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Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 22340–22349 www.materialstoday.com/proceedings

ICASE_2017

Severe Plastic Deformation – A Review

R. N. Harshaa,*, V. Mithun Kulkarnib , B. Satish Babuc
a
Visvesvaraya Technological University Belagavi, Karnataka
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vijaya Vittala Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, East West Institute of Technology, Bengaluru

Abstract
Severe plastic deformation is one of the methods widely used for producing a fine-grained structure throughout the volume.
Different SPD methods have been used for producing a fine-grained and ultra-fine grained structure which effectively alters the
microstructure and in turn improve the properties. This paper deals with the different methods, process of SPD techniques for
producing nanograin structure for different alloys and factors that impact on the change in the nature of microstructure.
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and/or Peer-review under responsibility of International Conference on Advances in Science & Engineering ICASE - 2017.

Keywords: UFG, NC, SPD, Hall-Petch, ECAP.

1. Introduction

Over the past few years, researchers have focused on their attention on refining the grain size of the material
under study through various SPD techniques. From the Hall–Petch relationship it is known that decrease in grain
size considerably improves the properties of the metals and alloys[1-3]. Also, the decrease in grain size provides a
superplastic ability at elevated temperatures. SPD method normally uses high-level hydrostatic stress without
changing the cross-section which in turn produces ultra-fine grain structure with high angle grain boundaries. some
of the most widely used methods include, (i) Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP), (ii) Accumulative Roll
Bonding (ARB), (iii) Large Strain Hot Rolling (LSHR), (iv) High-Pressure Torsion (HPT), (v) Extrusion and
others.[4-5].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: harsha.au005@gmail.com, satishbabu3@yahoo.co.in

2214-7853 © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Selection and/or Peer-review under responsibility of International Conference on Advances in Science & Engineering ICASE - 2017.
 R. N. Harsha et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 22340–22349 22341

SPD methods are limited to produce ultra-fine, nanoscale level in laboratory level, these processes remain
obsolete to industries for use in continuous operation, over the past few years research has been towards improving
SPD techniques for meeting large-scale applications like in high-pressure torsion, continuous high-pressure torsion,
ECAP Conform, incremental ECAP and equal-channel angular drawing.
The new SPD process like Accumulated Extrusion (Accum EX) has overcome the drawback of the
Accumulative Roll Bonding (ARB) process. The Accum EX method has been able to produce fine microstructure
and improved mechanical properties. Recently, V-shape die compression method has drawn the attention of many
researchers [6]. The main objective of this paper is to review the different SPD methods which emphasis on
obtaining nanograin size, UFG size and improvement in mechanical properties, the influence of the Grain size in
properties.

2. SPD processes

2.1 Equal-channel Angle Pressing (ECAP)

ECAP is one of the most popular methods of obtaining the UFG structure for aluminium alloys. Fig. 1 shows the
ECAP with round plunger. From past few decades, various experiments have been carried out to overcome the
drawbacks of the ECAP like discontinuous process with limited up-scaling potential.

ECAP process usually consists of two circular die sections of having identical cross sections which are inclined
at an angle of ɸ angle varies from 600 < ɸ<1350 and usually ɸ=900 . Some ECAP dies have round corner with
angle ψ=0.[6-7]

Fig:1 ECAP with round plunger

ECAP process can be performed in different ways. Firstly, the sample is pressed in consecutive paths without
rotation of the plunger, in this method there is no change in strain path. Secondly,the sample is turned to 900 in same
or different directions. Thirdly,the strain path is reversed by rotating the sample through 1800 after each pass.
The effective strain developed in the specimen can be calculated by equation
(1)
ɸ ɸ

€N=
√
22342 R. N. Harsha et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 22340–22349

Where N denotes the number of passes, W is the intersection angle between the channels and Y is the outer angle
between the channels. The microstructure observation after successive ECAP process shows that structure depends
mainly on angle ɸ, slower pressing speed leads to attaining a state of equilibrium microstructure.

2.2 ECAP for Hollow Parts

Research has also been carried out in modifying the ECAP process for hollow parts by using flexible mandrel in
the die with 1500 and 30o curvature angles. Fig. 2 shows the ECAP for hollow parts. Observations reveal that
modified ECAP arrangement has a very less impact on the mechanical and strength properties. Qu S, Zhang et al
[8] in their research, carried an experiment with aluminium by considering above die angles condition. A maximum
plastic strain of 0.9 was imposed, and a higher level of strain was not imposed on the material due to insufficient
hydrostatic stress developed. For producing UFG and Nanostructures in aluminium, Cheng S, Zhao et al [9], used
900 ECAP using polyurethane rubber as a mandrel. The effect of the route in ECAP was identified. The results of
the study showed that a reduced grain size in the order of 25µm after four passes of ECAP process was achieved.

Fig: 2 ECAP for hollow parts

2.3 High Pressure Torsion

HPT is one of the new techniques among the many SPD methods reviewed. HPT gives a good result in grain
refrainment. In this process at high pressure, the high strain is induced in the sample without failure. Also, HPT(Fig
3) combines high pressure with torsion straining, that yields a good microstructure (Fig 4). For effective utilization
of the process, the main requirement is that material in the rotation axis of the sample should stay un-deformed.

Fig: 3 High Pressure Torsion Process

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Effective strain in the HPT process can be found by the relation

€effective=
√
r is the distance from the axis, t, the thickness of the sample, N, the number of revolutions.
Fig 4 demonstrates microstructure evolution of AA7075 after processing by HPT through 5 turns showing
homogeneous microstructure by average grain size of 250nm.

Fig: 4 OIM image after HPT process.

2.5 SPD by v-shape die compression

V-shape compression is one of the most effective methods of SPD process for producing the UFG structure. In
this process after completing the single compression stage, the sample is removed from the dies and rotated for 90o
in a counter-clockwise direction and returned to the die (Fig 5). Compression is carried until the stroke of the
compression is too low or when a crack occurs inside the sample.

Fig: 5 V- die compression process

Aluminium sample was subjected to SPD treatment in which V-shaped die was used, the sample was
compressed eighteen times and further compression was not possible due to the low compression stroke.
Observations revealed that no crack was developed in the sample. Fig 6 (a) and (b) shows the TEM sample of the
compressed workpiece and the thickness of the workpiece. Fig (c) shows the grain size of the sample compresses
22344 R. N. Harsha et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 22340–22349

after 18 times.
During the process, workpiece cross-section is reduced due to the increased length, it is found that the friction
coefficient influences the whole process, by controlling the friction in the process the optimum grain size of less
than 1µm was achieved very effectively (Fig c). However, grain size uniformity, hardness and formability parameter
need to be focused.

Fig:6 (a) TEM image of compressed workpiece. (b) Thickness of work piece

3. Crystal lattice defect generated by SPD process

In nano-crystalline materials grain boundaries plays an important role in controlling properties, when nano-
crystalline material subjected to ECAP and other SPD processes which introduce different grain boundaries like low
and high angle, special and random etc. and also different SPD process like ECAP, HPT etc., gives rise to
remarkable mechanical and functional properties which explained below.

Fig. 7 Grain size in sample of work piece compressed 18 times

3.1 Nano-twins.

Twin boundaries are strong barriers for dislocation motions which significantly increase the tensile strength and
hardness in nanocrystalline [NC] materials, Twin boundaries also have its effect on Fatigue properties where nano-
twinned NC materials are much more stable cyclically, stable than equiaxed NC materials. However, twin
boundaries are strong in resisting fatigue cracks. Another recent study found that De-twinning occurs during cyclic
deformation of NC materials [8-10]. By using ECAP process, a high-density Nano-twins can be produced which
 R. N. Harsha et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 22340–22349 22345

increases the ductility and strength in the material, formation of optimum grain size for nano-twins can be achieved
by controlling both internal and external parameters. The internal parameter like low stacking fault energy, low
deformation temperature, a high strain rate. Optimum grain size can be found out by relation below [11-13]. The Fig
8 below shows a TEM image of ECAP twins of 10-20nm in width

.
√ / .

(3)

Where G is the shear modulus, and dm is the optimum grain size, µ is the poison’s ratio, a is the lattice
parameter.

Fig:8 TEM photograph of Nano twin

3.2 Clusters and segregations

It is observed from the ECAP and the HPT SPD process that due to interaction with the crystalline defects, the
solute atoms emphasis on the microstructure evolution in aluminium alloys during deformation. When
microstructure was analyzed by C Xu et.al [18] in scanning electron microscope and atom probe tomography (Fig 9)
revealed that clusters and segregations occurred during severe deformation.

Fig: 9 Tomographic image of nanostructure of UFG Al alloy 7075.

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It is known from the work of Zhu Y T et al [26] that the presence of nanocluster after HPT process contributes to
the high strength of SPD process materials.

3.3 Nano-size particles precipitations

Alloys subjected to an SPD process like ECAP and HPT, subjected to solid solution hardening which gives rise
high densities nano-size particles at grain boundaries which is one of the crystal defects. Nano-size particles can be
introduced due to the dynamic ageing high density of nucleation sites generated by entangled dislocation (Fig.10).
The small size and high density of such particles effectively block and accumulate dislocations not only causing
higher strength but also promoting ductility [14].

3. Mechanical Properties developed by a different SPD process.

The different SPD processes discussed in the previous section will give significant mechanical properties,
mainly strength and fatigue properties are discussed in this section.

3.1 Strength and Ductility

Strength of any material depends mainly on the microstructure which in turn on the grain size, this can be seen
from the relation of Hall-petch equation between yield stress and grain size

σy = σ0 + KHPd−1/2

Here, σ0 and KHP are constants for a given material.

Fig 10 : UFG structure of Al alloy 01 after ECAP , Nano size precipitations in grains are clearly visible in areas A and B

Grain refinement by different SPD process can improve the strength of the material by a factor of 3-8 times. In
SPD process after several passes, the grain refinement is linked with phase transformation leading to the formation
of nano-clusters, segregations, nanotwins and dislocation substrate which provides hardening mechanism to the
material. UFG alloys with SPD process avoids the formation of dislocations at the grain boundaries which forms the
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favourable mechanisms for further hardening. By using different SPD process, nanograin size can be achieved easily
which yields, super strength mechanism and drop in ductility. Drop in ductility is due to a reduction in strain
hardening capability which depends on true stress and true strain. In recent research, it is found that nano-structure
and UFG materials also show good properties in both strength and ductility by controlling deformation mechanism
which increases the strain hardening rate.

3.2 Fatigue Properties

In consideration of the structural applications, fatigue properties play a vital role in the life of the component. The
UFG and Nano-size microstructure give an excellent fatigue property compared to conventional grain size. From the
work of A.S. Argon and P. Haasen [15], a clear information of the dependence of the fatigue properties like Low
cycle fatigue[LCF] and High Cycle Fatigue [HCF] which depends on the fatigue life and fatigue strength
respectively [12-19].

3.2.1 Grain size effect on cyclic deformation and Fatigue life.

Conventional grain materials do not obey the Hall-Petch relationship, fatigue life varies more significantly with
grain size, cyclic hardening is due to the accumulation of dislocations forming bundles, tangles, and cell walls
within the grains. As in the case of UFG and NC materials, the conclusion from the work of Dresden a group cyclic
stress exhibits grain size. From the work of Landgraf and Morrow[15] according to which low cycle fatigue (LCF)
life is controlled by fatigue ductility, whereas the high cycle fatigue (HCF) life is governed by the fatigue strength
relation shown below and fig. 11. The expression below best explains the total strain fatigue life which explained in
below fig. 11. Equating the first terms of both equations, one obtains the well-known Basquin fatigue life law for the
HCF regime, whereas equating the second terms of both equations leads to the equally well-known Coffin-Manson
relationship for the LCF range.

(5)

Fig 11 . Total strain fatigue life diagram showing the crossing of the fatigue life curves of UFG and CG aluminium.

From survey of the research carried out on fatigue properties, it is found that SPD process gives good fatigue
performance in metals and alloys, like ECAP processed steel has excellent fatigue properties profuse deformation
twinning induced by severe straining, whereas CU alloys subjected to ECAP exhibit bimodal grain Structure which
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provides combination of strength and ductility in cyclic deformation and LCF region . The life of LCF is largely
controlled by the ductility and depends on crack propagation where HCF depends on fatigue strength. In SPD
process like ECAP, HPT, etc., raises the tensile strength and ductility.

3.3 Fatigue crack growth in UFG and Nano Crystalline (NC) Materials

In UFG materials it is observed that initiation of fatigue shear bands in the stress-controlled test, a fine grain size
of UFG and NC shows larger fatigue lives and endurance strength, which reveals that grain refinement improves the
resistance against crack growth as summarized from the work of Hael Mughrabi et al. [22]. Similar results were
obtained for different fine-grained UFG and NC metals and alloys. The main conclusion was by increasing the grain
refinement the fatigue crack thresholds were lowered and the fatigue crack growth rates were enhanced. These
findings were attributed to the smoother fracture paths and reduced crack closure for the smaller grain sizes.
Furthermore, a Hall-Petch dependence on grain size was noted for both the fatigue endurance limit and the threshold
stress intensity range [24].

3.4 Fatigue life for structural materials

In recent years researchers have concentrated on structural material fatigue life like UFG aluminium and its
alloys, by comparing the reviews it is found that fatigue properties of aluminium show that, it depends on alloy
content and ECAP route and ECAP passes by the research of the Doctoral thesis by MAY[23]. Work carried out by
May [23] on Al-Mg results emphasis that Mg content gives good fatigue properties in ECAP route and number of
passes. Micro structural stability was enhanced by Mg content and by the number of passes, and total fatigue life
curves in all cases get intersected for UFG and Conventional grain materials. From the work of Vinogradov AYu
[24], it was concluded that the cyclic stress-strain response of an Al-Mg-Si precipitation hardening aluminium alloy
in the initial peak-aged condition, in two as-processed ECAP conditions as well as a ductility-optimized condition
was investigated. Major points of research were the influence of ECAP pre-strain. From the research work carried
out by Zehetbauer MJ et.al[25].Zhu YT et al [26],Estrin Y et al[28], shows that UFG material exhibit higher fatigue
life than conventional materials.UFG obtained from various SPD process shows the excellent fatigue properties.

4. Conclusion

For over more than twenty years research work has been carried on materials subjected to SPD. The results of the
investigations reveal that there exists a change in material properties with structural changes. Also, the knowledge of
governing phenomena behind SPD has enhanced in the last ten years. Yet, there exists a feeling that much work
needs to be carried out on SPD and its effect. Literature review suggests that there are a variety of SPD techniques
available today. The problems associated with SPD techniques is that they cannot be used for mass production.
Also, different materials have different deformation ability. Another problem associated with SPD techniques is the
plastic flow localization.

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