Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Twelfth Edition

Chapter 3
Cells and Tissues

Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Part I: Cells
One

•  Cells are the structural units of all living things

•  The human body has 50 to 100 trillion cells

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life (1 of 2)
•  The Cell Theory
1.  A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living
organisms
2.  The activity of an organism depends on the collective
activities of its cells
3.  According to the principle of complementarity, the
biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their
structure (anatomy) which determines their function
(physiology)
4.  Continuity of life has a cellular basis

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life (2 of 2)
•  Most cells are composed of four elements:
1.  Carbon
2.  Hydrogen
3.  Oxygen
4.  Nitrogen
•  Cells are about 60% water

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Anatomy of a Generalized Cell
•  In general, a cell has three main regions or parts:
1.  Nucleus
2.  Cytoplasm
3.  Plasma membrane

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.1a Anatomy of the Generalized
Animal Cell Nucleus

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Nucleus
•  Control center of the cell
•  Contains genetic material known as deoxyribonucleic
acid, or DNA
–  DNA is needed for building proteins
–  DNA is necessary for cell reproduction
•  Three regions:
1.  Nuclear envelope (membrane)
2.  Nucleolus
3.  Chromatin

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.1b Anatomy of the Generalized
Animal Cell Nucleus

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Nucleus
•  Nuclear envelope (membrane)
–  Consists of a double membrane that bounds the nucleus
–  Contains nuclear pores that allow for exchange of material with
the rest of the cell
–  Encloses the jellylike fluid called the nucleoplasm

•  Nucleolus
–  Nucleus contains one or more dark-staining nucleoli
–  Sites of ribosome assembly
–  Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm through nuclear pores to
serve as the site of protein synthesis

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Nucleus
•  Chromatin
–  Composed of DNA wound around histones (proteins)
–  Scattered throughout the nucleus and present when
the cell is not dividing
–  Condenses to form dense, rodlike bodies called
chromosomes when the cell divides

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Plasma Membrane
•  Transparent barrier for cell contents
•  Contains cell contents
•  Separates cell contents from surrounding environment

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Plasma Membrane

•  Fluid mosaic model is constructed of:

–  Two layers of phospholipids arranged “tail to tail”
–  Cholesterol and proteins scattered among the phospholipids
–  Sugar groups may be attached to the phospholipids, forming
glycolipids

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Concept Link 1
Remember, phospholipids are polar molecules: The
charged end interacts with water, and the fatty acid chains
do not (see Chapter 2, p. 46). It is this property of polarity
that makes phospholipids a good foundation for cell
membranes.

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Plasma Membrane
•  Phospholipid arrangement in the plasma membrane
–  Hydrophilic (“water loving”) polar “heads” are
oriented on the inner and outer surfaces of the
membrane
–  Hydrophobic (“water fearing”) nonpolar “tails” form
the center (interior) of the membrane
▪  This interior makes the plasma membrane
relatively impermeable to most water-soluble
molecules

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Plasma Membrane
•  Role of proteins
–  Responsible for specialized membrane functions:
▪  Enzymes
▪  Receptors for hormones or other chemical
messengers
▪  Transport as channels or carriers

•  Role of sugars
–  Glycoproteins are branched sugars attached to
proteins that abut the extracellular space
–  Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich area on the
cell’s surface

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Plasma Membrane
•  Cell membrane junctions
–  Cells are bound together in three ways:
1.  Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as an
adhesive or cellular glue
2.  Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent
cells fit together in a tongue-and-groove fashion
3.  Special cell membrane junctions are formed,
which vary structurally depending on their roles

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Plasma Membrane
•  Main types of cell junctions
–  Tight junctions
▪  Impermeable junctions
▪  Bind cells together into leakproof sheets
▪  Plasma membranes fuse like a zipper to prevent
substances from passing through extracellular
space between cells

–  Desmosomes
▪  Anchoring junctions, like rivets, that prevent cells
from being pulled apart as a result of mechanical
stress
▪  Created by button like thickenings of adjacent
plasma membranes
Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 The Plasma Membrane
•  Main types of cell junctions
–  Gap junctions
(communicating junctions)
▪  Allow communication
between cells
▪  Hollow cylinders of
proteins (connexons)
span the width of the
abutting membranes
▪  Molecules can travel
directly from one cell to
the next through these
channels

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Cytoplasm
•  The cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the
plasma membrane
•  Site of most cellular activities
•  Includes cytosol, inclusions, and organelles

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Cytoplasm
•  Three major component of the cytoplasm
1.  Cytosol: Fluid that suspends other elements and
contains nutrients and electrolytes
2.  Inclusions: Chemical substances, such as stored
nutrients or cell products, that float in the cytosol
3.  Organelles: Metabolic machinery of the cell that
perform functions for the cell
▪  Many are membrane-bound, allowing for
compartmentalization of their functions

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.4 Structure of the
Generalized Cell

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Cytoplasm
•  Mitochondria
–  “Powerhouses” of the cell
–  Mitochondrial wall consists of a double
membrane with cristae on the inner membrane
–  Carry out reactions in which oxygen is used to
break down food into ATP molecules
•  Ribosomes
–  Made of protein and ribosomal RNA
–  Sites of protein synthesis in the cell
–  Found at two locations:
▪  Free in the cytoplasm
▪  As part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 The Cytoplasm
•  Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
–  Fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that carry
substances within the cell
–  Continuous with the nuclear membrane
–  Two types:
▪  Rough ER
▪  Smooth ER
•  Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
–  Rough endoplasmic reticulum
▪  Studded with ribosomes
▪  Synthesizes proteins
▪  Transport vesicles move proteins within cell
▪  Abundant in cells that make and export
proteins Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.5 Synthesis and Export of a
Protein by the Rough ER (1 of 5)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.5 Synthesis and Export of a
Protein by the Rough ER (2 of 5)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.5 Synthesis and Export of a
Protein by the Rough ER (3 of 5)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.5 Synthesis and Export of a
Protein by the Rough ER (4 of 5)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.5 Synthesis and Export of a
Protein by the Rough ER (5 of 5)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Cytoplasm
•  Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
–  Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
▪  Lacks ribosomes
▪  Functions in lipid metabolism
▪  Detoxification of drugs and pesticides

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Cytoplasm (8 of 12)
•  Golgi apparatus
–  Appears as a stack of flattened membranes
associated with tiny vesicles
–  Modifies and packages proteins arriving from the
rough ER via transport vesicles
–  Produces different types of packages
▪  Secretory vesicles (pathway 1)
▪  In-house proteins and lipids (pathway 2)
▪  Lysosomes (pathway 3)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.6 Role of the Golgi Apparatus in
Packaging the Products of the Rough ER (1 of 2)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Cytoplasm
•  Lysosomes
–  Membranous “bags” that contain digestive enzymes
–  Enzymes can digest worn-out or nonusable cell structures
–  House phagocytes that dispose of bacteria and cell debris

•  Peroxisomes
–  Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
▪  Detoxify harmful substances such as alcohol and
formaldehyde
▪  Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals)
▪  Free radicals are converted to hydrogen peroxide and then to
water
–  Replicate by pinching in half or budding from the E R

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Cytoplasm
•  Cytoskeleton
–  Network of protein structures that extend throughout
the cytoplasm
–  Provides the cell with an internal framework that
determines cell shape, supports organelles, and
provides the machinery for intracellular transport
–  Three different types of elements form the
cytoskeleton:
1.  Microfilaments (largest)
2.  Intermediate filaments
3.  Microtubules (smallest)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.7 Cytoskeletal Elements Support
the Cell and Help to Generate Movement

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
The Cytoplasm (12 of 12)
•  Centrioles
–  Rod-shaped bodies made of nine triplets of
microtubules
–  Generate microtubules
–  Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during cell
division

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure
and Function (1 of 5)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure
and Function (2 of 5)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure
and Function (3 of 5)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure
and Function (4 of 5)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure
and Function (5 of 5)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Extensions
•  Surface extensions found in some cells
–  Cilia move materials across the cell surface
▪  Located in the respiratory system to move mucus
–  Flagella propel the cell
▪  The only flagellated cell in the human body is sperm
–  Microvilli are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma
membrane
▪  Increase surface area for absorption

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Diversity
•  The human body houses over 200 different cell types
•  Cells vary in size, shape, and function
–  Cells vary in length from 1/12,000 of an inch to over
1 yard (nerve cells)
–  Cell shape reflects its specialized function

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cell Diversity
•  Cells that connect body
parts
–  Fibroblast
▪  Secretes cable-like
fibers
–  Erythrocyte (red blood
cell)
▪  Carries oxygen in
the bloodstream

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cell Diversity
•  Cells that cover and
line body organs
–  Epithelial cell
▪  Packs together
in sheets
▪  Intermediate
fibers resist
tearing during
rubbing or
pulling

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Diversity
•  Cells that move organs and body parts
–  Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle cells
▪  Contractile filaments allow cells to shorten forcefully

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Diversity
•  Cell that stores nutrients
–  Fat cells
▪  Lipid droplets stored in cytoplasm

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Diversity
•  Cell that fights disease
–  White blood cells, such as the macrophage
(a phagocytic cell)
▪  Digests infectious microorganisms

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Diversity
•  Cell that gathers information and controls body functions
–  Nerve cell (neuron)
▪  Receives and transmits messages to other body
structures

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Diversity
•  Cells of reproduction
–  Oocyte (female)
▪  Largest cell in the body
▪  Divides to become an embryo upon fertilization
–  Sperm (male)
▪  Built for swimming to the egg for fertilization
▪  Flagellum acts as a motile whip

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Physiology
•  Cells have the ability to:
–  Metabolize
–  Digest food
–  Dispose of wastes
–  Reproduce
–  Grow
–  Move
–  Respond to a stimulus

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport
•  Solution—homogeneous mixture of two or more
components
–  Solvent—dissolving medium present in the larger
quantity; the body’s main solvent is water
–  Solutes—components in smaller quantities within a
solution

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport
•  Intracellular fluid
–  Nucleoplasm and cytosol
–  Solution containing gases, nutrients, and salts
dissolved in water
•  Extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid)
–  Fluid on the exterior of the cell
–  Contains thousands of ingredients, such as nutrients,
hormones, neurotransmitters, salts, waste products

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport
•  The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier
–  Some materials can pass through, while others are
excluded
–  For example:
▪  Nutrients can enter the cell
▪  Undesirable substances are kept out

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport
•  Two basic methods of transport
–  Passive processes: substances are transported
across the membrane without any input from the cell
–  Active processes: the cell provides the metabolic
energy (ATP) to drive the transport process

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
A&P Flix™: Membrane Transport

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport
•  Passive processes: diffusion and filtration
–  Diffusion
▪  Molecule movement is from high concentration to
low concentration, down a concentration gradient
▪  Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly
within a solution
▪  Kinetic energy (energy of motion) causes the
molecules to move about randomly
▪  Size of the molecule and temperature affect the
speed of diffusion

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.9 Diffusion

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane TransportO?????
•  Molecules will move by diffusion if any of the following
applies:
–  The molecules are small enough to pass through the
membrane’s pores (channels formed by membrane
proteins)
–  The molecules are lipid-soluble
–  The molecules are assisted by a membrane carrier

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (7 of 21)
•  Types of diffusion
–  Simple diffusion
▪  An unassisted process
▪  Solutes are lipid-soluble or small enough to pass
through membrane pores

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.10a Diffusion Through the
Plasma Membrane

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (8 of 21)
•  Types of diffusion
–  Osmosis—simple diffusion of water across a selectively
permeable membrane
▪  Highly polar water molecules easily cross the
plasma membrane through aquaporins
▪  Water moves down its concentration gradient

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.10b Diffusion Through the
Plasma Membrane

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (9 of 21)
•  Osmosis—A Closer Look
–  Isotonic solutions have the same solute and water
concentrations as cells and cause no visible changes
in the cell
–  Hypertonic solutions contain more solutes than the
cells do; the cells will begin to shrink
–  Hypotonic solutions contain fewer solutes (more
water) than the cells do; cells will plump

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 IV Therapy and
A Closer Look 3.1 Four
Cellular “Tonics”

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (10 of 21)
•  Types of diffusion
–  Facilitated diffusion
▪  Transports lipid-insoluble and large substances
▪  Glucose is transported via facilitated diffusion
▪  Protein membrane channels or protein molecules
that act as carriers are used

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.10cd Diffusion Through the
Plasma Membrane

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (11 of 21)
•  Passive processes
–  Filtration
▪  Water and solutes are forced through a membrane
by fluid, or hydrostatic, pressure
▪  A pressure gradient must exist that pushes solute-
containing fluid (filtrate) from a high-pressure area to
a lower-pressure area
▪  Filtration is critical for the kidneys to work properly

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (12 of 21)
•  Active processes
–  ATP is used to move substances across a membrane
–  Active processes are used when:
▪  Substances are too large to travel through
membrane channels
▪  The membrane may lack special protein carriers for
the transport of certain substances
▪  Substances may not be lipid-soluble
▪  Substances may have to move against a
concentration gradient

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (13 of 21)
•  Active processes
–  Active transport and vesicular transport
–  Active transport
▪  Amino acids, some sugars, and ions are transported
by protein carriers known as solute pumps
▪  ATP energizes solute pumps
▪  In most cases, substances are moved against
concentration (or electrical) gradients

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (14 of 21)
•  Active transport example: sodium-potassium pump
–  Necessary for nerve impulses
–  Sodium is transported out of the cell
–  Potassium is transported into the cell

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.11 Operation of the Sodium-
Potassium Pump, a Solute Pump (1 of 4)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.11 Operation of the Sodium-
Potassium Pump, a Solute Pump (2 of 4)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.11 Operation of the Sodium-
Potassium Pump, a Solute Pump (3 of 4)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.11 Operation of the Sodium-
Potassium Pump, a Solute Pump (4 of 4)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (15 of 21)
•  Active processes
–  Vesicular transport: substances are moved across
the membrane “in bulk” without actually crossing the
plasma membrane
–  Types of vesicular transport
▪  Exocytosis
▪  Endocytosis
– Phagocytosis
– Pinocytosis

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (16 of 21)
•  Exocytosis
–  Mechanism cells use to actively secrete hormones,
mucus, and other products
–  Material is carried in a membranous sac called a
vesicle that migrates to and combines with the
plasma membrane
–  Contents of vesicle are emptied to the outside
–  Refer to pathway 1 in Figure 3.6

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.6 Role of the Golgi Apparatus in
Packaging the Products of the Rough ER (2 of 2)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (17 of 21)
•  Exocytosis
–  Exocytosis docking process
▪  Docking proteins on the vesicles recognize plasma
membrane proteins and bind with them
▪  Membranes corkscrew and fuse together

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.12a Exocytosis

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.12b Exocytosis

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (18 of 21)
•  Endocytosis
–  Extracellular substances are enclosed (engulfed) in a
membranous vesicle
–  Vesicle detaches from the plasma membrane and
moves into the cell
–  Once in the cell, the vesicle typically fuses with a
lysosome
–  Contents are digested by lysosomal enzymes
–  In some cases, the vesicle is released by exocytosis
on the opposite side of the cell

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.13a Events and Types of
Endocytosis (1 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.13a Events and Types of
Endocytosis (2 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.13a Events and Types of
Endocytosis (3 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.13a Events and Types of
Endocytosis (4 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.13a Events and Types of
Endocytosis (5 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.13a Events and Types of
Endocytosis (6 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (19 of 21)
•  Types of endocytosis
1.  Phagocytosis—“cell eating”
▪  Cell engulfs large particles such as bacteria or
dead body cells
▪  Pseudopods are cytoplasmic extensions that
separate substances (such as bacteria or dead
body cells) from external environment
▪  Phagocytosis is a protective mechanism, not a
means of getting nutrients

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.13b Events and Types of
Endocytosis

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (20 of 21)
•  Types of endocytosis
2.  Pinocytosis—“cell drinking”
▪  Cell “gulps” droplets of extracellular fluid containing
dissolved proteins or fats
▪  Plasma membrane forms a pit, and edges fuse
around droplet of fluid
▪  Routine activity for most cells, such as those
involved in absorption (small intestine)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.13a Events and Types of
Endocytosis (7 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Membrane Transport (21 of 21)
•  Types of endocytosis
3.  Receptor-mediated endocytosis
▪  Method for taking up specific target molecules
▪  Receptor proteins on the membrane surface bind
only certain substances
▪  Highly selective process of taking in substances
such as enzymes, some hormones, cholesterol,
and iron

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.13c Events and Types of
Endocytosis

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Division
•  Cell life cycle is a series of changes the cell experiences
from the time it is formed until it divides
•  Cell life cycle has two major periods
1.  Interphase (metabolic phase)
▪  Cell grows and carries on metabolic processes
▪  Longer phase of the cell cycle
2.  Cell division
▪  Cell reproduces itself
Preparations: D N A Replication
Genetic material is duplicated and readies a cell for
division into two cells
Occurs toward the end of interphase

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Concept Link 2
Recall that DNA is a very complex molecule (see Chapter
2, p. 53). It is composed of building blocks called
nucleotides, each consisting of a deoxyribose sugar, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base.
Essentially, DNA is a double helix, a ladderlike molecule
that is coiled into a spiral staircase shape. The upright
parts of the DNA “ladder,” or backbone, are alternating
phosphate and sugar units, and the rungs of the ladder
are made of pairs of nitrogen-containing bases.

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Division
•  Process of DNA replication
–  DNA uncoils into two nucleotide chains, and each side
serves as a template
–  Nucleotides are complementary
▪  Adenine (A) always bonds with thymine (T)
▪  Guanine (G) always bonds with cytosine (C)
–  For example, TACTGC bonds with new nucleotides in
the order ATGACG

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.14 Replication of the DNA
Molecule at the End of Interphase

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Division
•  Events of cell division
–  Mitosis—division of the nucleus
▪  Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei
–  Cytokinesis—division of the cytoplasm
▪  Begins when mitosis is near completion
▪  Results in the formation of two daughter cells

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
A&P Flix™: Mitosis

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Division
•  Events of mitosis: prophase
–  Chromatin coils into chromosomes; identical strands
called chromatids are held together by a centromere
–  Centrioles direct the assembly of a mitotic spindle
–  Nuclear envelope and nucleoli have broken down
•  Events of mitosis: metaphase
–  Chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell on
the metaphase plate (center of the spindle midway
between the centrioles)
–  Straight line of chromosomes is now seen

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Division
•  Events of mitosis: anaphase
–  Centromere splits
–  Chromatids move slowly apart and toward the
opposite ends of the cell
–  Anaphase is over when the chromosomes stop
moving
•  Events of mitosis: telophase
–  Reverse of prophase
–  Chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin
–  Spindles break down and disappear
–  Nuclear envelope re-forms around chromatin
–  Nucleoli appear in each of the daughter nuclei

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Division
•  Cytokinesis
–  Division of the cytoplasm
–  Begins during late anaphase and completes during
telophase
–  A cleavage furrow (contractile ring of microfilaments)
forms to pinch the cells into two parts
–  Two daughter cells exist
•  In most cases, mitosis and cytokinesis occur together
•  In some cases, the cytoplasm is not divided
–  Binucleate or multinucleate cells result
–  Common in the liver and skeletal muscle

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.15 Stages of Mitosis (1 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.15 Stages of Mitosis (2 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.15 Stages of Mitosis (3 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.15 Stages of Mitosis (4 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.15 Stages of Mitosis (5 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.15 Stages of Mitosis (6 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.15 Stages of Mitosis (7 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Protein Synthesis
•  DNA serves as a blueprint for making proteins
•  Gene: DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building
one protein or polypeptide chain
•  Proteins have many functions
–  Fibrous (structural) proteins are the building materials
for cells
–  Globular (functional) proteins can act as enzymes
(biological catalysts)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Protein Synthesis (2 of 10)
•  DNA information is coded into a sequence of bases
•  A sequence of three bases (triplet) codes for an amino acid
•  For example, a DNA sequence of AAA specifies the amino acid
phenylalanine

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Protein Synthesis (3 of 10)
•  The role of DNA
–  Most ribosomes, the manufacturing sites of proteins,
are located in the cytoplasm
–  DNA never leaves the nucleus in interphase cells
–  DNA requires a decoder and a messenger to carry
instructions to build proteins to ribosomes
–  Both the decoder and messenger functions are carried
out by RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Protein Synthesis (4 of 10)
•  How does RNA differ from DNA?
–  RNA is single-stranded
–  RNA contains ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose
–  RNA contains uracil (U) base instead of thymine (T)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Protein Synthesis (5 of 10)
•  Three varieties of RNA
–  Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfers appropriate amino
acids to the ribosome for building the protein
–  Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Helps form the ribosomes
where proteins are built
–  Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries the instructions for
building a protein from the nucleus to the ribosome

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Protein Synthesis (6 of 10)
•  Protein synthesis involves two major phases:
–  Transcription
–  Translation
•  We will detail these two phases next

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Protein Synthesis (7 of 10)
•  Transcription
–  Transfer of information from DNA’s base sequence to
the complementary base sequence of mRNA
–  DNA is the template for transcription; m R N A is the
product
–  Each DNA triplet corresponds to an mRNA codon
–  If DNA sequence is AAT-CGT-TCG, then the mRNA
corresponding codons are UUA-GCA-AGC

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.16a Protein Synthesis

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Protein Synthesis (8 of 10)
•  Translation
–  Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an
amino acid sequence; amino acids are the building
blocks of proteins
–  Occurs in the cytoplasm and involves three major
varieties of RNA

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Protein Synthesis (9 of 10)
•  Translation
–  Steps correspond to Figure 3.16 (step 1 covers
transcription)
▪  Step 2: mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches to
ribosome, and translation begins
▪  Step 3: incoming tRNA recognizes a complementary
mRNA codon calling for its amino acid by temporarily
binding its anticodon to the codon

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.16 Protein Synthesis (1 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.16 Protein Synthesis (2 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.16 Protein Synthesis (3 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.16 Protein Synthesis (4 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Protein Synthesis (10 of 10)
•  Translation
–  Steps correspond to Figure 3.16
▪  Step 4: as the ribosome moves along the mRNA, a
new amino acid is added to the growing protein
chain
▪  Step 5: released tRNA reenters the cytoplasmic
pool, ready to be recharged with a new amino acid

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.16 Protein Synthesis (5 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.16 Protein Synthesis (6 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.16 Protein Synthesis (7 of 7)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Concept Link 3
Recall that the joining of amino acids by the ribosome into
peptide bonds is the result of dehydration synthesis
reactions (Chapter 2, p. 42). To make room for the new
peptide bond, water (H2O) must be removed. A hydrogen
atom is removed from one amino acid, and a hydroxyl
group (OH) is removed from the other.

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Part II: Body Tissues
Two

•  Tissues
–  Groups of cells with similar structure and function
–  Four primary types:
1.  Epithelial tissue (epithelium)
2.  Connective tissue
3.  Muscle tissue
4.  Nervous tissue

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Epithelial Tissue (1 of 14)
•  Locations:
–  Body coverings
–  Body linings
–  Glandular tissue
•  Functions:
–  Protection
–  Absorption
–  Filtration
–  Secretion

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Epithelial Tissue (2 of 14)
•  Hallmarks of epithelial tissues:
–  Cover and line body surfaces
–  Often form sheets with one free surface, the apical
surface, and an anchored surface, the basement
membrane
–  Avascular (no blood supply)
–  Regenerate easily if well nourished

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Epithelial Tissue (3 of 14)
•  Classification of epithelia
–  Number of cell layers
▪  Simple—one layer
▪  Stratified—more than one layer
–  Shape of cells
▪  Squamous—flattened, like fish scales
▪  Cuboidal—cube-shaped, like dice
▪  Columnar—shaped like columns

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.17a Classification and
Functions of Epithelia

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.17b Classification and
Functions of Epithelia

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.17c Classification and
Functions of Epithelia
Number of layers
Number of layers More than one layer:
Cell shape One layer: simple epithelial tissues stratified epithelial tissues
Squamous Diffusion and filtration Secretion in Protection
serous membranes

Cuboidal Secretion and absorption; ciliated types Protection; these tissue types
propel mucus or reproductive cells are rare in humans

Columnar Secretion and absorption; ciliated types

propel mucus or reproductive cells
Transitional No simple transitional epithelium exists Protection; stretching to
accommodate distension of
urinary structures

(c) Function of epithelial tissue related to tissue type

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Epithelial Tissue (4 of 14)
•  Simple epithelia
–  Functions in absorption, secretion, and filtration
–  Very thin (so not suited for protection)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Epithelial Tissue (5 of 14)
•  Simple squamous epithelium
–  Single layer of flat cells
–  Locations—usually forms membranes
▪  Lines air sacs of the lungs
▪  Forms walls of capillaries
▪  Forms serous membranes (serosae) that line and
cover organs in ventral cavity
–  Functions in diffusion, filtration, or secretion in
membranes

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.18a Types of Epithelia and Examples
of Common Locations in the Body

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Epithelial Tissue (6 of 14)
•  Simple cuboidal epithelium
–  Single layer of cubelike cells
–  Locations
▪  Common in glands and their ducts
▪  Forms walls of kidney tubules
▪  Covers the surface of ovaries
–  Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated types
propel mucus or reproductive cells

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.18b Types of Epithelia and Examples
of Common Locations in the Body

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Epithelial Tissue (7 of 14)
•  Simple columnar epithelium
–  Single layer of tall cells
▪  Goblet cells secrete mucus
–  Locations
▪  Lining of the digestive tract from stomach to anus
▪  Mucous membranes (mucosae) line body cavities
opening to the exterior
–  Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated types
propel mucus or reproductive cells

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.18c Types of Epithelia and Examples
of Common Locations in the Body

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Epithelial Tissue (8 of 14)
•  Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
–  All cells rest on a basement membrane
–  Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others
giving a false (pseudo) impression of stratification
–  Location: respiratory tract, where it is ciliated and
known as pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium
–  Functions in absorption or secretion

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.18d Types of Epithelia and Examples
of Common Locations in the Body

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Epithelial Tissue (9 of 14)
•  Stratified epithelia
–  Consist of two or more cell layers
–  Function primarily in protection

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Epithelial Tissue (10 of 14)
•  Stratified squamous epithelium
–  Most common stratified epithelium
–  Named for cells present at the free (apical) surface,
which are squamous
–  Functions as a protective covering where friction is
common
–  Locations—lining of the:
▪  Skin (outer portion)
▪  Mouth
▪  Esophagus

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.18e Types of Epithelia and Examples
of Common Locations in the Body

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Epithelial Tissue (11 of 14)
•  Stratified cuboidal epithelium—two layers of cuboidal
cells; functions in protection
•  Stratified columnar epithelium—surface cells are
columnar, and cells underneath vary in size and shape;
functions in protection
•  Stratified cuboidal and columnar
–  Rare in human body
–  Found mainly in ducts of large glands

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Epithelial Tissue (12 of 14)
•  Transitional epithelium
–  Composed of modified stratified squamous epithelium
–  Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching
–  Functions in stretching and the ability to return to
normal shape
–  Location: lining of urinary system organs

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.18f Types of Epithelia and Examples
of Common Locations in the Body

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Epithelial Tissue (13 of 14)
•  Glandular epithelia
–  One or more cells responsible for secreting a
particular product
–  Secretions contain protein molecules in an aqueous
(water-based) fluid
–  Secretion is an active process

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Epithelial Tissue (14 of 14)
•  Two major gland types develop from epithelial sheets
–  Endocrine glands
▪  Ductless; secretions (hormones) diffuse into blood
vessels
▪  Examples include thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary
–  Exocrine glands
▪  Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial
surface
▪  Include sweat and oil glands, liver, and pancreas
(both internal and external)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Connective Tissue (1 of 14)
•  Found everywhere in the body to connect body parts
•  Includes the most abundant and widely distributed tissues
•  Functions
–  Protection
–  Support
–  Binding

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Connective Tissue (2 of 14)
•  Characteristics of connective tissue
–  Variations in blood supply
▪  Some tissue types are well vascularized
▪  Some have a poor blood supply or are avascular
–  Extracellular matrix
▪  Nonliving material that surrounds living cells

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Connective Tissue (3 of 14)
•  Two main elements of the extracellular matrix
1.  Ground substance—mostly water, along with
adhesion proteins and polysaccharide molecules
2.  Fibers
▪  Collagen (white) fibers
▪  Elastic (yellow) fibers
▪  Reticular fibers (a type of collagen)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Connective Tissue (4 of 14)
•  Types of connective tissue from most rigid to
softest, or most fluid:
–  Bone
–  Cartilage
–  Dense connective tissue
–  Loose connective tissue
–  Blood

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Connective Tissue (5 of 14)
•  Bone (osseous tissue)
–  Composed of:
▪  Osteocytes (bone cells) sitting in lacunae (cavities)
▪  Hard matrix of calcium salts
▪  Large numbers of collagen fibers
–  Functions to protect and support the body

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.19a Connective Tissues and
Their Common Body Locations

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Connective Tissue (6 of 14)
•  Cartilage
–  Less hard and more flexible than bone
–  Found in only a few places in the body
–  Chondrocyte (cartilage cell) is the major cell type
–  Types
▪  Hyaline cartilage
▪  Fibrocartilage
▪  Elastic cartilage

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Connective Tissue (7 of 14)
•  Hyaline cartilage
–  Most widespread type of cartilage
–  Abundant collagen fibers hidden by a glassy,
rubbery matrix
–  Locations
▪  Trachea
▪  Attaches ribs to the breastbone
▪  Covers ends of long bones
▪  Entire fetal skeleton prior to birth
▪  Epiphyseal (growth) plates in long bones

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.19b Connective Tissues and
Their Common Body Locations

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Connective Tissue (8 of 14)
•  Elastic cartilage (not pictured)
–  Provides elasticity
–  Location: supports the external ear
•  Fibrocartilage
–  Highly compressible
–  Location: forms cushionlike discs between
vertebrae of the spinal column

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.19c Connective Tissues and
Their Common Body Locations

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Connective Tissue (9 of 14)
•  Dense connective tissue (dense fibrous tissue)
–  Main matrix element is collagen fiber
–  Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers
–  Locations
▪  Tendons—attach skeletal muscle to bone
▪  Ligaments—attach bone to bone at joints and are
more elastic than tendons
▪  Dermis—lower layers of the skin

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.19d Connective Tissues and
Their Common Body Locations

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Connective Tissue (10 of 14)
•  Loose connective tissue
–  Softer, have more cells and fewer fibers than other
connective tissues (except blood)
–  Types
▪  Areolar
▪  Adipose
▪  Reticular

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Connective Tissue (11 of 14)
•  Areolar connective tissue
–  Most widely distributed connective tissue
–  Soft, pliable tissue like “cobwebs”
–  Functions as a universal packing tissue and “glue”
to hold organs in place
–  Layer of areolar tissue called lamina propria
underlies all membranes
–  All fiber types form a loose network
–  Can soak up excess fluid (causes edema)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.19e Connective Tissues and
Their Common Body Locations

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Connective Tissue (12 of 14)
•  Adipose connective tissue
–  An areolar tissue in which adipose (fat) cells dominate
–  Functions
▪  Insulates the body
▪  Protects some organs
▪  Serves as a site of fuel storage
–  Locations
▪  Subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin
▪  Protects organs, such as the kidneys
▪  Fat “depots” include hips, breasts, and belly

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.19f Connective Tissues and
Their Common Body Locations

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Connective Tissue (13 of 14)
•  Reticular connective tissue
–  Delicate network of interwoven fibers with reticular cells
(like fibroblasts)
–  Forms stroma (internal framework) of organs
–  Locations
▪  Lymph nodes
▪  Spleen
▪  Bone marrow

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.19g Connective Tissues and
Their Common Body Locations

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Connective Tissue (14 of 14)
•  Blood (vascular tissue)
–  Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix known as
blood plasma
–  Soluble fibers are visible only during clotting
–  Functions as the transport vehicle for the
cardiovascular system, carrying:
▪  Nutrients
▪  Wastes
▪  Respiratory gases

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.19h Connective Tissues and
Their Common Body Locations

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Muscle Tissue (1 of 4)
•  Function is to contract, or shorten, to produce movement
•  Three types of muscle tissue

1.  Skeletal
2.  Cardiac
3.  Smooth

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Muscle Tissue (2 of 4)
•  Skeletal muscle tissue
–  Packaged by connective tissue sheets into skeletal
muscles, which are attached to the skeleton and pull on
bones or skin
–  Voluntarily (consciously) controlled
–  Produces gross body movements or facial expressions
–  Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells
▪  Striations (stripes)
▪  Multinucleate (more than one nucleus)
▪  Long, cylindrical shape

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.20a Types of Muscle Tissue and
Their Common Locations in the Body

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Muscle Tissue (3 of 4)
•  Cardiac muscle tissue
–  Involuntarily controlled
–  Found only in the heart
–  Pumps blood through blood vessels
–  Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells
▪  Striations
▪  One nucleus per cell
▪  Short, branching cells
▪  Intercalated discs contain gap junctions to connect
cells together

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.20b Types of Muscle Tissue and
Their Common Locations in the Body

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Muscle Tissue (4 of 4)
•  Smooth (visceral) muscle tissue
–  Involuntarily controlled
–  Found in walls of hollow organs such as stomach,
uterus, and blood vessels
–  Peristalsis, a wavelike activity, is a typical activity
–  Characteristics of smooth muscle cells
▪  No visible striations
▪  One nucleus per cell
▪  Spindle-shaped cells

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.20c Types of Muscle Tissue and
Their Common Locations in the Body

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Nervous Tissue
•  Function is to receive and conduct electrochemical
impulses to and from body parts
–  Irritability
–  Conductivity
•  Composed of neurons and nerve support cells
–  Support cells called neuroglia insulate, protect, and
support neurons

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.21 Nervous Tissue

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Summary of Tissues
•  Figure 3.22 summarizes the tissue types and functions
in the body

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Figure 3.22 Summary of the Major Functions,
Characteristics, and Body Locations of the Four
Tissue Types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and
Nervous Tissues

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Tissue Repair (Wound Healing) (1 of 5)
•  Tissue repair (wound healing) occurs in two ways:
1.  Regeneration
▪  Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind
of cells
2.  Fibrosis
▪  Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue (scar
tissue)

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Tissue Repair (Wound Healing) (2 of 5)
•  Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs depends on:
1.  Type of tissue damaged
2.  Severity of the injury
•  Clean cuts (incisions) heal more successfully than ragged
tears of the tissue

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Tissue Repair (Wound Healing) (3 of 5)
•  Events of tissue repair
–  Inflammation sets the stage
▪  Capillaries become very permeable
▪  Clotting proteins migrate into the area from the
bloodstream
▪  A clot walls off the injured area
–  Granulation tissue forms
▪  Growth of new capillaries
▪  Phagocytes dispose of blood clot and fibroblasts
▪  Rebuild collagen fibers

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Tissue Repair (Wound Healing) (4 of 5)
•  Events of tissue repair
–  Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair
▪  Scab detaches
▪  Whether scar is visible or invisible depends on
severity of wound

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Tissue Repair (Wound Healing) (5 of 5)
•  Tissues that regenerate easily
–  Epithelial tissue (skin and mucous membranes)
–  Fibrous connective tissues and bone
•  Tissues that regenerate poorly
–  Skeletal muscle
•  Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
–  Cardiac muscle
–  Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Developmental Aspects of Cells and
Tissues (1 of 3)
•  Growth through cell division continues through puberty
•  Cell populations exposed to friction (such as epithelium)
replace lost cells throughout life
•  Connective tissue remains mitotic and forms repair (scar)
tissue
•  With some exceptions, muscle tissue becomes amitotic by
the end of puberty
•  Nervous tissue becomes amitotic shortly after birth

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Developmental Aspects of Cells and
Tissues (2 of 3)
•  Injury can severely handicap amitotic tissues
•  The cause of aging is unknown, but chemical and
physical insults, as well as genetic programming, have
been proposed as possible causes

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Developmental Aspects of Cells and
Tissues (3 of 3)
•  Neoplasms, both benign and cancerous, represent
abnormal cell masses in which normal controls on cell
division are not working
•  Hyperplasia (increase in size) of a tissue or organ may
occur when tissue is strongly stimulated or irritated
•  Atrophy (decrease in size) of a tissue or organ occurs
when the organ is no longer stimulated normally

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is

provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their
courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of
any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will
destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work
and materials from it should never be made available to students
except by instructors using the accompanying text in their
classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these
restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and
the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

Copyright © 2018, 2015, 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved