highly qualified execs and professionals. Growth of TNC's will see this rise even
more.
 Student migrations - Third type of contract migration. Students from developed and developing
countries transferring to universities around the world.
 Refugees (forced migrations) - Driven from homeland through war, famine, natural disasters,
religious, political, ethnic persecution etc. Internally displaced person is now also a widely used
term.
 United Nations definition (refugee) - A person who cannot return to their country of origin
without risking serious harm because of a well-grounded fear of persecution based on race,
nationality, religion or political views. This definition can exclude millions of people who, through
 drought, starvation, land degradation, natural disasters, poverty, conflict etc have been forced to
flee their homes but remain in their country of origin. As such, "internally displaced person" is
now often used.
 Pattern of refugees in the world since the 1970's- the number of refugees has grown
substantially since the mid 70's. The victory of communist led forces in Indo-China (Vietnam,
Laos, Cambodia) led to more than two million people departing. The USA, Aus and Canada being
the largest recipients of refugees.
 Rural-Urban migration- One of the most significant pop movements in the twentieth century.
Populations migrating from rural areas to cities. At the beginning of the 20th century only 14% of
the world’s population lived in urban places, by 2007 this was 50%. The resulting demographic
change has resulted in urban growth. This occurs when a city's population increases due to both
natural increase and rural-urban migration.
 Urbanisation is the process by which the proportion of a population living in towns and cities
increases.
 The reasons for rural-urban migrations are often referred to as ‘push' and 'pull' factors. The
factors 'pushing' people include famine, war and civil unrest, rural poverty, disasters etc.
 The factors 'pulling' people include the hope of securing a higher standard of living through
greater employment opportunities, better access to healthcare and education etc.
 Counter-urbanisation- In the countries of the developed world, both the rate of urbanisation
and the rate of urban growth have slowed. People are choosing to leave large urban centres and
move to smaller communities. Usually associated with quality of life. Advances in
communication and computer technology now make it possible for some to work from home.
Improvements in transport enable others to commute further. This trend may also be related to
the longer period of the life cycle now spent in retirement.
 Population movements related to changing patterns of work- population movements within
countries are also initiated by changes in the pattern of economic activity. Decline in
manufacturing, increase in service sector for developed countries. Older industrial areas finding
it increasingly difficult to compete with the newer industrial centres developing in the growing
economies of East Asia.
 Movements within cities- Manufacturing firms are abandoning the older and more congested
industrial sites close to the city centre and relocating in the new industrial estates on the
periphery. This has resulted in a transfer of jobs from the urban centre to outer suburbs. This is
contributing to the process of suburbanisation.
 Countering this trend is the process of gentrification. Gentrification is the process whereby
rundown inner-urban homes are purchased and refurbished by young middle-income and high-
income earners e.g. Pyrmont, Glebe, Redfern.
 Urban consolidation is a process that increases population densities in older inner-city areas
where the existing infrastructure in under-utilised.
 Seasonal movements- Fruit pickers, seasonal workers in tourism- ski resorts, coastal resorts etc.
Work is dependent on the season.

Issues arising from the changing size and distribution of population including environmental,
economic and social (dot point 4)
How Will The Environment And Humankind Respond To The Population Explosion?
 Environmentalists and ecologists regard the situation as a catastrophe in the making. Farmers
will need to intensify agricultural practices to feed the growing population. There is an argument
that this will put too much pressure on the environment which is already becoming seriously
 damaged. The earth’s natural resources and biophysical environment, already burdened by
population growth, will simply collapse.
 Optimists (some economists and agricultural scientists) argue that the earth can produce more
than enough to meet the needs of the expanding population. Technological innovations will help
us meet the challenges associated with this growth and deliver even higher standards of living.

Global Inequalities
 The countries of the developed world have just one-fifth of the world’s population but consumer
70 percent of the world’s energy, 75 percent of its metal and 85 percent of its wood.
 They also account for 80 percent of the world’s output of goods and services.
 The poorest one-fifth of the world’s population struggles to survive on just 1.4 percent of the
world’s goods and services.
 Quality of life refers to an individual’s overall sense of wellbeing and the degree of wellbeing
enjoyed by a people as measured by income levels, quality of housing and food, medical care,
educational opportunities, transportation, communications and other measures.
 The standard of living in different countries is frequently compared based on annual per capita
income.
 A good deal of the environmental degradation that has accompanied population growth can be
traced to the environmental interactions of two groups of people:
o The affluent, who live in the developed world and who degrade the environment through
their high consumption of resources and by generating vast amounts of waste.
o The world’s poorest people, who are forced to degrade their own resource base out of
necessity and lack of alternatives.

World Food Supply

 The increases in agricultural production required to meet the needs of an expanded population
might be achieved at an unacceptable high cost to the environment.
 Also, the distribution of food remains an issue that must be addressed if all people are to have
an adequate supply of food.

Impacts On The Environment

 In societies that continue to pursue a subsistence lifestyle, population pressure contributes to an
intensification of land use.
 This ultimately contributes to the deterioration and depletion of important natural resources.
 Increasing population densities and the growing demand for food have resulted in an expansion
of cultivation and grazing into increasingly marginal lands and have led to shortened periods of
fallow.
 These, in turn, have led to accelerated rates of erosion and a decline in soil fertility.
 The increased demand for fodder, fuelwood, and land suitable for agriculture has accelerated
the rate of
deforestation.
 Political Geography
Changing Role And Nature Of The Nation State (Dot Point 1)
Origins Of The Nation-State
Imperialism
 Until the 19th century the main form of government was the empire. Empires were the outcome
of conquests and were ruled by a small number of elites of monarchs and nobles. They usually
contained many different ethnic groups or nations.
 Because they were so large, they were loosely governed from the centre with local rules or
agents given a lot of autonomy.
 E.g. British Empire, Roman Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire.

The Forces Leading To Nation-States

 During the colonial era, governments of empires had little interest in issues of national identity
or unity. By the mid-19th century ideas of democracy were beginning to unleash forces that
would transform the nature of States.
 By 1900, almost all of the world had been divided up among European empires.
 It was at this time that idea of democracy, imperialism and importantly, nationalism, were
coming to the fore- crucial in creating the world - system of nation states we have today.

Democracy And Nationalism

Democracy
 Democracy is the idea that representative government and the sharing of power among the
people is the only fair system.
 Imperialism is the imposition of power over a society, region or country by rulers of another
country. It also denies the country any independence or democracy. (Imperialists rejected the
idea of democracy for their colonies because they would then demand political independence.)

Broad Nationalism
 Nationalism exists in both broad and specific forms.
 Broad nationalism is the movement for independence of each colony or country in the world. It
is also the movement to build strength of countries that are already independent.
 Broad Nationalism is focused both inward and outward. Inward is the attempt to build a unified,
autonomous country. Outward is to succeed in competition against other countries (Sometimes
to the point of war).
 Colonies and countries, whether independent or not, can have within them several nations. E.g
Indonesia, Mexico, Russia.

Specific Nationalism
 Specific nationalism is a movement for independence of every specific or national group within
larger countries.
 Many multiethnic or multinational states are facing growing demands from the forces of specific
nationalism. These forces may threaten cohesion of large, multiethnic states.
 E.g. Yugoslavia, Russia and the Chechens, Indonesia, Tamils in Sri Lanka, Scotland and the U.K.
 Specific nationalism is bound to become one of the major forces causing conflict and the
reshaping of national borders in the early 21st century.
 Nationalism is still one of the most important political forces shaping the geography of the world
and has some way to go before it achieves the goal of a separate state for every nation on earth.

The Characteristics Of Modern Nation-States

 Nations are defined by shared features of language, culture, religion and traditions.
 States are defined by government of territory and by the powers, or sovereignty, that
governments have within their territories.
 One useful way to describe a state is to say that it is a centralised government with a specific
territory. The control of law and order enables the government to prevent violence within the
pop and to implement laws.
 States today all have a high degree of centralised authority.
 Transport and communications revolutions of the past half century have enabled states to
develop more powerful and effective ways of governing their citizens.
 The governance of States is now a highly developed and effective process compared with the
imperial era.
 All governments are able to affect the lives of their citizens through economic and social policies
(tax, laws etc)
 Generally, the more developed a state the more effective it is able to use these policies. E.g Less
developed states in Africa have less power to improve the lives of their citizens.
 Nation states can and do fall apart, sometimes into smaller states. E.g Somalia, Sudan.

National Or State Sovereignty 

 The problem of sovereignty in national politics is a major issue for understanding political action
and conflict. 
 Sovereignty means having autonomy or independent power, to achieve desired outcomes, such
as the power to make laws that can be implemented in an efficient way. The degree of
sovereignty depends on the political constitution of the state.  
Popular Sovereignty 
 Popular sovereignty first emerged at around the time of the French Revolution and is the notion
that the people provide the mandate to the government to rule. 
 In states that are totalitarian dictatorships very little power is shared with the people. 

Regions, Supra Regions And Supra-States

 Regions can refer to two kinds of places- international and intranational regions.
 International regions are areas that span more than one country. E.g Middle East, South East
Asia.
 Intranational regions are parts of a country. E.g central Australia, Hunter Region etc, Kurdistan in
Iraq

A Supra-Region
 Western Europe is an increasingly integrated supra region. Yes, they have major ethnic and
linguistic differences but there is a common cultural heritage dating back to Roman Empire and
early Christian times.
 Language has been a uniting factor as well- originally it was Latin, then French and now English.
Economic forces has led to the formation of the European Union.

Supra Regions Creating Tension

 The growing integration results in tensions at a local level.
 International forces work together creating these supra regions.
 At a local level though nationalism or localism is still strong. It is these forces that are pushing for
the breakup of large states into smaller mini states that wish to gain ethnic or regional
autonomy. E.g Scotland and the U.K.

Challenges To National Sovereignty (Dot Point 2)

Internal Pressures
 There are movements within regions, communities, subcultures, and political groups seeking to
gain power over decision making.
 Specific nationalists within some multiethnic states are demanding the establishment of
autonomy. E.g in former Yugoslavia, East Timor and Indonesia, Eastern Ukraine at the moment,
Syria, Yemen, Rohingya in Myanmar.

External Pressures
1. Globalisation - This is the process of the breakdown of barriers- political, social, economic, etc
and the movement of finance, spread of info, and ability to travel. Through this, English has
become the global language of trade and cultural exchange. 

2. Transnational And Global Corporations - Many large firms are now richer and perhaps more
powerful than many countries. TNC’s have separate branches and processes in a series of
 countries. Global firms demand the same sorts of laws, policies, employment practices and social
welfare provisions in all countries.

3. NGO’s - NGO’s exert significant pressure on nation states through their efforts to promote social
justice, ecological sustainability, self-determination and equality across the globe. NGO’s lobby
governments on things such as:
o Environmental protection (Greenpeace)
o Human Rights (Amnesty International)
o Poverty levels (Oxfam)

4. INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS AND TREATIES: TOWARDS GLOBAL GOVERNANCE - Global

governance is the political interaction of transnational actors aimed at solving problems that
affect more than one state or region when there is no power to enforce compliance. The
twentieth century can be seen as the century that marked the internationalisation of
politics. Some of these organisations deal with trade (WTO) or peace (U.N).  At present Australia
is present to more than 900 international treaties. 

5. Regional Conflicts And Border Disputes - Indefinable boundaries or questionably defined

boundaries can create conflicts. 

Cultural Integration
Factors Affecting Cultural Integration Such As Technological Change, TNC’s, Global Media
Networks, Cultural Imperialism And The Actions Of Governments (Dot Point 2)

TNC’s
 The emergence of TNC’s has greatly affected the development of the global economy. TNC’s are
businesses that operate internationally. They transcend global borders, as does culture now. 
 The production and distribution of goods and services is increasingly dominated by these
corporations, most of which are based in countries of the developed world. 
 Most TNC’s are very large and have a GNP greater than many countries. E.g Walmart, BP, Royal
Dutch/Shell rank higher than countries like Denmark, Poland and Finland. 
 Another way to look at the power of TNC’s is to recognise that the sales of the world’s 10 largest
companies exceed the combined GNP of the world’s 100 developing nations (including all
countries in Africa).

Growth of TNC’s
 TNC’s have developed systems of corporate control that enable them to exercise control over
the production, marketing and distribution of products.
 The main goal of a TNC is to generate profit, which can then be reinvested.
 TNC’s are often able to generate massive profit by minimising the costs of production and by
creating a worldwide demand for their products through global marketing campaigns. E.g Nike,
Nestle, Cadbury
 These profits then go back to the parent company in the developed country, not the poorly paid,
low skilled workers in the developing world.
 The growth of TNC’s and the global economy has diminished the sovereignty of the individual
nation state. Decisions made by TNC’s will affect a nation and those in that nation- e.g
employment opportunities, export capabilities etc.

The Liberalisation Of World Trade

 Central to the growth in the international movement of goods and services and the emergence
of the global economy has been the liberalisation of world trade and a reduction in the costs of
transport.
 Liberalisation of world trade is the removal of obstacles to free trade, such as quotas, exchange
controls, tariffs etc.
 The ability to move goods rapidly has been largely dependent on the removal of trade barriers.
 The World Trade Organisation (WTO) is the international body that oversees the measures
designed to reduce levels of protectionism and foster an expansion of international trade.
 G8 and G20 meetings often end in protest with those opposed to globalisation.
 Trade liberalisation has also taken place via regional trade agreements. These agreements aim to
facilitate the movement of goods and services between member states. The most notable
groupings include the EU and APEC.
 The EU now goes well beyond trade related issues. It has its own currency and the movement of
people across borders has been deregulated.

Technological change 
 New technologies in the area of telecommunications, transport and computers have
transformed the ways cultures interact. Barriers that once existed, such as distance and cost are
being broken down at an increasingly rapid rate. This is allowing unprecedented mobility. 
 Large amounts of information can be accessed at the click of a mouse. Goods and services can
be purchased from the other side of the globe via the internet. Financial transactions can be
made over great distances 24 hours a day. 
 We can communicate and participate in events of global significance from the comfort of our
own homes. 
 It is easy to see the many positives but there are also negatives. Crime and threats to security
and privacy are two such threats and both are consequences of these new global technologies.

Crimes
 Computers do not necessarily increase crime, but through connections they allow for new types
of crime to be committed from the home or office. (Because money can be moved electronically
thefts can be committed without leaving any physical evidence.)
 Theft of knowledge or data is even easier. The speed and ease with which electronic data can be
accessed makes it difficult to enforce copyright and patent laws. New knowledge can be stolen
as fast as it is recorded.
 Types of computer crime- Hacking (gaining illegal entry), Viruses, slicing (accumulations of the
various fractions of a cent from account transactions), creation of false records.

Privacy
 Databases exist today that store information about every person who has ever made an
application for a loan, opened a savings account, applied for a passport or gained a driver’s
licence. (Basically everything)
 Many of these databases are freely bought and sold between large corporations. 
Global Media Networks
 The media, in all its forms, remains the single most influential promoter of cultural integration. 
 Until recently the electronic media were dominated by free-to-air broadcasters, operated by
both the public and private sectors at a regional and national scale. 
 The mechanisms used to regulate the industry included control over the granting of
broadcasting licences, restrictions on foreign content and rules limiting the concentration of
media ownership. 
 The process of globalisation is now transforming the industry. Viewers are no longer seen as
members of a particular community but as members of a consumer market. Regional networks
are disappearing and are now being absorbed into national networks- known as aggregation.

 The industry is now driven by technological innovation, deregulatory economic policies, global
economic integration and the emergence of a transnational corporate culture. The process of
change has resulted in an industry dominated by a handful of large, U.S and Western European
Corporate companies. E.g News Corp, Time Warner, Disney etc. 
 Motivated by the pursuit of profit and capital accumulation, the major media players have
sought to expand vertically. They are extending their control over all aspects of programming,
distribution and transmission. These companies are also at the forefront of technological
innovation. They have moved beyond mass media into personalised media. Pay TV, telecom
services, home banking, shopping, movies on demand etc.
 The development of global news providers (CNN, FOX, SKY, REUTERS, BBC) has the potential to
increase the amount of information available. However, it has also increased the
standardisation, which reduces the level of perspectives available to the public.
 The concentration of views has become known as the “CNN effect”, where audiences worldwide
are presented with sober assessments of ‘the facts’ from a CNN perspective (Rarely do CNN
news reports examine an issue from a range of perspectives).
 In Australia, the commercial media is said to be in the hands of too few people. The media is
dominated by two key players- News Corporation and John Fairfax Holdings.

Future Media Technologies

 Entertainment and Telecommunications have joined the military as leading developers and the
driving force behind technological innovation. 
 Many of the technologies are converging as a result of digitisation. TV, Internet and
communication technologies have merged with the invention of the smartphone and digital
television. This allowed for:
o High-Def resolution
o Multi channelling
o Instant access to world events
o Instant access to news and information
o Instant access to online shopping

Cultural Imperialism
 American fast food, fashion, music, TV, books, magazines and especially movies are the universal
elements of the emerging global culture. Their dominance is so widespread and pervasive that
critics now refer to the process as Cultural Imperialism- The dominance or hegemony of one
culture over all other. 
 U.S based media organisations produce over 75% of the TV programs shown around the world.
More than 60% of films screened in Australian cinemas over the past three decades have come
from the U.S. 
 Some argue that a globalised culture is not simply the spread of American culture but a Hybrid
Culture- the result of the intermingling of cultures. 

Actions of Governments
 Each government has a difficult task of managing economic globalisation while maintaining
some degree of social cohesion and cultural identity is common to all countries at the dawn
of the twenty-first century. 
 On one hand, many governments have actively promoted the process of cultural
integration. 
 They have done this by deregulating their economies, encouraging the introduction of new
information-based technologies, supporting immigration programs and promoting
multiculturalism. 
 Other governments fear that the introduction of American pop culture and excessive
commercialism will destroy local cultures.
 Countries of Europe and Asia have sought to protect themselves against the influence of
American values and attitudes. E.g In Europe, Governments have imposed quotas and local
content targets to nurture local film industries and preserve local cultures. (Despite this, US
films still account for more than 70% of the cinema market in Europe)
 Countries such as Vietnam have taken a more aggressive approach and banned the
importation of ‘harmful cultural products’; that is films, magazines and videos with
‘unwholesome content’.
 The French have also been particularly conscious of the impacts of cultural integration and
go to significant lengths to protect the integrity of French culture. E.g restrictive legislation
and incentives to restrict English language material in France, especially U.S computers and
software.

Dot Point 3- The Effects of Cultural Integration such as homogenised landscapes, economic
dominance and dependence, threats to cultural diversity and sovereignty, and shrinking
time/space
The Impacts of Cultural Integration
 The closing decades of the twentieth century ushered in the digital age and spelt an end to the
Industrial Revolution. 
 Things that once made each culture unique and different are now being replaced or modified by
things that do not. 
 Individuality is out and being a part of the ‘global village’ is in. 
 politically, countries are being forced to change to accommodate decisions imposed on them by
international bodies over which they have little control.
 Globalisation has brought about a vast expansion of economic, social and cultural interactions. 

Homogenised Urban Landscapes

 In a world that is constantly changing, where we live and how we interact with each other has
become increasingly important. Whether it is the local village or a urban centre, where we
decide to live, work and interact determines the access we have to the important social,
economic and political networks. 
 As globalisation continues, the landscapes and streetscapes that once helped define our
countries and cities are no longer uniquely ours. 
 Icons of cultural integration are everywhere; billboards advertising Calvin Klein underwear and
neon signs for McDonald’s and Pizza Hut serve to make our cities more similar. These are the
new landmarks of a consumer generation and they are multiplying fast. 
 The architecture dominating our large cities is becoming increasingly international. The
architectural diversity that once enriched our cities is being replaced by a blandness of design. A
tower in Sydney is much the same as a tower in Manhattan or Tokyo.
 Homogenised landscapes are becoming more prevalent in both developed and developing
nations. Cities such as Mumbai and Dhaka are using western architecture in an attempt to
modernise and attract investment. These developing cities offer the same social, economic and
political interactions as Sydney or Tokyo, and as such, their architecture nd engineering is
becoming very similar. This results in the loss of unique architecture and the creation of a
homogenised landscape.

Economic Dominance And Dependence

 The rise of the TNC and the increasingly dominant role played by the world’s major economic
powers has increased global inequalities and made many of the world’s poorest countries
increasingly subject to decision-making processes beyond their control. 
 With a technologically linked global capital market, consumers are now able to benefit at a local
level. Services that were traditionally only offered at a bank can now be completed online or in
supermarkets, hotels etc. 
 Much of the benefit derived from this technology and increased consumption has occurred in
the developed rather than developing world. 

Formal and Informal economies

 While working conditions in developed countries, particularly among migrant workers, are often
poor, in the developing world they are often substandard. 
 In many developing countries there now exist two economic systems influencing patterns of
employment, one is the informal economy, the other is the formal. 

Informal Economy
 Labour intensive, small and locally owned
 Tends to be outside the authorities
 Jobs tend to foster self-reliance, and development of personal skills. 
 Community based groups

Formal Economy
 Large scale manufacturing, most of which is foreign owned/controlled.
 Goods are produced for export markets
 High levels of unemployment/underemployment
 Working conditions are often hazardous 

Threats To Cultural Diversity And Sovereignty

 Cultural diversity is what makes each country different. In the past this diversity was always
something to be celebrated. In a globalised world such diversity is often portrayed as irrational
and backward looking. 
 While some countries are happy to go along with this, others are fighting to retain what national
sovereignty and cultural identity they can. They fear that westernisation will not only rob them
of their identity, but also the values, faith and languages that have long been part of their
culture. 

‘Hollywoodisation’ Of The World

 Many countries fear that their young people will sacrifice their own cultural identity to be
more like the stereotyped characters portrayed by the Hollywood marketing machine. 
 Many of the attitudes and values on offer are not of the kind that teach respect or tolerance.
They also portray lifestyles that are unattainable for the vast majority of the world’s
population. 

The Loss Of Languages

 Another concern is the cultural dominance of the English language.
 Chinese, English, Russian, Spanish and Hindi are now spoken by 50% of the world’s
population.
 The planet is home to more than 6000 languages, with more than half at risk of dying in the
next 100 years.

Time/Space Compression
 Refers to a set of developments that dramatically changed the way we think about time and
space. E.g technological innovation makes it more possible for people or goods to move from
one place to another more easily and cheaply.
 New forms of economic activity have also helped to compress time and space. Innovative forms
of production methods have opened up new markets and brought places closer together in
terms of time and space. (Internet- Online shopping/banking)
 The division between developed and developing is still visible, but minimising with the rise of
mobile phones etc.