UNIVERSTY OF WAH

ASSIGNMENT 2
Professional Ethics

Submitted To: Dr Khalid Tahir

Submitted by: Tauqeer
REG NO: UW-18-Me-BSc-038

Assignment 2 (CLO-2, PLO-8, C-2) Marks: 10

Discuss at length, ethical/moral problems in various
stages/phases of engineering projects/tasks, their underlying
causes, and skills required for autonomous thoughts of such
issues/problems.

WAH ENGINEERING COLLEGE

UNIVERSTY OF WAH
 Engineering Ethics - Moral Issues
A moral issue can be understood as an issue to be resolved not only by considering the
technical stuff but also by keeping moral values in mind. To be more precise, let us
consider the definition in general.
“Moral issue is a working definition of an issue of moral concern is presented as any
issue with the potential to help or harm anyone, including oneself.”

Types of Moral Issues

There are mainly two types of Moral issues that we mostly come across while keeping
the ethical aspects in mind to respond. They are −

Micro-ethics

This approach stresses more on the problems that occur on a daily basis in the field of
engineering and its practice by engineers.

Macro-ethics

This approach deals with social problems which are unknown. However, these
problems may unexpectedly face the heat at both regional and national levels.

Examples
Let us now understand a few examples related to moral issues.

Example 1

After a recent collapse of a structure in which many people died, an Engineer came to
know about a bridge which is marginally safe. He informed his superior who asked him
to stay calm and not to discuss with anyone, while waiting for the next year budget
sessions to get some financial help for the repair required. What should the engineer
do?

Example 2

What should an Engineer who observes his colleague copying confidential information
unauthorized, do immediately? If he chooses to stop his friend, what if this gets
repeated without his notice? If he chooses to report the management, what if his friend
loses the job? Which is morally correct?
Example 3

An engineer who develops a proto-type for the project, loses it due to a mishap exactly
the day before the submission. Is it morally correct to outsource the prototype of the
project and reduce the risks of job insecurity? What should he do?
These are the few examples just to understand the kind of moral dilemmas. There might
be one or more correct answers at times. There can be some other way around to deal
with the issue, which one can’t easily notice. However, the decisions have to be made
by following a slow and clear process in order to avoid further problems and also to
solve this in a manner that leads to no regrets.

Steps to Deal with Issues

Whenever there occurs an issue, one should possess a few skills in order to sort out the
problem. The issues that engineers face, have to be dealt with patience and few moral
goals have to be kept in mind while dealing with such issues. They are as follows −
 Moral Awareness − One should be able to recognize the moral problems and
issues that occur in Engineering. The analysis on the problem is necessary in
order to differentiate and judge according to ethics or according to the rules to
follow.
 Cogent Moral Reasoning − In order to come to a conclusion on an issue, the
argument has to be assessed and comprehended. The argument on both sides
has to be considered with all the probabilities and the nature of the argument
should be logical and moral.
 Moral Coherence − After having gone through all the logical and moral facts,
consistent and comprehensive view points are to be formed based upon a
consideration of relevant facts.
 Moral Imagination − The moral issues and the practical issues have to be dealt
separately. Alternative responses are to be found out for dealing with moral
issues while creative solutions should be found out for practical difficulties.
 Moral Communication − The language to communicate about one’s moral
views should be so precise and clear, that the expression or words should not
alter the original meaning.

Types of Inquiries
The issues can be resolved by following an investigation procedure, step by step in
order to have a clear understanding towards the issue. Here we have three different
types of inquiries.
Judging the issues has to be followed by a systematic procedure to avoid any flaws.
Engineering ethics involves investigations into values, meanings and facts. Following
are the different types of inquiries made for this.

 Normative inquiries
 Conceptual inquiries
 Factual or descriptive inquiries

Normative Inquiries

Normative Inquiry refers to the description that describes what one ought to do under
a specific circumstance. This is the expected ideal response, which might differ from
what one believes to be right or wrong.
This list identifies and justifies the morally desirable nature for guiding individuals or
groups. This includes the responsibility of engineers to protect the public safety and how
they should respond under such dangerous practices. Normative inquiries also quote
the laws and procedures that affect the engineering practice on moral grounds. They
refer to the thought process where the moral rights are to be implemented in order to
fulfill their professional obligations.
Conceptual Inquiries

Conceptual Inquiry refers to the description of the meaning of concepts, principles and
issues related to engineering ethics. The ethics that an engineer should possess to
protect the safety, health and welfare of the public, etc. are described under conceptual
inquiries.
It describes what safety is and mentions the marginal issues of safety along with the
precautions an engineer should take to avoid risk. Conceptual inquiries mention the
moral aspects of bribery and how its effects, along with the professional ethics and
professionalism.

Factual and Descriptive Inquiries

Factual Inquiry or the descriptive inquiry help to provide the facts for understanding and
finding solutions to the value based issues. The engineer has to conduct factual
inquiries by using scientific techniques.
This helps in providing the information regarding the business realities such as
engineering practice, history of engineering profession, the effectiveness of professional
societies, the procedures to be adopted when assessing risks and psychological profiles
of engineers.
Let us now go through the concept of Moral dilemma that a person faces when
confronted with a situation.

Engineering Ethics - Moral Dilemmas

At times, the situations occur where one cannot make immediate decisions as the moral
reasons come into conflict. The moral reasons can be rights, duties, goods or
obligations, which make the decision making complex.
Types of Complexities
The difficulties in arriving to a solution, when segregated, can be divided into the
following three sections.

Vagueness

This refers to the condition where the doubt lies in whether the action refers to good or
bad. This is just like having a thought that following the rules is mandatory. This
sometimes includes the unwritten rules like being loyal, having respect, maintaining
confidentiality, etc.

Conflicting reasons

When you know about the solutions you have, the making of better choice among the
ones you have, will be the internal conflict. Fixing the priorities depends upon the
knowledge and the moral values one has. The reason why the particular choice is being
made, makes sense.
Disagreement

When there are two or more solutions and none among them is mandatory, the final
solution selected should be best suitable under existing and the most probable
conditions. The interpretation regarding the moral reasons behind the choice and
analysis should be made keeping in mind whether this is the better or the worse solution
in the probable aspects.

Steps in Facing Moral Dilemmas

Whenever a person is faced with a moral dilemma, the issue is to be solved with a
stepwise approach as this will generate a better output. The steps include the following
−

Identification

The step of identification involves the following −

 The issue has to be thoroughly understood.
 The duties and the responsibilities of the persons involved are to be clearly
known.
 The moral factors related to the issue are to be understood.
 The conflicting responsibilities, the competing rights and the clashing ideas
involved are to be identified.

Ranking

The considerations in the issue are to be listed down. Then they have to be ranked
according to the priorities. The moral aspect has to be considered to rank the issues.
The advantages of a single person should never be given any importance unless any
moral reason is there behind it. No partiality is allowed.

Inquiries

The inquiry of details involved in the issue is to be completely made. All the facts related
to the issue are brought into light. Considering the alternative courses of action for
resolving and tracing, full implications are also needed.

Discussions

Discussions are to be made with other members, as different minds look at the issue in
different views to give different solutions. The complete analysis of a problem gives
chances to different viewpoints, perspectives and opinions from which a better solution
can be drawn.
Final Solution

After analyzing different perspectives and considering the facts and reasons on the
basis of truths and understanding the flaws which lead to the issue, a final solution has
to be drawn out. This solution will add value to the whole analysis, in all aspects.

Engineering Ethics - Moral Autonomy

Moral Autonomy is the philosophy which is self-governing or self-determining, i.e.,
acting independently without the influence or distortion of others. The moral autonomy
relates to the individual ideas whether right or wrong conduct which is independent of
ethical issues. The concept of moral autonomy helps in improving self-determination.
Moral Autonomy is concerned with independent attitude of a person related to
moral/ethical issues. This concept is found in moral, ethical and even in political
philosophy.

Moral Autonomy – Skills Needed

In this section, let us discuss the skills needed for moral autonomy.
 Ability to relate the problems with the problems of law, economics and
religious principles − It is essential to have the ability to analyze a problem and
finding the relation with the existing law or the topic of issue with the existing
principles on that topic. The ability to distinguish between both of them and
finding the moral reasons.
 Skill to process, clarify and understand the arguments against the moral
issues − If the issue is against some moral values or the ethical values to be
followed in the society, then clarity should be maintained about the differences
and similarities. Both of these differences and similarities are to be judged based
on why they are a matter of concern and in what aspect.
 Ability to suggest the solutions to moral issues on the basis of facts − If the
moral issues are not fulfilling and needs to be, then the solutions are to be
suggested according to the moral issues based on the facts and truths of the
issue. These suggestions must be consistent and must include all the aspects of
the problem. No partiality is to be allowed in any such aspect.
 Must have the imaginative skill to view the problems from all the
viewpoints − After having known about the facts and illusions of the issue, a
clear understanding is attained in viewing the problem in all kinds of viewpoints.
This enables one to be able to suggest a proper alternative solution.
 Tolerance while giving moral judgment, which may cause trouble − When
the whole analysis is made considering all the viewpoints of the issue, the final
output might be or might not be pleasing to the persons involved. Hence while
declaring the judgment or the decisions taken, a detailed description of the
 actions done should be given, while the actions ought to be done should be
presented in a better way, to ensure others that the decisions have been taken
without any partialities towards any party.
 Tolerance while giving moral judgment, which may cause trouble − When
the whole analysis is made considering all the viewpoints of the issue, the final
output might be or might not be pleasing to the persons involved. Hence while
declaring the judgment or the decisions taken, a detailed description of the
actions done should be given, while the actions ought to be done should be
presented in a better way, to ensure others that the decisions have been taken
without any partialities towards any party.

Skills for Improving Moral Autonomy

Moral autonomy reflects the concept of individuality. This relates to the idea of building
one’s self with the moral values one has while developing psychologically.
To have moral autonomy in all the aspects, one should have a lot of patience and
interest. One should adhere to the basic principles of humanity and should be strict with
the Don’ts he has in mind and liberal with his Do’s. The kindness towards his fellow
beings is also an important concept to be kept in mind. Inculcation of all these important
qualities, enhances the skills of Moral autonomy in a person.
A Person must have adequate knowledge and understanding about the use of ethical
language so as to defend or support his views with others. He must have better
knowledge in understanding the importance of suggestions and better solutions while
resolving moral problems and also about the importance of tolerance on some critical
situations.
Above all, one must understand the importance of maintaining moral honesty and
should be liberal to understand the human behavior under certain circumstances.

Engineering Ethics - Kohlberg’s Theory

Lawrence Kohlberg was a professor at Harvard University during the early 1970s and
was famous for his works on developmental psychology. He conducted many studies at
Harvard’s Center for Moral Development and proposed a theory on moral development
which is popularly known as Kohlberg’s theory.
His theory of moral development was dependent on the thinking of the Swiss
psychologist Jean Piaget and the American philosopher John Dewey. He was also
inspired by James Mark Baldwin. These men had emphasized that human beings
develop philosophically and psychologically in a progressive fashion.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory

Kohlberg proposed that people progress in moral reasoning based on their ethical
behavior. He postulated this theory based on the thinking of younger children
throughout their growing period as adults. He conveyed that younger children make
judgment based on the consequences that might occur and the older children make
judgment based on their intuitions.
He believed that there are six stages of moral development which are further classified
into three levels. The following illustration shows the different levels.
The process being discussed here is about the judgment made by the thinker about the
protagonist in a given situation. The steps of the thinking process show the moral
development of the thinker.

Pre-conventional Level
This can be understood as the first level of moral thinking, which is generally found at
Elementary school level. The thinker at this stage tends to think and behave based on
the direct consequences that might occur. There are two sub-stages in this.
Avoid Punishments

A thinker at this stage generally thinks and believes that the judgment are to be made
as per the socially acceptable norms as they are said so by some higher official (a
teacher or a parent). This is a child-like obedience, in order to avoid punishments.
These thoughts are based on the idea that the protagonist should not disobey the law or
rules.

Self–interest

A thinker at this stage, shows interest in making decisions according to the rewards they
get in exchange. This second stage is characterized by a view that right behavior
means acting in one's own best interests.
In this stage, they tend to follow the rules of authority because they believe that this is
necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.

Conventional Level
This can be understood as the second level of moral thinking, which is generally found
at the primary and high school level. The thinker at this stage tends to think and behave
based on the want to please others. There are two sub-stages in this.
Getting people to like them

At this stage, the ideas of the society are considered. This level can be that where the
protagonist behaves on account of the moral grounds which people decide for decision
making. This decision may or may not support the law. Whatever the result is, the
thinking process is based on how to impress others or society and on how to please the
people around.

Maintain functioning in society

A thinker at this stage, considers to follow the rules for the good of the society. The
moral grounds on how people in the society will consider the job done will be the
priority, because the thinker believes that a social order is maintained by abiding by the
rules.
Hence a thinker sticks to the idea that the protagonist should follow the moral values.
The thinker’s behavior is driven by the authority while his thinking conforms to the social
order.

Post-Conventional Level
This can be understood as the third level of Moral thinking, which is generally found
after the high school level. The thinker at this stage tends to think and behave based on
a sense of justice. There are two sub-stages in this.
Reject rigidity of laws

In this level, the thinker uses his moral thinking skills at a commendable pace. He starts
to feel for the protagonist based on moral grounds. He also might have an opinion that
the rules have to be changed according to humanitarian values. The thinker rejects the
rigidity of the existing laws and rules at this stage.

Sense of justice

This is the pinnacle stage of Moral development where the thinker feels a sense of
justice for the protagonist. The thinker has great moral values that he keeps himself free
from the external factors that might influence his thinking process.
These are the three main sections of moral development proposed by Lawrence
Kohlberg. Let us now try to have some detailed idea on this with an example.

Engineering Ethics - Heinz’s Dilemma

Lawrence Kohlberg quoted an example for his Moral development theory. This example
is popularly called the Heinz’s Dilemma.

Story of Heinz
A story of a middle-aged ordinary middle-class man, called Heinz is considered as an
example. Heinz is an ordinary man having a wife. His wife suffers from a dreadful
disease. Doctors believe that a special drug which was invented recently and is
available at the BIG pharma store, can only save his wife.
When Heinz went to buy the drug, the drug-seller costed it around $2,000 dollars, while
the actual manufacturing cost of the drug is $20 dollars. Heinz borrowed the money
from friends and lenders and could finally collect only $1,000 dollars. Though Heinz
pleaded a lot, the greedy drug-seller refused to sell the drug at low cost.
Now, Heinz had no other option but to steal the drug from the shop to save the life of
his wife. Is this a better option to do? What is your judgment?

Now, to solve this Heinz’s dilemma, a thinker has the following options.

Options for the Thinker

In this section, we will discuss the options for the Thinker.
 Heinz should not steal the drug because it is the disobedience of law.
 Heinz can steal the drug, but should be punished by the law.

Heinz can steal the drug and no law should punish him.

The answer which you choose indicates your moral development. Each answer has its
consequences and explanation. Let us go through the answers.

Heinz should not steal the drug because it is the disobedience of law.

This decision makes it impossible for Heinz to save his wife. His wife dies and the rich
drug-seller becomes richer. Though the law was obeyed, no moral justice was done.
This is a pre-conventional level of moral thinking.
Heinz can steal the drug, but should be punished by the law.

This decision helps Heinz save his wife, but Heinz will be kept in prison. Though Heinz
took a moral decision, he had to undergo the punishment. This is a Conventional level
of moral thinking.

Heinz can steal the drug and no law should punish him.

This decision lets Heinz save his wife and both of them can live happily. This thinking is
based on the thought that the rigidity in law should be rejected and justice should be
done on moral grounds. This is a post-conventional level of moral thinking.

Engineering Ethics - Gilligan’s Theory

This is an advancement of Kohlberg’s theory. It had been observed that Kohlberg’s
theory was proposed based on the moral thinking of privileged white men and boys.
Hence this theory was popularized by taking both male and female thinking capabilities
into account.
Carol Gilligan, a psychological theorist was born on Nov 28, 1936 in the New York city.
She pursued her doctorate degree in Social Psychology from the Harvard University.
Gilligan was a research assistant for Lawrence Kohlberg, but she eventually became
independent and criticized some of his theories.

Gilligan’s Theory
Carol Gilligan opines that Kohlberg’s theories are biased upon the male thinking
process. According to Gilligan, Kohlberg seemed to have studied only privileged men
and boys. She believed that women face a lot of psychological challenges and they
are not moral widgets. The women’s point of view on moral development involves
caring which shows its effect on human relationships.
Hence she proposed a theory which has the same three stages of Kohlberg but with
different stages of moral development. Let us understand the stages in detail.
Though the names of the stages are the same, the stages differ in this method. The
moral development in Gilligan’s theory are based on pro-social behaviors such as
Altruism, caring and helping and the traits such as honesty, fairness and respect.

Pre-conventional Level

 A person in this stage cares for oneself to ensure survival.

 Though the person’s attitude is selfish, this is the transition phase, where the
person finds the connection between oneself and others.

Conventional Level

 In this stage, the person feels responsible and shows care towards other people.
 Carol Gilligan believes that this moral thinking can be identified in the role of a
mother and a wife. This sometimes leads to the ignorance of the self.

Post-conventional Level

 This is the stage, where the principle of care for self as well as others, is
accepted.
 However, a section of people may never reach this level.
According to the Carol Gilligan’s theory of moral development, changes occur due to the
change of self rather than the critical thinking. It was stated that the post-
conventional level of Kohlberg is not attained by women. But Carol Gilligan researched
and found that the post-conventional level of thinking is not being easy for women to go
through because they care for the relationships.

Levels of Thinking
Carol Gilligan states that the post-conventional level of moral thinking can be dealt
based on the two types of thinking. Gilligan’s theory is based on the two main ideas,
the care-based morality (usually found in women) and the justice-based morality
(usually found in men).

Care-based Morality

Care-based morality is the kind of thinking found in women. This is based on the
following principles.
 More emphasis is given to inter-connected relationships and universality.
 Acting justly focuses on avoidance of violence.
 Women with this are usually interested in helping others.
 More common in girls because of their connections to their mothers.
 Because girls remain connected to their mothers, they are less inclined to worry
about issues of fairness.

Justice-based Morality

Justice-based morality is the kind of thinking found in men. This is based on the
following principles.
  They view the world as being composed of autonomous individuals who interact
with one another.
 Acting justly means avoiding inequality.
 Individuals with this are usually interested in protecting individuality.
 Thought to be more common among boys because of their need to differentiate
between themselves and their mothers.
 Because they are separated from their mothers, boys become more concerned
with the concept of inequality.
The Carol Gilligan’s theory can be better understood if explained with an example.

Example of Gilligan’s Theory

In order to understand Gilligan’s theory, a popular example is usually considered. A
group of moles give shelter to a porcupine. But they are being continuously stabbed by
the porcupine’s quills. Now, what should they do?

The Pre-conventional level of thinking states that to think for the good of oneself, either
the moles or the porcupine only can live there. The other has to leave the place.
According to the Conventional level of thinking, which brings a transition, from self to
the good of others and which might even lead to sacrifice, either the moles or the
porcupine has to sacrifice and again this leads to a stage where only moles or the
porcupine can live in the burrow.
According to the Post-conventional level of thinking, which states that the good of both
the parties has to be considered, both the moles and the porcupine come to an
agreement that both will have separate places in the same burrow, where they limit to
behave themselves and will not cause any trouble to other. This helps both of them to
live in the same place with peace.
The researchers found that the solution to this scenario is different with different
individuals; gender also plays an important role. The thinkers were observed viewing
the problem in two different perspectives, the care-based and the justice-based.
In a Justice-based perspective, the solution to the problem is viewed as a conflict
between two individual groups. Only one of them can have the property. Either moles or
the porcupine will get the place in the burrow. Hence the solution to the dilemma, is not
a resolution of the conflict, it is a verdict.
In a Care-based perspective, the approach differs. The problem is viewed as a difficult
situation faced by both the parties together, rather than a fight between both of them.
Hence the solution is sought in a way around the problem or to remove the problem
completely. The solution may sound compromising but not damaging. The relationship
will still be the same, after the resolution.
Researchers found that Justice-based perspective is pre-dominant among males while
Care-based prospective is among females.

Consensus and Controversy

The moral judgment may lead to conflicts if they are not delivered properly without
hurting the feelings of the persons involved. There are two stages after the judgement.
The stages are described below −

Consensus

This is that state where people come into agreement with the judgement given by
getting convinced with the moral reasons. This will leave the persons with a feel that
justice has been done, the verdict may favor any party.

Controversy

This is that state where the persons involved in an issue are not satisfied by the verdict
and might feel that it was decided on partial interests. This will leave the people with a
sense of dissatisfaction that justice was not done, which might lead to another conflict