commonly in plantations and as a rec-

Comprehensive
lamation species. Black locust is in-
creasingly grown as a horticultural spe-
cies (Nowak and Syndor, 1992) and
numerous cultivars have been described

Crop
(ArborVillage, 1997; Carlton; 1997;
Keresztesi, 1988; Wandell, 1989).
Black locust is used throughout the
world as a versatile landscape tree. It

Reports
has proven to be highly effective in
conditions that call for a species that is
tolerant of air pollution and nutrient
poor soils. Locust also has beautiful
flowers, foliage, and stem structure
that can grace parks and home gar-
dens. The Europeans of the 18th cen-
cuttings, budding/grafting, or tissue tury planted this tree for ornamental
Culture and Use culture. Locust has indeterminate purposes and the tree became very
growth. Spacing of plants in planta-
of Black Locust tions is critical for the production of
popular in European gardens (Peattie,
1950).
multiple products including high
In several central European coun-
value timber. Locust is known for its
tries where black locust is an exotic, it
Tom DeGomez1 and ability to withstand drought condi-
is used extensively in plantation for-
tions however at the cost of leaf
Michael R. Wagner2 shedding. Black locust contributes estry for a variety of economic, eco-
high levels of nitrogen to the soil logical, and aesthetic purposes.
from nitrogen fixing bacterial symbio- Keresztesi (1988) reported that in 1986
ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS. bristly locust,
sis. The major drawback to large-scale there were about 69,000 acres (28,000
production of black locust in its ha) of black locust forest in Czechoslo-
clammy locust, new mexican locust,
native range is the damage that occurs vakia and some 670,000 acres (271,000
Robinia hispida, Robinia
from the locust borer (Megacyllene ha) in Hungary, which represents about
neomexicana, Robinia pseudoacacia,
robiniae Forster). When planted
Robinia viscosa 18% of this country’s total forested
outside the range of the locust borer
it can be grown successfully as area. It is also grown in China on 2.5
SUMMARY. Robinia L. (locust) species million acres (1 million ha), and South
landscape specimen trees and as trees
are among the most widely planted Korea on 3.0 million acres (1.22 mil-
large enough for lumber production
tree species in the world because they lion ha) (Keresztesi, 1988). Its wide-
when varieties with straight trunks are
are ornamentally attractive, drought
grown. Damage from locust leaf spread popularity has made black lo-
tolerant, fast growing, fix nitrogen,
have very hard durable wood, and are
miner (Odontata dorsalis Thunberg) cust the 3rd most planted hardwood
can greatly detract from the trees tree in the world, only eucalypts and
adaptable to many sites and climates.
ornamental qualities. Its most hybrid poplars are more widely used
Recent taxonomic analysis indicates
common use is as a site reclamation (Kerestesi, 1988). One of the reasons
there are four species, black locust (R.
species. The tree is also used in honey
pseudoacacia L.); bristly locust (R. for its great success as an exotic in these
production. The wood is highly decay
hispida L.); clammy locust (R. viscosa
resistant and is greatly valued for countries is that some of the most
Vent.); and new mexican locust (R. damaging insect pests found in its na-
poles and posts. The wood is ex-
neomexicana A. Gray). All four species tive range, such as the locust borer, the
tremely hard and easy to work making
originate in the southern United
it highly desirable for many construc-
States and northern Mexico. Many
tion uses.
horticultural cultivars are available.
Locusts are tolerant of a wide range of
soil types so long as there is good

R
drainage, adequate moisture, and it is obinia is a cold temper-
not very clayey. The environmental ate arborescent genus
tolerance of locust makes it an that has its center of origin in
excellent candidate for horticultural the deciduous forests of the eastern
uses and for future breeding and and southwestern United States (Gra-
selection to enhance its many desir- ham, 1987; Lavin, 1987). There is
able traits. It is easy to propagate via great interest in black locust in planta-
seed, root cuttings, soft- or hardwood tion and restoration forestry because
The cost of publishing this paper was defrayed in part the species grows quickly, fixes nitro-
by the payment of page charges. Under postal regula- gen, stabilizes soils, and produces wood
tions, this paper therefore must be hereby marked that is extremely durable (Hanover,
advertisement solely to indicate this fact.
1
1992). Locust is grown rarely in plan- Fig. 1. Seed pods of (a) bristly locust
University of Arizona Cooperative Extension, 2304
N. 3rd Strret, Flagstaff, AZ 86004. tations in the eastern United States but (b), clammy locust, (c) black locust,
2 is used widely on mine reclamation and (d) new mexican locust (2.54 cm
School of Forestry, Northern Arizona University, Box
15018 Flagstaff, AZ 86011. sites. In Europe and Asia it is used = 1 inch).
locust leaf miner, and the locust twig dwellings of the Indians are…. a kynd tree and many of its beneficial proper-
borer, (Ecdytolopha insiticiana Zeller) [sic] of low tree, which bears a cod ties. Houses in the original settlements
do not occur and have thus far not (pod) like to the peas, but nothing so of Virginia, were said to have been
been introduced into Europe or Asia big: we take yt [sic] to be locust.” He built upon locust posts “pitched into
(Hanover, 1992). further states that the “Indians made the ground to support the four cor-
their bows of some plant, eyther [sic] ners” (Catesby, 1763).
Historical aspects of the locust-tree or of weech [sic].” Sometime around the settlement
Black locust was used by Ameri- Catesby (1763) states in his assess- of Jamestown, Virginia (1607) Jean
can Indians and subsequently by early ment of locust that both Virginians Robin, herbalist to Henry IV of France,
American settlers. The spread of the and American Indians were using lo- or his son Vespasien, introduced the
species is believed to have started with cust for bows. Whether the native first locust trees to Europe (Peattie,
the Native Americans before settle- Americans spread this tree from its 1950). Black locust was first grown in
ment of North America by Europeans native range throughout the eastern England in 1630 (Mitchell, 1974), by
(Sargent, 1892). William Strachey United States will probably never be 1710 it was being grown in Hungary
(Major, 1849), first secretary of the known for certain (Isely and Peabody, (Vadas, 1911), and by 1720 in Slovakia
Virginian colony, upon visiting James 1984) but there seems to be sufficient (Bencat, 1982). Around 1817 William
River, Virginia in 1610, found “by the evidence that they were aware of the Cobbett, an Englishman, started grow-

Table 1. Cultivars of black locust from Jacobson (1996) except where otherwise noted (1 ft = 0.3 m).

Common or Max ht and Origin

Cultivar trade name spread (ft) Description and date
Aurea goldenz 80 × 35 New leaves yellow, eventually turning
light green. Germany, 1859
Bessoniana bessony NAx Thornless, well developed central leader
with ovoid crown. Germany, 1859
Burgundy NA NA NA NA
Crispa crinkle-leafy NA Leaflets more or less undulately curled;
thornless. France, 1825
Dean Rossman NA NA Yellow leaves persist throughout most of
summer; thornless. New York, 1990
Frisia NA 70 Has yellow foliage and is very tall; common
in Europe. Holland 1935
Inermis thornless or Leaves are extra large; thornless.
mop-head acaciaw France, 1804
Macrophylla NA NA Large leaves and leaflets. 1824
Microphylla little-leaf 40 × 30 Small leaves and leaflets have similar look to
honey locust. England, 1813
Monophylla Fastigata NA 70 Narrow crown; fewer leaflets, but larger in size. Germany, 1880
Monophylla Pendulaz weeping NA NA NA
Ohio Prostrate NA NA Topgrafted at 6 ft to weep. <1966
Pendulifolia NA 50 Leaves drooping. Germany, 1860
Purple Crown
NA NA Has purple flowers in late spring. NA
Purple Robe NA 50 Has magenta-pink flowers that bloom early. NA
Pyramidalis pyramidal or
fastigiate 65 × 25 Columnar shape with thornless branches. France, 1839
Rehderiw rehderx NA Large shrub or small thornless tree. NA
Rozyskiana weeping 80 This large shrub or small tree has drooping
branch tips. Poland, 1896
Semperflorens perpetual NA Blooms intermittently all summer; thornless. France, 1871
Tortuosa contortedz or
twisted 60 Has twisted branches. France, <1810
Umbraculifera umbrellay, globe,
mushroom, or
parasol 35 × 20 Has spreading umbrella-like canopy. NA
Unifoliola one-leafy or
singleleaf 60 Large single leaflet subtended by 1 or 2
normalized leaflets. France, 1855
zWandell (1989).
yVines (1960).
xNA = not available.
wHillier (1973).
ing black locust on his farm in New asexual reproduction by root sprout- tion to the species type R. viscosa
York. When he returned to England a ing there is genetic and morphological Ventenat, var. hartwigii (Koehne) Ashe
few years later he imported millions of uniformity within a population but is recognized.
seeds and began selling locust trees in often there are marked differences be- New mexican locust is native to
very large quantities (Peattie, 1950). tween populations (Lavin, 1992). The the southwestern United States. It is
From these beginnings black locust difference in populations is most likely found in Arizona, Colorado, New
became very popular in Europe. due to many clones comprising the Mexico, Texas, and Utah, with small
stand. No evidence exists as to whether populations in northern Sonora,
Species, varieties, and black locust will self-pollinate. Selfing Mexico (Little, 1976). This species is
cultivars is probably rare (B. Bongarten, per- generally a shrub or small tree, but it
The genus Robinia is part of the sonal communication). When workers has been found in isolated clumps as a
tribe Robinieae, a member of the le- attempt to develop superior clones it is tree, reaching heights of 75 ft (22.9 m)
gume subfamily Papilionoideae. Its done either with open-pollinated with straight stems (Wagner et al.,
most closely related genera are seedlots (half-sibs) or with control- 1992). The shrubby form is consid-
Coursetia DC, Genistidium I.M. pollinated seedlots (full-sibs) (Bloese ered by many as a weed due to its
Johnston, Olenya Gray, Peteria A. et al., 1992). This natural variation ability to rapidly colonize sites follow-
Gray, and Sphinctospermum Rose. among populations gives the impres- ing disturbance and low commercial
These six genera make up the Robinia sion that many Robinia species and value. Plant development work has
group and they have their origins in varieties exist. Many cultivars and lines begun at Northern Arizona University
the southern United States and north- of seed of black locust are recognized for its use as a landscape plant (M.R.
ern Mexico, except for Coursetia, which and are used for many purposes in- Wagner, unpublished). It has been
extends from the southwestern United cluding horticultural and reclamation recognized for its outstanding flower-
States to central South America (Lavin, purposes (Liberty Hyde Bailey ing (Fig. 2) and seedlings are begin-
1992). Workers during the early part Hortorium, 1976; Bridgen, 1992; ning to be used as ornamentals in the
of the twentieth century suggested as Bongarten, 1992; Hillier, 1973; southwestern U.S.
many as 20 species of Robinia (Ashe, Jacobsen, 1996; Keresztesi, 1988; Other species and varieties that
1922, 1923a, 1923b; Rydberg, 1924; Vines, 1960; Wandell, 1989). have been described in the literature
Small, 1933). Recent taxonomic analy- Horticultural cultivars have been were found not to be true species or
sis indicates there are four species selected for a variety of characteristics varieties and are most likely cultivars or
worldwide: R. pseudoacacia; R. hispida; including; thornlessness, form, leaf and hybrids of the previously described
R. viscosa; and R. neomexicana (Isely flower color, leaf size and shape, and taxa (Isley and Peabody, 1984). Sev-
and Peabody, 1984; Mabberley, 1997) blooming pattern (Nelson, 1976). The eral of these hybrids have been de-
(Fig. 1). earliest known cultivar was developed scribed in the literature (Isley and
Black locust, which has been the in France and named in 1804 Peabody, 1984; Wandell, 1989) and
most widely used Robinia species (Jacobson, 1996). Many of the horti- they are of horticultural interest. Flow-
(Keresztesi, 1980, 1983, 1988), is na- cultural cultivars of black locust are ering loose globe locust (R. hispida
tive to the Appalachian mountain re- listed in Table 1. In Hungary many ×macrophylla ‘Flowering Loose Globe
gions of the eastern U.S with its north- more cultivars are available for a vari-
ern most range in Pennsylvania, ex- ety of uses (Keresztesi, 1988).
tending south to northern Georgia Bristly locust is native from south-
and Alabama (Little, 1971). Other west Virginia to northern Georgia in
native regions are found in southern the southern Appalachians, adjacent
Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and west- piedmont, and coastal plain (Isley and
ern Arkansas (Little, 1971). Its present Peabody, 1984). This species has been
naturalized range extends throughout widely planted throughout the eastern
the eastern temperate regions of North United States. Five varieties are recog-
America (Hanover et al., 1991). It is nized R. hispida var. fertilis (Ashe)
presently cultivated expansively Clausen, kelsey locust (R. hispida var.
throughout the cool temperate areas kelseyi (Cowell ex Hutchinson) Isely),
of the world (Lavin, 1992). R. hispida var. hispida Mant., R. hispida
The only recognized black locust var. nana (Elliott) A.P. de Candolle,
variety is the shipmast locust (R. and R. hispida var. rosea Pursh. There
pseudoacacia var rectissima Raber) char- are two cultivars listed by Wandell
acterized by Raber (1936). Before (1989) ‘Macrophylia’ and ‘Superba’
Raber’s documentation in 1936, and the cultivar R. hispida var. fertilis
shipmast locust had been recognized ‘Arnot’, which has been used in land
as a distinct variety by growers since restoration (Carpenter and Hensley,
the early 1800s (Hopp, 1942). 1979).
Shipmast has a straight central stem Clammy locust is native to the
that makes it ideal for many uses where mountains of western North Carolina.
durability, strength, and straightness It has been cultivated in the eastern
are desired. United States as a shrub or small tree Fig. 2. Flowers of new mexican
(Isley and Peabody, 1984). In addi- locust.
Due to the predominance of
 early fall. Showy, insect-pollinated, fra- pretreatment with boiling water, acid,
grant pea-like white flower clusters or mechanical scarification due to im-
(Fig. 5) in mid to late spring in most permeable seed coat (Chapman, 1936;
places followed by 4 inch (10.2 cm) USDA Forest Service, 1974; Bujtas,
long bean-like seedpods (DeGomez 1992). Soaking the seeds in concen-
and Bailey, 1998). trated sulfuric acid from 10 to 120 min
Black locust has indeterminate has been found to be effective
growth, it is tolerant to a wide range of (Meginnis, 1937), but each seed lot
soil characteristics, and it develops an should be tested to determine proper
extensive root system (Bridgen, 1992). length of time for soaking (Meginnis,
In natural systems it propagates via 1937) due to variability of seed coat
seed and root sprouts. As a typical structure and permeability. Other
pioneer species it uses gaps in the workers have reported success with a
canopy and grows best in full sun. variety of soaking times in sulfuric acid
Black locust, depending on cultivar, is from 20 to 80 min; 20 min (Arrillaga
cold hardy to USDA zone 3, 4, or 5 and Merkle, 1993), 45 min R.
(USDA, 1990). pseudoacacia, R. neomexicana, and R.
Black locust has a tendency to hispida (DeGomez, unpublished), 60
produce multiple stems from root min (Hartmann et al., 1997), and 25
suckering. Multiple stemmed trees to 80 min R. neomexicana (Lin et al.,
should be repeatedly pruned to one 1996). Following scarification with acid
stem if specimen trees are desired. it is necessary to thoroughly rinse the
When unforked trunks are desired the seed with water or neutralize with
Fig. 3. Mature black locust.
bole should be pruned to a central baking soda. Mechanical scarification
leader, removing secondary leaders and is fast and effective for large quantities
Locust’), idaho locust (R. ×ambigua lateral branches low on the bole of seed if the proper equipment is used
‘Idahoensis’), and decaisneana (R. (Keresztesi, 1988). When straight (Chapman, 1936). Soaking seeds of
×ambigua ‘Decaisneana’) are three of trunks are wanted select plant material R. hispida and R. viscosa in boiling
the most commonly propagated hy- with straight trunks and prune for water for 1 min will increase germina-
brids. unforked trunk. When a broad crown tion rates from none to 80% (Wilson,
Selection of superior plant mate- is desired pruning should encourage 1944). Soaking in near boiling water
rial for use in the U.S. started in the wide, strong lateral branching and sec- 25 to 80 min for R. neomexicana (Lin
1930s and was spearheaded by the Soil ondary leaders should be removed. et al., 1996) increases germination over
Conservation Service (SCS), presently Use spreaders or other mechanical soaking for 10 min.
known as the Natural Resources Con- devices to widen the distance between In Hungary, where 30 to 40 mil-
servation Service (NRCS). Most culti- the main stem and an upright lateral lion seedlings are grown annually, seeds
vars have been selected based upon branch so as to discourage the lateral are sown in a furrow about 1.2 inches
their growth rate and stem straightness branch from competing with the cen-
with secondary considerations for lo- tral leader and thus encouraging a
cust borer resistance (Bongarten, strong lateral branch.
1992). Other institutions that have Bunger and Thomson (1938)
had active locust plant material selec- found mature black locust to have
tion programs in recent years are the roots greater than 26 ft (7.9 m) deep in
University of Georgia, Michigan State a Richfield silt loam soil. Cutler and
University, the University of Kentucky, Richardson (1981) found roots to be
and the University of Maryland (B. up to 41 ft (12.4 m) wide. Root width
Bongarten, personal communication). and depth will vary depending on soil
and other conditions.
Growth habits
Black locust forms a large-sized Propagation
tree 75 ft (22.9 m) tall with a 40 to 50 Propagation can be accomplished
ft (12.2 to 15.3 m) crown spread (Fig. with seed or vegetatively. Seeds are
3). Open, sparse branching creates a used when large numbers of plants are
spreading top. It has light gray to needed and more genetic variation can
brown, thick bark that is deeply fur- be tolerated, as with reforestation
rowed with scaly ridges. Branches are projects or for site restoration and
upright, arching, and spiny; often with stabilization. Vegetatively propagated
multiple stems. Foliage is deciduous plants are used when superior plants
and leafs-out in mid-spring depending are desired for landscapes, seed or-
upon region. Leaves are pinnate to 12 chards, or for the production of tim-
inches (30.5 cm) long with 11 to 21 ber.
elliptical to oval shaped leaflets (Fig. SEEDLING PROPAGATION. Black lo-
4). Leaves turn yellow and are shed in cust propagation by seed requires seed Fig. 4. Leaf and bark of black locust.
 cm) deep. Plant emergence can be locust. Budding and grafting is often
expected to appear 20-25 d after plant- the only possible method of propaga-
ing in spring. tion for many plants (Dirr and Heuser,
Softwood cuttings of black locust 1987). Most cultivars of bristly locust
can be successfully propagated using or black locust can be grafted using
the following methods (B. Bongarten, whip or side-veneer techniques onto
personal communication). Softwood black locust seedling rootstocks in the
cuttings from black locust trees should winter, and summer grafts can be suc-
be taken in the spring when new growth cessful with some cultivars (Dirr and
is 8 inches (20 cm) long. These green- Heuser, 1987).
softwood cuttings should be placed in
water immediately. If cuttings are taken Spacing
from basal or apical shoots they will It was proposed in 1791 by Brit-
have an upright growth whereas shoots ish foresters to space locust trees in
from lateral growth will have plagitropic plantations at 16.5 × 16.5 ft (5 m) or
growth for the first 2 years. Before 160 trees/acre (395/ha) to produce
planting, the cuttings should be dipped trees of about 1.5 tons (1400 kg) each
in 12,000 ppm (mg·L–1) indole-3-bu- (Gentleman’s Magazine, 1791). Those
tyric-acid (IBA) in alcohol and in thiram recommendations of 200 years ago are
fungicide (tetramethylthiuram-disul- very close to today’s recommendation
fide). The rooting media should be of 17.7 ft (5.4 m) for the final spacing
very course, 50% peat/50% coarse per- in plantations for timber production in
Fig. 5. Flowers of black locust. lite, to reduce the incidence of disease. Hungary (Keresztesi, 1988) or in The
The cuttings should be sprayed with Netherlands final spacing of high den-
Thiram once a week to further reduce sity plantations is 12.5 ft (3.8 m)
(3 cm) deep at a rate of 40 to 50 seeds the incidence of disease. They should (Robinia Foundation, 1992). The big
of 100% germination rate per running be placed under mist for about 10 s difference between techniques of the
3.3 ft (1 m) and covered with 0.8 to every 15 min, or if possible, put them 18th century and today is the desire and
1.2 inches (2 to 3 cm) of soil. Rows are in a fog of 100 % relative humidity. techniques to use the growing spacing
14 to16 inches (35 to 40 cm) apart for Temperatures of about 65 oF (47 oC) more efficiently throughout the life of
a density of 80 to 100 thousand/acre give the best results. Fertilize once a the planting. Halupa et al. (Keresztesi,
(200 to 250 thousand/ha) (Bujtas, week with a balanced fertilizer includ- 1988) recommend planting trees in
1992). In the Appalachian coal prov- ing micronutrients. high density forest plantations 6.9 ft
ince of the U.S. seeds are direct seeded Black locust can be successfully (2.1 m) apart and progressively imple-
on mine-spoil sites via broadcast, or tissue cultured by many methods. Some menting two cleanings and three
drilled at a rate of 1 to 3 lb/acre (1.11 of the earliest work used shoot nodal thinnings in the stand during the first
to 3.36 kg·ha–1) (Ashby et al., 1985). segments as the primary explant 20 years, reaching a final stand density
Seeds can be stored for 10 or (Chalupa, 1983; Chalupa, 1992), and of 139/acre (342/ha). In The Neth-
more years at 32 to 40 oF (0 to 5 oC) or seedling-derived callus tissue (Brown erlands recommendations are for even
for 3 to 4 years when stored in a cool and Sommer, 1982). Later workers closer spacing at planting of 4.6 ft (1.4
dry place (USDA Forest Service, 1974). have used dormant bud explants de- m) with three thinnings and a final cut
Acid scarified seed can be stored with- pending on the source plant (Davis at a maximum of 40 years of age
out loss of viability for extended peri- and Keathley, 1987; Gruber and (Robinia Foundation, 1992).
ods of time (Meginnis, 1937). Hanover, 1992), cotyledon and in The initial close spacing that
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION. Locust vitro-derived leaf explants (Arrillaga Halupa et al. (Keresztesi, 1988) pro-
can be propagated vegetatively from and Merkle, 1993), auxiliary bud ex- posed is for several reasons. First and
root cuttings, softwood cuttings, or plants obtained from clones propa- foremost is for the production of
tissue culture. Root cuttings are typi- gated via stem or root cuttings from straight stems for high value timber
cally used in Hungary when vegetative black locust (Barghchi, 1987) and ax- production and secondarily for the
propagation is desired (Bujtas, 1992). illary buds from new mexican locust production of saleable wood products
They use either 3.1 to 3.9 inch (8 to 10 plantlets (Lin and Wagner, 1996). before the final harvest. The two
cm) long root cuttings or 1.2 to 2.0 Gruber and Hanover (1992) con- cleanings decrease stem number from
inch (3 to 5 cm) root pieces taken from ducted an economic analysis of the 1010 to 360/acre (2500 to 900/ha).
young plants grown specifically for feasibility of mass-producing black lo- The small diameter wood harvested in
this purpose. The longer root cuttings cust plants via in vitro techniques and these cuttings is used for fuel wood or
are planted vertically with the top cut they concluded that the cost was six to chips. Thinning operations reduce the
surface about 0.8 inch (1 cm) below seven times that of unimproved seed- stand from 360/acre (900/ha) to the
ground level. Root pieces should be lings. final density of 160/acre (400/ha).
sown in a furrow 3.9 inches (10 cm) Cultivars of trees used for orna- Additional uses of these trees are for
wide and 1.6 inches (4 cm) deep at a mental purposes are typically grafted poles and posts.
rate of 8 to 9 root pieces/ft (25 to 30/ or budded onto rootstocks grown from Stem densities are much higher
m). Care should be taken not to bury seed because it is easier than other when the primary goal is land reclama-
the root pieces more than 1.6 inches (4 types of vegetative propagation for tion (increasing organic matter levels,
reducing erosion, improving soil fer- water transpired per unit land area (Castanea Miller and Quercus L.) hard-
tility) with the intent to harvest biom- (kg·m–2)], respectively. Ranney et al. wood forest (Boring and Swank, 1984) to
ass and possibly timber at a much later (1990) found no significant difference 96 to 244 lb/acre (108 to 274 kg·ha–1) for
date. Stem densities are higher be- in WUE among paper birch (Betula a 5-18 year old seeded surface mine.
cause of reduced survival when planted papyrifera Marsh), chinese elm (Ulmus These values compare favorably with
on reclamation sites. In a survey of 72 parvifolia Jacq.), boxelder (Acer forage and grain legumes (Bridgen,
reclamation sites in Kentucky used for negundo L.), and black locust. They also 1992). Phosphorous fertilizer at 99 lb/
biomass production the average range found that locust used 24.5 lb (11.1 kg) acre (112 kg·ha–1) has been shown to
in stem density was 11,686/acre of water to produce 0.035 oz (1 g) of enhance growth on acidic surface mine
(28,714/ha) for 2-year-old stands to biomass compared to 5.1 lb (2.3 kg) soils when used alone or with 50 lb/acre
814/acre (2000/ha) for 13-year-old and 6.0 lb (2.7 kg) for sweetgum and (56 kg·ha–1) of nitrogen applications
stands (Carpenter and Eigel, 1979). sycamore. Ranney et al. (1990) studied (Plass, 1972). McComb and Kapel
For reclamation of mine-spoil sites in water use in five species. They found (1942) found that nitrogen and potas-
the Interior Coal Province (Indiana to that locust had a significant drop in sium fertilizers 139 and 110 lb/acre,
Kansas) 1-year-old seedlings are osmotic potential at full hydration when respectively (157 and 123 kg·ha–1), had
planted on 7 × 7 ft (2.1 m) spacing. As grown under water stressed conditions. no effect unless phosphorous at 270 lb/
the slope increases the planting dis- Furthermore, they found that locust acre (303 kg·ha–1) was added. Other
tance shortens to a maximum density under water stressed conditions lost leaf studies have shown that applications of
of 4 × 4 ft (1.2 m) (Ashby et al., 1985). elasticity which generally limits leaf tur- nitrogen can be detrimental to locust,
Limstrom (1960) found that a mixed gor. Significant loss of osmotic poten- which is similar to the effect of nitrogen
planting of 50% locust with mixed hard- tial and leaf turgor led to leaf abscission. on other nitrogen-fixing plants. Bridgen
woods on strip-mined land at 7 × 7 ft High amounts of leaf abscission when (1992) found that nitrogen applica-
spacing were highly successful. water stressed was responsible for low tions on soils low in nitrogen caused a
Coppice systems are very common leaf root ratios for locust. decrease in growth of black locust.
in locust plantations. In the case of these Weather conditions in Hungary Black locust dominated forest
systems propagation occurs from cut make it possible to grow black locust stands have higher levels of ammonium
stumps and root suckers. Stem densities from seed or transplants in the field nitrogen than do stands that are domi-
are typically higher and total wood pro- without irrigation (Keresztesi, 1988; nated by pine or mixed hardwoods. As
duction lower due to the production of Bujtas, 1992). Typical April, May and a result higher levels of nitrification were
smaller diameter stems at final harvest June weather conditions in Hungary are found in black locust stands (Montagnini
when regeneration is from coppicing. relative humidity in afternoon of 50% et al., 1989). In a subsequent study
Stem density for young stands (6 to 10 and average monthly precipitation for Montagnini et al. (1991) found higher
years) range from 1020 to 1425/acre April, May, and June is 2.0 inches (5.1 soil solution levels of nitrate nitrogen.
(2500 to 3500/ha) and in the oldest cm). Root cuttings need to be irrigated The primary source of nitrogen is from
stands (20 to 40 years) 225 to 815/acre if the soil surface dries out. After the nitrogen fixing bacteria, subsequently
(550 to 2000/ha) (Keresztesi, 1988). shoots from root cuttings are 3.9 to 5.9 nitrogen will make its way into soil
Similar cleanings and thinning opera- inches (10 to 15 cm) high irrigation can solution from root exudation and from
tions are carried out in these stands as be reduced and the top 1.6 to 2.0 inches the foliage. When compared to autumn
with high density forest plantations. (4 to 5 cm) of soil can dry out before olive (Elaeagnus umbellata Thumb.),
Spacing of ornamental trees is irrigating again (Bujtas, 1992). honey locust (Gleditisia triacanthos L.),
highly dependent upon the cultivar used and american sycamore, black locust
and the planting site. Mature size and Plant and soil nutrition had significantly less net foliar nitrogen
final effect desired should always be Ease of cultivation and fast growth decline at senescence (Vogel and
considered when deciding where to plant are just a few reasons why black locust Dawson, 1993), perhaps explaining in
a landscape tree. Minimum cutout that has been so successful as a site restora- part the high soil solution levels of ni-
black locust can be planted into a side- tion plant. The main reason why black trate nitrogen.
walk is 5 × 5 ft (1.5 m) (DeGomez and locust performs so well on a variety of Black locust can also be used as a
Bailey, 1998). sites is its ability to fix nitrogen. Nitro- catalyst for other trees on mine-spoils
gen fixation not only benefits locust but (Ashby and Baker, 1968; Auten 1945;
Irrigation also other species in the stand (Ashby Boyce and Merz, 1959; Jencks, 1982;
Black locust is considered drought and Baker, 1968). Nitrogen fixing for- Limstrom, 1960). When six species of
resistant (Bunger and Thomson, 1938; est species are rare in most forest types hardwoods {black walnut (Juglans ni-
Hanover, 1992). Raper et al. (1992) and locust contributes tremendous gra L.), yellow-poplar (Liriodendron
studied water use efficiency (WUE) for amounts of nitrogen to the forest eco- tulipifera L.), silver maple (Acer
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.), system (Boring and Swank, 1984). saccharinum L.), sweetgum, osage or-
american sycamore (Platanus Since locust is a nitrogen fixing ange [Maclura pomifera (Raf.)
occidentalis L.), and black locust. Water plant it has lower soil nitrogen require- Schneid.]}, and ash (Fraxinus L.) were
use efficiency is the measure of the water ments than non-nitrogen fixing plants, grown in the understory of black locust
transpired compared to the biomass but studies have shown that phospho- or shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Miller)
produced. Locust had a much lower rous applications can be of benefit. An- in southern Illinois, only sweetgum grew
WUE than did sweetgum or sycamore, nual nitrogen fixation rates for black better in the pine understory (Ashby
0.09 compared to 0.43 and 0.37 [bio- locust can vary from 26 lb/acre (30 and Baker 1968). Characteristics of black
mass growth per unit land area (g·m–2)/ kg·ha–1) for a 4 year old chestnut-oak locust as a catalyst tree are reducing soil
erosion by rapid colonization of the site, 1992; Johnson and Lyon, 1991; Wagner a forest fire. Damage to ornamental
nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium Frank et al., 1992). T. DeGomez and M.R. trees distracts from the beauty of the
bacteria, high nitrogen levels in leaf Wagner (unpublished) found 333 spe- tree. Infestations can cover tens of thou-
litter, and high leaf litter volumes in the cies of arthropods associated with locust sands of acres. Hoffard and Anderson
early stages of succession. in northern Arizona. In South Slovakia, (1982) describe the adult beetle as be-
To ensure that nodulation and ni- 33 species from the insect order Lepi- ing 0.25 inches (6 mm) long and that its
trogen fixation occurs, plants derived doptera were collected in a 3-year sur- feeding skeletonizes the leaves. He fur-
from seed, stem cuttings, or tissue cul- vey of locust insects (Kulfan, 1991). ther indicates that the larvae mine the
ture need to be inoculated with Rhizo- This is a high number of species consid- leaves turning them brown. Death can
bium bacteria before planting. Follow- ering only 23 species of Lepidoptera are occur to the tree if two flushes of growth
ing seed scarification or when preparing listed on locust in the United States. Of are produced in one growing season
cuttings for rooting it is necessary to these hundreds of insects, three have and each is consumed by the beetle
inoculate the seed or cuttings with Rhizo- caused the most damage and will be (Johnson and Lyon, 1991). Athey and
bium bacteria specifically cultured for discussed here. Connor (1989) reported herbivory from
Robinia. It is recommended to test LOCUST BORER. The locust borer this insect ranged from 5.9% to 45.9% in
various strains of Rhizobium because of (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), is the most their plots and that individual trees were
genetic variation in bacteria (Batzli et devastating insect on black locust and it as much as 50% defoliated. They ob-
al., 1992). is presently confined to North America. served that the adults caused much more
Robinia appears to be tolerant of a Locust is a classic example of a plant damage than the larvae.
wide range of soil pH but will grow best from the Americas that is maligned by a LOCUST TWIG BORER. The locust
when the pH is near neutral. In south- native insect but, has proven to be ex- twig borer, (Lepidoptera: Torticidae)
west Indiana black locust and R. hispida tremely valuable when grown elsewhere can cause serious damage in young trees
var. fertilis ‘Arnot’ [R. fertilis (Ashe.)] without pressure from its most destruc- (Hoffard and Anderson, 1982). Hoffard
had good survival (40 and 45% respec- tive pest. and Anderson (1982) describe the in-
tively) on low pH soil (2.85) and when Damage to black locust by the sect as follows: Full grown larvae are 0.5
the pH was raised to 6.0 or higher locust borer is severe. The locust borer to 0.75 inches (1.3 to 1.9 cm) long.
survival was 70% for both black locust larvae attack the trunks and twigs of the These caterpillars bore into the twigs
and bristly locust (Carpenter and tree. Hopkins (1907) reported that and feed on the vascular tissue. They
Hensley 1979). In Kentucky, survival borers prefer trees with thinner bark vs. cause the stem to swell and often the
rates were 90% to 97% on low pH (2.9 the coarse bark found on mature trees. infected area will crack open and the
to 4.0) strip-mine soils, in addition these The newly hatched larvae bore through twig will bend at the point of infection.
soils were low in extractable phosphate the bark and into the cambial layer With two generations per year, repeated
(Plass, 1972). Applications of lime on where they overwinter. In the spring, attack can kill small seedlings. Adult
low pH soils have been shown to signifi- larvae continue to feed creating a 1 inch moths have a wingspan of 0.75 to 1.0
cantly increase seedling growth (Car- (25 mm) diameter by 4.7 inch (12 cm) inch (1.9 to 2.5 cm).
penter and Hensley, 1979; McComb long tunnel (Johnson and Lyon, 1991).
and Kapel, 1942; Tingxiu and Guofan, Damage caused by a single borer would Pathogens
1988). be of little consequence, but repeated Heart rot fungus [Phellinus
attacks in subsequent years causes the robineae (Murr.) A. Ames] is the most
Insects trees to become weak and to break in important black locust disease. This
Of the hundreds of insects associ- wind storms. Death is rare from borer disease enters the tree via wounds,
ated with locust in the United States, attack, but severely attacked trees are such as those made by locust borer, fire
only a few have been found to signifi- reduced to being good only for or other mechanical wound, and causes
cantly impact growth and survival fuelwood. The value of shade and speci- the heart wood to become brown,
(Alford, 1991; Athey and Connor, 1989; men trees is destroyed when infested lightweight, and crumbly (Hoffard and
Drooz, 1985; Furniss and Carolin, 1977; with borers. Anderson, 1982). Damage to the wood
Hall, 1937; Hoffard, 1992; Hoffard Resistance to locust borer has been destroys its practical use. Controls in-
and Anderson, 1982; Hopkins, 1907; of great interest to entomologists and clude reducing wounding and plant-
Johnson and Lyon, 1991; Wagner et al., plant breeders. Several workers thought ing at close spacing to encourage natu-
1992; T. DeGomez and M.R. Wagner, that specific clones were more resistant ral pruning, thus limiting large branches
unpublished). Total biomass produc- because of superior vigor (Hall, 1937). and subsequent large branch stubs.
tion was unaffected by low levels of However, there is no evidence that any
herbivory and did not stimulate biom- black locust clone has shown resistance. Use
ass and nutrient accretion (Seasteat et There has been evidence that young, Locust’s greatest use in the United
al., 1983). However, herbivory can be vigorously growing trees minimize borer States is in land reclamation; especially
very heavy on black locust. Pests can damage by closure of wounds (Berry, on mine spoils, and eroded farm and
remove 75% or more of the photosyn- 1945; Harman and Dixon, 1984). pasturelands. The wood has been
thetic area on single trees (Athey and LOCUST LEAF MINER. According to highly valued since its first discovery
Connor, 1989). Hoffard (1992) the locust leaf miner, by European settlers in America and
Only 76 species of insects had been (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is prob- by the native Americans before them
reported on locust in the United States ably the best known insect pest on black (Catesby, 1763; Major, 1849). In 1791
as of 1991 (Alford, 1991; Drooz, 1985; locust. Damage can be so severe that it was proposed that the British Crown
Furniss and Carolin, 1977; Hoffard, trees will appear to have been burned in plant 10,000 acres (4,000 ha) of land
to locust for use in building ships for bark hickory (Carya ovata Mill.). Shag- firewood/biomass producing species
the British Navy. As stated in the ar- bark hickory has a slightly higher spe- are fast growing and have wood with a
ticle, “locust wood is found, by Ameri- cific gravity and static bending than high specific gravity. Unfortunately
can shipwrights, to be singularly useful black locust. Black locust has greater most fast growing species such as cot-
in making the upperworks of large strength when compressed parallel and tonwood (Populus L.), willow (Salix
ships and such parts of vessels as are perpendicular to the grain, and has L.), or loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.)
likely to decay soon (Gentleman’s greater shear strength parallel to the have low specific gravity, 0.36, 0.39
Magazine, 1791). This account is likely grain. Black locust is much harder than and 0.51 respectively (Forest Products
the first recorded where locust was sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.), Laboratory, 1987). Black locust is not
proposed for large-scale plantation american ash (Fraxinus americana L.), typical of fast growing trees. Black
forestry. The earliest record of locust white oak (Quercus alba L.), or black locust’s fast growth rates, 0.78 to 2.4
wood being exported is in an article by walnut. The wood has a greenish tinge inches/d (2 to 6 cm/d) (Hanover
Loudon (1844) who detailed that in when freshly cut but darkens to a brown 1992), and high specific gravity, 0.69
1819 locust treenails (wooden pegs when exposed to air (Forest Products (Forest Products Laboratory, 1987),
used in construction) were sold in Laboratory, 1987). places it among the leaders of domes-
Philadelphia for $10 per thousand and Resistance of black locust wood tic woody plants in the combination of
that 50 to 100 thousand were ex- to decay is legendary, it has been said these characteristics. The National
ported to England each year. The wood in folklore that “when using it for Academy of Sciences (1983) rated black
has exceptionally high decay resistance fences it will last 2 years longer than locust the number one firewood spe-
(Forest Products Laboratory, 1987) stone”. The Forest Products Labora- cies in the United States. Since fire-
and is highly valued for poles and tory (1987) only lists four domestic wood is purchased by a volumetric
posts. The wood can also be used woods as having exceptionally high measurement, black locust’s high spe-
when a strong or extremely hard wood decay resistance and black locust is cific gravity makes it one of the best
is needed. In the Netherlands uses for among those. Koloc (Keresztesi, 1988) values when purchasing firewood on a
the wood are flooring and outdoor reported that the heart wood has re- volumetric basis.
furniture (Robinia Foundation, 1992). tained its integrity after being exposed
In Hungary it is used for many pur- to open weather for 80 years, 500 years Overview
poses; trees are used for timber, fiber- under permanently moist conditions, Locust is a species with many
board, poles, and firewood; the leaves and 1500 years in dry conditions. Black great attributes. Ecologically it has the
are used for forage; and the flowers are locust generally contains only 3 to 4 ability to quickly colonize a site that is
highly valued for their source of nectar years of sapwood (Hills, 1987). With in danger of eroding and as an early
and pollen for honeybees (Apis so little sapwood, the wood contains a pioneer species it leaves the site in a
mellifera L.) (Keresztesi, 1980). The high proportion of heartwood. The state that can then be occupied by
honey is prized for its light color, mild beauty of the wood has been com- other late succession species. In that
flavor, and because crystallization takes pared favorably with black walnut for role it contributes levels of nitrogen
place slowly (Keresztesi, 1988). Fur- appearance and grain pattern, and its that rival agronomic legumes. In the
thermore, the value of honey produc- workability and durability has been utilitarian realm the species grows very
tion is generally enough to pay the cost compared to teak (Tectona grandis L. fast producing biomass that can be used
of establishment of plantations on 30 f.) (Hanover, 1992). Shukla et al. for many purposes. In Hungary the
year rotations (Keresztesi, 1988). (1986) compared it’s workability to honey produced in black locust planta-
RECLAMATION. Surface mine recla- ash (Fraxinus L.). These characteris- tions pays for the cost of establishment.
mation has been the most common tics make the wood highly desirable Locust honey accounts for 50% to 60%
use of locust in the United States in for many uses. The Wood Handbook of that country’s total production annu-
recent decades. Black locust has been (Forest Products Laboratory, 1987) ally (Keresztesi, 1988).
planted and seeded more than any states that the best uses are for mine Insect pests prevent black locust
other species on surface-mined land in timbers, fenceposts, poles, railroad from becoming an important timber
the eastern U.S. (Ashby et al., 1985). crossties, stakes and fuel. In Hungary and ornamental tree in its native range
A 1990 study of the West Virginia it is used in similar ways but also for of the central Appalachian states. Un-
State Nursery revealed that 95% of all fine furniture (Redei, 1992). fortunately these insect pests are not
black locust seedlings were being used BLACK LOCUST FOR PULP. Since black going away and no economical method
in mine land reclamation projects locust is very fast growing and has a of control has as yet been devised.
(Bridgen, 1992). Black locust’s ability high specific gravity it has drawn inter-
to aggressively occupy a site through est from the pulp and paper industry.
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