Government of Karnataka

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SCIENCE

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EIGHTH STANDARD
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2015
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KARNATAKA TEXT BOOK SOCIETY (R)

100 Feet Ring Road, Banashankari, 3rd stage,
Bengaluru-85

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 Preface
The Textbook Society, Karnataka has been engaged in
producing new textbooks according to the new syllabi prepared which
in turn are designed based on NCF – 2005 since June 2010. Textbooks
are prepared in 11 languages, seven of them serve as the media of
instruction. From standard 1 to 4 there is the EVS and 5th to 10th

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there are three core subjects namely mathematics, science and social
science.

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NCF – 2005 has a number of special features and they are:
• Connecting knowledge to life activities

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• Learning to shift from rote methods
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Enriching the curriculum beyond textbooks
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• Learning experiences for the construction of knowledge

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• Making examinations flexible and integrating them with
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classroom experiences
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• Caring concerns within the democratic policy of the country

• Make education relevant to the present and future needs.
• Softening the subject boundaries integrated knowledge and
the joy of learning.
• The child is the constructor of knowledge
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The new books are produced based on three fundamental

approaches namely.
Constructive approach, Spiral Approach and Integrated approach
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The learner is encouraged to think, engage in activities, masters

skills and competecies. The materials presented in these books are
integrated with values. The new books are not examination oriented
in their nature. On the other hand they help the learner in the total
development of his/her personality, thus help him/her become a
healthy member of a healthy society and a productive citizen of this
great country India.

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 We live in an age of science and technology. During the past
five decades man has achieved great things and realized his dreams
and reached pinnacle of glory. He has produced everything to make
life comfortable. In the same way he has given himself to pleasures
and reached the stage in which he seems to have forgotten basic
sciences. We hope that at least a good number of young learners
take to science in higher studies and become leading scientists and

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contribute their share to the existing stock of knowledge in order to
make life prosperous.

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Ample opportunity has been given to learners to think, read,
discuss and learn on their own with very little help from teachers.

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Learning is expected to be activity centered with the learners doing
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experiments, assignments and projects.
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The Textbook Society expresses grateful thanks to the
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chairpersons, writers, scrutinisers, artists, staff of DIETs and CTEs

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and the members of the Editorial Board and printers in helping the
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Text Book Society in producing these textbooks.

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Bengaluru

Prof. G S Mudambadithaya Nagendra Kumar

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Coordinator Managing Director

Curriculum Revision and Textbook Preparation Karnataka Textbook Society®
Karnataka Textbook Society® Bengaluru, Karnataka.
Bengaluru, Karnataka
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III
 FOREWORD

The Present text book for eight standard science has been prepared according to
the NCF 2005. The revised syllabus approved by the authorities concerned has been
followed.

The main feature of the text book is constructive approach. The activity based
development of the content may help in the formation of concepts. In some areas

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there is a narrative approach on account of the nature of the subject matter. Direct
definitions in some areas are deliberately avoided such that the learner can draw his

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own but correct conclusions. Learning to learn principle is followed by and large.

The text book committee is presenting this text book with pleasure and with

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a bit of anxiety. Extreme care is taken to avoid content errors. However, lack of
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sufficient information or elaboration in certain units should not be construed as
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wrong information. This is done to avoid memorization of facts and to reduce the
burden.
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It should be noted that the main aim of secondary education is to lay the
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foundation for higher education. It is a cushion for children to jump to higher

studies and to develop their personality by meeting their immediate instinctive needs.
Learner at this stage, should develop minimum skills and should acquire sufficient
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knowledge so that he can interact with his present environment effectively.

We, the Chairpersons of text book preparation committee, express our

sincere thanks to prof. G.S. Mudambadithaya, coordinator for assigning this
responsibility to us. We also wish to express our thanks to writers, scrutinisers, editorial
committee members, teachers and translators for their valuable contributions in
improving the quality of the content. Our thanks are also due to the artist for his
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drawings and to the authorities of Karnataka Text book Society and DSERT for their
kind cooperation.

Any further feasible suggestions to improve the text book are welcome, Humans
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are never perfect. But perfection is the goal towards which one should sincerely try
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to move.

Chairpersons
Dr. T.A. Balakrishna Adiga
A.B. Katti

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 Text Book Committee
Chairpersons
Dr. T.A. Balakrishna Adiga, Principal, Silicon city, P.U.College, Bengaluru.
Sri. A.B. Katti, Rtd. Head Master, Sheshadripuram High school, Bengaluru.
Members
Smt. H.V. Bhagyalakshmi, Rtd. Science Teacher, Stella Mary's High School,

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Bengaluru.
Sri. H.L. Satheesh, TGT in Science, Demonstration School, RIE, Mysuru.

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Sri. G. Satish, Assistant Teacher, R.V. Girls High School, Jayanagar , Bengaluru.
Sri. Venkatesh Udupa, Assistant Teacher, Viveka P.U. College, Kota, Udupi.

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Sri. M.G. Manjunatha, Assistant Teacher, S.J.S. R.R. High School, Yalavatti,
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Shivamogga.
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Sri. Girish Kadlewad, Assistant Teacher, Govt. High School, Martoor, Kalaburagi.
Sri. Lakshminarayana, Artist, Drawing Teacher, Govt. High School, D.G. Halli,
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Bengaluru.
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Scrutinisers
Sri. Ragavendra Patil, Rtd. Prinicipal, AST P.U. College, Malladi halli, Chitradurga.
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Dr. C.R. Girija, Associate professor, SSMRV Degree College, Jayanagar, Bengaluru.
Editorial Board
Prof. M.R. Nagaraju, Educationist, Yalahanka Upanagara, Bengaluru.
Dr. M.J. Sundar Ram, Prof. of Biology, Surana Ind. P.U. College, Basavanagudi,
Bengaluru.
Prof. H.S. Lakshminarayana Bhatta, Rtd. Prinicipal, V.V. Puram, Science College,
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Bengaluru.

Chief Co-ordinator
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Prof. G.S. Mudambadithaya, Curriculum Revision and Text book preparation,

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Govt. of Karnataka.

Chief Advisors
Sri. Nagendra Kumar, Managing Director, Karnataka Text Book Society,Bengaluru.
Sri. Panduranga, Deputy Director (in charge), Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru.
Programme Co- ordinator
Smt. Bharathi, Senior Asst. Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru.

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 Index
Chapter Number of teaching
Chapter Name Page No.
Number periods required
1 Our natural resources 1-8 3

2 Study of our environment 9-22 7

3 Structure of atom 23-34 6

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4 More about atoms 35-43 6

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5 Study of cells 44-59 7

6 Classification of living organisms 60-73 8

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7 The world of microbes 74-82 4
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Describing motion 83-95 4
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9 Force and Newton’s laws of motion 96-106 4

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10 Energy and its forms 107-117 5

11 Chemical reactions and their types 118-127 8

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12 Chemicals in our daily life – 1 128-141 7

13 Chemicals in our daily life – 2 142-151 6

14 World of sounds 152-164 6

15 Heat 165-178 5
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16 States of matter 179-187 7

17 Our colourful world 188-210 5

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18 Food and its constituents 211-226 7

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19 Digestion and Respiration 227-247 8

20 Reproduction in higher plants 248-253 8

21 Communication gadgets 254-267 5

22 Food production–soil and water management 268-285 6

23 Evolution of life 286-294 5

24 Beyond the earth 295-313 7

VI
 Chapter 1
Our Natural Resources
After studying this chapter students :
• explain the meaning of natural resources.
• state the importance of natural resources.
• differentiate between living and non-living resources.

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• reason out the need for conserving non-renewable resources.

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• explain the biological need of water.
• state the ill effects of excessive use of chemicals in agriculture.

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We see various kinds of things surrounding us. Some of them
are living and others are non-living. The things that occur in nature
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and that are useful to us are called natural resources. Many of these
natural resources are essential for our survival. Some of them are used
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for satisfying our wants.

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A large number of these natural resources are either living or

derived from living organisms. Forest and wild life are examples of living
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resources. Forest products like timber, animal products like leather are
described as living resources. Mineral fuels like Coal and fossil fuels
like petroleum products are derived from remains of decayed, dead
organisms over long periods of time. Land, water, air and mineral ores
are examples of non-living resources.
Some of the natural resources can get replaced in nature easily. Such
resources are called renewable natural resources. Solar energy, air,
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water, wild life, forests and agricultural crops are examples of renewable
resources. Some of these are continuously available for use. For
eg: solar energy and air. Such resources are described as inexhaustible
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resources. Resources like forests and wild life may get depleted by
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continuous use or interference by humans. However, they can be

replenished to maintain a flow. Hence, they are called exhaustible
resources.
Some of the natural resources have been formed on earth over a long
period of time, even billions of years. For eg. fossil fuels and minerals.
The rate of formation of such minerals is very slow, compared to the rate
at which they are being used by humans. Such resources which cannot
be replenished once depleted, are called non renewable resources.

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 Let us learn more about some of these natural resources that have
a significant influence on human life.
Water
Water is a unique natural resource, as it is very much essential
for the existence of life. It is the most critical limiting factor for many
aspects of life such as environmental stability, biodiversity conservation,
fuel security and even healthcare. In most cases, there is no substitute

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for water. The most significant aspect of water is that it is a largely

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irreplaceable resource unlike energy, which has alternatives.
In nature, water may change its form but we can always retrieve it.
The Earth holds the same quantity of water as it did when it was formed.

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You may be aware of the fact that nearly 71% of the Earth’s surface
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is covered by water. It is one of the most important components required
for sustaining life on Earth.
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Nearly 97% of water on Earth is held in oceans, seas and other
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large water bodies. 0.001% of water occurs in atmosphere as water

vapour. About 2.4% of the water is found in glaciers and polar ice-caps.
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Remaining water is found in rivers, lakes, ponds and other water bodies.
As such, a very small percentage of this valuable natural resource is
available for human use.
Activity 1.1
Measure 2200 ml of water into a container. Assume that 2200ml
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represents the total water available on earth. Take a teaspoon and measure
out 12 spoonfuls of water into a small transparent container. This is the total
amount of fresh water on the earth including the water found in lakes, rivers,
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ice-caps, and as ground water. The water that remains in the large container
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represents salty water. From the container with 12 spoonfuls of water, measure
out two spoonfuls into a dish and remove half a spoon of water from the container
which now has 10 spoonfuls of water. This represents the water found on the
surface of the Earth in fresh water lakes. From the remaining water in the small
container, remove one drop using an ink-dropper. This drop represents the
amount of water found in rivers. The smaller container will now have about 9
spoonful of water left in it. This represents the amount stored in ice-caps. Com-
pare the quantities of water in the various containers.

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 With even such a small quantity of water available, humans have
been using water for various purposes. It is estimated that the average
consumption of water by a human being ranges from 20 litres to 30
litres per day, depending on their activity and place of living.

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Fig 1.1 Water distribution on earth
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Water is used for various human activities like drinking, agricultural
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purposes, washing and recreation. In addition water is used for heat

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exchange processes, industries and fire extinguishers.
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The largest use of water occurs in the agricultural sector. In our

country, it is estimated that more than 80% of the water available for
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human use, is employed for agricultural practices. In states like Punjab,

Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat, over 85% of irrigation is done
through ground water sources.
Do You Know?
To produce food for more than 7 billion people inhabiting Earth, the
water required will be equal to fill a canal 10 metre deep, 100 metre wide
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and nearly 7.0 km long! This is enough to circle the globe 180 times!

We have been misusing, exploiting and polluting water to a great

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extent. Some of the problems related to water and its use in our country
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are scarcity, overuse and unequal distribution. The annual rainfall in

the country is about 400 million hectare metre. Another 20 million
hectare meters flows in as surface water. This is considered more than
sufficient to provide water for different uses in the country. However,
overuse of water and lack of planning have resulted in a state of scarcity.
It is necessary to increase efforts related to conservation of water in both
urban and rural areas. Importance should be given to educate people
about the need for harvesting rain water resources and constructing
watersheds.

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Activity – 1.2
Is overuse, scarcity and quality of water an
important issue of concern in your school or
locality? Find out the reasons.

Do You Know ?
March 22nd of every year is celebrated
all over as World Water Day.

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Soil

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Soil is a natural resource that provides
Fig 1.2 World water day minerals and water to all land plants.
Particularly for agricultural crops it is

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a primary nutrient base. In addition, it is the place of living for a
wide variety of organisms like earthworms, crabs, insects and micro
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Soil absorbs rain water and later releases the same for use by plants.
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Water gets purified as it percolates through soil.
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Human activities have influenced even the soil quality. We have

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deteriorated the soil quality in various ways. One such situation is

salinisation of soil. It is caused by a rise in the water table, when water
is added to soil at a higher rate than the rate at which it is being used
from the soil. Salt pollution diminishes the fertility and in extreme cases
it ruins the soil. Water logging and salinisation are the main causes
of another serious problem in which once fertile lands are becoming
barren and useless. This is called desertification. Today, the nutrient
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rich alluvial soils of Punjab suffer seriously from desertification caused

by the introduction of excessive irrigation.
Apart from this, the use of chemical fertilizers has also been a serious
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cause of soil pollution. The use of pesticides to protect our agricultural

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crops has also been adding to this problem.

However, the most serious threat to soil is the process of erosion. Top
Soil is getting exposed due to activities like deforestation and overgrazing.
As a result, soil is being subjected to the action of wind and water. This
is leading to a huge loss of useful top soil.
You know that formation of soil occurs by a natural process called
weathering of rocks. The rate at which soil formation occurs is much
less compared to the rate at which soil erosion takes place. This has

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 led to a serious concern about soil conservation. Soil protection has
now become an integral part of any conservation plan. Restoring the
soil quality can be a solution for many of the environmental issues
bothering human life.
Forests
Forests are renewable natural resources that have innumerable
contributions to the environment. Forests maintain water cycle. They
provide habitat for wild animals. Forests maintain soil quality by

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preventing soil erosion. Forests provide timber and many other useful
products and services. Generally, forests are indicators of the natural

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wealth of a nation.
However, rapid changes have been noticed in the percentage

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distribution of forests in the world. It is now estimated that only 20%
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of the world’s original forests remain intact and undestroyed.
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In the last 20 to 30 years the rate of deforestation has increased to
such an extent that we are today facing several environmental problems.
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The pattern of rainfall has changed, since water cycle has been affected.
The rate of soil erosion has increased as the vegetation cover on soil has
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been destroyed. It is now necessary to restore the forests by activities

such as afforestation.
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Do you know?
March 21 of every year is observed all over
as World Forest Day.
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Think : Why do we have to observe World

Forest Day? Will observing such days really
help in the cause of environmental issues ?
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Fig 1.3 World forest Day

Wildlife
The term wild life is used to describe the species of plants and
animals living in the wild. It represents the diversity of species among
organisms inhabiting our forests, seas and oceans. Human activities
such as hunting, poaching and capturing have severely affected wild
life, leading to the extinction of many valuable species. Many species
are facing a threat of extinction in the near future.

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 The immediate need is the measures to be taken for the conservation
of wild life. It is one of the important challenges of the present and
the immediate future. Efforts are being made to conserve those living
resources through their maintenance in their natural habitats. National
parks, wild life sanctuaries, bird sanctuaries are examples of such
conservation measures. Sometimes, conservation of living resources
involves measures where in sample populations are protected in zoos,
botanical gardens and other man made situations. It may also involve

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the creation of seed banks, gene banks and similar genetic resource
centres.

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Fossil Fuels
Coal, petroleum products and natural gas represent a kind of

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resource collectively called fossil fuels. They are the result of the
photosynthetic activity of green plants, which were existing millions
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of years ago. They got submerged within the earth’s crust and formed
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the fossil fuels. They are non-renewable resources. It is not possible

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to reduce their consumption which is very high and hence, we foresee
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their total depletion in the near future.

Coal is a natural resource with high carbon content. Three types
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of coal deposits are normally found. Anthracite is one form in which

carbon content is very high (about 80%). Lignite has about 50 to 65%
of carbon. Bituminous coal has less than 40% of carbon.
Petrol, diesel, kerosene, lubricating oils and naptha represent
various forms of petroleum products. They account for about 40% of
the total energy consumed in the world.
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Natural gas forms in the same way as oil. Low sulphur content of
natural gas makes it the least pollutive source of fuel.
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Once we discovered these fossil fuels, we began utilising them

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at an ever increasing rate. A total of about 227 billion barrels

(1 barrel = 159 litres) of these oils were extracted from fossil fuels between
1859 and 1969. about Fifty percent of this was extracted in 100 years
while the next fifty percent was extracted in just 10 years!
Today our consumption rate is in excess of the rate of formation
of fossil fuels. In one day we consume what the Earth has taken
one thousand years to form! Hence, fossil fuels are considered as
non-renewable resources.

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 Mineral Resources
A mineral is a substance that is naturally found in the Earth’s
crust and is not formed from living matter. Minerals are formed due to
Earth’s geological processes over millions of years. Hence, minerals are
also non-renewable resources.
More than 100 minerals including metals like gold, iron, copper
and aluminium and non-metals like stone, sand and salt are extracted
and processed for human use. Mining is the process of extraction and

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processing.

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Mining has become more intense and widespread in recent years,
causing serious environmental degradation.

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Exercises :
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I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete
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statement / question. Choose the right answer:

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1. One of the following does not belong to the group

a. water b. forests
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c. petrol d. soil
2. Government has banned hunting of wild animals. This helps to
a. maintain biodiversity b. promote tourism
c. provide food to animals d. maintain soil fertility
II. Fill in the blanks with Suitable words :
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1. Resources that get replenished in nature are called ___________.

2. Petrol, and kerosene are ___________ forms of natural resources.
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3. If there is rise in water table, soil becomes ___________.

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4. Soil provides ___________ and___________ to terrestrial plants.

5. An example for renewable resource is ___________.
III. Answer the following :
1. What are natural resources?
2. Differentiate between renewable and non-renewable resources.
3. List the uses of water.

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 4. What is mining?
5. What happens if too much of fossil fuels is used?
6. A student argues that a nation will be rich, if its forests are conserved.
Explain.

IV. Match the following :

A B

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1. high carbon content a. lignite

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2. renewable b. bituminous
3. low sulphur content c. wind

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4. formation of soil d. L.P.G.
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e. weathering of rocks
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g. natural gas
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“There are forces in life working for you and against you. One must
distinguish the beneficial forces from the malevolent ones and choose
correctly between them.”
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-Abdul Kalam

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 Chapter 2
Study of our environment
After studying this chapter students :
• understand the importance of water for existence of life.
• appreciate the role of water bodies in maintaining ecological balance.
• predict the importance of photosynthetic algae in primitive earth.

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• appreciate the need of interaction between living organisms.

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• develop the skill of maintaining an aquarium.
Earth as a Unique Planet
You are aware that earth is a unique planet in the solar system, since

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it is the only planet that supports life. What makes the earth to exhibit
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this feature? Is it the position of our planet in the solar system? Is it
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the physical and chemical composition of the Earth, that have resulted
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from the innumerable processes that occurred since its formation?

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The Earth is said to have been formed about 4.8 billion years ago
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and the first sign of life is said to have appeared about 3.8 billion years
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ago. You will learn more about this in chapter 23. However, it was not
until about 1.4 billion years ago, that the first multicellular organisms
appeared. These organisms and the other forms of life which evolved
from them, could survive when the conditions on earth began to stabilize
gradually.
You know that nearly 71 percent of Earth’s surface is covered by
water. This part of the earth is called hydrosphere. It is the only planet
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in the solar system with abundant liquid water and this is one of the
factors responsible for making life possible on the Earth. Water has
some unique physical and chemical properties, which are essential for
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supporting life’s existence, not seen in other substances.

• Water requires considerable amount of energy to get heated up
and also to get converted from liquid state into gaseous state. On a
very hot day, water bodies help maintain atmospheric temperature
cool by absorbing heat from the sun. When the sun sets, the heat
which water has absorbed is returned to the atmosphere, as water
evaporates. Such a regulation is crucial for the survival of living
organisms.

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• Water has a high resistance to sudden changes in temperature and
this feature makes water an excellent habitat for most organisms.
In fact, you may recall here that primitive life appeared only in water.
• At 40C water expands on cooling or heating. This feature ensures
that all the water in a water body will be close to 00C before any
freezing can occur.
• The high surface tension of water and its tendency to expand on

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freezing helps in weathering of rocks, leading to soil formation.

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Think : Is there any other unique property of water that has supported
the existence of life?

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Yet another unique feature of earth is its atmosphere which is a
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mixture of gases, water vapour and fine dust, surrounding the earth.
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You know that nearly 78% of atmosphere is nitrogen and 21% is oxygen,
while carbon dioxide, argon and other gases make up the rest.
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Atmosphere of the earth at its beginning was rich in carbon dioxide
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and the oxygen content was very less. As photosynthetic algae appeared
on earth, oxygen concentration increased resulting in a shift from
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reducing type of atmosphere to an oxidizing type. Gradually atmosphere

reached its present composition, which is ideally suited for humans and
other life forms that are existing today.
The surface or crust of the earth is called lithosphere. It represents
the mountains, the ocean floors and the plain lands. The upper boundary
of the biosphere begins at the soil, beneath our feet, and may extend to
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a depth of even 150 km. below the surface.

Do you know?
Surface of the earth is cool and solid. But as we move into the layer
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below the lithosphere we reach the mantle having increasing heat and
pressure. At the centre of the mantle called core, temperature of the Earth is
known to be very high. Lithosphere allows life to flourish unlike the barren
surface of other planets.
Concept Of Biosphere
Hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere of the Earth together
constitute the biosphere. It is the sum total of the all organisms and
their places of living. It extends only a few kilometers below the surface
and extends only a few kilometers into the atmosphere.

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 The Earth is truly a dynamic planet. On the Earth, life is influenced
by its physical environment. At the same time, the various factors in
the environment influence the living organisms. This two way process
is the essence of the dynamic nature of our planet.
The scientific studies which enable us to understand the totality
and pattern of the relations between organisms and their environment
is called ecology. It is also known as environmental science.

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You would have observed in your surroundings that there is an
intricate relationship between various components of nature.

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Look at this example. Green plants absorb mineral nutrients and
water from the soil. The leaves fruits and other parts of these plants are

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eaten by animals like insects, birds and deer. These animals become
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the food for other kinds of animals. When these plants and animals die,
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their dead remnants decay and subsequently they are broken down by
micro organisms. The broken down matter eventually goes back to the
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soil, thus connecting all of them.

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Fig 2.1 Interactions among living organisms

A very large number of such connections exist in nature. These links

are the foundations of the balance existing in the natural world. These
links explain the two basic laws of ecology.

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• We can never continue to do any one thing in nature.
• In nature every thing is connected with everything else
If one has to understand and analyse all of these connections, it is
necessary to categorize the natural system into smaller units.
Levels Of Organization
Let us look at the natural system from the point of view of levels

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(hierarchy) of organization. It provides a convenient framework for
dealing with complex interrelationships. The most clearly identifiable

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levels are organisms, species, populations, communities and ecosystems.
You know that any form of life can be called an organism. A large

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number of variety of organisms are found on the planet Earth from the
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single celled Amoeba to humans and from microscopic bacteria to huge
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banyan trees. An organism represents an individual member of the next
level called species.
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You will be able to recall that a species is a group of similar
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organisms sharing common genetic structure. Hence, they are capable

of breeding only among themselves. All human beings belong to the
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species Homo sapiens, dogs belong to the species Canis familiaris. Pea
plants belong to the species Pisum sativum.
A collection of individuals belonging to the same species occupying
a given area, at a given time is called population.
You would have noticed that a given area will have populations
of different species of plants animals and other organisms. All these
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different populations together constitute a biotic community. Members

of a community interact with each other.
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The community as a whole will be interacting among themselves

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as well as with the nonliving components. Any such unit in nature

where there is an interaction between living and nonliving components,
is known as ecosystem. Ecosystem forms the basic unit of study in
environmental science.
Earth has different kinds of living organisms living in a variety of
habitats. Each habitat has a set of unique features. Hence, we have
varities of ecosystems on this planet Earth. The different kinds of
ecosystems on the earth together constitute the biosphere.

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Fig 2.2 Levels of organization in nature
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Types Of Ecosystem
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We have now become familiar with the idea that ecosystem forms
the basic unit of study in environmental science. It is also the functional
unit in biosphere.
An ecosystem by definition consists of a community of different
kinds of living organisms in an area interacting among themselves and
with the nonliving components in that area.
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You have seen a variety of ecosystems in your surroundings such as

a pond or a grassland, may be you have visited a forest or a sea. Have
you ever wondered what is common to all these? Similarly an ocean,
t

an estuary and a desert also represent types of natural ecosystems.

No

Natural ecosystems can be broadly classified into aquatic ecosystems

and terrestrial ecosystems.

Do this : List the examples of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.

There are also many examples of man-made ecosystems. The most

familiar example is the aquarium.
Do this : List a few more examples of man-made ecosystems.

13
Activity 2.1
With the help of your teacher and classmates set up and maintain a small
aquarium in your school.
Components Of Ecosystem
You will be able to recall that any ecosystem should have two basic
components, the non-living components and the living components,
interacting with each other.

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The non-living components are also called abiotic components.

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They represent the physical, chemical and climatic conditions operating
in the environment. Physical factors include airlight, heat, soil and water.

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Chemical factors are represented by the various organic and inorganic
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substances whether required or not by the living organisms. Climatic
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factors are represented by rainfall and humidity.
The living components are also called biotic components. They are
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represented by plants, animals, bacteria and fungi.
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You know that plants are described as autotrophs since they are
capable of manufacturing their own food. Apart from green plants, algae
©

also belong to this category. The food prepared by these organisms

is used by all other organisms either directly or indirectly. Hence,
it is commonly said “all flesh is grass”. Hence, green plants in land
ecosystems and algae in aquatic ecosystem are described as producers.
Animals are heterotrophs since they cannot prepare their own
to

food and readily consume what is available. Hence, in any ecosystem,

animals are described as consumers.
You know that animals differ in their food habits. There are animals
t

which feed only on plants and they are called herbivores. In the
No

ecosystems herbivores are described as primary consumers, since they

obtain their food energy directly by feeding on plants. The grasshoppers,
the deer the cattle are all examples of primary consumers.
There are animals which obtain their food by eating herbivores.
They are described as secondary consumers. The grass hoppers may
be consumed by frogs. The deer or cattle may become the food for lions
or tigers. Examples like frogs, lions and tigers are secondary consumers.

14
 Some animals obtain their food by feeding on secondary consumers.
They represent the tertiary consumers. The frogs which have eaten the
grass hoppers may become the food for snakes. Hence, in this example
snakes represent tertiary consumers.
The producer and the different kinds of consumers primary,
secondary and tertiary are involved in a nutritional relationship involving
‘eating and being eaten’. They represent different levels of feeding in the
ecosystem and hence are described as trophic levels. Each organism

d
in our ecosystem is at a specific feeding stage that represents its trophic
level. Let us go back to the same examples we studied earlier

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Fig 2.3 A typical food chain

Example 1: Grass → Grass hopper → Frog → Snake
Example 2: Algae → Insect larve → Fishes → Aquatic birds

Trophic Trophic Trophic Trophic

to

Level-1 Level-2 Level-3 Level-4

This kind of nutritional relationship, where the food energy is getting
t

transferred from one trophic level to another, is called food chain.

No

In any food chain, producers represent the first trophic level and the
different levels of consumer represent the successive trophic levels. In
an ideal situation, a food chain will have a maximum of three or four
trophic levels.
There can be hundreds and thousands of food chains operating in
an ecosystem. It is because any given plant can be a food for a variety
of primary consumers. Each primary consumer in turn can be a food
for many varities of secondary consumers and so on.

15
 Food chains can be broadly classified into the following three types.
• Grazing or herbivorous food chains where the primary
consumers are plant eating animals. Most of the food chains in our
ecosystem belong to this category. Such food chains are also known as
predatory food chains.

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Fig 2.4 A Grazing food chain

©

• Detritivorous food chains where the primary consumer is a

detritivore. Ants, termites, earthworms, millipedes and crabs are called
detrivores because they feed on detritus. It refers mainly to fallen
leaves, parts of dead trees and similar kinds of organic matter.
Example 3: Detritus → Earthworms → Birds
to

• Parasitic food chains where the transfer of food energy occurs

through a series of parasites at each trophic level.
Example 4:
t
No

Tree → Parasitic birds → bird lice → flagellate protozoans

Here, birds are parasitic on trees, lice are parasitic on birds and
protozoans are parasitic on bird lice.
Since most organisms feed on more than one kind of food item, every
organism at every trophic level becomes linked to several food chains at
the same time. Thus, in every ecosystem, we have a complex network
of interconnected food chains, forming a food web.

16
 d
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bl Fig 2.5 A simple food web
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Energy flow in the ecosystem

How does food become energy in organisms?
©

Various organisms found in an ecosystem are constantly growing,

reproducing, dying and decaying. They need energy for all their
activities. When organisms consume food, the carbohydrates in their
food become the source of energy. This energy is released, as you are
aware, through a process called respiration. It makes the stored energy
in the carbohydrates available for biological work.
to

The main source of energy for all ecosystems is solar energy. As you
know only green plants can trap this energy and store it in the form of
sugars, fats and proteins. When primary consumers eat the producers,
t

energy also moves up the trophic level. However, during this transfer
No

almost 90% of the energy is lost to the environment as heat, a form in

which it cannot be used again. As we move up the trophic levels, the
amount of usable energy available at each level keeps decreasing. Only
about 10% of the energy available in any given trophic level is getting
transferred to the next level.
If the producer has 10,000 units of energy the primary consumer
receives only about 1000 units, the secondary consumer gets only about
100 units and the tertiary consumer gets only about 10 units.

17
 d
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Fig 2.6 Energy flow in nature

pu
The energy flow is thus unidirectional and the loss at each stage
K

is simply released into the environment as unusable heat.

©

It is for this reason that a food chain will not have more than
four trophic levels. Very rarely a fifth trophic level called quaternary
consumer can be recognised.
t to
No

Fig 2.7 A food chain with five tropic levels

Think : Among the examples you have studied here, is there a foodchain
which has quaternary consumer?

18
 What are ecological pyramids?
You have now understood the nutritional relationship between the
organisms at different trophic levels. These relationships not only involve
energy but also the number of individuals and their biomass at each
trophic level. It is possible to graphically represent these relationships,
which assume the shape of pyramids. Such graphical representations
are called ecological pyramids. In an ecological pyramid producers
occupy the base and the different levels of consumers occupy the

d
successive tiers. Thus, most often the tertiary consumers form the apex
of the pyramid.

he
A pyramid constructed based on the number of individuals
occupying a given trophic level, at a given period of time, is called
pyramid of numbers. In most of the ecosystems, for most of the food

is
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chains, the pyramid of numbers will be upright since the number of
individuals at the successive trophic levels keeps decreasing.
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to
No

Fig 2.8 Upright pyramid of number

Look at the parasitic food chain, here the pyramid of number is inverted!
A pyramid constructed taking into view the biomass, which
is the dry weight of all the matter in the organisms at a trophic level,
is called pyramid of biomass. For most of the food chains, the
pyramid of biomass will be upright. In some aquatic food chains it
may inverted.

19
 d
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Fig 2.9 Inverted pyramid of number

©

A pyramid constructed on the basis of the amount of energy fixed at

each level, is called pyramid of energy. In any ecosystem, for any food
chain, the pyramid of energy will be always upright. You have already
learnt that the amount of usable energy available at each trophic level is
about 10% of the energy that was available at the previous trophic level.
This idea is very much in accordance with the laws of thermodynamics.
to

Know this : Thermodynamics is the study of energy relationships, which

involves either utilization or release of energy. It is applicable to both
physical systems and biological systems.
t

If we want to study the functioning of an ecosystem we must

No

understand the basic principles of thermodynamics described as

laws of thermodynamics.
1. The first law states that energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed, but can be transformed from one type to another.
2. The second law states that no energy transformations are hundred
percent efficient. Energy is always transformed from a more useful
form to a less useful form. Total energy content of a system always
remains a constant.

20
 Biomagnification

In food chains it is not just the nutrients that get transferred. Several
toxic substances may be transferred from one trophic level to another.
In most of these cases, the concentration of toxic substances increases,
as they pass to the higher trophic levels.

Such an increase in the concentration of a toxic substance or

a pollutant, with every link in the food chain is called biological

d
magnification or biomagnification.

he
The most familiar example for biomagnification is the gradual
increase in the concentration of DDT in the trophic levels in several
food chains. Indiscriminate use of DDT as an insecticide, especially

is
for eradicating mosquitoes, has now resulted in DDT being detected in
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the tissue of small fishes and predatory birds. DDT has been detected
even in mother’s milk!
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to
No

Fig 2.10 Biomagnification of DDT

Biomagnification disrupts the balance in the food chains. Particularly
it affects the organisms at the higher trophic levels.
Extended learning activity : Visit to a near by ecosystem.

21
Exercises :

I. Four altertnatives are given to each of the following incomplete

statement / question. Choose the right answer :
1. Fill in the box with the name of appropriate organism
Grass → → Frog → Snake → Eagle
a. deer b. lizard

d
c. grass hopper d. rat

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2. One of these is a decomposer
a. fungi b. algae

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c. protozoa d. insect
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II. Fill in the blanks with Suitable words :
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1. The crust of the Earth is called _______________ .
K

2. The basic unit of study in environment is ______________ .

3. Collection of individuals belonging to the same species, is _________ .
©

4. Different kinds of ecosystems together constitute _______________ .

5. In a parasitic food chain the pyramid of number will be ___________ .

III. Answer the following:

1. List the factors which have made life to exist on the earth.
to

2. Define the following-

a. Lithosphere b. Population
t
No

c. Biotic community c. food web

3. What is an ecosystem?
4. Why is the use of DDT not advisable?
5. Construct a simple food chain.
6. What may happen if all herbivores are killed in a terrestrial ecosystem?



22
 Chapter 3
Structure of atom
After studying this chapter students :
• state the postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory.
• describe J.J. Thomson’s experiment on the discovery of electrons.
• list the characteristics of cathode and anode rays.

d
• describe Rutherford’s model of an atom.

he
• describe Neils Bohr’s atomic model.
• list the three fundamental particles and their properties.

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• define the terms atomic mass number and atomic number of an atom.
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• define the term isotope of an element.
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•
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calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in a given
atom.
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pu
• feel proud when they read about the contributions of our scientists,
K

to science.
You see enormous variety of plants, animals and many objects
©

around us. Are two plants or two humans beings or two hills identical?
Even two leaves from the same tree are not identical. Similarly,
substances may be gases, liquids and solids. Some may be colourful.
Let us know the reasons for these differences.
Recall : In 600 B.C. the Indian sage Kanāda was perhaps the first
to suggest that all the matter is made up of very small particles called
to

‘paramanu’. In Sanskrit ‘param’ means final or ultimate and ‘anu’ means

particle. He said that all living beings are composed of five elements:
Jala’, ‘Agni’, ‘Pruthvi’, ‘Vaayu’ and ‘Akasha’.
t

It was Kanāda who first propounded that material universe is made

No

up of ‘Kana’. An interesting story states that this theory flashed to

Kanāda while he was walking with food in his hand. As he nibbled at
the food in his hand, throwing away the small particles, it occurred to
him that he could not divide the food into further parts and thus, the
idea of a matter which cannot be divided further came into existence. He
called that indivisible matter as ‘kana’. Indian theories about the atom
are greatly abstract and are based on logic and not on experimentation.
Thus, the Indian theories lacked an empirical base.

23
 In the fifth century BC the Greek philosopher Democritus came up
with a similar idea. He thought of dividing a piece of a substance, one
would ultimately get a particle that could not be divided further. He gave
the name ‘atom’ to this ultimate particle. All the substances are made
up of atoms. As per the present concepts, atom of Democritus implies
either atom or molecules.
Are the atoms of all the substances similar? Do they resemble one
another? Let us do an activity to understand and explain it.

d
Activity 3.1

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Take a small pieces of sodium and of iron and drop them into a 500 cm3
beaker containing water. What do you observe? Which reacts faster in water?
Activity 3.2

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Take a small piece of sodium in a spatula . Ingnite it. Hold a piece of
B
bl
Magnesium strip in tongs. Ingnite it. What do you observe? Which burns very
fast? Is colour of both the flames same? Sodium and Magnesium are made up
be T

of atoms. Are the nature of both the atoms same? Above activities show that
pu
atoms of different elements have different properties.
K

Take precautions while conducting the above activities.

Any substance made up of same kind of atoms is called element.118
©

elements are known to us. Out of this 90 are found in the nature, rest
are made in laboratory.
Activity 3.3
Make a list of elements that you use in day-to-day life. Write their uses
and symbols.
Atomic theory
to

In 1803 English chemist Dalton put forward his atomic theory. The
main postulates of the theory are as follows:
t

1. Elements are made up of very small indivisible particles called

No

atoms.
2. All atoms of a particular element are identical in shape, mass
and other properties, but are different from the atoms of other
elements.
3. Atoms of one element can not be converted into these of another
element.
4. Atoms of an element combine in integral ratio with those of
other elements to form a compound.

24
 5. An atom can neither be created nor destroyed.
Dalton’s atomic theory was the first milestone in explaining the
inner structure of matter. It gave a powerful initiative to the
scientists to the study of matter in the 19th century.
How would an atom be like? Is it possible to divide the atom
further? After conducting a number of experiments, scientists
came to know what is inside an atom. Understanding the
structure of an atom enabled them to resolve many mysteries

d
concerning nature and behavior of matter.

he
Know this : The elements Astatin and Technetium are not added to
the list of 90 natural elements as they occur only to a minute extent in
Nature. However Technetium can be made artificially.

is
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Fundamental particles : J.J. Thomson’s Experiment.
B
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Let us look at the history of discovery of the smaller particle inside
the atom. J.J.Thomson and others conducted some experiments using
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discharge tube apparatus. It took the world of science to the secret of
K

charges.
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No

Fig 3.1 Production of cathode rays

A discharge tube is a glass tube, about 15 cm long and 3 cm. in

diameter connected to a vacuum pump. Metal electrodes are fitted to
the ends of the glass tube.

25
 J.J.Thomson created very low pressure inside the discharge tube
and applied high voltage. He observed greenish glow near the anode
of the glass tube. The rays which are emitted from the cathode hit the
anode and cause the greenish glow. The streams of rays emitted from the
cathode are called cathode rays. If you connect the plate of the discharge
tube to a positive source, then that plate is called anode. (see fig: 3.1).
J.J. Thomson placed a light paddle wheel in the path of the cathode
rays. The paddle wheel started to rotate. He concluded that cathode
rays are a stream of particles. (see fig. 3.2).

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Fig 3.2 Experiment to demonstrate properties of cathode rays

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J.J Thomson applied an electric field parallel to the path of the

rays. The cathode rays deflected towards the anode. He concluded that
cathode rays are negatively charged. (See the fig 3.3)
t to
No

Fig 3.3 Experiment to demonstrate properties of cathode rays

26
 Though J.J Thomson conducted the above experiment with different
gases, the same results were obtained. He named these particles as
electrons. and these electrons are negatively charged particles. It is
lighter than Hydrogen atom. Its mass is very small when compared to
that of an atom. He showed that atom is divisible and it is made up of
very small particles. After the discovery of electron, the first postulate
of Dalton had to be given up.
Presence of positive charge in an atom: If an atom is composed of

d
only electrons, then atoms and the matter should be negatively charged.
The fact is that all matter and atoms are electrically neutral. Does it

he
mean that atoms carry positively charged particles also? To explore this,
Goldstein conducted an experiment.

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Fig 3.4 Production of anode rays

In 1886, Goldstein used a modified type of discharge tube with a

perforated cathode. He observed that certain rays are travelling in the
t
No

direction, opposite to that of the cathode rays. These rays are called
anode rays. (see fig: 3.4) He applied an electric field parallel to the path of
anode rays. He observed that path of the rays deflected towards cathode.
What conclusion do you draw about the kind of charge of the anode
rays? These rays contain positively charged particles and are called
positive rays. The deflection of anode rays in an electric field was very
little when compared to the deflection of cathode rays. Why is it so? The
deflection of anode rays towards cathode depends on the type of gases
taken inside the tube.

27
Let us list out the different characteristics of anode rays.
1. They consist of positively charged particles.
2. They are deflected by electrical and magnetic fields. The
deflection is very little when compared to the deflection of cathode
rays because they consist of heavy particles (nucleus).
3. The deflection of the anode rays depends on the nature of the gas

d
in the discharge tube. Heavier the gas lower the deflection.

he
When hydrogen gas is taken inside the discharge tube the deflection
will be maximum. The positive particles of hydrogen atoms are found to
be lightest. These particles are called protons. The mass of one proton

is
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is about the mass of 1840 electrons. The charge of proton is equal and
opposite to that of electron. We assume that the mass of the proton as
B
bl
1 atomic mass unit and its relative charge is taken as +1.
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How are electrons and protons arranged in an atom? Rutherford’s

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experiment
K

It was initially believed that electrons and protons are uniformly

©

distributed. Rutherford conducted an experiment which changed the

entire concept of distribution of electrons and protons in an atom. Let
us study this experiment. He directed high speed positively charged
particles called alpha particles towards a thin gold foil. He observed that
most of the alpha particles passed through the foil without deflection.
A few of them were deflected at very large angles from their original
to

direction and a few were even turned back on their path.

t
No

Fig 3.5

28
 This experiment raised several questions.
1. Why did most of the particles pass through the foil?
2. Why did a few of them deflect from their original path through large
angles?
3. Why did a few of the alpha particles rebound?
Based on this experiment Rutherford proposed a set of

d
assumptions. They are

he
1. Positively charged particles of an atom are held together in the
central region of the atom. It is called nucleus. It is surrounded

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by electrons.
B
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2. The volume of nucleus is small when compared to the volume
of an atom.
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3. The mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
K

4. The nucleus is positively charged which is different in magnitude

©

for different elements.

5. In a neutral atom the number of electrons outside the nucleus
are equal to the number of positively charged particles in the
nucleus.
Rutherford noticed that atomic masses of different atoms could not
to

be explained, if only protons and electrons are present in them. It was

observed that the actual mass of the nucleus was much larger than
sum of the mass of the protons that made it. He predicted that a kind
t
No

of neutral particle with mass equal to that of proton must be present

in the atom.
The mass of the nucleus which is of a much higher mass is attributed
to the presence of another type of particle. In 1932 James Chadwick
experimentally proved the presence of such particles and called them
neutrons. Mass of a neutron is almost equal to that of a proton. They
are present in the nucleus of the atom.

29
Activity 3.4
Complete the table

Atomic particle Discovered by Type of charge mass

Proton

neutrom

electron

d
Several scientists did not agree with Rutherford’s model of atom. An

he
electron revolving around the nucleus continuously should lose energy.
As a result, it should be gradually pulled towards the nucleus and end

is
up colliding with it. If this should happen then the atom would collapse.
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Rutherford’s atomic model could not explain the stability of the atom.
B
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A new theory was presented to explain this.
In 1913 Neils Bohr presented a model of an atom, which is now
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called the Bohr model. The postulates of this model are,
K

1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus only in certain permissible

circular orbits. This orbit is called shell. The first shell from the
©

nucleus is ‘K’ shell The subsequent shells are L, M, N, O, . ,

respectively.
2. Electrons in each shell have been associated with definite amount of
energy. Electrons in higher shell have more energy than those
nearer to the nucleus.
3. The energy of an electron remains constant so long as it revolves
in its own shell. The shells are also called energy levels. or
to

stationary energy levels.

Neils Bohr proposed that each shell (energy level) can accommodate
a maximum of 2n2 electrons, where n is the shell number. For instance
t
No

n = 3 for the third shell. This shell accommodates maximum of

2×32 = 18 electrons only. This means ‘M’ shell contains not more than
18 electrons. Can you calculate the total number of electrons that can
be present in ‘N’ shell?
You know that neutral Chlorine atom has 17 electrons. According
to Neils Bohr’s model, out of 17 electrons the ‘K’ shell accommodates
2 electrons, ‘L’ shell accommodates 8 electrons, and the remaining 7
electrons are accommodated in the next shell namely ‘M’ shell. This is
represented in figure. 3.6

30
 d
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K

Fig 3.6 electron distribution in chlorine atom

©

Activity 3.5

Write the structure of Sulphur atom, showing the distribution of electrons.

The model of the atom that emerged after Neils Bohr’s proposal can
be summed up as follows.
1. Every matter is made up of atoms.
to

2. An atom is no longer considered to be indivisible.

Atomic number
t
No

The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is known

as atomic number. It also represents the number of electrons in the
orbits. It is denoted by Z. The total number of protons and neutrons
present in the nucleus of an the atom is known as mass number. It is
denoted by A. Generally atomic number and mass number of the atom
of an element are represented by a symbol ZXA. ‘X’ is an element.

31
Activity 3.6
Now you fill in the blank in the following table.

Name of Number Number Number Atomic Atomic Symbolical

the of of of number mass representation
element protons electrons neutrons number
Hydrogen 1 1 0 1 1 1
H1
H

d
Helium 2 2
He

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Neon 10
Ne

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Uranium 92 238
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U
B
Oxygen
O bl 8
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Sodium 11
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Na
K

Carbon 6 6
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C
Radium 88 226
Ra
Aluminium 13 27
Al
The model of an atom has undergone further improvement which
you will study in higher classes. You have studied that the nucleus of
to

an atom contains protons and neutrons. It is observed that if the atomic

number changes then the element also changes. For example, if an atom
contains three protons, it has to be a Lithium atom. If an atom contains
t

six protons, it has to be a Carbon atom. Does the element change when
No

the mass number changes? Let us study about Isotopes.

Isotopes:
Observe the following figures. How many protons are present in
each atom? If one proton is present in the atom, it has to be a Hydrogen
atom. Observe the atomic mass number of each atom in fig 3.7. Is it
the same? Atoms of an element with different mass numbers are called
Isotopes. Hydrogen has three types of atoms. 1H1 (protium/hydrogen)
figure 3.7(1), 1H2 (deuterium) figure 3.7(2), 1H3 (tritium) figure 3.7(3).

32

fig 3.7(1) fig 3.7(2) fig 3.7(3)
Fig 3.7 Isotopes of hydrogen

d
After the discovery of isotopes the second postulate of Dalton became

he
invalid, because the same element hydrogen has three different types
of atoms.

is
Exercises:
re S B
bl
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete
statement / question. Choose the right answer:
be T
pu
1. The heaviest fundamental particle is
K

a. proton b. electron
c. neutron d. positron
©

2. In the scattering experiment the deflection of alpha particle is due to

a. increase in kinetic energy b. force of repulsion
c. force of attraction d. decrease in kinetic energy
3. The simplest atom that does not contain neutron is
a. deuterium b. tritium
to

c. hydrogen d. helium
4. The reason for the existence of isotopes is change in
t
No

a. atomic number b. electron number

c. neutron number d. proton number

II. Fill in the blanks with the suitable words :

1. The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
is known as _________________ .
2. Almost all the mass of an atom is concentrated in a small region of
space called the __________________.

33
 3. The particle of an atom that has no charge is _________ .
4. The fundamental particle not present in a normal hydrogen atom is
_________ .
5. The atomic mass of an atom is 23 and its atomic number is 11. the
atom has __________________ neutrons.
III. Answer the following:
1. Mention the properties of cathode rays.

d
2. Who proposed that atomic nucleus is positively charged?

he
3. State the conclusions drawn by scattering experiment of Rutherford?
4. Why is an atom neutral in spite of the presence of charged particles

is
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in it?
B
bl
5. Name the fundamental particles present in an atom.
6. Define the terms atomic number and atomic mass number of an
be T
pu
element
K

7. Define the term ‘isotope’ of an atom with a suitable example.

8. From the symbol 19K40 state 1.mass number of Potassium 2. atomic
©

number of Potassium 3. Write the distribution of electrons in an atom

of Potassium.
IV. Match the following :
A B
1. proton a. negligible mass
to

2. ‘L’ shell b. 32 electrons

3. electrons c. dalton’s atomic theory
t

4. neutrons d. 8 electrons
No

e. electrically neutral
f. positively charged
g. 18 electrons.



34
 Chapter 4
More about atoms
After studying this chapter students :
• explain the terms relative atomic mass and mole.
• calculate the number of moles in a given mass of a substance
• estimate the amount of chemicals required for a chemical reaction

d
using mole concept.

he
• identify the valence electron when atomic number of an element
is given.

is
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• define the valency of the given element.
B

bl
• recognise the relationship between valence electron and valency
of a given element
be T
pu
The mass of an atom is very small. Units of mass such as milligram,
K

gram and kilogram are not convenient to express such small masses.
A suitable convenient unit has been developed by international
©

committee of chemists. An isotope of carbon namely 6C12 atom has been

chosen as a standard for this purpose. one-twelfth of mass of the atom
6
C12 isotope is taken as a standard to compare the mass of other atoms
and molecules. This unit is called atomic mass unit or one a m u
Know this : How much is one a.m.u? One a.m.u.= 1.66 × 10-24 g.
= 1.66 × 10-27 kg.
to

1
12 of the mass of one atom of carbon 6C is one a m u
12
t

i.e. 1.66 × 10-24 g.

No

The relative atomic mass of an element is the ratio of the mass

of an atom of the element to one-twelfth of the mass of an atom of
carbon 6C12. In other words, it is a number that shows how many times
an atom of an element is heavier than one-twelfth the mass of an
atom of carbon 6C12.

Re lative actomic mass = mass of 1 atom of the element

1 # mass of 1 atom of 6 C12 isotope
12

35
 The relative atomic masses of some important elements are given
in the following table.
Table 4.1 Relative Atomic Mass of some elements

Element Symbol Relative Element Symbol Relative

Atomic Atomic
Mass Mass
Aluminium Al 26.98 Magnesium Mg 24.31

d
he
Calcium Ca 40.08 Nitrogen N 14.01

is
Carbon C 12.01 Oxygen O 15.99
re S B
Chlorine
bl C1 35.45 Phosphorus P 30.97
be T

Hydrogen H 1.008 Silver Ag 107.87

pu
K

How to calculate the relative molecular mass of a compound? Let

us take an example.
©

Carbondioxide: CO2
Atomic mass of Carbon =12, Atomic mass of oxygen = 16
1 × atomic mass of carbon + 2 × atomic mass of oxygen.
1 × 12 + (2 ×16) = 12 + 32 = 44
Hence, relative molecular mass of carbon dioxide = 44
to

Relative molecular mass

The relative molecular mass of a substance is the ratio of the mass
t

of a molecule of the substance to 1 the mass of an atom of carbon 6C12

No

12
isotope.
Mass of 1 moleculeof the subs tan ce
Relative molecular mass =
1 # mass of 1 atomof 6 C12
12

Thus, the relative molecular mass of a substance is the number that

shows how many times a molecule of the substance, is heavier than
that of 1 of carbon 6C12 isotope.
12

36
 The relative molecular mass of a substance, element or compound-
can be easily calculated by adding the relative atomic masses of all the
individual atoms present in the molecule.
Activity 4.1
Find the relative molecular mass of water. Molecular formula of water is H20
Gram-Atomic Mass
Gram atomic mass of an element is its relative atomic mass

d
expressed in grams.

he
For example, the relative atomic mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.008,
and its gram atomic mass is 1.008 g.

is
Similarly gram atomic mass of oxygen is 16 g.
re S
Gram molecular mass:
B
bl
Gram molecular mass of a substance is its relative molecular mass
be T

expressed in grams. The following table gives gram molecular mass of

pu
some substances.
K

Table 4.2 Gram Molecular Mass of Some Substances

©

Substance Molecular Relative molecular Gram molecular

formula mass mass

Hydrogen H2 2×1=2 2g

Oxygen O2 2×16=32 32 g
to

Chlorine Cl2 2×35.5=71 71g

t

Water H2O ( 2×1)+16=18 18 g

No

Hydrogen HCl 1+35.5=36.5 36.5 g

chloride
Carbon CO2 12+(2×16)=44 44 g
dioxide
Sulphuric H2SO4 (2×1)+32+(4×16)=98 98 g
acid

37
Mole concept
You might have read the stories of Tenali Ramakrishna and
Krishnadevaraya. You might have read the similar stories of Akbar and
Birbal. The stories are not only hilarious but full of wisdom.
One such story of Akbar and Birbal goes like this. Akbar wanted
a long story to be narrated. Birbal readily obliged him, and started
narrating the story. A jowar bag in a farmer’s home was open and the
jowar grains were spilled. It was unattended to. A bird noticed the

d
food grains and came over to pick up a grain. Another bird came and

he
picked up a grain. Birbal repeated the same sentence four to five times.
At this stage, Akbar said “stop repeating, continue the story. What
happened next?” Birbal said “how can I? All the grains present in the

is
re S
bag should be picked up by the birds first, and then I can continue the
story”. Akbar recognizing the wisdom of Birbal smiled and settled for
B
bl
small stories.
be T

How many times should Birbal repeat the sentence “A bird came and
pu
picked up a grain”? It depends on the number of jowar grains present
K

in the bag.
How many jowar grains are present in the bag? Apart from physical
©

counting can you suggest a method of knowing the number of jowar

grains present in the bag? Counting the large number of small particles
is really a difficult task.
Consider another example. During lunch interval a student says
to his friend “give me ‘H2O’. I forgot to bring my water bottle today.”
You have studied that, the molecular formula of water is ‘H2O’ and it
to

is just one molecule of water. Though you oblige him by giving water,
do you give him just one molecule of water? Is there any way to know
the number of water molecules present in the quantity of water given
t

to him by you?
No

In this chapter we shall discuss regarding mass and calculation of

number of small particles like atoms and molecules.
In day-to-day life , we use units like dozen, to deal with
quantities. The terms dozen indicate constant number, whatever
may be the items. In a similar manner to represent the number
of atoms or molecules we use the word ‘mole’. A ‘mole’ is equal to
6.023 × 1023 atoms or molecules. This is also called Avagadro’s number
and is represented by N.

38
 Know this : “Mole” represents the number of atoms
or molecules in 22.4 litres of any gas at standard
temperature and pressure (STP). (Standard
temperature and pressure) The volume 22.4 litres is
also called gram molecular volume.

d
Avagadro

he
Importance of gram atomic mass
Gram atomic mass of a substance contains 6.023 × 1023 atoms.
For example, gram atomic mass of oxygen is 16 g. That means 16 g

is
re S
of oxygen contains 6.023 × 1023 atoms. If we inhale 16 g of oxygen we
will be breathing 6.023 × 1023 oxygen atoms. Similarly, gram molecular
B
bl
mass of any substance contains 6.023 × 1023 molecules. Example: Gram
molecular mass of water is 18 g. That means if we drink 18 g of water
be T

we will be drinking 6.023 × 1023 molecules of water. Remember H2O

pu
indicates one mole of water.
K

Do you know?
©

Lord Kelvin inventor of the Kelvin Scale of

Temperature helped in calculating Avogadro’s
number. This number is also refered to as mole. Mole
is a huge number, 6.023×1023
Which is equal to,
602, 300,000,000,000,000,000,000
Lord Kelvin
to

Mole concept gives us a method of calculating the number of atoms

present in a given mass of a substance. It helps in the calculation of
t

the ratio of reactants consumed and products formed quantitatively.

No

Activity 4.2
Calculate the number of moles of water molecules in 1000 cm3 of water.

Know this : Counting by weight is used in Reserve Bank to count the

number of coins. In the Akbar and Birbal story, we can find the number of
food grains by weighing the bag of jowar and comparing it with the weight
of one grain of Jowar.

39
Problem
To prepare one gram of hydrogen molecules using hydrochloric acid,
how many grams of zinc should be taken?
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2↑
Gram atomic mas of zinc is 65 g and that of hydrogen molecule is
2 g. From the above equation we can understand that 65 g of zinc gives
2 g of hydrogen molecules. To prepare 1 g of hydrogen molecules we

d
need 32.5 g of zinc.

he
Valency Of An Element
You know that the molecular formula of sodium chloride is NaCl, and

is
that of calcium chloride is CaCl2 but not CaCl. Similarly the molecular
re S
formula of ferric chloride is FeCl3 but not FeCl. These differences are
B
bl
due to the combining capacity of atoms. Valency can be considered
as, the combining capacity of an element. The knowledge of atomic
be T

structure has helped in better understanding of the concept of valency.

pu
The modern concept of valency in its simplest form can be defined as the
K

number of electrons of an element that take part in chemical reactions.

For example, valency of chlorine is 1, because it can accept or share one
©

electron to form a chemical bond. The valency of calcium is 2, because

it can donate two electrons. The valency of oxygen is also 2, because it
can accept or share 2 electrons to form a bond. The valency of carbon
is 4, because it can share 4 electrons with other atoms. You will study
more about chemical bonds in higher classes.
Some elements do not have a natural tendency to react with other
to

elements to form compounds. They are called inert gases or noble

gases. For example: Helium, Neon, Argon. (The element of 18th group
in the periodic table) Their valency is zero. These elements have either
t

completed shell of electrons or 8 electrons in the outermost shell

No

(octet structure).
Helium atom has 1 shell (K shell), this shell can accommodate
only 2 electrons. It has a completed shell. Its valency is zero, or it is
chemically stable.
Similarly electronic configuration of Argon is,
K L M
2 8 8

40
 It has octect structure, its valency is also zero. Thus it is stable.The
electronic configuration of chlorine atom is
K L M
2 8 7
It has an incomplete shell. It needs 1 electron, to complete the
octet structure. Its valency is 1. Chlorine atom can also donate the
7 electrons of the outer most shell and get octet structure. Then its

d
valency becomes 7

he
Now consider sodium atom, it has one electron in the outermost
shell. It donates 1 electron and gets octect structure in the ‘L’ shell itself.
Its valency is also 1.

is
re S
K L M
B
bl 2 8 1
be T

Activity 4.3
pu
K

Atomic number of Aluminium is 13. find out its valency and valence electrons.
As a special case, some elements have variable valency. For
©

example, iron has two valencies-ferrous (2) and ferric (3). It is because
the number of electrons from the iron atoms which participate in the
chemical reaction will be either 2 or 3 depending upon conditions.
Activity 4.4
Complete the following table:
to

Distribution of
Name of the Symbol of Atomic Valence
electrons
element the element number electrons
K L M N
t
No

Nitrogen N 7 2 5 5
Oxygen O 8 2 6
Sodium Na 11 2 8 1
Magnesium Mg 12 2 8 2
Silicon Si 14 2 8 4
Sulphur S 16 2 8 6

41
Exercises :
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete
statement/question. Choose the right answer.
1. Some elements have atomic mass in fractions. It is due to the
presence of

a. fractions of protons b. fractions of neutrons

d
c. isotopes d. valence electrons

he
2. Plants in a garden make use of 22.4 litres of carbon dioxide at
S.T.P. The numbers of molecules of carbondioxide utilised by the

is
re S
plant is,
B

bl
a. 6.023×1023 molecules

c. 6.023×1024 atoms
b. 22.4 molecules

d. 11.2 moles of molecules

be T
pu
3. The atomic mass of Deuterium isotope of hydrogen is 2. The
K

atomic mass of oxygen is 16. Then the molecular mass of heavy

©

water formed is

a. 16 b. 18 c. 20 d 24

4. Some elements can have different valencies. It can happen due to the
change in

a. number of electrons that participate in a reaction

to

b. number of neutrons c. number of protons

d. atomic mass number

t
No

II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words

1. Modern standard for measuring atomic mass is ______________ .

2. Average atomic mass of chlorine is ___________ .

3. Molecular mass of water is ________________ .

4. Gram molecular volume of a gas at S.T.P is ________________ litre.

42
 III. Answer the following
1. Using a piece of calcium sulphate a student writes the word
“mole”. Explain briefly the method of calculation of finding the
number of calcium sulphate molecules used to write the word
mole. (Data: atomic masses : Calcium = 40, Sulphur = 32,
Oxygen = 16) Molecular formula of calcium sulphate is CaSO4
Heat

d
2. CaCO3 CaO + CO2 ↑

he
From the above equation calculate the amount of carbon dioxide
in grams liberated by heating 25 g of calcium carbonate.
3. A student writes “preparation of CO2” in the laboratory in his

is
re S
book. From the point of view of chemistry what is the mistake
made in this writing ?
B
bl
IV. Match the following :
be T
pu
A B
K

1. gram molecular volume a. triatomic oxygen

2. ozone b. three electrons
©

3. valence electrons c. diatomic oxygen

4. modern standard d. electrons of the outermost of shell
atomic mass
e. carbon 6C isotope
12

f. 22.4 liters
g. carbon 6C14 isotope
t to
No

A nation’s culture resides in the hearts and in the soul of its people.

-Mohandas Gandhi



43
 CHAPTER 5
Study of cells
After studying this chapter students :
• list the major parts of a cell.
• state the role of each organelle of a cell for the overall activity of the
cell.

d
• compare the structure and function of chloroplasts with mito
chondra.

he
• differentiate a plant cell from an animal cell.
• recognize the role of diffusion and osmosis in the functioning of a

is
cell.
re S
• develop the skill of drawing the diagrams of plant and animal cells.
B
Study Of Cells bl
be T

You know, that all organisms are made up of small units, called
pu
‘cells’. As are the bricks to a building, so are the cells to the body. You
K

have already learnt that organisms may be unicellular or multicellular.

©

Activity: 5.1
Classify the following into unicellular and multicellular organisms.
t to
No

Fig.5.1

44
 The number of cells in multicellular organisms may be from a few
hundreds to billions.
Know this : An average adult human body approximately has trillions of
cells.
1 million = 106 (1000000)
1 billion = 109 (1000000000)
1 trillion = 1012 (1000000000000)

d
100 trillion = 1014 (100000000000000)

he
Cells perform activities such as nutrition respiration and cell
division, which contribute to the overall growth of an organism. Hence,
cells are called structural and functional units of an organism.

is
re S
Recall : An organism such as horse has a number of organ systems.
B
bl
One such system is the circulatory system. Name an organ of the
circulatory system. Mention a tissue of this organ, and a cell of this
be T

tissue. You will note that the cell is the basic unit of an organism.
pu
K

cell tissue organ organ system organism

©

bone cell bone tissue bone skeletal system wolf

to

Fig.5.2 Cell is the basic unit of an organism

Discovery of the cell
t
No

Many scientists have contributed to the development of cytology.

Robert Hooke
Robert Hooke was an English scientist. He designed
a microscope and examined a thin section of a piece
of dried cork under it. He saw honey comb like structures
in it. He called them ‘cells’. The word cell means
‘small room’.
Robert Hooke

45
M.J. Schleiden and Theodore Schwann
Schleiden, a German botanist and Schwann, a German zoologist,
together put forth the ‘cell theory’ in 1839. Cell theory states
• The body of living organisms is formed of one or more cells.
• All the cells arise only from preexisting cells through
cell division.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
Nerve cell

K

Red blood cell

©

Fig 5.3 Types of Cells Tracheids

Look at fig.5.3 and observe the cells of various shapes. A nerve

cell is long and has branched fibre like structures. A nerve cell carries
messages from one part of the body to another. A red blood cell is
biconcave and round in shape. It transports oxygen to different parts
to

of the body of an organism. Thus, cells have different shapes to carry

out different functions. Give some more examples of cells to show the
relationship between their shape and function.
t

How small are the cells? Most of the cells are not visible to the naked
No

eye. They need to be magnified by a microscope. How to express the size

of the cell? As cells are very small, ordinary units are not convenient to
express the size of the cells. Micron is the most commonly used unit to
express the size of the cell. One micron is equal to 1/1000 of a millimetre.
Think : Is the difference in the size of an organism, due to the large size of
the cells or large number of cells?

46
 The cell and its components can be observed clearly with the help of
an electron microscope. Electron microscope uses a beam of electrons
to get the image of the object. Its magnification is about 200000 times
as against the compound microscope, which magnifies objects up to
2000 times.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig 5.4. Compound Microscope Fig 5.5 Electron Microscope

©

Know this : A Compound microscope is a much improved design over the

microscope developed by Robert Hooke.

How to find the magnification produced by the compound microscope?

Look at the compound microscope in the fig. 5.4. Observe the eye piece in
to

the compound microscope. An eye piece lens is the one, through which
we see. An objective lens is the one, which is facing the object. Find the
magnification, written on the eye piece lens and the objective lens. For
t

example, in a compound microscope, magnification of eye piece lens is

No

10x and that of objective lens is 40x. The total magnification is 400x.
It means, the object appears 400 times larger than its actual size.
Activity 5.2
Find out the magnification power of a compound microscope, that you use
in your school.

How do you observe a cell under compound microscope?

47
Activity 5.3

Peel off a thin layer from a piece of an onion. Put this in a watch glass
containing water. Take a glass slide, put a drop of water. Transfer a small piece
of the onion layer, on to the water drop on the slide. Put a drop of iodine or any
suitable staining solution on this piece. Observe the slide, with the guidance of
the teacher, under a compound microscope. Under the microscope, you will see
the cells, usually as shown in the fig.5.6

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

Fig 5.6 Cells in onion peel

to

Observe the cells in fig. 5.7, and fig. 5.8. Any cell, when observed
under a compound. microscope, shows three prominent parts. They
t

are cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus. A cell is surrounded by a

No

cell membrane. It is also called plasma membrane. It separates the interior

of the cell from outside environment. Cell membrane forms the boundary of
the cell. It helps to maintain the shape of the cell. It controls the movement of
selected substances into or out of it. Hence, cell membrane is described as a
semi permeable membrane.

The movement of molecules across the cell membrane occurs by

two processes.
48
 d
is he
re S B
bl
Fig 5.7 Animal Cell
be T
pu
K
to
t©
No

Fig 5.8 Plant Cell

49
 How do these processes occur? Let us conduct an experiment.
Activity 5.4

Experiment to demonstrate diffusion

Take some water in a beaker. Drop a crystal of potassium
permanganate into it. Observe the change in the colour of water; whether
the change was gradual or immediate. The change is due to the movement of
molecules. Potassium permanganate has diffused. This process of

d
movement of molecules is called ‘diffusion’. Diffusion is a process in which,
molecules move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower

he
concentration.

is
re S
Think : How does oxygen
B
bl moves in and out of the cell?
be T
pu
Let us take another situation,
K

in which the molecules move from

a region of higher concentration
©

to a region of lower concentration.

Fig 5.9 Experiment to
We shall conduct another
demonstrate diffusion
experiment.
Activity 5.5

Experiment to demonstrate osmosis

to

Make a cup shaped cavity in a peeled potato as shown in fig 5.10.

Pour sugar solution into the cavity. Place the potato in a container half
immersed in water. Mark the level of sugar solution. Leave it for about
half an hour. Note the rise in the level of sugar solution. Why did it rise?
t

It is due to the movement of water molecules from a region of higher

No

concentration to a region of lower concentration. However, the movement

of molecules is through the semipermeable membrane of the potato. This
process is called ‘osmosis’. Osmosis is a special kind of diffusion. It is
the diffusion of water molecules through a semipermeable membrane.
Hence, osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of
its higher concentration to a region of a lower concentration, through a
semipermeable membrane.

50
 d
he
Fig.5.10 Experiment to demonstrate osmosis

is
re S
Movement of molecules across the plasma membrane of cells is
B
bl
usually from a region of higher concentration to the region of lower
concentration. Under certain conditions, molecules move from a
be T
pu
region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration with
K

the expenditure of energy. For example, in blood, the concentration

of sodium is less and it is more in a heart muscle cell. Inspite of this,
©

sodium is absorbed into the heart muscle cell, from the blood. This
process requires energy. This is called active transport.
Look at the fig. 5.8. In plant cells, in addition to the cell membrane,
there is a cellwall. Cellwall is thick, rigid and surrounds the cell
membrane. It is mainly composed of cellulose, a non living substance.
Cell wall provides shape, strength, protection and rigidity to the cell.
to

Cytoplasm is a jelly like substance found within the cell membrane.

Nearly 80% of cytoplasm is water. It is the seat for most of the cellular
t

activities. A number of smaller components are found in the cytoplasm.

No

They include nonliving substances and living substances called

‘organelles’. Non living substances include several chemicals such as
starch grains, oil droplets, calcium carbonate, resin and gum. Some of
them are used as reserve food, some are waste products and the others
are secretions.
The living components are called organelles. Organelles are the
specialized structures found in the cell. They carry out specific functions.
They are grouped under two categories. They are-

51
1. Organelles covered by membranes called membranous organelles.
Examples: Endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, golgi complex,
lysosome, plastids. Look at the organelles marked in the fig. 5.7and
5.8.
2. Organelles which are not covered by membranes called
non membranous organelles. Examples: Ribosomes, centrioles.

d
Membranous organelles
Endoplasmic reticulum :

he
Endoplasmic reticulum is a network
of membranes. It extends from the

is
cell membrane to the nuclear
re S
membrane. Endoplasmic reticulum
B
bl
forms the supporting framework of
the cell. It transports substances
be T
pu
from one part of the cell to the other
K

and from one cell to another. Fig. 5.11 Endoplasmic reticulum

©

Mitochondrion: Observe the fig 5.12. Mitochondria occur in various

shapes, such as, cylindrical, spherical, oval and rod shaped. Each
mitochondrion is bound by a double membrane. Outer membrane is
smooth but inner one is folded. Folds are called cristae. Inner membrane
encloses a mass known as m a t r i x . Mitochondria are the
sites of respiration in a cell.
to

They use oxygen to break

down glucose into carbon
dioxide and water. This process
t

releases energy, which is

No

stored in a molecule called

adenosine triphosphate. This
in short is known as ATP.
Hence, mitochondria are called
Fig 5.12 Mitochondrion ‘power houses of the cell’.
Normally, a cell has 30 to 40
mitochondria; but the number of mitochondria in a cell varies and
depends on the function of the cell.

52
 Think: Flight muscle cells in insects contain thousands of mitochondria.
Why?

Golgi complex :Golgi complex consists

of different types of structures. Some
are tube like, a few are in the form
of granules. The main function of

d
golgi complex is to secrete chemicals
required for cellular activities.

he
Lysosomes : Lysosomes are usually
found in an animal cell. They are

is
re S
spherical, sac like organelles. They Fig 5.13 Golgi Complex
B
bl
contain a variety of hydrolytic
enzymes. These enzymes help in the digestion of organic substances,
be T
pu
present in the cell. They may also destroy their own cell, when it becomes
K

old, weak, damaged or diseased. Hence they are called ‘suicide bags of
the cell’.
©

Know this : Lysosomes use about 40 different types of enzymes, which

are manufactured in the endoplasmic reticulum and modified in the golgi
complex.

Plastids
Plastids are found only in plant cells. Some plastids are without
to

colouring pigments and are called leucoplasts. They occur in regions

of plant, which are not exposed to sunlight, such as tender roots and
t

stems. They are mainly involved in the storage of reserve food. Some other
No

plastids are with the colouring pigments. They are called chromoplasts.
Chromoplasts contain pigments that are green, yellow, red, orange in
colour. The green coloured chromoplasts are known as chloroplasts. In
chloroplasts, green coloured pigment, namely chlorophyll is in larger
amount than other coloured pigments. They are found in the green
parts of the plants such as leaves. Look at fig. 5.14, to understand the
structure of chloroplast.

53
 Chloroplast:
Each chloroplast is covered by
a double membrane. The inner
membrane encloses a matrix.
Matrix consists of stroma and
grana. Grana has chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll plays an important

d
role in preparing food. What

he
exactly is the role of chlorophyll?
You will learn more about this,
Fig 5.14 Chloroplast in section in the nineteenth chapter.

is
re S
Think : A tender tomato is whitish in colour. Later it becomes green.
B
bl
Further it turns red. Why?
be T
pu
Non membranous cellorganelles
K

Ribosomes : You will find some grain like structures attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum. These are ribosomes. Ribosomes are also found
©

attached to the nuclear membrane. They are found even in the nucleolus.
They play an important role in the synthesis of protein. Hence, they are
known as ‘protein factories of the cell’.
Centriole : Look at fig. 5.7, to identify the organelle called centriole.
Centrioles are found in some algae, fungi and all animal cells. Two
centrioles are located usually near the nucleus. Centrioles help during
to

cell division.
In the cell, we will also find membrane covered cavities called
t

vacuoles.They are filled with a fluid called cell sap. Vacuoles are
No

structures which store food, excess water and waste products.

Know this : Most of the protozoans have vacuoles. Vacuoles, which store
food and help in digestion, are food vacuoles. Vacuoles, which help in the
removal of excess water, are contractile vacuoles.

Nucleus
Nucleus is a spherical organelle found in all eukaryotes. Recall what
eukaryote is. Nucleus is the largest organelle in a cell.

54
 Most of the eukaryotic cells
usually have one nucleus. Some like
slime molds have many nuclei. Some
mammalian cells like red blood cells
do not have nucleus at maturity.

Think : Mammalian red blood cells

do not contain nucleus at maturity.

d
Why?
Nucleus is covered by a

he
double membrane called nuclear
Fig 5.15 Nucleus
membrane. The membrane encloses
a fluid called nucleoplasm Nucleoplasm has a network of thread

is
re S
like structures called chromatin. During cell division chromatin
undergoes coiling and super coiling and becomes short and thick to
B
bl
form chromosomes.
be T

Chromosomes contain genetic material called Deoxyribose nucleic

pu
acid. In short, it is called DNA. DNA has genes. Each gene determines a
K

particular characteristic of an organism. For example, height of a person,

colour of the skin, colour of the eyes like black, blue, green or brown.
©

Normally, every cell of an organism of a species has a definite number

of chromosomes. Every human cell has 46 chromosomes. Look at the
given table to know the chromosome number of some organisms.
Table 5.1 Chromosome number in some organisms

Organism Chromosome Number

to

Round worm 2
Onion 16
t

Cat 38
No

Mango 40
Monkey 54
Dog 78

Look at the structure other than chromatin in the nucleus. Nucleus

also has a dense spherical body called nucleolus. Nucleolus is not
covered by a membrane. Nucleolus encloses ribosomes and thus involves
in the synthesis of protein.

55
 Nucleus co-ordinates the activities of the cell. For instance, look at
the given illustrations a and b carefully in fig 5.16.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig 5.16 Illustrations a and b

©

From the above illustrations, can you establish the importance of

nucleus?
Activity 5.6
List the major differences between a plant and animal cell by looking at the
diagrams: 5.7 and 5.8.
to

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

1 Cell wall
t
No

2 Plastids

3 Vacuole

4 Centrioles

56
 Exercises :

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete

statement / question. Choose the right answer :
1. A cell lacking in nucleus, also lacks

a. plasma membrane b. mitochondria

d
c. chromosome d. vacuole

he
2. Cell wall is absent in the cell of this organism

a. mushroom b.moss

is
re S
c. fern d. mosquito
B
bl
3. Organelle of the cell, which releases energy through respiration is
be T

a. Golgi complex b. Mitochondria

pu
K

c. Lysosome d. Chloroplast
©

4. Which of the following part of a cell is non-living ?

a. cell wall b. mitochondria

c. cell membrane d. lysosome

5. One of the following is the smallest organelle in a cell

a. lysosome b. nucleolus
to

c. ribosome d. chromosome

II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words:

t
No

1. The instrument that led to the understanding of cell is ___________ .

2. The organelle, which controls the various activities of the cell, is_____.

3. The organelle, which is called the ‘kitchen of the plant cell’ is _____ .

4. The sites of protein synthesis in the cell are _____________ .

5. The main chemical component of the cell wall is _____________ .

57
III. Match the following:
A B
1. storage room of the cell a. chloroplast
2. gateway of the cell d. golgi Complex
3. solar panels of the cell c. vacuole
4. packages of hereditary information d. cell wall

d
e. chromoplast

he
f. cell membrane
g. chromosome
IV. Answer the following questions:

is
re S
1. What are genes? Mention their importance.
B
bl
2. Which organelle is responsible for the formation of spindle fibres
during cell division?
be T
pu
3. Which is the most important type of chromoplast? Why?
K

4. Which are the organelles that are found more in number in the
following cells?
©

a. muscle cells b. white blood cells

c. leaf cells d. pancreatic cells
5. List any four differences between a plant cell and an animal cell.
6. Diagrams of two different cells are given below. Which one of the two
is a plant cell? Support your answer.
t to
No

58
 1. Name the parts 1, 2, 3 and 4.

2. Write the functions of 1 and 3.

3. Draw a labelled diagram of 4 as seen under an electron microscope.

7. Draw a labelled diagram of a plant cell

V. Suggested Activities

d
1. Put dried raisins (dry grapes) in a dish with water. What is the change
in the size of raisins after some time? Why?

he
2. Remove the shell of an egg by dissolving it in dilute hydrochloric
acid. A thin outer skin now encloses the egg Put the egg in water.

is
re S
Observe after a few minutes. What is your inference ?
B
bl
3. Place a similar de-shelled egg in a concentrated salt solution for
a few minutes. Observe the changes. Record your observations
be T
pu
giving reasons.
K
©

Habits : Cultivate regular habits of prayer, meditation and reading

inspiring and strengthening literature.
to

-Swami Vivekananda
t
No



59
 CHAPTER 6
Classification of Living Organisms
After studying this chapter students :
• explain the importance of biology in daily life.

• describe the need for the classification of living organisms.

d
• identify the efforts of scientists, in developing systematic
classification.

he
• recognize the evolutionary basis of classification.

is
• note the diversity in the living organisms and the fundamental
re S
similarties in the life forms.
B
• bl
identify the organisms that they see around.
be T

• classify the living organisms to their respective kingdoms.

pu
K

• develop the skill in drawing the diagrams of organisms.

Nature, Scope and Branches of Biology

©

Nature is beautiful with a wide variety of plants and animals. Plants

and animals differ in structure, function, shape, colour, life process
and other characteristics. Is it not nice and interesting to know about
plants, animals and other living organisms?
Scope of Biology
to

Biology is known as a natural science. Biology is the study of life

and living organisms.
t

The study of biology helps us to,

No

• answer countless questions related to life, such as, are there

plants which eat insects? Is a virus living or non living? Why
do cells divide? How do cells age?
• increase the power of observation.
Observe the variety of leaves of different plants.
• understand the application of biology to human life and society.

60
 Activity: 6.1
Civic body carries domestic wastes in vehicles. What do they do with the
waste materials? – collect information.
• know more about ourselves.
Activity: 6.2
During P.T. period, you run in the play ground for about two minutes. What
will be the change in the rate of your breathing and heart beat? Why?

d
• produce more food from plants.
• control a number of diseases.

he
Think : Is it not the responsibility of every one to keep the surroundings
clean?

is
re S
• create an awareness about conservation of natural resources such as
minerals, water, plant and animal life.
B
•
•
bl
Do not keep open the tap, till you finish brushing the teeth.
develop interesting hobbies such as, vegetable growing, pet keeping,
be T
pu
fish rearing.
K

• develop a concern for life.

• understand the interdependence of plants and animals.
©

Activity: 6.3
Make a list of the plant products used by you in a day, from morning till night

Think : Do plants need animals for their existence?

Branches of Biology
Biology is divided into several branches for the convenience of study.
to

• Botany deals with the study of plants.

• Zoology deals with the study of animals.
t

• Microbiology is the study of microorganisms.

No

• Cytology is the study of cells.

• Histology is the study of tissues.
• Physiology deals with the processes and the functions of
living organisms.
• Biotechnology deals with the application of technology in the
field of biology, for the benefit of mankind.
Find out : The other major branches of biology.

61
Classification of Livng Organisms
Earth is inhabited by innumerable organisms. Scientists have found
and described approximately 1.9 million species on earth. In addition to
this, new species are being discovered every day. There are microscopic
organisms like bacteria and yeast; small plants like coriander and
tulasi; large organisms such as elephant, whale and banyan tree. Some
organisms live in water; some on land; a few in deserts and a few others in
the polar regions. Do you know organisms living in other environments?

d
Diversity among the organisms is amazing and beyond our

he
imagination! Find the reasons for the differences in shape, size, colour
and mode of nutrition, among animals. We know that there are many
organisms on the earth. It is very difficult to study each and every

is
re S
one of them to understand their characteristic features. For the sake
of convenience of study, organisms are grouped according to their
B
bl
similarities and differences. A detailed study of a typical organism
of the group, helps us to understand the main characteristics of the
be T
pu
whole group. Thus, grouping makes our study easier. The method of
K

grouping organisms, according to their similarities and differences is

called ‘classification’. Taxonomy is the branch of biology, which deals
©

with the classification of organisms.

The purpose of classification is
• for convenience- easy to study, identify and remember.
• to show relationships among various groups of organisms.
• to show the evolution of organisms from simple to complex forms of
life.
to

Think: How does the knowledge of classification help in your daily

activities? How would you use the idea of classification to do the following?
t

A. arranging your book shelf. B. preparing a study timetable.

No

Activity: 6.4
Group the following animals into herbivores and carnivores.
Tiger, cow, elephant, wolf, deer, crocodile, squirrel and parakeet.
Activity: 6.5
Group the following plants under the headings food, furniture and medicine:
Tulasi, ragi, honne, garlic, teak and potato.

62
 Contributions of ancient scientists for the classification of living
organisms

Charaka : (600 BC)

Charaka, an ancient Indian sage, was a
philosopher, astronomer and physician. He had
listed about 340 plant types and about 200 animal
types in his book ‘Charaka Samhita’. Charaka

d
Samhita is considered as the most ancient and
authoritative writing on ayurveda. Charaka for his

he
contributions is known as ‘Father of ayurveda’.

Charaka

is
re S
Know this : Charaka Samhita, mentions the gradual development of foetus
B
bl
within the womb in minute detail. It accurately resembles the modern
medical version.
be T
pu
K

Aristotle : (384-322 BC)

Aristotle was a great Greek philosopher and a
©

biologist. His writings cover many subjects, such

as, physics, biology, logic, music, and politics.
Aristotle followed specific methods of investigation
like observation, description, surveys, comparison
and classification in studying the living organisms.
He dissected many animals to study their
structure.
to

Aristotle
Aristotle classified plants and animals into three groups each
t

Plants : • Herbs with soft stems.

No

• Shrubs with several woody stems.

• Trees with a single woody stem.
Animals: • Aquatic animals, found in water.
• Terrestrial animals, found on land.
• Aerial animals, found in air.
Aristotle, because of his contributions, is popularly known as
‘Father of Biology’.

63
 Parashara: (100 BC.)
Parashara, an ancient Indian sage, in
his book ‘Vrikshaayurveda’ had given a
clear description of plants and divided the
plants into several ‘ganas’. It was based on
the characteristics of flowers. This type of

d
classification, is much similar to modern
classification.

he
Parashara’s another book, ‘Krishiparashara’,
is written for the benefit of farmers. The book
Parashara

is
re S
can help the farmers to plan and manage the
activity of farming. According to Parashara, wind from the north or
B
bl
the west brings rainfall and that from the east or the south, indicates
be T

no rain.
pu
K

Corolus Linnaeus: (1707-1778 A.D.)

Linnaeus was a Sweedish biologist. He had
©

recorded about 6000 species of plants in his book,

‘Species plantarum’ published in 1753. He had
given a detailed system of his classification in
another book, called ‘Systema naturae’, in which,
he had classified about 4,400 species of animals
to

and 7,700 species of plants.

Corolus Linnaeus

Linnaeus had proposed two kingdoms, kingdom Plantae and

t

kingdom Animalia in his classification. He introduced four categories

No

for grouping organisms - class, order, genus and species in each

kingdom. Modern classification adds two more categories. They
are-phylum and family. Hence, modern system is an extension
of Linnaeus system of classification. Linnaeus also introduced
the scientific method of naming the organisms called, ‘binominal
nomenclature’. For these contributions Linnaeus is considered as
‘Father of modern taxonomy’.

64
 Do you know?
Corolus Linnaeus was the first person to place humans in a system
of biological classification. He placed humans and monkeys under the
same group – ‘primates’. This classification received criticism from other
botanists. Linnaeus silenced them by saying, “Man learns to know himself.
Let’s give up quibble over words. One should not give vent to his wrath on
animals”.

Kingdom

d
The seven levels of Organization:
↑

he
Phylum You have already learnt about the
↑ levels of organization in your lower
Class class. You also know that the basic unit

is
of classification is species. The next
re S
↑
Order level is genus and then family. Later
B
bl ↑
Family
comes the order, class, phylum and
kingdom. Kingdom forms the highest
be T

level of classification. This is the modified

pu
↑
Linnaean hierarchy.
K

Genus
↑
©

Species
Recall : What is a species?
Modified
Linnaean Hierarchy

Binomial nomenclature
Binominal nomenclature is the scientific method of naming the living
to

organisms. Common names often differ from one part of a country to

another and certainly vary from one country to another. In contrast,
scientific name can be used all over the world speaking different
languages. It avoids confusion.
t
No

Activity: 6.6
What is Cat called in Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Hindi?
Every scientific name has two words. The first word refers to
name of the genus and the second to name of the species. Scientific
names are written in Latin and Greek. In print, they are always in
Italics. If handwritten, they are underlined. Ficus religiosa is the
binomial nomenclature of peepul tree. Equus caballus; is the binomial
nomenclature of horse. The first letter of the first name, the genus,

65
always begins with a capital letter and that of the second- species,
is a small letter. Scientific names have a background. For example,
scientific name of mango is ‘Mangifera indica’. Mangifera means sweet
fruit; indica indicates its origin in India. Man- ‘Homo sapiens’. Homo
means human; sapiens means wise. Dog- ‘Canis familiaris’. Canis-having
canines; familiaris – most familiar.
Activity 6.7

d
Take up an activity under eco club and try to collect such information about

he
plants and animals found in your school campus.

Think : Donkey belongs to the species ‘asinus’. Both donkey and horse

is
are included in the same genus. What is the binomial nomenclature of
re S
donkey?
B
bl
Some animals have the same species and genus name. For example cobra-
be T

Naja naja.
pu
Do you know an animal, having the same common name, genus name and
K

species name?
©

Let us understand clearly the seven levels of classification with a

few examples.
Systematic position: It is the description of an organism in terms of
the various levels, to which it belongs.
Systematic position of human
to

Activity: 6.8
Focus on the given example, ‘human’. You know that there are seven levels
of classification. Remember each subsequent level eliminates animals that could
t
No

be included in the previous level. All of you know, that human is an animal. So,
human is included under animal kingdom. Consider some examples for animals.
Human has a notochord. So human is placed under the phylum Chordata.
Hence, eliminate all the non chordates, if you have given such examples. Now
give examples only for vertebrates. Humans belong to the class mammalia,
as they have mammary glands, which secrete a nourishing fluid, called milk.
Hence, remove all the other vertebrate examples, which are not mammals. Like
this, proceed with order, family, genus and species.

66
 Table 6.1 Systematic position of human

Level Human Characteristic feature

Kingdom Animalia Heterotroph, bodily movement

Phylum Chordata Notochord

d
Class Mammalia Mammary glands

he
Order Primate Erect posture with binocular
vision.

is
re S
Family Hominidae Fore limbs are shorter than hind
B
bl limb
be T
pu
Genus Homo Human- large cranium; tool
K

making ability
©

Species sapiens Highly developed brain, capable of

thinking and speaking.

Systematic position of mango

Do the same exercise to present the systematic position of mango.
to

Level Mango
Kingdom Plantae
t

Phylum Magnoliophyta
No

Class Magnoliopsida
Order Sapindales
Family Anacardiaceae
Genus Mangifera
Species indica

67
Systems of classification
Classification of living organisms is probably as old as human
civilization. The earliest classification was probably on the basis of utility,
in meeting the immediate needs. Plants were classified as edible and
non edible; animals were classified as useful and harmful. Discoveries
of new organisms have led to the periodical revision of classification
from ‘ two kingdom system to five kingdom system’. It is likely that the
number of kingdoms in future may increase, because of more and more

d
discoveries.

he
Ancient system of classification
Ancient system classifies organisms on the basis of one or more

is
superficial similarities and differences among the organisms. For
re S
example, plants were grouped on the nature of the stem, into herbs,
B
bl
shrubs and trees. Animals were grouped on the basis of habitat, into
aquatic animals, terrestrial animals and aerial animals. This type of
be T

classification led to the inclusion of unrelated organisms in one group.

pu
Let us understand clearly, with the help of an example. Terrestrial
K

animals included earthworm and tiger, along with other animals. In

spite of many other differences, earthworm differs from the tiger in not
©

having a backbone. Can you think of such other examples?

The system of classification put forth by Parashara and Aristotle
were based mainly on superficial characters. Invention of microscope
helped us to understand even the minute similarities and differences
between the organisms. This, led to a systematic and scientific approach
to classification and to the development of modern classification. Modern
to

classification is also called the natural system of classification. Modern

classification has some merits. It includes the related organisms in one
group and shows relationships with regard to habitat, life process and
t

mode of reproduction.
No

Two kingdom classification: One of the earliest type of classification

in the modern system is the two kingdom classification, introduced by
Corolus Linnaeus in 1758. It lasted for about 100 years. Linnaeus
classified the living organisms under two kingdoms. They are kingdom
plantae and kingdom animalia. He included all the plants under
plantae and animals under animalia. As the diversity among the living
organisms became more and more evident, Linnaean classification had
to be revised.

68
 Know this : Linnaeus included mushroom in kingdom plantae. Mushrooms
do not prepare food like other plants.

Activity: 6.9

Observe the fig. 6.1

List the plant like and animal like parts of Euglena.

d
Do you include euglena under plant kingdom or animal kingdom?

he
Discuss.

Three kingdom classification

is
re S
In 1674, Leeuwenhoek, observed primitive
B
bl
organisms under a microscope. Till that time,
their existence was unknown. To give a right
be T
pu
place to such organisms, Ernst Haeckel in 1866,
K

proposed a third kingdom, ‘Protista’, and

included all the primitive, microscopic organisms
©

like protozoa, bacteria, algae and fungi, under it.

Fig 6.1 Euglena

t to
No

Fig 6.2 Paramecium Fig 6.3 Agaricus (Fungus)

(Protozoa)

69
Four kingdom classification
The development of microscope and electron microscope in particular,
revealed an important distinction between organisms containing cells,
without a definite nucleus (prokaryotes) and organisms containing cells
with a definite nucleus (eukaryotes). To accommodate, prokaryotes,
Copeland added another kingdom called ‘Monera’ and proposed four
kingdom classification in 1966. He included bacteria and one of the most
primitive algae, called blue green algae under this kingdom; because,

d
both of them exhibit prokaryotic type of cells. Blue, green algae are placed
under a division called Cyanobacteria. The four kingdoms introduced

he
by Copeland are – Monera, Protista, Plantae and Animalia.

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

Fig 6.4 Bacterium Fig 6.5 Nostoc (blue green alga)

Five kingdom classification
to

Plants prepare their own food. But fungi, unlike plants do not
prepare their food. Thus, the difference between fungi and other
plants was recognized, by Robert Whittaker. He created another
t

kingdom, ‘Mycota’, in 1969 and included fungi, under it. This system
No

of classification is now widely accepted. The kingdoms introduced by

Robert Whittaker are Monera, Protista, Plantae, Animalia and Mycota.
Know this : Whittaker revised the kingdom Protista and placed only single
celled eukaryotic organisms under this group.

We have understood the need for the development of five kingdom

classification. Have we considered all the organisms? Are there groups
not included in any of these kingdoms? Yes, there are; they are viruses.
Viruses create a special problem in classification.

70
 d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
t ©
to
No

Fig 6.6 Five kingdoms of living organisms

Viruses do not have a cellular structure and hence they are not
considered as organisms. They cannot be included either under
prokaryotes or eukaryotes. Hence, viruses form a separate living entity.
Have you heard about the viruses which attack plants? animals?
bacteria? Do you know the various diseases caused by viruses?

71
Exercises :

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete

statement/question. Choose the right answer :
1. A kingdom consisting of single celled, prokaryotic organisms is
a. mycota b. monera c. plantae d. protista
2. Which one of the following is the basic unit of classification of the

d
living organisms ?

he
a. family b. species c. genus d. kingdom
3. Most primitive organisms, among the following are

is
a. Monerans b. Protists c. Fungi d. Algae
re S
4. Which one of the following should be grouped with whales, according
B
bl
to modern Classification?
be T

a. Shark b. Dolphin c. Snake d. Tortoise

pu
K

II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words

1. Plants with many woody stems are called _________________ .
©

2. Animals without a backbone are called _________________ .

3. Most of the organisms depend directly or indirectly upon __________
for food.
4. Group of organisms, that breed among themselves and produce
fertile offsprings make a ___________ .
to

III. Match the following

A B
t

1. familiaris a. class
No

2. primate b. genus
3. anacardiaceae c. species
4. magnoliophyta d. order
e. family
f. phylum
g. kingdom

72
 IV. Answer the following
1. Why are animals included under eukaryotes?
2. In which kingdom do you include multicellular, eukaryote,primitive,
eterotrophic organisms?
3. Aristotle’s classification include both fish and whale under one
group. How are these unrelated?
4. What is the difference between plants and animals with regard to

d
nutrition?

he
5. Place the following organisms in their respective kingdoms. deer,
paramecium, mushroom.
6. How can you play an important role in conserving natural resources

is
such as plants and animals? Explain.
re S
7. Which one of the following is a prokaryote cell? Why?
B
bl
be T
pu
K
©
to

A B

V. Suggested Activities
t

Activity 1
No

Divide the class into three groups A, B, and C. Each group should collect
the scientific names of five familiar organisms. ‘A’ group for protists, ‘B’ group
for kingdom plantae and ‘C’ group for kingdom animalia.
Activity 2
Observe and list out the various kinds of animals around you. Classify them
into vertebrates and invertebrates.



73
 Chapter 7
The world of microbes
After studying this chapter students :
• state the meaning of microorganisms.
• record observations made using microscope.

d
• develop the skill of preparing microscopic slides.
• compare the characteristics of different groups of

he
microorganisms.
• reason out the need to be hygienic.

is
re S
You find so many things around you. Of those some are living and
B
bl
others are non living things. Of the living things, you find varieties
of plants and animals. Yet there are so many organisms which
be T
pu
cannot be seen through our naked eyes. These organisms are called
K

micro organisms. You have read about classification of bacteria,

protozoa, fungi, algae and virus in an earlier chapter. All these are mainly
©

micro organisms.
Activity 7.1

Take a small sample of curd. Put a drop of curd on a microscopic

slide. Spread the curd drop evenly. Dry the curd smear. Add methelyne
blue stain on to the curd smear. Remove excess of stain by washing the
to

slide with water. Now observe the slide under a compound microscope,
under oil immersion magnification. What do you observe? Tiny rod like
objects which you see are the microorganisms, which have converted
t

milk into curds.

No

From the above activity it is clear that microorganisms can be seen

only through powerful microscopes.

Know this : In light microscopy, oil immersion is a technique used to

increase the resolution of a microscope. This is achieved by immersing both
the objective lens and the specimen in a transparent oil of high refractive
index such as linseed oil.

74
 d
is he
re S B
bl
Microbiologist Fig 7.1 Lactobacilli
be T
pu
From where did these bacteria come into curd? It is obvious that they
K

have appeared from the pre-existing bacteria. There is a famous saying

life begets life. Let us understand this by an activity.
©

Activity 7.2
Take a bowl of milk. Add a spoon or two of curd into it. Leave this bowl as
it is for about eight to ten hours. Now what do you observe? Milk is converted
into curds. You can repeat the activity mentioned above taking this curd sample.
What do you conclude? You might wonder whether milk did not contain any
to

curdling bacteria. To answer this, let us consider another activity.

Activity 7.3
t

Take a conical flask whose mouth is plugged with cotton. Keep this conical
No

flask in a pressure cooker. Heat this under pressure just like you cook food using
a pressure cooker. Light two spirit lamps which are kept on a table. Place the
conical flask between the two spirit lamps. Carefully pour some milk into the
conical flask. The milk should be pasteurized and tetra packed. This is easily
available in the market. Put a drop of this milk on to the microscope slide. Spread
it evenly. Dry the smear. Add a drop or two of methelyne blue stain. Wash excess
of stain by water. Now observe the slide under a compound microscope under
oil immersion magnification. Do you observe any bacteria?

75
 Now add a spoon or two of curd into milk sample. Leave this for about 6 – 7
hours. Repeat activity 7.2 What is your inference? Don’t you think life begets life?

This was experimentally proved by Louis Pasteur by his famous

swan neck flask experiment. It is evident from Pasteur’s experiment
and also from the above activity that life arises from pre existing life
itself. In earlier days it was believed that life emerged spontaneously,

d
from other non living objects. But Pasteur’s swan neck flask experiment
the disproved this and established theory of biogenesis.

he
Think : Why was the conical flask heated in a pressure cooker?

is
Why was the conical flask placed between the two burning spirit lamps?
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

Fig 7.2 Spirilli Bacteria

to

You have observed the bacteria present in curd. What was

their shape? How do they really look ? Now look at figure 7.1,
they are rod shaped. Rod shaped bacteria are called bacillus. The
t

bacteria that you have observed in the curd sample are Lacto bacilli.
No

Are there bacteria of different shapes? Yes, some are spherical, some
are comma shaped and some are spiral.
Spherical bacteria are called cocci. By observing the figure 7.2 we
can know that cocci bacteria may be single, in pairs, in clusters and in
chains. Comma shaped bacteria are called vibrio. spirally coiled bacteria
are called spirilli.

76
 d
he
Fig 7.3 Types Of Cocci Bacteria Fig 7.4 Structure of a typical bacterium

is
re S
Look at the figure 7.4 we can understand the structure of bacteria
B
bl
with its help. You are studying the structure of a typical bacillus. The
be T

bacterium has an outer most layer called cellwall. Next to the cellwall
pu
K

you can observe the plasma membrane. Plasma membrane encloses

cytoplasm. You may recall that the genetic material of a bacterium
©

is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane. Such organisms are called

prokaryotes. Flagella help the bacterium to move.
There is a layer external to the cell wall. This is called the capsule.
Thicker the capsule more will be its disease causing ability.

Think : Are there non mobile bacteria?

to

Think : Bacteria do not contain any mitochondria. How is energy released

t
No

in them?

There is a group of viruses which infect bacteria. These are the

bacteriophages. Bacteriophage is a virus. You have already learnt
that viruses are living entities. Let us now study the structure of a
bacteriophage.

77
 d
he

is
Fig 7.5 Bacteriophage Fig 7.6 H.I.V.
re S B
bl
Look at the figure 7.5. A bacteriophage has a head region containing
the genetic material. The genetic material of a bacteriophage is DNA.
be T

The collar region contains protein sheath. Look at figure 7.6 how is this
pu
virus different from a bacteriophage? Are there different types of viruses?
K

Are there viruses which infect plants and animals including humans?
©

Think: Can bacteriophages be used to kill bacteria? Can they replace

antibiotics?
t to
No

Fig 7.7 Amoeba

Here is a student who is observing a drop of stagnant water under a

compound microscope. He observes an organism. He draws the figure of

78
 that organism in his note book. It appears just like the one shown in the
figure 7.7. He takes the help of his teacher and identifies it as amoeba.
You know that Amoeba is included under the kingdom Protista. It is a
protozoan. Amoeba has an external membrane called the cell membrane.
Unlike bacteria it has a nucleus covered by a nuclear membrane. Also
it has organelles like mitochondria and vacuole. These organelles are
found in the cytoplasm.

d
The cell membrane allows materials to diffuse in and out of the cell.
Amoeba moves with the help of pseudopodia. Pseudopodia also helps

he
amoeba to engulf food. Food is digested in the food vacuole. Contractile
vacuole helps in excreting excess water and wastes.

is
While observing amoeba, a student also came across another
re S
organism. He has drawn the diagram of the same in his note book. He
B
bl
later recognized it as Chlamydomonas, an alga belonging to Kingdom
Plantae. You can observe the diagram of that organism in figure 7.8.
be T
pu
K
t ©
to
No

Fig 7.8 Chlamydomonas

Here is Anusha, a student of eighth standard. She learns science

by conducting experiments and through activities. She has cut a lemon
into two halves and kept it exposed to air. After about 48 hours, she
finds a bushy material on the fleshy side of lemon pieces. She prepares
a wet mount of the bushy material and observes it under a compound

79
microscope. She recognizes that it is blakish in colour. She infers that
it does not contain chloroplast, like Chlamydomonas. She also infers
that it is a fungus, called Aspergillus.

d
is he
re S
Fig 7.9 Fungus growing on Lemon Fig 7.10 Aspergillus
B
bl
be T

Fungi belong to kingdom Mycota. Help her recall the characteristic

pu
features of organisms belonging to this kingdom.
K

Activity 7.4
Make a suspension of yeast using yeast powder and water. Yeast powder
©

is easily available in market. Take a drop of this suspension and prepare a

smear on a microscopic slide. You can stain the smear using methelyne blue or
saffronin stain. Observe the smear under a compound microscope. An enlarged
figure of yeast cell is given below. You can compare this with the yeast cell that
you have observed.
Observe the yeast cell and explain the structure of yeast taking the help of
your teacher.
to

Most of the microorganisms are useful to us.

Microorganisms are used in food industry, leather
industry, dairy industry, pharmaceuticals, water
t

treatment plants and even in sewage treatment.

No

Microorganisms play a very important role in

agriculture. Recall that microorganisms play an
important role in ecosystems as decomposers
However some microorganisms are harmful too.
They spoil food. They also cause diseases in plants
and animals. You will learn regarding plant
diseases in a later chapter. The following table
Fig 7.11 Yeast keeps you informed on some of the common
microbial diseases caused in humans.

80
 Table 7.1 Some common human diseases caused by microbes
Name Disease Symptoms Mode of Preventive
of the causing transmission measure
disease microbe

Influenza Influenza Chills, fever, Air, Avoid being close

Virus sore throat, Contaminated to infected people,
cough, muscle hand Donot touch the
pains, severe kerchiefs, nose and eyes

d
headache, with contaminated

he
hands.
Cholera Vibrio Vomiting, Contaminated Avoiding eating
Cholerae diarrohea, water, food and drinking

is
dehydration contaminated
re S
stomach pain food and water.
Vaccination.
B
Malaria bl Plasmodium Recurring Bite of female Vaccination,
be T

vivax fever, chills, anopheles controlling

pu
headache, mosquitoes mosquito
K

muscle pain, population, usage of

tiredness, mosquito curtains
stomach are advised.
©

pain, nausea,
vomiting

Aspergillosis Aspergillus Cough, spreads by in Avoid dusty and

niger fever, chest haling spores unhygienic places.
pain and of aspergillus
difficulty in niger
breating
to

You can list a few more microbial infections. Microorganisms are

beneficial to us as stated earlier. However, if we neglect hygiene, then
t

we are prone to microbial infections. Vaccines usually prevent specific

No

microbial infections. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles

a disease-causing microorganism. It is often made from weakened or
killed forms of the microbe or its toxins. The vaccine stimulates the
body’s immune system to recognize the microorganism or its toxin or
sometimes both as a foreign substance. Body’s defence system destroys
it and prevents any further infection from the same microorganism. The
credit of developing the technique of vaccination goes to scientists such
as Edward Jenner, Louis Pasteur, Joseph Lister and others.

81
Activity 7.5
Collect information from various sources on the inventions of vaccines. Enact
a drama on this subject on the occasions like school day science club activities.
Activity 7.6
Prepare a vaccine chart, taking the help of your parents and family doctor.

Exercises :

d
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete

he
statement /question. Choose the right answer :
1. One of the following does not belong to the group

is
a. Aspergillus niger b. Clostridium tetani
re S
c. Staphylococcus aureus d. Vibrio cholerae
B
bl
2. The locomotory structure of amoeba is
be T

a. cilia b. flagella
pu
c. pseudopodia d. tentacle
K

3. Chlorophyll is present in
©

a. Chlamydomonas b. Mushroom
c. Yeast d. Aspergillus

II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words

1. Biogenesis was established by __________________ .
2. Malaria is caused by ___________________ .
to

3. Vibrio are ______________________ shaped bacteria.

III. Answer the following

t

1. What are microorganisms?

No

2. Explain the structure of a typical bacillus?

3. Draw a diagram of a typical bacillus and label the parts?
4. How can the transmission of cholera be prevented?
5. What are vaccines?



82
 Chapter 8
Describing Motion
After studying this chapter students :
• distinguish between distance travelled and displacement.
• calculate distance travelled and displacement.

d
• define the terms speed, velocity and acceleration.

he
• distinguish between uniform and non-uniform velocity
• represent graphically velocity and acceleration.

is
• solve numerical problems on velocity and acceleration
re S
There is a popular Kannada poem written by N.R.Hiremath on
B
bl
moon. The poem starts like this “Why is the moon running away
be T

Amma ? Is he afraid of the clouds? [“Chandiranetake oduvanamma

pu
modake bedarihane. . . . . . ’’]. You might have experienced the same.
K

When the bright moon in the night sky is apparently covered by thin
clouds and wind blowing across the clouds, the moon appears to be
©

running. What happens when there are no clouds?

Imagine that you are sitting inside the train. When the train starts
moving you feel that the persons on the platform are moving backwards.
You feel that you and the other persons inside the train are not moving.
But for a person standing outside the train, the feeling will be that the
train, you and the other members inside the compartment are all moving.
to

Above experiences show that motion is only relative. Can you recall
some more experiences about relative motion? Is rest also relative?
t
No

An object is said to be in motion if its position changes with time,

with fixed frame of reference.

Do you Know ?
Rest and motion are relative terms. A pen kept on the table is at rest
with respect to the table. But you know that Earth is rotating. The objects
kept on earth must also be moving with the earth.

In this chapter you will learn more about motion.

83
Distance and displacement
Consider two flowers ‘A’ and ‘B’ on the same tree. A Honey bee flies
from A to B in a curved path as shown. in fig 8.1

d
is he
Fig 8.1
re S

B
bl
The length of the actual path it has travelled from A to B is the distance.
The shortest distance between A and B is displacement. Displacement
be T
pu
refers to distance travelled in a given direction. If the honeybee starts
from ‘A’ reach ‘B’ and again comes back to ‘A’, the distance travelled will
K

be different from displacement. However displacement is zero. When

will be the distance travelled and displacement same? Displacement
©

refers to change of position. The S.I unit of both distance travelled and
displacement is metre. If the displacement is 30 metre it is written as
30 m.
Activity 8.1
Take a railway map of India. Using a thread and scale find the displacement
from Bangalore to Delhi. Also find the distance travelled by the train from
to

Bangalore to Delhi. Which is shorter? Can you think why?

Activity 8.2
t
No

An object travels from A to B and then

from B to C as shown in the figure 8.2.
What is the distance travelled? What is
the displacement?

Fig 8.2

84
 An object moves from A to B in a circular
path of radius 7 m. What is the distance
travelled? What is the displacement?
Displacement = Diameter
= 2×radius
= 2×7=14 m
Distance travelled = × Circumference

d
Fig 8.3

he

is
re S
Speed and Velocity
B
bl
You might have seen sign boards, “speed limit 30 km per hour”,
near the school or hospital zones. You might have observed writings
be T
pu
inside a bus “maximum speed 60 km per hour”. What do these writings
K

indicate?
A bus may be slow or fast during its journey. What do you understand
©

by the words fast or slow?

In general speed is the distance travelled by an object in unit time.
Let us take an example. A bus covers a distance of 30 km in one
hour. In the next one hour it covers the distance of 50 km. The total
distance travelled will be 30 + 50 = 80 km. Total time taken to cover a
distance of 80 km is 2 hours.
to

Total distance travelled

Average speed =
Total time taken
t
No

= = 40 km per hour
The term average speed is used because speed in reality, will not be
the same. The term speed describes ‘fast’ and ‘slow’ motions in relative
context. The SI unit of speed is m s-1 (metre per second)
Motion can be uniform or non uniform. In practical cases we come
across non uniform motion. Similarly if an object covers equal distances
in equal intervals of time, it is said to have uniform speed. We use the
term average speed for non-uniform motions.
85
Activity 8.3:
An object covers a distance of one metre during first 30 seconds. After 30
second it covers a further distance of 4 metre in 15 seconds. Calculate the total
distance travelled and total time taken. Calculate the average speed of the object.

Let us consider another interesting numerical problem about average

speed.
A bus travels from ‘A’ to ‘B’ with a speed of 40 km per hour. It

d
travels from‘B’ to ‘A’ with the speed of 60 km per hour. What is its

he
overall average speed? The ready answer you may get to this question
is 40 + 60 = 100 = 50 km per hour.
2 2
40 km per hour

is
re S B
bl A
60 km per hour
B
be T
pu
But is it correct? Let us analyse this problem. You know that
K
©

Hence time taken to cover a distance from A to B at a speed of

40 km per hour is
Distance travelled from A to B
Speed
to

speed is 40 km per hour

In short
'D' is the distance
t

Similarly time taken to cover a distance from B to A at a speed of

No

60 km per hour is

speed is 60 km per hour

In short 'D' is the distance

D D 5D D
Hence total time taken = T1 + T2 = 40 + 60 = 120 = 24 Total

86
 distance travelled = D+D =2D
Hence average speed of the bus =

Activity 8.4

50 km per hour 60 km per hour

he
A 100 km 180 km C
B

is
An object moves from ‘A’ to ‘B’ covering a distance of 100 km with a speed
re S
of 50 km per hours. It covers a further distance of 180 km from B and reaches
B
bl
C with a speed of 60 km per hour. What is the average speed of the object?
be T

Ans : 56 km per hour.

pu
K

Let us imagine another situation. An object travels 5 km per hour.

After two hours what is the distance travelled? It is 10 km. But we cannot
©

say the exact position of the object. We can simply say that the object
has covered 10 km. If the speed is mentioned along with direction in
which it moves, then it is possible for us to decide the position of the
object with respect to initial position after covering a distance of 10 km.
The term velocity is used to describe the motions which refer to speed
to

as well as the direction of motion.

Velocity is the rate of displacement of an object in unit time. The

t

S.I unit of velocity is metre per second. It is expressed as m s-1. It is

No

our common practice to use the terms speed and velocity with the same
meaning. But they are different.

Example: An object is moving in a circular path of radius 7 m. To

travel from ‘A’ to ‘B’ along the circumference it takes 2 second what is
its average speed?

87
 d
Fig 8.4

he
Speed = distance travelled = half of the circumference
time time

is
re S

B

bl
be T
pu
K
©

Speed and velocity can be equal for uniform motions along a straight
line.
to

Fig 8.5
t

Imagine that a bus is moving with uniform speed from East to West.
No

You may say there is direction from East to West. Why can’t we use the
word velocity instead of speed? Remember at any point of time during
its journey from ‘A’ to ‘B’, the bus is changing its direction, and also the
speed depending upon the road conditions. The correct word to describe
the motion of the bus is speed or average speed.
Activity 8.5
An object ‘A’ is moving in a circular path with ‘O’ as centre along the
circumference. What will be the direction of its velocity at the positions ‘B’ and ‘C’?

88
 d
is he
re S
Fig 8.6 Object moving in circular path
B
bl
Activity 8.6
be T

Observe the sparks coming out of a knife sharpening wheel. In which

pu
direction will the sparks move?
K

You might have come across the word ‘accelerator’ which is used
©

by people using automobiles. What is it? It is used for changing speed.

That is, it is used to decrease or increase the speed of the automobile.
Imagine that you have come to a railway station to say ‘happy
journey’ to your friend who is sitting inside the train. When the train
starts moving it will be slow. Imagine that in the first minute its average
speed is 10 km per hour. Its average speed will become 20 km per hour
to

in the second minute. In the third minute its average speed will become
30 km per hour and in the fourth minute it will be 40 km per hour and
more or less may remain the same afterwards. Here, every minute the
t

speed of the train is changing at the rate of 10 km per hour, per minute.
No

It can happen against the direction of motion also, as in the case of a

train approaching a station before coming to rest.
Changes in motion such as above are described by the term
acceleration. The term acceleration is used because rarely we come
across uniform motion or uniform speed or uniform velocity in our
daily life. Acceleration also need not be uniform. It is usual practice in
calculations to consider it as uniform.

89
 The concept which indicates the nature of change in velocity is
acceleration. It can be defined as the rate of change of velocity or
change in the velocity of an object in unit time. Its S.I unit is metre
per second per second. It is expressed as m s-2.
Find out : Imagine that an object is moving at a uniform speed in a circular
path. Though the speed is uniform, it is continuously accelerated. Why?

Find out : Imagine that an object moving with a uniform velocity of

d
7 m s-1 does not change its velocity for at least 10 seconds. What will be its

he
acceleration during 10 seconds.?
Example : An object at rest gains an average velocity of 40 m s-1 in
5 seconds. What will be its acceleration?

is
re S
Its initial velocity is zero. Its velocity after 5 seconds is 40 m s-1.
B
bl
Time taken by it to change its velocity from zero to 40 m s-1 is five
seconds.
be T
pu
Therefore the rate of change of velocity = = 8 m s-2
K

accleration = 8 m s-2
©

Think : A child throws a ball upwards. It goes up, appears to stop and
then starts falling down. Is this motion an example for accelerated motion?
Give reasons.
Equations of motion: If you are interested, try to know the
equations of motion of objects moving in a straight line. They are useful
to calculate velocity, acceleration, time and distance travelled. They
are given here for your reference.
to

The equations are

t
No

The symbols used are:

‘u’ for initial velocity
‘v’ for final velocity
‘t’ for time
‘s’ for distance

90
 Example: 1

An object at rest starts moving and attains a velocity of 10 m s-1

after 5 seconds. What is the acceleration?

Initial velocity u = 0 (rest)

Final velocity v = 10 m s-1

d
Time interval t = 5 seconds

he
Therefore a

is
Consider the opposite of the above example
re S B
An object moving with a uniform velocity of 10 m s-1 comes to
bl
rest after 5 seconds. What is the acceleration?
be T
pu
Initial velocity v = 10 m s-1
K

Final velocity u = 0
©

Time interval t = 5 s

Acceleration in this example is against the direction of motion.

Example 2
to

An object at rest starts moving with uniform acceleration of

1 m s-2. Calculate the distance travelled by it in 4 seconds.
t

Initial velocity u = 0 acceleration a = 1 m s-2

No

Time interval t = 4 seconds

Distance travelled = s = ut + ½ at2
s = 0 ×4 + ½ ×1 × 42
= 0 + ½ × 1 ×16
= 8 m.

91
 Example 3 An object starts from rest and attains a uniform
acceleration of 4 m s-2. What will be its velocity at the end of half a
metre?

u = 0 a = 4 m s-2 s = ½ m v =?

v2 = u2 + 2as

v2 = 02 + 2× 4× ½

d
he
v2 = 4

v = √4

is
re S
= 2 m s-1
B
bl
Graphic representation of motion
be T

Motion can be represented by line

pu
K

graphs. We can also obtain certain

desired information from the graphs.
©

Here are a few simple examples.

Example 1 : Distance - time graph

Situation 1 : Let us consider a body

which is covering equal distances in
to

equal intervals of time. If we represent

time on the x-axis and distance travelled
on the y-axis, we will get a graph as
t
No

shown in the figure.

From this graph we can find out the distance at which the body is at
present from its starting point. Time taken to cover a definite distance
can also be determined from the graph. Since it is uniform motion we
can also know the speed of the body.

92
 Find the following from the graph.
• What is the distance travelled
by the body in 15 seconds ?
• What is the time taken by it to cover
a distance of 6 m.
• What is the speed of the body?

d
Situation 2 : Let us consider a body
which is covering different distances in

he
equal intervals of time. The resulting
graph will resemble the one shown in
figure 8.8.

is
re S
Find the following from the graph
B
bl
• What is the distance travelled by the body in 20 sec?
be T
pu
• What is the speed of the body in first 10 sec ?
K

• What is the speed of the body in second 10 sec ?

• What is the average speed of the body in 30 sec ?
©

Note : If the motion of a body in a straight line is in a particular

direction, the numerical value of velocity is same as that of the speed.
Therefore in such cases we can also findout the velocity from the graph.

Example 2 : Velocity-time graph or speed time graph of the body moving

in a straight line in a particular direction.
to

Situation 1 : Consider a body moving

in a particular direction with uniform
velocity. At any unit time-interval the
t

velocity of such a body does not

No

change. It means that the acceleration

is O. If it denote time on the X-axis
and velocity on the Y-axis, we get a
graph like the one shown in the
figure 8.9. What is the velocity of the
body in motion as represented by the
graph ? What is its acceleration ?

93
 Situation 2 : Consider a body moving
in a particular direction with a uniform
acceleration. The graph of such a motion
may be one of the two varieties shown
in the figure 8.10. Identify the graph
representing acceleration in the direction
of motion and the one representing

d
acceleration in opposite direction.

is he
re S B
Exercises :
bl
be T

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete

pu
statement / question. Choose the right answer :
K

1. Uniform circular motion is called continuously accelerated motion

©

mainly because,
a. direction of motion changes
b. speed remains the same
c. velocity remains the same
d. direction of motion does not change
to

2. A cricketer hits a sixer . The cricket ball moves up with a velocity

of 2 m s -1 and falls down. Its initial velocity while falling down will
be
t
No

a. 1 m s-1 b. 1 m s-2 c. 0 m s-1 d. 2 m s-1

II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words
1. S I Unit of acceleration is ______________________ .
2. Velocity has both speed and ______________________ .
3. If an object starts from ‘A’ and comes back to ‘A’, its displacemont
will be _________________________ .

94
 III. Solve
1. An object is moving in a circular path of radius 3.5 m. If it
completes one full cycle, what will be the displacement and what is
the distance travelled?
2. An object changes its velocity from 30 m s-1 to 40 m s-1 in a time in-
terval of 2 seconds. What is its acceleration?
3. An object at rest starts moving. It covers a distance of 2 m
in one second. It covers a further distance of 5 m in two

d
seconds in the same direction. What is its average velocity and

he
acceleration?
IV. Answer the following

is
1. If a body is moving with uniform velocity in a given direction its
re S
acceleration will be zero. Why?
B
bl
2. Distinguish between speed and velocity.
3. Distinguish between distance travelled and displacement.
be T
pu
4. What are uniform and non-uniform motions?
K

5. While mentioning acceleration the time is mentioned two times.

Why?
©

V. Extended activity
Represent the following motion by a graph.

Velocity m s-1 40 30 20 10
to

Time second 1 2 3 4
t
No

1. Find the acceleration from the graph and

2. Find the time taken to travel a distance of 35 m from the graph.



95
 Chapter 9
Force and Newton’s laws of motion
After studying this chapter students :
• state the effects of force
• distinguish between balanced and unbalanced forces
• define the term momentum

d
• state Newton’s laws of motion

he
• solve numerical problems
• give illustrations for inertia

is
re S
• give illustrations for the second and third laws of motion
B
bl
In the earlier chapter you have studied about motion of the objects.
be T

A marble at rest can not move until it is pushed. There is an external

pu
physical quantity of energy that makes the marble to move. Similarly
K

a moving marble can also be stopped. A fast moving bus can be made
slow. It is possible to change the speed of automobiles whenever required.
©

The physical quantity that we are referring to is force. The word force
is used in our daily life under different context. Consider the following
statements “the cricketer would have scored a sixer if he were to hit the
ball with a greater force”.
“If the football player had kicked the ball with a greater force he
would have scored a goal”. In these two examples there is reference to
to

the amount of force.

Force is a physical quantity that changes the state of rest of a body
t

or that changes the velocity of a body.

No

What are the other areas in which we use the word force?
Magnetic force and gravitational force, are two examples. Can you
give two more examples?
Activity 9.1
Take a rubber ball. Press it with both of your palms. The force shows a
visible effect on the ball. Press a leather cricket ball. You will not see any visible
effect on the ball. Why?

96
 Force applied on an object can
• change the velocity of an object
• change the shape of an object.
In the activity of 9.1 when you press a cricket ball you can only
feel that you are applying force, but no visible change is observed with
respect to the ball.
Let us consider one more example.

d
In a tug of war when the two teams pull it with equal effort, the

he
rope and the two teams remain stationary. What happens when one of
the team pulls the tug harder? This circumstance indicates unbalanced
forces. How do you define unbalanced forces?

is
re S
The effect of force will be observed when unbalanced forces act on
an object. Unbalanced forces acting on an object, change its speed or
B
bl
direction of motion or both.
If two or more forces acting on the same object keep the object in
be T
pu
equilibrium position or in the same state, then the forces are balanced
K

forces.
Imagine a car at rest. It can be pushed by a group of three or four
©

persons. If the car is pushed then it starts moving. Its speed or direction
of motion depends upon the force and the direction of application of force.
Continuous application of force is necessary to maintain the motion
of an object. Is it true?
A marble pushed by you starts moving, slows down and finally stops.
In this case friction force, that is friction between the marble and the
surface on which it is moving that stops the marble. What will happen
to

if there is no friction?

Galileo Galilei
t
No

Galileo opposed the idea of Greek philosophers

that a moving body comes to rest when no
forces act on them. Galileo’s work inspired Sir.
Isaac Newton, who proposed the laws of motion
systematically.
Some examples of motion studied by Galileo
are given in the following diagrams.
Galileo Galilei

97
 Ball moving down on Ball moving in a hallow

d
inclined plane hemisphere

is he
re S B
bl
be T

Motion of a pendulum
pu
K

Fig 9.1 Studies of galileo

©

Brief biography of Sir. Isaac Newton. [ 1643-1727 ]

Isaac Newton was a physicist, mathematician,

astronomer and natural philosopher. He was
one of the most influential people. The famous
mathematics book “Principia Mathematica” was
written by him. He developed a branch of
to

mathematics “calculus”. The First reflecting

telescope was prepared by him. He demonstrated
visible spectrum.
t

Sir. Isaac Newton His idea about light as stream of particles or

No

corpuscles has a minor resemblance to photon

theory and quantum theory. He was the President of Royal Society of
London in 1703. He was member of the parliament of England in 1689
to 1690 and in 1701. He never married, being highly engrossed in his
studies and work. He was religious but unorthodox. He was modest of
his achievements. The famous statement of Newton is “If I have seen
further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants”.
I am a small boy picking up pebbles here and there on the sea
shore of knowledge.

98
 Newton’s Laws of motion:
Sir. Isaac Newton studied the motion of objects and the factors
related to the change in velocity. He identified certain relationships and
stated them in the form of laws. Let us know more about these laws.
Inertia:
While travelling in a bus you might have experienced that when

d
brakes are suddenly applied, you lean forward. When the bus starts
moving you lean backward. Why?

is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

Fig 9.2 Inertia experienced in a moving vehicle

When we are sitting inside a moving bus, our entire body will also
be moving with the speed of the bus. When brakes are suddenly applied,
the bus comes to rest. The part of the body that is in contact with the
to

bus also comes to rest. However, the part of our body which is not in
contact with the bus has a tendency to move in the direction of the bus
t

before coming to rest. So we lean forward. Similarly when a bus at rest

No

starts moving the part of our body which is not in contact with the bus
has a tendency to remain at rest. So we lean backward.
Activity 9.2
You need a glass tumbler and a square shaped cardboard piece from an old
invitation or greeting card to perform this simple experiment. Place the card board
on the glass tumbler as in figure No: 9.3 . Place a rupee coin on the cardboard.
Flip the cardboard with your fingers.What is your observation?

99
 d
he
Fig 9.3 Inertia

is
re S
Activity 9.3
B
bl
When the pawns in a carrom board game are arranged vertically and the
bottom pawn is hit by the striker the pawn at the bottom gets removed and
be T

the vertical arrangement of the pawns remains intact. Try to recall your other
pu
experiences while playing a carrom board game. The tendency of the objects to
K

remain at rest or in state of motion when no forces act on them is called ‘inertia’.
This is stated as Newton’s first law of motion. “Every body continues in its
©

state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled to

change that state by forces impressed on it”. Newton’s first law of motion is
based on the inventions of Galileo. It is also called law of inertia.
The first law of motion has the following point. To accelerate an object an
external unbalanced force is necessary. That means, to change the state of rest
or state of motion of an object, an unbalanced force must act on it.
to

The resistance to change the state of motion depends upon the mass
of the objects. It is easier to change the velocity of lighter objects than
of heavier objects. Massive objects have more inertia than lighter ones.
t

In fact mass is a measure of inertia.

No

Activity 9.4
Two Iron spheres of 2 kg and 5 kg each are dropped from the same height
into a sand pit. Which of these two causes deeper sand pit? What happens if
the 2 kg Sphere is thrown with a greater speed instead of dropping it?
Force, velocity and mass are all considered in comparison with the
activity 9.4.
It is described in the second law of motion.

100
 Newton’s second law of motion
“The acceleration given to a body by a force applied to it is directly
proportional to the force and is in the same direction of the force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the body”.
Let the mass of a body be ‘m’, let the resultant force acting on it be ‘F’
and its acceleration be ‘a’. According to Newton’s second law of motion,
1. Acceleration in the direction of force is directly proportional to the

d
force .

he
∴ a a F ------(1)
2. Acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass

is
re S
∴aa ------(2)
B


bl
By combining (1) and (2)
be T
pu
We get a a
K

Or a =
©

here ‘K’ is a constant.

If S.I unit of mass is 1 kg and S.I unit of acceleration is 1 m s -2 then
the value of ‘K’ will become numerically one. Then we can mathematically
state Newton’s second law of motion as F = ma
Unit force is that force which produces an acceleration of 1 m s-2
to

in a mass of 1 kg.
S.I unit of force is kg m s-2 or newton or N.
t

Example 1. Calculate the force required to change the velocity of an

No

object of mass 4 kg from 2 m s-2 to 4 m s-2 in one second.

Solution: F = ma
m = 4 kg, a = 2 m s-2 F = ?
F = 4 kg × acceleration
F=4×2
= 8 kg m s-2 or 8 newton or 8 N.

101
Example 2. An object of mass 10 kg is moving with initial velocity of
2 m s-1.To make it come to rest in one second, what should be the
unbalanced force?
Solution: initial velocity = 2 m s-1
Velocity at rest = 0 m s-1
time interval = 1 second, mass m = 10 k g.

d
Change in velocity in one second or acceleration

he

F = ma

is
re S
F = 10 × -2
B

bl = -20 kg m s-2 or -20 newton or -20 N
The negative sign tells us that the force exerted is opposite to the
be T
pu
direction of motion.
K

Example 3. An object of mass 20 kg is moving with initial velocity of 2

m s-1. If its velocity changes to 4 m s-1 in one second, what should
©

be the force acting on it? What will be the direction of the motion?
Solution: F = ma
m = 20 kg
a=

to

= 2 m s-2
∴ F = 20 × 2
= 40 newton or 40 N
t
No

The object continues to move in the same direction as the force

applied is in the same direction.
Let us try to understand Newton’s Second law of motion in another
way.
It is our experience that it is easier to stop a slow moving cricket
ball than a fast moving cricket ball. The mass of the cricket ball is the
same. Its average velocity may change. Recall the activity 9.4.

102
 The iron spheres have different masses. The average velocity of both
the spheres remains the same when dropped from the same height.
Another physical quantity “momentum” is considered in these examples.
Momentum = Mass × Velocity
Or M = m v
Momentum of an object is proportional to its mass and velocity or

d
speed .Force is required to change the momentum of an object.

he
The S.I unit of momentum is kg m s-1.
Newton’s second law of motion can also be stated as “ rate of change

is
of momentum is directly proportional to the impressed force and takes
re S
place in the direction of the application of the force”.
B
bl
Know this : Conservation of momentum
be T
pu
Momentum of a system is always conserved. What does it mean?
When a bullet is fired from a rifle, bullet moves fast but the rifle also moves
K

slowly in the opposite direction of the bullet. In this case

©

momentum of bullet = momentum of rifle. [ law of conservation ]

If the mass and velocity of the bullet are ‘m’ and ‘v’ respectively and if
the mass and velocity of the rifle are ‘M’ and ‘V’ respectively,
then mv + M V = 0 or mv = - MV.
- MV indicates that rifle moves in the opposite direction of the bullet.

The two laws of motion tell us how an applied force changes the
to

state of motion of objects. There is yet another law of motion which tells
us something more about the applied forces.
t

Newton’s third law of motion:

No

“To every action there is always an opposed and equal reaction”

or
The mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal
and directed in opposite direction.
Remember that ‘action’ and ‘reaction’ act on different bodies.

103
Activity: 9.5
Take a large balloon. Fill it with air. Carefully tie a narrow tube of a discarded
ball point pen to the mouth of the balloon as shown in the figure 9.4. Release
the air. Air moves downwards. Balloon moves upwards. Try this with different
sized balloons. Also try this with balloons of comparable masses. As the mass
of the balloon increases its speed decreases . Can you think why?

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

Fig 9.4 Air balloon experiment

Activity 9.6
Observe the white stream of the exhaust of a jet plane, if you happen to
spot jet planes in the sky. Observe the direction of motion of the jet plane and
the exhaust fumes. What is your conclusion?
to

Activity 9.7
Observe the actions of a swimmer while swimming. Can you give reason
t

for his actions?

No

Activity 9.8
In the traditional row boat, observe the direction of motion of the boat and
the direction of motion of rowing. Can you describe this in terms of Newton’s
third law of motion?
Activity 9.9
You might have observed on T.V, the launching of rockets. The exhaust
gases travel with tremendous speed downwards. But the rocket that goes up
will not be as fast as the exhaust gases. Can you give reason for this?

104
 Numerical problem
A bullet of mass 25 g is fired from a rifle of mass 2 kg. Imagine that no
other forces are acting on the system. If the bullet travels with a velocity of
2 m s-1, what will be the velocity of the recoil of the rifle?
Solution: Momentum of the rifle = Momentum of the bullet
Mass of the rifle × Velocity of recoil = Mass of the bullet × Velocity of the bullet
2 × Velocity of recoil

d
he
2 × Velocity of recoil

velocity of recoil

is
re S
Are the Newtons’ laws of motion applicable to circular motion? You
B
bl
will study about them in higher classes.
be T

Exercises :
pu
K

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete

statement / question. Choose the right answer :
©

1. Action and reaction

a. act on the same body b. are equal
c. are opposite d. act on different bodies
2. If the forces acting on an object are balanced, then
a. the object will be accelerated
to

b. the object will be in motion

c. the object will have zero acceleration
t

d. the object loses its shape

No

3. The S.I unit of force is

a. Newtons b. newton c. newtons d. Newton
II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words :
1. Inertia of an object is proportional to its __________________ .
2. The S.I unit of momentum is _________________________ .
3. To cause acceleration in an object the necessary factor is
unbalanced___________________________ .

105
 4. Newton’s first law of motion is also called law of ________________.

5. The suitcases kept in a moving bus, move forward when the brakes
are applied suddenly. This is due to _________________.

III. Answer the following

1. In a tug of war game, if the two teams exert equal forces, none of
the team wins. Why?

d
2. Which of the following has greater momentum?

he
a. An object of mass 2 kg moving with uniform velocity of 2 m s-1.

b. An object of 1kg mass moving with uniform velocity of 3 m s-1.

is
re S
3. Which of the following has greater inertia?
B
bl
a. 50 paise coin b. one rupee coin c. five rupee coin.
be T

4. State any two illustrations for Newton’s third law of motion.

pu
K

5. Distinguish between balanced and unbalanced forces.

6. State Newton’s second law of motion, in terms of momentum.

©

IV. Give reasons for the following

1. It is dangerous to get down from a moving bus even if the bus is
moving slowly.

2. An athlete in long jump, runs a distance before taking the leap.

to

3. Usually a fielder in a cricket match, takes a catch by moving his

hands in the direction of motion of cricket ball.
t

V. Solve the Problems

No

1. Calculate the force required to change the velocity of an object of

mass 8 kg from 4 m s-1 to 6 m s-1 in 2 second.

2. A force of 25 newton is applied on an object of mass 10 kg moving

with a velocity of 5 m s-1. If the object gains a velocity of 10 m s-1 ,
calculate the time interval.



106
 CHAPTER 10
Energy and its forms
After studying this chapter students :
• define the terms force and work
• define the terms potential energy, kinetic energy and power
• give examples for potential energy and kinetic energy.

d
• distinguish between potential and kinetic energy.

he
• solve numerical problems on potential energy, kinetic energy and
power.

is
re S
• compare ways in which energy is changed from one form to
another.
B
• bl
describe the law of conservation of energy.
be T
pu
In a football match, a player kicks a stationary ball. The ball moves
K

in a straight line. Another player deflects the moving ball to another

direction. Sometimes a player simply pushes the moving ball to increase
©

its speed without changing its direction. In all these cases, the players
apply force with their legs.
Force
Force is an influence which tends to set a stationary body in motion
or which tends to change the speed and direction of a moving body or
which tends to change the shape of a body.
to

Work
What happens when force is applied to a marble? If a marble moves
t

then we say work is done. What happens when force is applied to a

No

wall? If wall is not moved then the work is not done. Work is said to be
done when the point of application of a force moves. The work done by
the force on a body depends on two factors, magnitude of the force and
distance that the body moves.
We are now in a position to define work and say how it is measured.
Work done by moving a body is equal to the product of force exerted on
the body and the distance moved by the body in the direction of force.
That is, Work = Force Í Distance moved in the direction of force.

107
Unit of work
You have studied that the unit of force is newton and that of distance
is metre. Thus the unit of work is newton metre which is written as
N m. This, unit of work is called joule can be defined as: when a force
of one newton moves a body through a distance of one metre in its own
direction, then the work is known as one joule.
1 joule = 1 newton Í 1 metre
1J=1Nm

d
Karnataka Government is setting up power stations to increase the

he
production of electricity. If this is the news it will definitely be in the
headlines of the newspaper. One of the much discussed topics today is
energy crisis. If the demand for energy is more than the supply then it

is
re S
leads to energy crisis.
B
bl
You may wonder, how there can be crisis when there are so many
forms of energy. Heat, light, sound and solar energy are different forms
be T

of energy. When we talk about energy we think about usable forms of

pu
energy. We think about how to transport it, how to convert it into other
K

forms of energy.
©

Think : Is the sound energy produced during the bursting of crackers

useful to us?
Can you convert all the sun light we receive from the sun into work or
convert it into other forms?
In your previous classes you have studied about kinetic and potential
energy which are forms of mechanical energy.
to

Activity 10.1
Classify the following into kinetic energy and potential energy.
• Stretched rubber band
t
No

• Flowing water
• Compressed spring
• Water stored in a dam
• Wind
• Arrow released from the bow
In this chapter we shall study some factors related to kinetic energy
and potential energy.

108
 Activity 10.2
Conduct the activities related to kinetic energy as given in the table 10.1
Table 10.1 illustrations of kinetic energy

Sl. Activities Observation Inference

No.
1 Blow air to a paper

d
2 flowing water falls on a turbine(wheel)

he
3 Throw a cricket ball on the stumps
4 Hit the carrom coin with a moving striker

is
re S
What do you find in the above activities? The moving air, the moving
ball, the flowing water, the moving stricker are capable of doing work.
B
bl
All moving objects have capacity to do work which means that they
possess energy. The energy that the body possesses due to its motion
be T
pu
is called kinetic energy.
K

Do this : List out at least 5 activities, which involve doing work with kinetic
©

energy.
Relationship between mass, velocity and kinetic energy of an object
Activity10.3
Take a wooden plank of
three feet and place it on wooden
block. This arrangement is called
to

inclined plane. Mark A,B,C,D as

shown in the figure 10.1 .Take a
cylindrical tin of medium size(200 g)
t

with a tight fitting lid. Fill it tightly

No

with sand. Put an empty rectangular

Fig 10.1 plastic cube container near the
bottom of the inclined plane. Now
release the cylinder from the point A of the inclined plane. The cylinder strikes
the plastic cube container which is at rest. The rolling cylinder moves the plastic
cube container for some distance. Mark the place where the plastic container
rests. Measure the distance between the original position and the new position
of the plastic cube container. Repeat the experiment by releasing the cylinder
from different heights (B.C.D) and measure the distance.

109
 Is the distance moved by the container same in all the cases? Does
the cylinder strike the container with the same velocity?
What is your conclusion ? The kinetic energy of a body depends on
its velocity. Higher the velocity, higher is the kinetic energy.
Repeat the same experiment using a large size (500 g) cylindrical
tin tightly filled with sand.
Compare the result with the above experiment. What do you observe?

d
What is your conclusion? The kinetic energy of a body also depends

he
upon its mass. Higher the mass of a body, higher is its kinetic energy.
The kinetic energy of a body therefore depends on

is
re S
1. the mass of the body. 2. the velocity with which it is moving.
B
1
2
2
bl
A body of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘v’ has the kinetic energy
of mv . You will study the derivation of this formula in the higher
be T

classes.
pu
K

Unit of energy: Energy is measured in terms of work. The unit of

work is ‘joule’. So the unit of energy is also joule.
©

Note : Change in the kinetic energy of a body is the measure of the work
done.
Example 1: A car is moving with uniform velocity of 15 m s-1. What is
the kinetic energy of a boy of mass 40 kg sitting in the car?
Solution: Velocity of the boy = velocity of the car
to

Kinetic energy possessed by the boy = 1 mv Here m = 40 kg, v = 15 m s-1

2

= 1 Í 40 kg Í (15 m s-1)2
t

2
No

= 4500 J
Example 2 : If two bodies of equal masses move with uniform velocity
of ‘v’ and ‘3v’, what will be the ratio of their kinetic energies?
Mass of first body = m
Velocity of the first body = v
Mass of second body = m
Velocity of second body = 3v

110
 Kinetic energies of first body
The ratio of kinetic energies of the two bodies =
Kinetic energes of sec ond body
1 m v2 1 mv 2
= 2 = 2
1 m (3v) 2 9 mv 2
2 2

= 1
9

d
The ratio of the kinetic energies = 1:9

he
Potential energy
How do you make a toy drumbeater to beat the drum? You wind the
spring before it beats the drum. Your work done on the toy gets stored

is
re S
up in the spring in the form of energy. Observe the shape of the spring
before and after the beats of the drum.
B
bl
A stone is lying on the ground. It cannot do the work at that moment.
be T

How do you make the stone do work? Lift that stone up to your shoulder.
pu
Now the work has been done by lifting this stone against the force of
K

gravity. This work gets stored up in the stone in the form of energy. Now
the stone has the capacity to do work. Here stone gets energy due to its
©

position. The energy which a body possesses either due to its position
or due to its deformation is called potential energy.
Activity 10.4
Complete the table 10.2

Sl. Object possessing potential energy posessed energy possessed

No. energy by the object by the object due
to

due to position to shape

1 The wound spring of a watch
t

2 A stretched rubber band

No

3 Mangoes in the tree

4 Water stored in the dam
5 Stretched bow
6 A car at the top of the hill
7 Pressed spring
8 Stretched sling of a catapult

111
Relationship between mass, height and potential energy of a body
What are the factors on which potential energy depends? Let us
explore!
Lift two shotputs separately of 1 kg and 3 kg each up to your
shoulder. In both the cases work done is stored in the form of energy.
In which shot put is more energy stored? What is your conclusion?
Potential energy depends upon the mass of the body.

d
From the ground, lift a shot-put weighing 3 kg up to your shoulder

he
level. Now again lift the same shot-put from the ground above your
head. In which position does the ball acquire maximum energy? What

is
is your conclusion? Potential energy depends upon the height through
re S
which it is raised from the ground. Hence potential energy of a body
B
bl
depends upon the mass of a body and the height to which it is raised
from the ground. If m is the mass of a body raised to a height ‘h’ then
be T
pu
its potential energy = m # g # h ( here g = Acceleration due to gravity) . You can
K

study the derivation of this formula in higher classes.

Examples
©

1. If acceleration due to gravity is 10 m s-2, what is the potential

energy of a body of mass 1 kg kept at a height of 5m?
Potential energy = m # g # h (here m = 1 kg, g = 10 m s- 2, h = 5 m)
Potential energy = 1 kg Í 10 m s-2 Í 5 m
Potential energy = 50 J
to

2. A bag of wheat weighs 200 kg. To what height should it be raised

so that its potential energy is 9800 joule (g = 9.8 m s-2)
t
No

Potential energy = m # g # h (here m = 200 kg, g = 9.8 m s- 2,

potential energy = 9800 joule)
9800 J = 200 Kg # 9.8 m s- 2 # h
h = 9800
200 # 9.8
h= 5 m
Thus, the bag of wheat should be raised to a height of 5m.

112
 Change of energy
Rub your palm together. Why does palm get warm? Where did
the heat come from? Here kinetic energy of your palm changes into
heat energy. Switch on a fan. Which energy makes the fan rotate?
Here electrical energy is changed into mechanical energy. Burn the
magnesium strip. What do you observe? Here the chemical energy is
changed into heat and light energy. The change of energy from one form

d
to another is known as transformation of energy.

he
Activity 10.5

is
Some activities in your everyday life are given below. Complete the table 10.3
re S
Name the forms Name the forms
B
Sl.
bl Situation of energy before of energy after
transformation transformation
be T
pu
1 Combustion of Petrol
K

2 Combustion of L.P.G
©

3 Burning match stick

4 Running toy car
5 Photosynthesis
6 Falling rain drop
7 Flowing water from dam
to

When you switch on the bulb, a part of electrical energy is converted

t

into light energy and some part of it is converted into heat energy.
No

Find out : To prepare a cup of tea of 100 ml.. joules of energy are
required. To pump blood by a normal heart once.....joules of energy are
required.

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can be converted

from one form to another. This is known as the law of conservation of
energy.

113
Activity 10.6
Sun is the ultimate source of different forms of energy on the earth. Observe
figure 10.2 and identify the energy transformation.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

Fig 10.2 Energy

Rate of consumption of energy in relation to time
Have you seen the letter ‘W’ on the bulb? Between a 40 W and
60 W on bulbs which bulb gives more light? 40 W, 60 W on bulbs indicate
to

the consumption of energy in given time. Here ‘W’ is the unit of power.
The rate of consumption of energy is known as power.
If W is the work done in time t, then power = work done
t

time taken

No

P= w
t
The work done is measured in joules and time in seconds. So unit
of power is joules/second. This unit of power is called watt. When the
rate of consumption is higher then kilowatt is used.
1 kilowatt = 1000 W
1 k W = 1000 W

114
 Problem
A body does 20 joules of work in 5 seconds. What is its power?
(here work = 20 joules,
Power = work done
time taken
time = 5 sec onds)
20 j
Power =
5s
Power = 4 W

d
Thus, the power of this body is 4 watt.

he
More activities for you
Activity 10.7

is
re S B
bl This model shows transformation of
be T
pu
kinetic energy and potential energy. Take
K

a mudguard and fix it on a wooden block

and release the marble as shown in fig.10.3
©

Fig.10.3

Prepare a model as shown in the

figure 10.4. Wind the thread around
to

the axis of the wheel. The wheel is

raised and its potential energy
increases. When the disc is released
t

the wheel moves downwards. It

No

acquires kinetic energy and loses

potential energy. At the lowest
position again it rises.
Fig.10.4

Activity 10.8

Record the changes that take place when a simple pendulum oscillates.

115
Exercises :
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete
statement / question. Choose the right answer :
1. The type of energy that can be easily converted into other forms is
a. sound b. light c. heat d. electricity
2. Kinetic energy is present in the following.

d
a. Water stored in a dam b. Stretched rubber band
c. Water released from a dam d. Compressed spring

he
3. The Correct formula to find the velocity of a body with kinetic energy ‘k’ is
2
2k c. V= 4k 1

is
a. V= 2k b. V= d. V= 2 km
re S
m m m
B
bl
4. The correct sequence of energy changes in hydroelectric power
station is,
be T
pu
a. kinetic to potential, to mechanical to electrical.
K

b. potential to kinetic to mechanical to electrical.

©

c. potential to electrical to mechanical.

d. potential to electrical to kinetic to mechanical.
5. Which of the following object has higher potential energy?
a. mass = 10 kg g = 9.8 m s-2 h = 10 m
b. mass = 5 kg g = 9.8 m s-2 h = 12 m
to

c. mass = 8 kg g = 9.8 m s-2 h = 100 m

d. mass = 6 kg g = 9.8 m s-2 h = 20 m
II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words
t
No

1. Unit of power is _____________ .

2. Unit of energy is _____________ .
3. If a candle is burnt, the chemical energy is transformed into
________________ .
4. The water stored in an overhead tank possesses ___________ energy.
5. In a cinema theatre electrical energy is transformed into
____________and_______________ energy.

116
 III. Answer the following
1. State whether the energy possessed in the following is kinetic
or potential; compressed spring, Stretched bow, moving arrow, water
stored in a dam, a stone at the top of a building, bird resting on the
branch of a tree,

2. Distinguish between potential energy and kinetic energy of a body.

d
3. A bus and a car are moving at the same speed. Which of the two has

he
a greater kinetic energy?

4. A ball of mass 200 gram falls from a height of 5 metre?

is
What is its kinetic energy when it just reaches the ground?
re S
(g = 9.8 m s-2)
B
bl
5. There are a number of devices in common use that change
be T

energy from one form to another. Name some devices that change
pu
1. electrical energy into light energy 2. electrical energy into
K

mechanical energy 3. electrical energy into heat 4. sound energy into

©

electrical energy 5. chemical energy into electrical energy.

6. Describe the mode of energy transformation in a mechanical and

quartz clock.

7. What kind of energy transformation takes place at the thermal power

station?
t to
No

Same - Sightedness : Feel the presence of the Divine in all beings

and treat them with the same standard as you treat yourself.

-Swami Vivekananda



117
 Chapter 11
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND THEIR TYPES
After studying this chapter students :
• explain the meaning of chemical reactions.
• write equations of familiar chemical reactions.
• name the reactants and products of a chemical reaction.

d
• balance the equations when unbalanced equations are given.

he
• classify the given reactions according to their types.
• give illustrations from daily life for different types of chemical

is
re S
reactions.
B
bl
Chemical reactions and their types
be T

You might have enjoyed eating a sweet mango or eating an orange.

pu
Have you at any point of time thought before eating, how are these
K

produced?
By your knowledge you may say that it is by photosynthesis. Yes,
©

photosynthesis is a complex chemical reaction carried out by plants. It

is so complex that it is difficult to describe it in detail.
There are many chemical reactions that take place in our day to
day life. As a result of these reactions variety of substances are formed
by ninety naturally occurring elements.
to

Know this : “There are more things in heaven and earth Horatio, than
are dreamt off in your philosophy.” This phrase, taken from Shakespeare
drama ‘Hamlet’, describes the variety in nature.
t
No

Some of the reactions that we observe are complex and some are
simple. Biogeochemical cycles that you have studied in life science
are complex. Rusting of iron, combustion of fuels are simple chemical
reactions.
What are chemical reactions? How are they different from physical
changes or reactions? You have studied about physical changes in your
earlier classes, recall them.

118
 Activity 11.1
Classify the following into chemical and physical changes.
1. Rusting of iron 2. Ripening of fruits 3. Magnetizing a steel plate
4. melting of iron 5. combustion of LPG 6. Cooling effect produced by ice
Chemical changes lead to the formation of substances that help to
grow our food, make our lives more productive and comfortable, cure
our diseases and much more.

d
In chemical reactions electrons may get transferred from one

he
atom to another or shared between two atoms. The electrons in the
outer most orbit take part in chemical reactions. Sometimes electrons
in the penultimate orbit may take part in chemical reactions along

is
re S
with those in the outer most orbit. These electrons which take part in
chemical reactions are called valence eletrons, as you have studied
B
bl
in chapter IV.
be T
pu
Know this : All atoms like to get octet structure or completed shell of
K

electrons. They try to acquire the electronic configuration of nearest

stable or noble gas. In this attempt atoms may transfer, gain or share
electrons. Main cause of chemical reaction is the desire of atoms to get stable
©

electronic configuration. Rearrangement of the configuration may also

take place if there are other favourable alternatives.
Chemical equations
Consider the example of combustion of carbon in air. Carbon
combines with the oxygen of the air to form carbon dioxide. Can you
write this reaction?
to

Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide

This is ‘word’ equation. It has qualitative meaning only. Carbon and
t

Oxygen are called reactants. Carbon dioxide is called product.

No

But the ‘word’ equation conveys only one information about reactants
and products. It tells us “what”? But not “how much”? Let us write the
above equation using formulae and symbols.
C + O2 → CO2
This is the better method of writing the chemical equation. It has
the following advantage.

119
• Qualitative: Helps in knowing the reactants and products.
• Quantitative: Helps in knowing the relation between the quanties
of reactants consumed and products formed C:O2 : CO2 =1:1:1
We can further improve upon the equation by writing the other
conditions.
C + O2 Heat CO2 + energy
Remember : The reactants are written on the left hand side. The products

d
are written on the right hand side.

he
Symbols and Molecular formula of reactants or products should be
used to write the equations.
Consider one more example.

is
When magnesium ribbon is ignited in oxygen, it catches fire with
re S
dazzling white light forming magnesium oxide.
B
bl
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide (word equation)(Qualitative)
be T

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO (formula equation) (Quantitative)

pu
2 moles of Magnesium + one mole of oxygen → 2 moles of Magnesium oxide
K

Why can we not write the above equation as Mg + O → MgO ?

©

This is not the correct way. oxygen gas consists of diatomic molecule.
The ratio of atoms in the molecules of reactants should be equal to the
ratio of atoms in the molecules of products.
Mg + O2 → MgO
This is correct method of writing the reactants and products
to

Know this : according to the law of conservation of mass or matter,

‘matter can neither be created nor destroyed’. The number of atoms of
each element of reactants on left hand side should be equal to the number
of atoms of each element present in products on right hand side.
t
No

There is one ‘Mg’ on the left hand side and one ‘Mg’ on the right
hand side. But there is one ‘O2’ on left hand side and one ‘O’ on right
hand side in ‘MgO’. We cannot write ‘MgO’ as ‘MgO2’. Also we cannot
write the products as MgO + O.
Products or reactants should be multiplied by integers in order to
satisfy the law of conservation of matter. If MgO is multiplied by 2, it
becomes 2MgO. Now the Oxygen atoms are balanced. But we have to
increase one Mg by 2Mg in order to balance the Magnesium atoms. The
balanced equation is 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

120
 Remember : In special cases we represent actual atomic state of an
element. In that case symbol of the element is written in square bracket.
Eg: Hypochlorous acid Hydrochloric acid + Nascent Oxygen
HClO HCl + [O]

The practice of equalizing the number of atoms of elements on

left hand side to the corresponding atoms on right hand side is called
balancing of equations.

d
Consider one more example:

he
H2 + O2 → H2O
In this example equal number of hydrogen atoms are there on either

is
re S
side but number of oxygen atoms are unequal.
H2 + O2 → 2H2O
B
bl
The hydrogen atoms on right hand side are four. Multiply the
be T

hydrogen molecule on left hand side by two to balance the hydrogen

pu
atoms. The balanced equation now will be
K

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Activity 11.2
©

Balance the following

• Al + Cl2 → AlCl3 [clue: multiply AlCl3 by 2]
• KClO3 → KCl +O2 [clue: multiply KClO3 by 2]
• Pb3O4 → PbO +O2 [clue : multiply Pb3O4 by 2]
to

• Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
There is no particular method of balancing equations. It should be
learnt by trial and error method. You will get used to it when you practise
t

writing of equations in the other lessons of this text book.

No

Types Of Chemical Reactions

The chemical reactions are mainly of following types based on the
nature of reactants and products.
• Chemical combination
• Chemical decomposition
• Chemical displacement
• Chemical double decomposition or exchange

121
1. Chemical combination
Activity 11.3:
When sulphur is ignited in air on a metal spoon, it buns with pale blue
flame, producing sulphur dioxide gas.
S + O2 → SO2
This is combination between two elements.

d
Activity 11.4:

he
Bring a glass rod dipped in liquor ammonia near the opened stopper of con-
centrated hydrochloric acid. We get dense white fumes of ammonium chloride.

is
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
re S
In this reaction two compounds react to form another compound.
B
bl
Chemical combination is a reaction in which two or more elements
be T

or compounds combine to form a new product. This process has an

pu
industrial application namely synthesis of ammonia by Haber’s process.
K

N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
©

(In Chemical combination many reactants combine to form single product)

Know this : Haber’s process: Ammonia gas is a raw material for manufacturing
fertilizers. Haber designed a technology of synthesizing ammonia. He won
Nobel prize in Chemistry for this contribution. In this process Nitrogen
and Hydrogen are subjected to high pressure at a temperature of about
500 ºC in the presence of a catalyst.
to

Activity 11.5
During lightening Nitrogen and Oxygen of the atmosphere combine. Can
t

you list the reactants and products? Write the balanced equation of the reaction.
No

2. Chemical decomposition
Heat about 5 g of potassium permanganate in a test tube for some
time. Bring a glowing incense stick near the mouth of the test tube. The
glowing splinter catches fire. It is because of the liberation of Oxygen.
2KMnO4 → K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2
Potassium permangnate→pot.manganate + manganese dioxide + oxygen.

122
 The classic experiment of Joseph Priestly who prepared Oxygen by
heating mercuric oxide in a test tube by converging sun rays using a
convex lens, is shown in the figure.
2HgO → 2Hg + O2
In chemical decomposition a compound breaks up into two or more
new substances. Normally energy has to be provided for this purpose.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

fig 11.1 Preparation of oxygen by heating mercuric oxide

Recall : When electric current is passed through acidified water, water

breaks up into hydrogen and oxygen. Water was considered as single
element. From this experiment it can be shown that it is a compound.
to

In Chemical decomposition a single reactant gives many products.

t

3. Chemical displacement
No

Activity 11.6

Immerse an iron nail in copper sulphate solution for some time. You will
observe the deposit of copper on iron nail.

CuSO4 + Fe → FeSO4 + Cu

Note : Copper sulphate is poisonous.

123
Activity 11.7
Take Clear bleaching powder solution in a test tube. Add potassium iodide
solution. We get a violet coloured Iodine.
Cl2 + 2KI → 2KCl + I2
In the above two examples more reactive metal or non metal displaces
less reactive metal or non metal respectively, from their compounds.
These are the examples of displacement reaction. Can you arrange

d
Copper, Iron and Silver in the increasing order of the reactivity?

he
Activity 11.8
Observe the following reaction:

is
re S
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
(dilute)
B
bl
Identify the displaced element and displacing agent in the above reaction.
be T
pu
In chemical displacement more reactive element displaces the less
reactive element from their compounds.
K

Findout : Though by displacement reaction we can deposit silver on iron

©

or copper, it is not used as a method of coating. For coating silver on or-

naments electroplating is used.

4. Chemical double decomposition or chemical exchange or

chemical double displacement
Activity 11.9
to

Add sodium carbonate solution to magnesium sulphate solution, in a test

tube. We see white precipitate.
MgSO4 + Na2CO3 → MgCO3 + Na2SO4
t
No

Activity 11.10
In a test tube add sodium carbonate solution to calcium chloride solution.
We see a white precipitate.
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + 2NaCl
In the above two examples there is mutual exchange of metallic and the
non metallic parts. Such reactions are called double displacement or double
decomposition reactions.

124
 Activity 11.11
In the following example can you write the parts or radicals which are
exhanged?
MgCl2 + Na2CO3 → MgCO3 + 2 NaCl

Oxidation and Reduction:

You know that iron commonly occurs as oxide along with
impurities. One such common oxide of iron is Ferric Oxide

d
(Fe 2 O 3 ). If Oxygen is removed from this using Carbon we get

he
iron. Substances which remove Oxygen from a compound are
commonly called reducing agents. They easily give up oxygen.
The reducing agent itself gets oxidized. The old meaning of oxidation is

is
addition of Oxygen. Similarly the old meaning of reduction is removal
re S
of Oxygen. This concept has undergone many changes. In terms of
B
bl
electronic theory, oxidation is a process of transferring of electrons.
Reduction is a process of receiving of electrons.
be T
pu
Potassium permanganate, Potassium chlorate, Potassium nitrate
and Hydrogen peroxide are some commonly used oxidizing agents.
K

They easily give up oxygen. Carbon, Magnesium, Hydrogen sulphide

and Sulphur dioxide are some commonly used reducing agents. They
©

easily take up oxygen.

Exercises :

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete

statement / question. Choose the right answer:
to

1. Balancing of equations is based on,

a. avogadro’s number
b. principle of conservation of momentum
t
No

c. conditions for a chemical reaction to take place

d. law of conservation of mass or matter
2. Identify the balanced equation in the following.
a. SiO2 + Mg → Si + MgO
b. SiO2 + 2Mg →Si + 2 MgO
c. SiO + Mg → Si + MgO2
d. SiO2 + Mg → SiO + 2MgO

125
 3. Correct statement about chemical displacement is,
a. less reactive element displaces more reactive element
b. a non-metal displaces more reactive non metal
c. more reactive element displaces less reactive element
d. evolution of heat when carbon is burnt in air
4. Dissolving of sugar in water is not an example for chemical reaction

d
because,

he
a. there is no change in energy
b. sufficient heat is not produced

is
c. no new substances are formed
re S
d. no gases are evolved
B
bl
5. Which of the following represents combination of two compounds
be T

forming another compound ?

pu
K

a. 2SO2 + O2 --→ 2 SO3

b. CaCO3→ CaO + CO2
©

c. H2O + SO2 → H2SO3

d. 2Na + 2H2 O → 2 NaOH + H2

II. Fill in the Blanks with suitable words :

1. Chemical equations have both qualitative and _________significance
to

2. Zn+ 2HCl -→ ZnCl2 + ________________ .

3. 2Mg + O2 -→ 2 MgO In the this reaction the reactants are _______
and ________________ .
t
No

4. Copper Sulphate + Iron -→ Iron Sulphate + ________________ .

5. 2Al + 3Cl2-→ ________________ .
III. Balance the following reactions :
1. Cu+ H2SO4 -→ CuSO4 + SO2 + H2O
2. Fe + H2O -→ Fe3O4 + H2

126
 IV. Match the Following
A B
1. chemical combination a. Fe + H2 SO4 → FeSO4 + H2
2. chemical decomposition b. FeS + 2O2 → FeSO4
3. chemical displacement c. AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
4. chemical double displacement d. 2Pb3O4 → 6PbO + O2

d
he
V. Answer the following
1. Classify the following into chemical combination, decomposition,
displacement and double displacement reaction.

is
re S
a. CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 b. 2AgNO3 + Cu → Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag
B
bl
c. 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3 d. NaCl + AgNO3 →AgCl +NaNO3
be T
pu
2. State the advantages of writing a chemical equation using
K

formulae and symbols.

3. Mention one example each for the different types of chemical reac-
©

tions.
4. In chemical equations if Oxygen or Chlorine is one of the
reactants they are represented as ‘O2’ and ‘Cl2’ but not as ‘O’ or ‘Cl’.
Why ?
5. During winter many plant leaves fall on the earth. But it will not
to

cause pollution. Plastic papers which are strewn on the earth cause
pollution. Name the type of chemical reaction associated with this
observation.
t

6. L.P.G gas contains butane. Its molecular formula is C4H10. Name the
No

possible products when it undergoes complete combustion.



127
 CHAPTER 12
CHEMICALS IN OUR DAILY LIFE-1
After studying this chapter students :
• list the physical and chemical properties of chlorine, sulphur dioxide
and baking soda.
• name common compounds containing chlorine and sulphur.

d
• draw neat diagrams showing experimental set up of laboratory

he
preparation of chlorine and sulphur dioxide.
• list the uses of chlorine compounds, sulphur dioxide, baking soda in

is
re S
our daily life.
B
•
bl
explain the methods of manufacturing sulphur dioxide,
baking soda.
be T
pu
• compare the bleaching action of sulphur dioxide with that of
K

chlorine.
• explain the methods of manufacturing of soaps and detergents.
©

• state the differences between soap and detergent.

• list out the advantages and disadvantage of detergents.
Chlorine Preparation, Properties and Uses
Common salt is one of the chemical substances which gives taste
to our food. What is the chemical name of common salt? Have you seen
to

the bleaching powder? Can you recognize bleaching powder used at

your home by the pungent smell, when it is being used? Which is the
t

common element present in bleaching powder and common salt? The

No

common element is chlorine. Let us learn more about chlorine.

Minerals of Cholrine : Halite or rock salt, sylvite, camallite, chlorapatite
are the most common minerals of chlorine.

Chlorine occurs commonly both in the Earth’s crust and in seawater.

Find out : An atom of Chlorine has 17 electrons. Find out the number of
protons present in an atom of chlorine.

128
 Activity 12.1
When you purchase medicines,read the constituents of medicine on its
wrapper and list out the chlorine compounds used for the preparation of medicine.
Chlorine is used for various purposes .Now let us learn about the
process of manufacture of chlorine on large scale.
In industry, chlorine is produced by passing an electric current
through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride or through molten

d
sodium chloride. The products produced along with chlorine are sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrogen (H2), during the electrolysis of aqueous

he
sodium chloride solution.
Know this : Solutions made using water are called aqueous solutions. The

is
re S
solid state of matter becomes liquid when sufficiently heated. The liquid
state of matter is called molten state. Insoluble substance that is formed in
B
bl
a reaction is called precipitate.
be T

Carl Wilhelm Scheele

pu
K

In 1774, Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm

Scheele tried the reaction of hydrochloric
©

acid on manganese dioxide. He observed

a greenish gas. He thought that the
liberated gas was oxygen. But it was
not oxygen as he thought. Until 1810,
nobody knew that the librated gas was
chlorine. But in 1810 Sir Humphrey Davy
to

identified the gas as a distinct chemical

element, and named it “chlorine”. The
Carl Wilhelm Scheele name chlorine is originated from the
t

Greek word ‘chloro’. Chloro meaning

No

‘pale green’.
We can also prepare chlorine in a small quantity in laboratory.
Method 1
Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 12.1. Take nearly 20 g of
manganese dioxide in the flask. Add concentrated hydrochloric acid to
it through thistle funnel so that tip of the thistle funnel is dipped in the
acid. Heat the flask.

129
 d
is he
re S B
bl Fig 12.1 Preparation of Chlorine
be T
pu
Now observe the colour of the liberated gas in the flask . This gas
K

is collected in the jar by the upward displacement of air.

MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
©

Method 2
t to
No

Fig 12.2 Preparation of Chlorine

130
 When concentrated hydrochloric acid is added drop by drop to solid
potassium permanganate, chlorine gas is liberated. The liberated gas is
collected in separate bottles by the upward displacement of air.
The apparatus is set up as shown in figure 12.2.
Think : The liberated gas is collected using gas jar by the upward
displacement of air. Why?
Thistle funnel should be dipped in the acid why?

d
The liberated gas is passed through the water. why?
The chlorine gas passed through the woulfee bottle containing concentrated

he
sulphuric acid why ?

Know this : One can get chlorine gas by using vinegar and bleaching

is
re S
powder.
B
bl
Collect chlorine in five jars and conduct the following Activity
Activity 12.2
be T
pu
Experiment Observation Inference
K

Introduce a burning burns with dull supporter of

©

candle into a jar of flame and sooty combustion

chlorine gas flame (but not like oxygen)

Introduce a few rose decolourisation bleaching property

petals soaked in water in
a jar of chlorine.
to

Introduce rose petal into colour does In the abscence of

another jar of chlorine not disapper water bleaching action
without soaking in water quickly. will not take place.
t
No

Hold wet blue litmus blue litmus acidic property

separately in chlorine jar. becomes red

Collect chlorine in a jar pale greenish chlorine gas has colour.

yellow

On the basis of the above activities list the physical properties of

chlorine.

131
Chemical properties
Let us learn chemical properties of chlorine.
1. Introduce a burning magnesium ribbon into a jar of chlorine with
the help of a pair of tongs. What do you observe? What is the colour
of magnesium chloride? Write the chemical equation.
Mg + Cl2 → MgCl2

d
2. Chlorine reacts with hot red phosphorus giving phosphorus
pentachloride

he
2P + 3Cl2 → 2PCl3 [limited supply of chlorine]
2P + 5Cl2 → 2PCl5 [excess supply of chlorine]

is
re S
3. Introduce a small piece of dry sodium into a jar containing Chlorine.
B
bl
What do you observe? Name the product formed in the jar. Write
the chemical equation. Sodium burns vigorously with golden yellow
be T

flame.
pu
[Caution: Conduct this experiment carefully]
K

2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

©

4. Sprinkle heated aluminum powder into a jar of chlorine. What do

you observe? Name the product formed in the jar. Write the chemical
equation.
2Al + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3
Aluminum particles burn with bright flashes of light.
5. When chlorine gas is dissolved in water hypochlorous acid is
to

formed. This Hypochlorous acid releases nascent Oxygen [O] and

becomes hydrochloric acid. Nascent Oxygen is a powerful oxidising
agent which is responsible for bleaching and sterilizing property of
chlorine.
t
No

Historical use of Chlorine : Chlorine was first used in the sterilisation

of drinking water in the 19th century to control the spread of water-born
diseases such as typhoid, cholera, dysentery and gastro-enteritis, which
killed people more than the people who were killed in all wars in history.

Know this : In addition to sterilisation of water, chlorine controls the growth

of slime and algae in main pipes and storage tanks, and helps to remove
unwanted nitrogen compounds from water.

132
 Find out : Collect information about the method of sterilization without
using chemicals.
Note : Use of excess of chlorine should be avoided in the treatment of
potable water.
Uses
1. Chlorine is used in the manufacture of bleaching powder.
2. Chlorine is used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid.

d
3. It is used in paper and pulp industry.

he
4. For domestic purpose, it is used as bleaching agent and in purification
of water.

is
5. It is used in the manufacture of Polyvinylchloride (P.V.C) and
re S
chlorofluorocarbons (C.F.C. )
B
bl
6. Chlorine is used in the preparation of pesticides like
benzene hexachloride commonly called BHC, dichloro diphenyl
be T
pu
trichloroethane(D.D.T).
K

7. Medical applications
©

• Common salt is the basic component of intravenous saline

solutions.
• It is used in the preparation of chloroform which is used as an
anaesthetic
Think : Overuse of bleaching powder should be avoided in toilet pit
system. Why?
to

Know this : When chlorine gas is passed into slaked lime at 400 0C,
bleaching powder is formed.
t

Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 CaOCl2 + H2O

No

(calcium oxy chloride)

Know this : Bleaching is the process of whitening or removing the natural
colour of textile fibre, yarns and fabrics, organic substance and of wood
pulp by treatment with chemicals.

Know this : C.F.C. used in refrigerator, is harmful. Why is it harmful?

Collect information.

133
 Know this : D.D.T. was first prepared in 1873, but was not used as a pes-
ticide until World War II. (1939-45)
Public health officials were at first delighted to learn that D.D.T. kills
disease-carrying insects very efficiently and they found it could kill many of
the pests that attacked crops. By the end of the 1950s, many farmers were
spraying huge amount of D.D.T. on their land to get rid of pests.
The adverse effect of D.D.T. on human health is now scientifically established.
(For details refer chapter 2).

d
he
Sulphur dioxide: preparation, properties and uses
Egg yolk, cauliflower, raddish, onion and garlic contain sulphur.

is
Our hair, nails and skin also contain sulphur. When they are burnt
re S
you get a peculiar smell. The peculiar smell is due to the presence of
B
bl
sulphur dioxide. Let us learn more about sulphur dioxide, a compound
of sulphur.
be T
pu
Know this : During the extraction of copper and mercury from
K

copper pyrites and cinnabar respectively, sulphur dioxide is released.

In the purification of petroleum, sulphur dioxide is released. Sulphur
©

dioxide is released from coal in power plant and during volcanic erruption.

Discovery of Sulphur Dioxide: Priestley prepared sulphur dioxide in the

year 1774 by heating concentrated sulphuric acid with mercury and called
it “Vitriolic acid air”. But it was Lavoisier, who proved that it was an oxide
of sulphur.
to

Let us learn the methods by which sulphur dioxide can be

manufactured on large-scale.
t

1. Sulphur is present in many minerals. One of the minerals is

No

mercurous sulphide. It is commonly called cinnabar. The sulphide

ore burns in the presence of air and sulphur dioxide is obtained as
byproduct.
HgS + O2 → Hg + SO2
2. During the extraction of zinc from zinc blende. Sulphur dioxide is
obtained as byproduct.
2ZnS + 3O2 → 2ZnO + 2SO2

134
 3. Let us study the laboratory method of preparation of sulphur dioxide
and study some of the properties. Set up the apparatus as shown in
figure 12.3. Copper turnings and concentrated sulphuric are used
in the preparation salphur dioxide.

The heating of concentrated sulphuric acid with copper turnings

yield copper sulphate, sulphur dioxide and water.

d
Cu + 2 H2SO4 → CuSO4 + SO2 + 2 H2O

he
Observe figure12.3; describe the arrangement of the apparatus in
your own words.

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

Fig 12.3 Preparation of Sulphur dioxide

to

You can also prepare sulphur dioxide with the help of your teacher
by using sodium sulphate crystals and dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute
t

sulphuric acid by using same apparatus set up as given above. The

No

chemical equation is given below.

Sodium sulphate + dil. Hydrochloric acid Sodium chloride + Water

+ Sulphur dioxide

Collect sulphur dioxide in two jars and conduct the following tests

135
Activity 12.3

Experiment Observations Inference

Introduce a burning candle into Flame is Not a supporter

a jar of sulphur dioxide gas extinguished. of combustion

Pass sulphur dioxide for about Blue litmus turns Solution is

d
five minutes into a 400 ml beaker red. acidic.
half filled with water. Dip wet

he
blue litmus.

Based on the above observations, list the properties of sulphur

is
re S
dioxide. In addition to this, note that sulphur dioxide is colourless and
B
bl
has a pungent smell. Do not smell the gas directly.
be T

Activity 12.4
pu
K

Heat sulphur in a spoon. Hold wet and blue litmus paper separately on
the liberated gas. What do you observe?
©

Now let us study about the action of sulphur dioxide on water,

moisture and magnesium.
1 Sulphur dioxide reacts with water to give sulphurous acid.
SO2 + H2O → H2SO3
to

Acid rain: Water molecules in the atmosphere react with sulphur

dioxide to form acid rain. This acid rain corrodes monuments, statues and
buildings. It affects the of fertility the soil and affects plant growth. In certain
t

industrial regions, the atmosphere contains sulphur dioxide also.

No

Find out : What is the difference between sulphuric acid and sulphurous
acid ?

Collect sulphur dioxide in three jars and conduct activity 12.5 to

study the properties of sulphur dioxide.

136
 Activity 12.5

Experiment Observation Inference

1. Introduce a few petals 1. Decolourisation 2. Acts as bleaching
of rose flowers soaked in takes place. agent.
water in a jar of sulphur
dioxide.

d
2. Take out the petal from 1.Colour is regained. 2. Bleaching action

he
the jar and expose it to is temporary.
air.

is
3. Introduce a few petals 1. No change. 2. Dry sulphur
re S
of rose flowers in to dioxide is not a
B
bl
another jar of sulphur
dioxide without soaking
bleaching agent.
be T

in water.
pu
K

1. Sulphur dioxide bleaches by reduction process. It is temporary.

©

2. Keep a burning magnesium ribbon inside the sulphur dioxide jar.

What do you observe?
Magnesium continues to burn displacing sulphur particles which
stick to the jar.
2Mg + SO2 → 2MgO + S
to

Think: Sulphur dioxide does not burn and also does not help in burning.
Then how does magnesium burn?

Uses of sulphur dioxide

t
No

1. Sulphur dioxide is used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, which

is the raw material for the manufacture of detergents, fertilizers and
many medicines.
2. It prevents the growth of bacteria and fungus; hence it is used to
increase the shelf life of foods.
3. In sugar industry Sulphur dioxide is used to remove colouring matter
from sugar.
4. It is used to prevent decolourisation of dried fruits.

137
Know this : Sulphur dioxide is oxidized to sulphur trioxide and  treated
with water to form sulphuric acid. Commonly used fertlizer ammonium
sulphate is obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on ammonia gas.

Sulphuric acid is one of the important industrial products that

determines the prosperity of a country.
Sodium bicarbonate (Baking soda)

d
You might have heard about using sodium bicarbonate while cooking

he
some food items. What is the scientific background of using baking
soda in preparing different types of food items? Let us learn about
manufacture of baking soda on large scale

is
re S
Activity 12.6
B
bl
• Place a bottle on the table and remove the lid. Carefully pour 2 tablespoons
of vinegar into the bottle.
be T
pu
• Put 1 teaspoon of baking soda into the balloon using a separate spoon.
K

• Without spilling baking soda, stretch the mouth of the balloon over the
©

mouth of the bottle.

• Turn the balloon completely upright so that baking soda inside the balloon
pours into the bottle on the vinegar. Watch!
• What happens inside the bottle?
• What happens to the balloon? Why?
to

Activity 12.7
Prepare solutions of the following substances:
t

washing soda, calcium hydroxide, lemon juice bleaching powder vinegar,

No

detergent, baking soda, and Soda water.

Put a drop of each of the above solutions on a watch-glass and test by
dipping red and blue litmus paper in it.
What happens? Why?
Baking soda is manufactured by passing carbon dioxide through saturated
sodium carbonate solution in water.
Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O → 2NaHCO3

138
 Activities 12.8
• Take a spoon of baking soda. Observe its colour and physical state
• Put blue and red litmus into the solution of baking soda. What happens?
What do you understand?
• Take aqueous sodium bicarbonate in a test tube and heat it. The
evolved gas is passed through lime water. What do you observe? which is the
gas liberated?

d
• Squeeze a piece of lemon on sodium bicarbonate in a test tube. What

he
happens? Pass the gas through lime water. What happens?
Based on the above activities list out some properties of baking soda.

is
Uses of baking soda
re S
• Baking soda is the component of baking powder used in bakery to
B
•
bl
make the bakery items.
Sodium bicarbonate is used in medicine which acts as antacid, to
be T
pu
treat excess of acid formed in the stomach.
K

• It is used as a mild cleaning agent.

• It is used to prepare aerated water (soda water)
©

Soaps and detergents

We are familiar with the use of soap in our daily life. Cleanliness
is one of the good hygienic practices. You are familiar with different
types of cleaning materials like shampoo, shaving soap, washing soap,
toilet soap. A cleaning substance made from animal fats or vegetable
oil is called soap. A cleaning substance which is made using petroleum
to

is called detergent. Wash the clothes in hard water using soap and
detergent. What difference do you find? Soap does not give lather with
hard water easily why? There are different forms of soaps available in
t

the market. Now let us discuss the manufacture of soap, detergent and
No

liquid soap in detail.

Why are detergents called soapless soaps?
Detergent acts like a soap in the cleansing properties, they do not contain
the usual soaps like sodium stearate.

The kettle method of making soap is still used today on a small scale
in cottatge industries. The raw materials used are oil, sodium hydroxide
or potassium hydroxide and common salt.

139
 The mixture of fats and sodium hydroxide are allowed to boil in the
kettle using the steam coil within the kettle. After boiling, the mass
thickens as the fat reacts with the sodium hydroxide producing soap
and glycerine. Salt is added to separate soap from glycerine. The soap
forms its layer at the top and the glycerine settles at the bottom. The
glycerine is taken out from the bottom of the kettle. Soap is taken off
from the top. The soap is then cooled.

d
Oil/fat + sodium hydroxide → soap + glycerol

he
Know this : glycerol or glycerine is a sweet viscous liquid soluble in water.
It is used in the manufacture of explosives, plastics and pharmaceuticals.

is
re S
Activity 12.9
B
bl
Are you interested in preparing soap? Take 30 ml of vegetable oil in a beaker.
Dissolve 20 grams of sodium hydroxide in 100 ml of water in another beaker.
be T
pu
Take 60 ml of this solution and add this to 30ml of oil. Heat the mixture slowly
K

until the mixture boils. After 15-20 minutes of boiling, add about 5 grams of
sodium chloride to the mixture. Stir well. What do you observe? Take soap out
©

of the beaker and spread it on a tray and allow it to dry. Now soap is ready to
wash.

During the World War I, Germany developed detergents in response

to the shortage of fats for making soaps. Let us consider a method of
manufacturing detergents. Long chain hydrocarbons obtained from
to

petroleum are treated with concentrated sulphuric acid. Then it is

neutralized with sodium hydroxide. The sodium salt thus obtained is
detergent.
t
No

Think : Overuse of synthetic detergents cause water pollution. Why?

Now-a-days we use liquid soap in our daily life. Let us consider

a method of manufacturing liquid soap. Heat the mixture of oil and
potassium hydroxide solution. . Stir well. As the soap cooks, it will be
converted to gel phase. Add distilled water and stir well. Add little scent.
Liquid soap is ready.

140
 Exercises :
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete
statement / question. Choose the right answer:
1.Chlorine is prepared in the laboratory by the action of,
a. Zn and HCl b. MnO2 and HCl
c. CaCO3 and HCl d. Pb(NO3)2 and HCl
2. The chief sources of oils used to make soap are,

d
a. petroleum products b. coal and coke

he
c. animals and plants d. soaps and detergent

II. Fill in the blanks:

is
re S
1. MnO2 + HCl → MnCl2 + ___________ + ____________ .
B
bl
2. Common name of sodium chloride is ___________________ .
3. Chemical name of baking soda is ___________________ .
be T
pu
III. Answer the following :
K

1. Pure and dry chlorine gas is collected by the upward displacement of

air. Give reason.
©

2. Name the compound of chlorine 1. which is an anaesthetic 2. which

is used as a refrigerant 3. which is a disinfectant 4. which is used to
make pipes and tubes 5. which liberates chlorine on exposure to air.
3. Mention four uses of chlorine.
4. Name the metal and the acid to be selected to prepare sulphur dioxide
in the laboratory.
to

5. Name the acid formed when sulphur dioxide dissolves in water.

6. Give two uses of sulphur dioxide.
7. Mention any two differences between soap and synthetic detergent
t
No

8. How is detergent industrially manufactured?

9. Why is detergent better than soap in cleaning action?

Project Work :
Visit a water treatment plant and collect information about
purification of water.



141
 Chapter 13
Chemicals in our daily life - II
After studying this chapter students :
• recall biological significance of water.
• conduct experiments to know the action of metals and
nonmetals on water.

d
• write the chemical formulae and balance the given equations.

he
• arrange the given metals in the order of reactivity with water.
• state the chemical properties of water.

is
re S
• classify the given substances into deliquescent and efflorescent
B
•
bl
substances.
identify the hardness of water through experiment.
be T
pu
• explain the methods of removal of hardness of water.
K

You know that, water is one of the most abundant and important
compounds in the world. It is the major constituent of all living
©

organisms. Some plants contain more percentage of water. The human

body has about 65% of water. Neither plants, animals nor human beings
can survive without water.
Recall : The biological significance of water. Holy water, Ab-e-zam-zam,
Gangajal are traditionally used words in our culture. Rivers are respected.
These things have inherent biological significance of water and depict
to

water as a precious commodity.

Water is made up of elements hydrogen and oxygen. One molecule

t

of water contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen which
No

are chemically combined.

From time immemorial, water has been the driving force of every
civilization and people attached great importance to an adequate supply
of water for different, purposes like agriculture, cooking, drinking,
washing.
In ayurveda water has been given an important place. Water also
is used to Treat common health problems. It is called Hydrotherapy.

142
 Purification of water :
Do you know ?
Traditional methods of obtaining potable water include the following. boil-
ing, making sunlight fall on the water, adding Tulasi leaves, camphor, drop-
ping red hot iron balls.
There are methods for removal of colour, odour, suspended matter and
microbes from the water. Aslo there are methods of removal of hardness.
Water treatments include stages of coagulation or sedimentation,

d
filtraton, decolourisation, deodourization and sterilisation. Alum is used

he
for sedimentation. Some of these practices have been used in ancient
civilization also.
Why is ceramic filter candle used in water purification equipment?

is
re S
Water is a very good fire extinguisher. Though it contains combustible
hydrogen and supporter of combustion oxygen water is neither a
B
bl
supporter of combustion nor a combustible substance.
be T
pu
Find out : Why does hydrogen lose its combustibility after it combines with
oxygen? Why does oxygen lose its ability to support burning?
K

Water is a compound and behaves like a single substance.

©

The burning of hydrogen is the reaction of combustion of hydrogen

with oxygen.
Know this : Fish living in water absorb dissolved oxygen for respiration,
not oxygen from the compound ‘water’.

You have studied physical properties of water in the previous classes.

to

Now let us learn more about the chemical properties of water.

Chemical Properties Of Water
t

You know that chemical formula of water

No

is H2O. In a water molecule one atom of

oxygen is bound to two atoms of hydrogen.
as shown in figure 13.1.
Water is called the “universal solvent”
Fig. 13.1 Structure of because it dissolves more substances than
water molecule
any other solvents.

Find Out : Sea water is salty. Why?

143
Activity : 13.1
Dip a piece of blue or red litmus paper in pure water. What inference do
you draw from this activity?
Action of water on metals
We store water in different metallic containers. We also boil water
in metallic containers. Does water react with the metallic container?
Metals like copper, aluminium and tin show no action with water

d
at ordinary temperature.

he
Many metals and their alloys are used to prepare utensils, buckets,
kitchenware and other articles, because they do not react with water
under normal conditions.

is
re S
Sodium and potassium are soft metals and can be cut with a knife.
They react with water, forming their respective hydroxide liberating
B
hydrogen gas. bl
be T

Metals like potassium and sodium are kept in kerosene. Why?

pu
Activity 13.2:
K

Take a clean piece of sodium. Dry it

using blotting paper. Cut a small piece
©

of it about the size of a green gram

dhal. Drop it in water kept in a beaker
carefully. Notice that the sodium piece
rushes here and there reacting with
water violently. It gradually diminishes
in size and finally disappears.
It reacts with water forming sodium
to

Fig. 13.2
hydroxide and hydrogen .Test the
resulting liquid in the beaker with blue and red litmus papers. The solution is
basic.
t
No

Note : Sodium is to be kept under kerosene as it can react with oxygen and
water vapours present in air. The metal should always be handled with
a pair of tongs because it can even react with moisture on the hand and
cause blisters. Kerosene has no affinity towards sodium.
Metals like sodium potassium react with cold water forming
respective hydroxides liberating hydrogen gas.
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2

144
 Activity : 13.3
Write the equation for the reaction between potassium and water.

Recall : Metals like Iron form rust. The process of rusting will be quick
during rainy season. Rust is hydrated oxide of iron. How can this be
prevented?

Other metals also react with water at different conditions.

Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2

d
(Room temperature)

he
Mg + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + H2
(boiling water)

is
re S
When steam is passed over red hot metals like zinc, iron, magnesium
B
Zn + H2O bl
we get respective oxides and hydrogen gas.
→ ZnO + H2
be T
pu
3Fe +4 H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
K

Mg + H2O → MgO + H2
Action of steam on non-metals:
©

1. When steam is passed over redhot coke, Mixture of carbon monoxide

and hydrogen is formed.
C + H2O → CO +H2
Mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen in the ration of 1:2 is
called water gas. Uses of water gas:
to

. as an industrial fuel.
. used in the manufacture of hydrogen (Bosch process)
t

2. When steam is passed over red hot silicon, which is a non metal,
No

silicon dioxide and hydrogen gas are formed.

Si + 2H2O → SiO2 + 2H2
Reaction of water with non metallic oxides:
Generally when a non metallic oxide dissolves in water, acid is formed.
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)
Carbonic acid is present in soft drinks.
145
Acid rain
When nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur dioxide present in the
atmosphere of certain industrial regions, dissolve in rain water, they
cause acid rain.
Find out : Mathura oil refinery is situated very close to Taj Mahal. The
supreme court issued an order to shift it to a far away place. Why?

Reaction of water with metallic oxides

d
When calcium oxide reacts with water it forms calcium hydroxide.

he
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 you might have seen this reaction when a
paste for white washing is being prepared.

is
re S
Generally metalic oxides are basic.
B
bl
Deliquescent Substances
You might have seen jaggery becoming moist when exposed to air
be T
pu
for some time. There are many such substances which absorb moisture
K

such as magnesium chloride, solid sodium hydroxide, solid potassium

hydroxide, anhydrous calcium chloride, calcium nitrate and Ferric
©

chloride.
Activity 13.4
Take a dish and put some sodium nitrate and keep it exposed to air for
5-10 minutes. Observe the changes, Write your observations. Sodium nitrate
becomes wet.
to

Potassium nitrate does not become wet when exposed to air. Can you give
reason for this?
Definition
t

Certain water-soluble substances, when exposed to the atmosphere

No

at ordinary temperature, absorb moisture from the atmospheric air

to become moist and ultimately dissolve in the absorbed water. Such
substances are called deliquescent substances and the phenomenon
is called deliquescence.
Try the above activity by using caustic soda or anhydrous calcium
chloride or with some chemical fertilizers. Write your observation.

146
 Examples of Deliquescent substances
Find out : Deliquescence is more common in coastal area. Why?

Know this : Compounds that can remove water from the surrounding air
are called ‘desiccants’ or drying agents. Concentrated sulphuric acid and
calcium chloride monohydrate are examples for desiccants. We often find
small packs of solid desiccants placed inside electronic equipment or in
medicine tablet bottles.

d
Efflorescent substances

he
Certain hydrates lose water when exposed to air of moderate
humidity. An example is sodium sulphate (Na2SO4.10H2O). The loss

is
re S
of water from hydrated compounds to the surroundings is called
B
bl
efflorescence. Commonly used washing soda is another example for
efflorescent subsrance
be T
pu
Removal of Hardness of Water
K

Water is a very common and suitable solvent. Some impurities

dissolve in it very easily. Mostly soluble salts of Calcium and Magnesium
©

make water hard. As the percentage of calcium and magnesium increases

in water, the degree of hardness also increases.
Hard water
Hard water does not produce much lather with soap. Generally
water from regions having limestone and other mineral rocks is hard
to

water. calcium and magnesium bicarbonates, sulphates and chlorides

in general cause hardness in water.
t

The salts causing hardness are water soluble. Calcium carbonate

No

does not cause hardness because it is insoluble in water.

Soft water
Soft water produces a rich lather with soap. Rain water and spring
water are examples of soft water, since they contain small amount of
dissolved salts in them.
Think : Why is hard water not used in industrial boilers?

147
 Hard water contains calcium and magnesium salts. If it is used in
industrial boilers, it forms insoluble salts of calcium and magnesium.
They produce scale on the inner walls of the boilers, which reduces
heating efficiency. There are chances of the explosion of the boilers.
Also there will be corrosion of the boiler.
Soap will be wasted in hard water.
Methods of Removal of Hardness of Water

d
Hardness of water can be removed by two methods: -

he
• If hard water contains Calcium and Magnesium bicarbonates, it
can be made soft by boiling.
In this reaction, Calcium bicarbonate decomposes to insoluble

is
re S
calcium carbonate and carbon dioxide.
Example : Ca(HCO ) heat CaCO + H O + CO
B

• bl 3 2 3 2 2

Hardness can be removed by the addition of washing soda (Na2CO3)

be T
pu
to water. In this reaction, the soluble salts of calcium and magnesium
are converted into insoluble carbonates. The soluble sodium salts
K

do not cause hardness.

©

Recall : Your knowledge of chemical double decomposition or exchange

Examples : CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + 2NaCl

Ca(HCO3)2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + 2Na HCO3
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + Na2SO4
Activity 13.5
to

Write the equation of softening of water showing magnesium salts and

sodium carbonate.
t

Activity 13.6
No

Experiment to show the removal of hardness by washing soda

Materials required :
1. beaker 2. glass rod 3. washing soda (sodium carbonate)
4. hard water
Take some hard water in a beaker and add a small quantity of washing
soda to it. Stir it with a glass rod. Allow the insoluble carbonates to settle down
or precipitate. Filter or decant the liquid.

148
 Water, so obtained is soft water. But it is unfit for drinking as it
contains excess of washing soda and excess of sodium salts.
Desalinisation plant : Desalinisation is an artificial process by which
saline water (generally sea water) is converted into fresh water. It is
suitable for human consumption. Sometimes the process produces table
salt as a by-product. This method was invented during second world war.

Activity 13.7

d
Behaviour of Soap with hard water and Soft Water

he
Materials required: Hard water, 1 g of soap (from any transparent soap),
200 ml warm distilled water, 0.5 g of Epsom salt and washing soda. (Na2CO3)

is
Procedure:
re S
1. Make a soap solution by dissolving about 1 g of soap in 100 ml of
B
bl
warm distilled water. Allow the solution to cool.
be T

2. Prepare a solution of really hard water by dissolving about 0.5 g of

pu
Epsom (MgSO4) salt in 100 ml of distilled water.
K

3. In a test tube, take a small quantity of hard water and add the soap
solution to it drop by drop. Stir it well. What do you observe? You
©

may observe very little lather being formed.

4. In another test tube, take the same quantity of the hard water and
add a pinch of crushed washing soda and shake vigorously. Allow
the precipitate to settle. To this, add the soap solution drop-by-drop
and stir it well. What do you observe? You will find that a large
amount of lather is formed.
to

Depending on the exact concentrations of your solutions, you will

find that after the addition of washing soda, lather is formed relatively
easily. Washing soda softened the hard water.
t
No

All salty water is not hard water. Try activity no13.7 with a solution
of sodium chloride solution. You will come to know that sodium salts
do not cause hardness.
Think : A person who is living at Kolar is using one kind of soap for
washing the clothes. The soap lasts for a week. Another person living in
Shimoga is using the same kind of soap. That soap lasts for 15 -20 days.
Give reasons. Remember the conditions are the same but the kind of water
used is different.

149
Exercises :
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete
statement/question. Choose the right answer:
1. Magnesium sulphate crystals are commonly called.
a. gypsum salt b. epsom salt c. green vitriol d. alum.
2. When you buy washing soda from the market, you will get it in powder

d
form because

he
a. the crystals of washing soda quickly lose water molecules
b. the shop keeper prefers to powder the crystals.

is
re S
c. washing soda does not form crystals.
B

bl
d. washing soda is a drying agent.
3. A sample of hard water is heated in an utensil. A white deposit of
be T
pu
calcium carbonate is formed. This is due to the presence of
K

a. calcium chloride b. magnesium sulphate

©

c. calcium bicarbonate d. calcium hydroxide

4. The Salt that causes hardness in water and that liberates carbon
dioxide on heating is,
a. magnesium bicarbonate b. calcium chloride
c. magnesium sulphate d. calcium sulphate.
to

5. When steam is passed over red hot iron we get the following
products.
t

a. ferric hydroxide and hydrogen

No

b. ferric oxide and hydrogen

c. ferrous hydroxide and hydrogen
d. ferrous oxide and hydrogen
II. Fill in the Blanks with suitable words :
1. Chemical name of Epsom salt is _________________.
2. The chemical used to soften hard water is _________________.

150
 III. Match the following :
A B
1. causes scale a. calcium oxide
2. basic oxide b. soap
3. test for hardness of water c. sulphur dioxide
4. acidic oxide d. calcium bicarbonate

d
e. neutral oxide

he
f. does not react with water
IV. Answer the following :

is
1. Water is tasteless, but we experience different tastes of water in
re S
different places. Why?
B
bl
2. Write balanced equations for the reaction of sodium, potassium and
calcium on cold water.
be T
pu
3. What happens when steam is passed over red hot iron? Write the
K

equation.
4. Define the terms efflorescence and deliquescence.
©

5. Give two reasons to prove that water is a compound and not an

element.
6. Name three metals which do not react with water, under normal
conditions.
7. Name the products formed when the following oxides are dissolved in
water. Write balanced equation.
to

a. Sulphur dioxide c. Carbon dioxide

b. Potassium oxide d. Calcium oxide
t

8. State the reasons for hardens in water.

No

V. Give reasons for the following :

1. Sodium metal should be stored under kerosene.
2. Washing soda loses its crystal structure quickly.
3. When calcium nitrate crystals are exposed to air, a solution is formed.



151
 Chapter 14
WORLD OF SOUNDS
After studying this chapter students :
• perform experiments to show that sound is produced by the vibration
of bodies.
• list the various functions of sound in our life.

d
• describe the mechanism of transfer of sound through air.

he
• give justification to say that sound is a mechanical wave.
• describe an experiment to show that sound requires a material medium
for its propagation.

is
re S
• compare the speeds of sound through solids, liquids and gases.
B
•
bl
define the terms wave length, frequency, amplitude and velocity with
respect to a sound wave.
be T
pu
• cite instances to show that sound gets reflected from surfaces.
K

• describe the impact of noise pollution on humans and other organisms.

©

As you know, we see, we smell, we feel and we taste. We also

hear. Every day we hear a huge variety of sounds. Sound allows us
to communicate with others. It can be a signal of danger or simply an
enjoyable experience. Do all animals hear sound the same way as we
do? It may surprise you that we cannot hear some sounds which dogs
or other animals can. What is sound then? We can say that sound is a
physical sensation sensed by our ears. What our ears cannot sense is
to

not sound for us. However, it may be ‘sound’ for other animals!
Think : There are many sounds, which we normally do not hear.
The sounds of heartbeat, bowel, and air movement inside the lungs
t

are examples of such sounds. Do you know what the doctors do to

No

hear those soft sounds? How does the hearing of these sounds help?

Sound as a form of energy: You have learnt in your earlier classes

that sound is a form of energy. When do we say that something like
light or sound is a form of energy? You may recall that energy is the
ability to do work. Can sound do work? If it can, then, we may say that
sound is a form of energy. Let us do some activities to see whether or
not sound can do work.

152
 Activity 14.1
Take a thin strip of paper. Hold it against sound from a loud speaker. Do
you see any movement in the paper? What inference can you draw about sound
from this activity? Think of more activities to show that sound does work.
Activity 14.2
If sound is a form of energy, it should be

d
possible for us to convert it into other forms
of energy. It should also be possible to

he
convert other forms of energy into sound.
Think of such situations in daily life. Have

is
you seen a microphone? Figure 14.1 shows
re S
a common type of microphone. We speak
B
bl
Fig 14.1 A person using
into a microphone while addressing a large
gathering. You feed energy into the
be T
pu
a microphone microphone in the form of sound. What does
K

a microphone do? What happens to the

sound inside a microphone? What happens in a loudspeaker? Do you know
©

another device that transforms energy involving sound? Chapter 21 may help
you answer some of these questions.
What conclusions can you draw from activity 14.1?
Functions of sound: While some sounds are pleasing, some others
irritate. There are sounds we cannot hear! Imagine a silent world without
any sound-no animal sounds, birdcalls, no music, no gushing water,
to

no sound of blowing wind. Would you love such a world? What are the
uses of sound to us and to other animals? Make a list. For instance,
t

how will sound help animals to find their food? How do animals use
No

sound to escape from enemies?

Mimicry : Try to imitate the sound of different animals.

Sound can be a signal of alarm or danger. Sound may be a reminder

of something we need to do. It may be a way of drawing attention, an
expression of an idea or emotion. It can help to grasp ideas. List a few
instances about functions of sound from your daily experience. Think
of other purposes served by sound.

153
 Know this : Sound can disturb others. Have you seen
signboards like the one shown in the figure? Where do
they display such boards and why? Why is it inhuman
not to follow the instruction?
No horn please

d
Production of sound: Do you know how we produce sound when we

he
talk, whistle or sing? How does a bell produce sound? What causes the
sound of a thunder? Let us investigate.
Activity 14.3

is
re S
Sit comfortably in a chair. Place one of your hands firmly midway on
B
bl
the throat. Say ‘ahhhh....!’ as long as you can. Do you sense anything at the
fingertips? How does it feel to the hand while you produce the sound? Now
be T

change the kind of sound you produce. Instead of ‘ahhhh...’ you may now say
pu
‘Uhhhhh....’. Make different kinds of sounds-loud, faint, shrill and soft. Feel
K

the changes in the region of the throat. Did you notice any movements inside?
©

Activity 14.4
We have observed people play on instruments like veena, guitar, sitar and
violin. How do these musical instruments produce sound? Make a list of musical
instruments you know. Collect pictures of these instruments. Find out how each
one of these produce sound. Record your observations in a suitable table.
Activity 14.5
to

Some of you may have music systems with box speakers at home. Take
some ragi or mustard grains in a plate and place it on top of the speaker. Turn the
music system on and observe the grains. What happened? Why did it happen?
t
No

Steadily increase the volume and note the changes. What conclusions did you
come to? Repeat this activity by placing the grains on a vibrating drum.
Activity 14.6
Take a rubber string. Stretch it tightly between two supports. Pluck the
string. The string begins to vibrate. Note whether you can hear some sound.
Stop the movement of the string. Did the sound also stop? Repeat this activity
as many times as required. Try the activity with a metal wire. What inference
can you draw from this experience?

154
 Activity 14.7
Start blowing air into a balloon. The balloon
becomes bigger and bigger as in figure 14.2.
Continue to blow until the balloon bursts. You
suddenly hear a loud sound. From where did
this sound come?
Fig 14.2 Boy blowing
a balloon

d
he
When do materials produce sound? As you know, materials generally
produce sound when they move back and forth rapidly. We call such
motion as ‘vibration’. Therefore, we may say that sound is produced

is
re S
when objects vibrate. There can be no sound without vibration. Think of
some more activities to show that vibrating objects produce sound. You
B
bl
may note here that sound is produced when there is sudden expansion
be T

or compression of gases. For instance, the bursting of a balloon makes

pu
a loud sound. Think of other situations where sudden expansion of
K

air or any gas produces sound. A smooth flow of gases around blunt
obstacles can also produce sound. For instance, we get sound while
©

blowing a trumpet. In any case, something will vibrate to cause sound.

Now let us understand how we produce sound when we speak or
sing. We have a special apparatus called ‘voice box’. ‘Larynx’ is the other
name for voice box. This system helps us to produce sound.
t to
No

Fig 14.3 Position of Larynx in our body

155
 Voice box is located at the upper end of the windpipe. There are two
membranes in the voice box. These membranes are called vocal cords.
They stretch across the voice box. The stretching leaves a small gap
between membranes in the form of a narrow slit. The slit controls the
passage of air. When we wish to produce sound, we push air through the
slit. This causes the vocal cords to vibrate. The vibrations of the vocal
cords produce sound. The muscles attached to the vocal cords help to

d
loosen or tighten the vocal cords. This enables us to produce sounds of
various qualities. The actual mechanism is more complicated than this.

he
Find out : You might have noticed the change in voice during cough and
cold.

is
re S
How does the sound reach us from the source?
B
bl How does sound travel from the
source towards our ears? To
be T
pu
understand this, let us recall an
K

experience familiar to all. Let us

imagine that we have thrown a stone
©

into a pool of still water. Circular

waves spread rapidly over water and
Fig 14.4 Propagation of sound they travel in all directions. Do water
particles travel away from the point
of disturbance? You can check by placing a few grains of sawdust over
the surface. They do not travel away. Instead, they merely move up and
to

down in their own position. Sound travels similarly in the form of waves.
See figure 14.4. However, the vibration of particles of the medium will
be in the direction of the sound wave itself.
t

Nature of sound: We have learnt that vibrations can produce

No

sound. Therefore, sound is a kind of mechanical energy. What moves

when sound travels through a medium such as air? Any energy moves
through a medium by creating a disturbance in it. These disturbances
may repeat themselves at regular intervals. Such periodic disturbances
constitute a pattern. We call this pattern of disturbance as waves. Sound
also travels through a medium in the form of waves. What is the nature
of sound waves? Let us do an activity to understand this.

156
 Activity 14.8
You might have played with a toy spring. We call it ‘slinky’. Fix one end
of a slinky firmly to a support on a table or floor. Hold the other end in your
hand. Now give pushes to the slinky back and forth along its length. Observe
the pattern in the slinky. Refer figure 14.5 to get an idea of the pattern you see
in the slinky. You observe, in some places of the slinky, the rings coming closer.
We call this as compression.
Between two compressions, you also see the rings moving

d
apart. We call this rarefaction. You observe alternate compressions

he
and rarefactions all along the slinky. Observe the movement of the
compressions and rarefactions. It appears as though the compressions
and rarefactions are moving away towards the other end. Is it really so?

is
re S
Check by tying a thread to one of the rings. Is the thread moving
towards the other end? Then what is moving here?
B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

Fig 14.5 Alternate compressions and rarefactions all along the slinky
t to
No

Fig 14.6 Propagation of sound through air and representaion of a

sound wave

157
 Observe the slinky again. The thread tied to one of the rings moves
back and forth along the length. Any motion of this type is longitudinal
motion. A wave caused by such motion of particles is a longitudinal
wave. Let us now return to sound waves.
Imagine that you are listening to music from a speaker. The sound
from the speaker transmits energy to the surrounding medium. The
surrounding medium here is air. The energy causes the air particles to
compress. The compressed particles transmit their energy to the next

d
neighbouring particles. The process continues. Thus, there will be several

he
compressions and rarefactions in air before these vibrations reach your
ear. Observe figure 14.6 to get an idea as to how this happens. You may
note here again that the vibration of particles is parallel to the direction

is
re S
of sound. From this, we may conclude that sound is also a longitudinal
wave. Sound is a mechanical wave as it involves vibration of particles.
B
bl
fig. 14.6 shows the typical way of representing a wave.
be T

We just learnt that when sound travels, the particles of the medium
pu
vibrate. What happens when there is no medium at all? Can sound travel
K

in the absence of a medium? Let us explore this through an activity.

©

Know this : There are transverse waves also. In this type of waves the
particles of the medium vibrate perpendicularly to the line of propagation.
Example water waves. You will study more about such waves in higher
classes.
Activity 14.9
Suspend a mobile phone inside an
to

airtight glass bell jar as shown in

figure 14.7. Connect the bell jar to a
vacuum pump. When you call the
t

phone number you can hear the ring

No

tone. Now remove the air from the bell

jar by using the pump. Observe the
phone and the changes in the sound.
What happens to the strength of
sound? Why cannot you hear the
sound after some time? What
conclusion can you draw from this Fig 14.7 Experiment to show that
experiment? sound cannot travel in vacuum

158
 We have learnt that sound travels through gases. Can sound travel through
solids and liquids too? In which of these media does the sound travel better?
Let us investigate.
Activity 14.10
Place your ears firmly on a wooden table. Ask a friend to scratch the table
at the other end. Did you hear the scratching? Raise your head so that the ear
is about 10 cm above the table. Now ask the person to scratch again. Did you
now hear the scratching? In which case do you hear the scratch loudly? Which

d
medium conducts sound better: air or wood? Think of an activity to find out
whether sound travels through a liquid medium such as water.

he
How do Dolphins and whales which live in water communicate? They
produce and use different kinds of sounds and whistles. These sounds travel
through water and pass on messages to others. Some species of dolphins send

is
re S
special sounds to identify themselves.
Description of a sound wave: All sound waves are similar in certain
B
bl
respects. However, they may differ in certain characteristics. How
can we distinguish between them and describe them? We use certain
be T
pu
characteristics of a wave to describe it. This is true of all waves including
K

light and water waves. These characteristics include wavelength,

frequency, amplitude and speed. Let us understand the meaning of
these terms.
©

Wavelength: We have learnt that sound is a longitudinal wave. This

means that the particles of the medium through which sound travels
will show a series of contractions and rarefactions. The particles of the
medium vibrate back and forth in the direction of the sound itself.
t to
No

Fig14.8 Wavelength

159
 The distance between two successive compressions is the
wavelength of the sound wave. See fig. 14.6 This will be same as the
distance between two rarefactions. It helps to represent the wavelength
by a symbol. The most commonly used symbol for wavelength is λ. It
is a Greek alphabet. We must read this symbol as ‘lamda’. Wavelength
actually represents the length of one wave. Different sounds may have
different wavelengths.
Frequency: The number of times an object vibrates in one second is

d
called frequency. Frequency of a sound wave is same as the frequency
of the source. Faster an object vibrates, higher would be its frequency

he
and the frequency of sound it produces.
Let us understand frequency in another way. The propagation of

is
sound involves the travelling of a disturbance in the form of compressions
re S
and rarefactions. The number of compressions that pass through a
B
bl
point in one second will also give the frequency. If 40 compressions
pass through a point in one second, then, we say that the frequency is
be T

40 hertz. This means that 40 wavelengths are passing through a given

pu
point in one second. If 200 compressions pass through a point in 2
K

second, what will be the frequency? How many wavelengths would be

passing through in one second? The international unit of frequency is
©

‘hertz’. We use the symbol ‘Hz’ to represent it.

1 hertz [Hz] = 1 wave per second or cycle per second
Know this : The product of frequency and wavelength of a wave is the
velocity of the wave in the medium.
Velocity = frequency Í wavelength
to

Amplitude: Amplitude is another important physical quantity of all

waves including sound. The highest displacement of a particle from its
rest position is the amplitude of the sound.
t

Amplitude of any wave including sound is the ‘height’ of the wave.

No

You understand this well when you refer fig.14.8. Higher amplitudes
cause higher volume of sound. Refer Chapter 21. Amplifier is a device
that increases amplitude of a wave.
Activity 14.11
Look at fig.14.9. It shows three waves A, B and C of different amplitudes.
Assume that these are sound waves. Which of them has the highest amplitude?
Which of them has the lowest amplitude? Which one of these waves is the
loudest?

160
 d
is he
re S B
bl Fig 14.9 Waves with different amplitudes
be T
pu
Speed of sound: You have studied elsewhere that light travels
much faster than sound. You may recall that lightning and thunder
K

occur simultaneously. However, we see the lightning first and hear the
sound of thunder a little later. How fast does sound travel through a
©

medium? We express this in terms of ‘speed’. Speed of sound is the

distance travelled by it in one second. The S.I. unit of speed is ‘metre
per second’. We write this as m s-1.
Know this : The speed of sound through air at 25 0C at sea level is 346 metre
per second or 0.346 km per second. Even most jet airplanes do not travel that
fast. When a plane travels faster than speed of sound, the plane breaks the
to

sound barrier and produces a loud sound. This is sonic boom. On October
14, 1947, Chuck Yeager did just that in a small plane called the X-1. He
was the first person to fly faster than the speed of sound and the listeners
on the ground were the first to hear the loud shock wave of the sonic boom.
t
No

Echo: What happens when light falls on an obstacle? At least a part

of it undergoes reflection. What happens when sound waves strike an
obstacle? Do they also come back from the surface the way light does?
Let us investigate.
Activity 14.12
Have you heard an echo? Sometimes it happens in big rooms and near the hillside.
If you have visited Gol Gumbaz, in Bijapur of Karnataka you will surely appreciate
echo effect. How does this happen? Look at figure 14.10. There are two identical

161
cardboard tubes P and Q. Place tube P at an angle to a metal surface AB. Place a
screen S between the two tubes. Keep a small clock at the other end of tube P.
Place the other tube Q close to the metal surface at an angle. Bring your ear
near the free end of tube Q. Do you hear the tick-tak of the clock? If not, slowly
change the position of the tube Q. At some fixed position, you will hear the sound
of the clock clearly. How could you hear the sound through tube Q? Recall a
similar experiment you did while studying about light.

Find out : What should be the minimum distance between a person

d
shouting and reflecting surface to hear the echo.?

is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

Fig 14.10 Reflection of sound

When you shout inside an empty hall, you hear your own sound
to

after sometime. This is due to reflection of sound. Surface of obstacles

such as walls, mountains, clouds or land reflect sound waves. The
‘rolling’ of thunder is largely due to successive reflections from the
clouds. What happens inside buildings? Furniture, windows, curtains
t

and other materials absorb sound to some extent and reduce reflections.
No

It is important to avoid such reflections inside theatres for clear sound.

Reflection of sound finds some wonderful applications in fields such
as industry, medicine and entertainment. You may be excited to know
about them!
Noise and its hazards: We do not like all sounds. Some sounds cause
disturbance to humans and other animals. We call all such unwanted
sounds as noise. Any excessive sound that cause disturbance to human
and animal life leads to noise pollution. Such sounds may come from one

162
 or more of several sources such as people, machines or animals. Motor
vehicles, horns, loudspeakers, construction and transport systems,
aircraft movements, rail noise may be quite unpleasant. Sirens, music
systems, radio and fireworks may also cause sound pollution.
Loud sounds may cause irritation, headache and loss of
concentration. Long exposure to such sounds may lead to loss of sleep,
tension and stress, high blood pressure, heart problems and hearing
loss. Noise causes many adverse effects on animals. For example, noise

d
is a disadvantage for birds that rely on hearing to locate prey.

he
Find out : Collect information about methods of prevention of noise
pollution.
Sound is present everywhere. We really take note of it and complain

is
re S
about it only when it is too loud or too soft.
B
Exercises :
bl
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete
be T
pu
statement / question. Choose the right answer:
K

1. Imagine that you are listening to a popular song from a radio. Using
volume control knob, you slightly increase the volume. The factor
©

related to sound wave in this process is, increase in

a. frequency b. velocity
c. amplitude d. both frequency and wavelength
2. The velocity of sound is highest in
a. air b. water c. glass d. vacuum
3. In an unoccupied hall of a choultry you will experience the echo effect
to

of sound. If the same hall is furnished with almirahs, tables, chairs,

and other commodities, you may not experience the echo clearly. It
is because,
t
No

a. sound waves get absorbed by the objects in the hall.

b. the area of reflecting surface decreases
c. reflected sound is reflected again.
d. sound does not get reflected
4. The factor that is transmitted in wave motion is,
a. particles of the medium b. vibrations of particles
c. energy of the cause of the wave d. electrons of the medium

163
II. Fill in the Blanks with suitable words :
1. The product of frequency and wavelength of a sound wave is equal
to its ____________________ .
2. The SI unit of wavelength is ___________________ .
3. The velocity of sound in air at 25 0C is approximately _____________.
III. Answer the following :

d
1. Why is sound a longitudinal wave?

he
2. Explain an activity to show that sound can do work.
3. Describe an activity to show that sound is produced by vibration of

is
materials.
re S
4. Make a list of five musical instruments. State how each of them
B
bl
produce sound.
be T

Musical instrument The way it produces sound

pu
K
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5. List two applications of reflection of sound.

6. Describe an activity to show that sound requires a material
to

medium for its propagation.

7. Represent a wave graphically. Show in the diagram, the
t

wavelength and amplitude.

No

Think :
1. Why is sound both a boon and bane?
2. What measures would you take to minimize the sound disturbance
caused to others.



164
 Chapter 15
HEAT
After studying this chapter the students :
• define the terms heat and temperature.
• describe the effect of heat on solids, liquids and gases.
• mention the application of expansion of solids, liquids, gases in daily

d
life.

he
• name the different types of temperature scales.
• list the advantages of mercury in thermometers.

is
• convert Celsius scale of temperature to Fahrenheit scale of temperature
re S
and vice-versa.
B
bl
You have studied earlier that heat is a form of energy. We use it for
several purposes. For instance, we use heat for cooking food. For what
be T
pu
else do we use heat? Make a list of activities that require heat. Let us
K

study more about heat energy.

Activity 15.1
©

Take a cup of water. put a drop of ink into the water. What happens? Why
does the ink spread? It is due to the movement of the molecules.
Activity 15.2
Open the cap of a perfume bottle in the corner of a class room. How does
the fragrance spread all over the room?
to

You know that all matter is made up of atoms and molecules. They
are always in motion. Hence they have kinetic energy. The total kinetic
energy of all the molecules in a substance is called heat. The S.I unit
of heat is joule (J). If we heat the substance, we are adding energy to
t
No

the substance. This added energy can be realised as an increase in

the average kinetic energy of the molecules. The molecules now, on
an average, have more kinetic energy. This increase in average kinetic
energy is called temperature.
Temperature
We have been familiar with the sensations of heat and cold since
childhood. In some situations by touching the objects, we find out which
one is relatively hot. To realize this, let us perform the following activity.

165
Activity 15.3
Pour hot water,water at room temperature and ice cold water into three
separate glass tumblers. Dip the index finger of one hand in the ice cold water
and that of the other hand in the hot water. Hold the fingers in the water for
some time say about a minute. Then dip both the index fingers into the water
at room temperature.
Is the water hot or cold? You will observe that the finger which was
previously in contact with hot water will now feel cold. Whereas the other finger

d
feels hot.It shows the sensation of degree of heat or cold. The measure of degree
of heat or cold of a substance is called temperature.

he
Activity 15.4
Take 100 cm3 of water and 200 cm3 of water at the same temperature in

is
two separate beakers. Which has more heat? The heat depends on the mass
re S
of the substance. Boil the water in both the beakers. Note the temperature. Are
B
bl
the temperatures in the two beakers the same?
Temperature does not depend on the mass of the substance at
be T
pu
a given temperature. But it is a number that is related to a type of
energy possessed by the molecules of a substance. Temperature is
K

related to the kinetic energy of the molecules. After understanding heat

and temperature, now let us study the differences between heat and
©

temperature
Table 15.1 Difference between heat and temperature

Heat Temperature
Heat is a form of energy Temperature is a measure of the
degree of hot or cold. It is a number
to

that is related to energy, but it is not

energy itself.
Heat energy depends upon the Temperature does not depend on
t
No

speed of the particles, the number the size or mass of an object. For
of particles and the size or mass example, temperature of a small
and the type of particles in an cup of water is the same as the
object. temperature of a tub of water, But
the tub of water has more heat
because it has more water and thus
more total thermal energy
S.I unit of heat is Joule S.I unit of Temperature is Kelvin

166
 Effects of Heat: If we provide heat to a substance its tempeature
increases. Now let us study more about the effects of heat.
Activity15.5

Take an injection glass bottle and insert

a pen refill as shown in fig 15.1. Put a drop
of water at the top of the refill. Hold the
bottle tightly. What do you observe? Why
is water pushed out from the tube?

d
he
Activity15.6
In this chapter you will come across
Fig 15.1 Expansion of gases
the measurment of temperature using

is
re S
thermometer. Why does the mercury level rise above the red mark in case of a
B
person having fever ? Can you give reason ? This is the best example to show
bl
that liquids expand after heating .
be T

Activity15.7
pu
K

Take two aluminium rods measuring 7 cm

each. Fit it and connect it as shown in
©

fig.15.2. Keep paper thin gap between the

rods. Now heat the rod. What happens? Why
does the bulb glow? Remove the flame. What
happens? Why does the light go off?

What is your conclusion on the basis

of above activities? Heat energy results
to

in the expansion or contraction of solids, Fig 15.2 Expansion of Solid

liquids and gases.
Let us study the other effects of heat
t

Activity15.8
No

Take a block of ice in a 20 cm3 beaker. Heat it. What is the change observed?
Continue heating till water begins to boil. Observe that the level of water
decreases. What can we conclude?
Activity 15.9
Take 10 g of wax in a 20 cm3 beaker and do the experiment as explained
above. What conclusion do you draw? Heat energy can bring about a change
in the state of a substance.

167
Activity 15.10
Take one spatula of potassium permanganate in 20 ml test tube. Heat it.
Introduce a glowing splinter inside the tube. What do you observe? Why is the
glowing splinter rekindled?
Activity 15.11
Take a cup of water. Note the temperature. Heat the cup for 10 minutes.
Note the temperature. What is your conclusion? Heat energy brings about a

d
change in temperature

he
Expansion of solids on heating plays an important role in our life. In
some cases it is disadvantageous whereas in some cases it is very useful.
Problems caused by the expansion of solid by heating

is
re S
1. If we put boiling water in a thick glass tumbler, it cracks immediately.
B
bl
This is due to the fact that glass is a poor conductor of heat. When
boiling water is put in the glass tumbler the inner surface of the
be T

glass becomes hot. So the wall expands. But the outer surface of the
pu
glass wall does not expand quickly. This uneven expansion cracks
K

the glass. This problem can be overcome by choosing a very thin

glass tumbler with low expansion capacity (Pyrex glass or borosilicate
©

glass)
2. Have you observed cemented roads? Why is the space left between
the small stretches?
3. In industries, hot water or molten
liquid is transferred from one place
to another through metal pipelines.
to

The expansion and contraction

might bend or break the pipe. To
over come this, these metal
t

pipelines are provided with loops

No

at regular intervals. The expansion

of pipeline causes the size of loop
Fig 15.3 Loop of metal pipe
to increase slightly. So pipe does
not break. See fig 15.3.
List some of the other problems caused by the expansion of solids,
liquids or gases.
Expansion of solids, liquids, gases plays an important role in our
life.
168
 Let us see some of the useful applications
• Thermal expansion of bimetallic strips find many applications.
It is used as a heat operated switch in the circuit of automatic
equipments like iron box (fig 15.4) fire alarms, electric heaters, micro
wave oven, refrigerators, incubators
and air conditioners.

d
• Some thermometers work on the
principle of expansion of liquids.

he
• In automobile engines useful
work is done by the expansion

is
re S
of gases. Fig 15.4 Iron box
B
bl
be T

Anomalous expansion of water

pu
Water on cooling contracts upto 4 0C. Afterwards it starts to expand till
K

it freezes into solid ice at 0 0C. This unusual property of water between
0 0C to 4 0C is called anomalous expansion. In simple words water at
©

4 0C expands when heated and expands when cooled also.

In cold countries as the temperature of air falls below 0 0C the water
in ponds, lakes, rivers and sea freeze at the top to form solid ice. But
beneath, the ice water stays at 4 0C.So fish and other aquatic life can
easily survive in water even when the temperature of air falls to 0 0C.
to

The expanded water which will be in the form of ice has comparatively
lower density and floats on water and acts like insulator to maintain
the temperature of liquid water.
t

We have already studied about heat and temperature. Now we learn

No

about the measurement of temperature using an instrument called

thermometer.
Thermometer: Thermometer is an instrument that measures the
temperature of a system quantitatively.
You might have observed a mother sensing the temperature of her
baby by gentle touch of hand. This practice does not give quantitative
measurement of temperature but gives an approximate comparison.

169
Measurement of temperature
Most of the thermometers measure temperature by making use
of property of expansion of liquids on heating. A given length of liquid
namely mercury column increases with increase in temperature.
Thermometers are commonly used in our daily life. Now a days, there
are digital thermometers also.

d
Laboratory thermometer

he
Fig 15.5 Laboratory thermometer

is
re S
Laboratory thermometers are used to measure temperatures or
B
bl
temperature changes with a high degree of precision. They are made
be T

of metal or glass and strengthened through processes such as thermal

pu
tempering or annealing. Several types of laboratory thermometers are
K

commonly available in the market. Liquid-in-glass thermometers are

©

made of sealed glass and contain a fl uid, usually mercury or red coloured
alcohol, whose volume changes relatively to its temperature. Bimetallic
strip thermometers include two different metals that are bonded together
and expand at different rates as they warm up. Often, long bimetallic
strips are wound into a coil and used with a dial.
Clinical thermometer
to

A clinical thermometer is designed for clinical use in humans or

animals. It is made of a fi ne capillary with a bulb fi lled with mercury at
t

one end. Near the bulb, it has a narrow bend known as constriction.
No

Clinical thermometers can be inserted into the mouth or armpit. It can

prevent the back fl ow of mercury when it is taken out of a patient’s
mouth or under arm. Before use, the thermometer is jerked so that the
mercury fl ows back into the bulb.
To reduce the risk of cross-contamination between patients it has
to be sterilised after each use.

170
 d
is he
Fig 15.6 Clinical thermometer
re S
Observe the fig. 15.6 and note two special features of a clinical
B
bl
thermometer.
be T

The normal temperature of the human body is about 37 0C which is

pu
equivalent to 98.60 F. Our body temperature cannot fall below 35 0C or
K

rise above 42 0C. Hence, the range of clinical thermometer is between

35 0C and 42 0C.
©

Think : Water cannot be used as a liquid in a thermometer. Why?

Precautions to be taken while using a clinical thermometer:

• Thermometer should be washed before and after each use,
preferably with an antiseptic solution.
to

• Do not wash the thermometer with hot water.

• Ensure that before use the mercury level is below 35 0C.
• Read the thermometer keeping the level of mercury along the line of
t

sight.
No

• Handle the thermometer with care, as you handle any glass

articles.
• Don’t hold the thermometer by the bulb while reading it.

Activity15.12
Measure the body temperature of some of your friends (at least 10) with a
clinical thermometer. Record your observations. (do this activity by keeping the
thermometer under arm pit)

171
Think : Why should we keep the thermometer under arm pit for infants, old
age people and people with mental disabilities?

Temperature scales
There are three commonly used scales of temperature.
• Celsius scale of temperature
• Fahrenheit scale of temperature

d
• Kelvin scale of temperature

he
The temperature is generally measured in degree Celsius. It is
denoted as 0C.

is
re S
There is another unit of temperature namely, degree Fahrenheit,
which is denoted as 0F.
B
bl
The S.I. unit of temperature is Kelvin (K).
be T
pu
Diagram showing comparison of temperature scales
K
t ©
to
No

Fig 15.7 Comparison of temperature scales

172
 In Celsius scale, of temperature the melting point of ice is taken as
zero degree and the boiling point of water is 100 degree and the distance
between the two is divided into 100 equal parts.
On the Fahrenheit scale of temperature the melting point of ice
is taken as 32 degrees. The boiling point of water is 212 0F and the
distance between the two is divided into 180 equal parts. Each division
corresponds to 1 degree.
In Kelvin scale of temperature, the melting point of ice is 273 K

d
and the boiling point of water is 373 K. As in the Celsius scale there
are 100 gradations between these two points. Hence the Kelvin scale of

he
temperature is similar to Celsius scale of temperature.
Anders Celsius (1701-1744)

is
re S
The Celsius sacle of temperature was earlier
B
bl referred as the “centigrade” scale. The Celsius
scale was developed by Swedish Astronomer
be T

Anders Celsius. It has 100 equal divisions

pu
between the freezing point (0 0C) and boiling
K

point (100 0C) of water. Therefore it is known

as centigrade scale. The term “Celsius” was
©

adopted in 1948 by an international conference

on weights and measures.
Anders Celsius

Think : Mercury thermometer is not suitable for measuring very high

temperature why? Alcohol is used as thermometric liquid to measure
to

temperature below 38 0c why?

Conversions
t

• To convert the Celsius scale of temperature into Kelvin scale of

No

temperature, we have to add 273 to the Celsius scale of temperature.

For example, 0 0C is equivalent to 0+273= 273 K.
• To convert the Kelvin scale of temperature to Celsius, we have to
subtract given Kelvin scale of temperature from 273.
For example 77 K is equivalent to 77-273 = -196 0C
Let us study how to use the thermometer to find the boiling point
of water and melting point of ice.

173
Activity 15.13
To find the boiling point of water.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

Fig 15.8 Boiling point of water

Take about 50 cm3 of water in a round-bottom flask and add a few
fragments of broken porcelain. Heat the flask and note the temperature
when boiling begins. Take readings every thirty seconds for five minutes,
to

i.e. ten readings in all, and take the average as the boiling point.

Do this : Add sodium chloride and find the boiling point in this activity.
t
No

Presence of soluble salts in water increases the boiling point.

Similarly pressure also has an effect on boiling point. To maintain the
pressure at same level steam outlet is necessary. Usually addition of
soluble salt increases the boiling point of the solvent.
In pressure cookers the boiling point of water increases due to the
pressure created by blocking of the steam by weight. The weight rises
up and lets out the steam if pressure crosses certain limit.

174
 Activity 15.14
To find the melting point of ice :

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

Fig 15.9 Experiment to find melting point of ice

Small ice cubes are taken in a funnel. Funnel is fixed to a stand as
shown in fig. 15.9 Thermometer bulb is kept in the funnel such that it
to

is surrounded by ice cubes. Keep a glass bottle below the funnel. Ice
begins to melt utilising the heat of the surrounding air. Water thus
formed drops out of the funnel. After 10 minutes note down the level
t

of mercury in the thermometer and take the reading which shows the
No

meting point of ice.

Average melting point and boiling temperatures of some common
substances are indicated in the table below:
Find out : Are there any factors which influence the freezing point of a
substance? Conduct activity No 15.14 by adding common salt to ice. What
is your conclusion?

175
 Table 15.2. Melting point and Boiling point

Melting Point Boiling Point

Substance Temperature (oC) Temperature (oC)

Aluminum 659 2,327

Copper 1,083 2,595

d
Gold 1,063 2,600

he
Mercury -38.8 357

is
re S
Nitrogen -210 -196
B
Oxygen bl -219 -183
be T
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Water 0 100
K

Convert the boiling and the melting points of the above given
©

substances into Kelvin scale of temperature.

Exercises :

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete

statement / question. Choose the right answer:
to

1. When an object is heated, the molecules that make up the object

a. begin to move faster b. lose energy

t
No

c. become heavier d. become lighter

2. The temperature of a body is an indicator of

a. The total energy of the molecules of an object

b. The average energy of the molecules of an object

c. The total velocity of the molecules of the object

d. The average kinetic energy of the molecules of an object

176
 3. A and B are two objects. The temperature of A is greater than that
of B. This means that
a. the molecules of A move faster on an average than the molecules
of B
b. the total energy of A is greater than the total energy of the molecules
of B

d
c. the average potential energy of A is greater than the average
potential energy of B

he
d. the heat content of A will always be greater than that of B
II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words:

is
re S
1. The degree of hot or cold of a body is called_________________(heat/
B
bl
temperature)
be T

2. Temperature is expressed in___________(degree centigrade/joule)

pu
3. When a body changes from liquid to gas at constant temperature, it
K

is called _______________________(condensation/boiling point)

©

4. The temperature of boiling water in the Celsius scale of temperature

is _____________0C (100/373/212/32)
5. The S. I unit of heat is ________________(Joule/Celsius)
III. State whether the following statements are true or false :
1. Liquids expand on heating.
to

2. The unit of heat and temperature are the same.

3. Bimetal strip is used in fan.
t

IV. Answer the following :

No

1. Distinguish between heat and temperature.

2. Mention three different effects produced by heat.
3. Give one example to illustrate that heat can be generated from the
energy of motion.
4. Describe an experiment to prove that solids expand on heating.
5. Name two devices which use bimetallic strip.

177
 6. A thick glass tumbler often cracks when boiling water is poured into
it. why?

7. State similarities and differences between the laboratory

thermometer and the clinical thermometer.

8. Convert 1000 F in to Celsius and Kelvin scale of temperature.

V. Match the following :

d
A B

he
1. formation of ice bergs a. kelvin Scale

2. rise of mercury level in b. sudden Contraction

is
re S
thermometer
B
bl
3. automatic electric iron c. celsius Scale
be T

4. cracking of hot glass plate d. boiling Point

pu
K

when touched by cold object. e. bimetal Strip

f. thermal expansion
©

g. anomalous expansion of water

Project Ideas :
1 Meet a veterinary doctor (a doctor who treats animals). Discuss and
find out the normal body temperature of domestic animals and birds.
2 Collect information about the following measuring instruments: micro
to

meter, screw gauge, vernier callipers, spring balance, barometer,

ammeter, voltmeter, hygrometer and lactometer. Write a report
explaining the use of each of these instruments.
t

4 Write a report on the history of measurement systems using books/

No

internet for reference.



178
 Chapter 16
States of matter
After studying this chapter students :
• classify materials into solids, liquids and gases.
• state the characteristic feature of a physical change.

d
• appreciate molecular arrangement in gases.

he
• give reason as to why water and oil do not mix with each other.
• define the term density.

is
• conduct simple experiments related to density.
re S
• define the term specific gravity.
B
bl
Look at the objects around you. Some are in solid state, a few are in
be T

liquid state and a few others are in gaseous state. What are these made
pu
of? All these objects and materials are made of matter. What is matter?
K

You are aware that “Any thing that occupies space and has mass
©

is called matter.”
Activity 16.1
Make a list of materials around you. Classify them as solids, liquids and
gases as shown in the table.

Sl. No. Solids Liquids Gas

to

1 Brick Milk Air

2
t
No

How can we know that matter occupies space? Let us do some simple
activities to explore this.

179
Activity 16.2
Keep a glass tumbler in a plate. Fill the tumbler with water up to its brim.
Lower gently a stone into the tumbler. Observe the water in the tumbler. What
happened? Why did the water spill out of the tumbler?
Activity 16.3
Take water in a trough. Invert a glass tumbler in water and hold the glass
pressed inside water. Observe whether there is water inside the tumbler. Now

d
slightly tilt the tumbler. Observe the water level inside the tumbler. Keep on
increasing the tilt of the tumbler and note the gradual increase in the water

he
level. What does this activity demonstrate?

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
Fig 16.1 Diagram showing that air occupies space
K

Do gases occupy space just the way solids and liquids do? Let us
©

explore with the help of an activity.

Blow a balloon. Air blown out of your mouth has filled in the balloon.
So gases also occupy space.
What can we conclude from the above activities? All matter occupies
space. It is too obvious that solids and liquids have mass. Do gases have
mass? Let us find out with the help of an experiment.
to

Activity 16.4
Take two identical football bladders. Blow air into one of them with the
t

help of a pump. Keep one of the bladders on a pan of a sensitive balance. Keep
No

the bladder bloated with air on the other pan. Compare the masses. Which of
them is heavier?
Based on the activities we have conducted, we can generalize two
properties of matter. Matter has mass, occupies space and has weight.
This is true for solids, liquids and gases.
Can we change the physical state of a substance? Can we change a
substance in solid state to liquid state or vapour state? Is this change
reversible? To understand this, we shall do an activity.

180
 Activity 16.5
Take a few ice cubes and heat them in a container. Ice changes into liquid
state and becomes water. On further heating, water changes into steam. Steam
is water in vapour state. What happens if steam is cooled?
Hence, water can be changed from its solid state to its liquid state
and later to its gaseous state. This is a reversible process. In this activity,
no new substance is formed. Only the physical state is changed. Thus
the change of physical state of a substance is an instance of physical

d
change. We represent this change as follows:

he
Ice water steam
Can you think of other substances whose physical state can be

is
changed? How can you achieve this? Can we change the physical state
re S
of a gas? How do we achieve it?
B
bl
We all know that every matter is made up of minute particles called
atoms and molecules. Let us see how the molecules are arranged in
be T
pu
solids, liquids and gases.
K
©
to

Fig 16.2 Arrangement of molecules in solids, liquids and gases

Observe the above figure, closely look at the arrangement of

t

molecules in solids, liquids and gases.

No

The intermolecular distance is least in case of solids. There is not

much space between the molecules. Hence, molecules do not have much
freedom to move. They merely vibrate in their own position. Therefore,
molecules have least kinetic energy.
The intermolecular distance is higher in liquids than in solids. The
molecules of matter in liquid state have more freedom to move about.
They can move within the liquid quite freely. Therefore, molecules in a
liquid have higher kinetic energy than those of solids.

181
 The intermolecular distance is highest in gaseous state. The
molecules have more kinetic energy than in liquids or solids.
In other words molecules in a solid are close to each other that they
hardly move. In case of liquids molecules move, but do not get separated
from each other. They have freedom to move within the boundary. In
gases, molecules are literally detached from each other. Gas molecules
do not have a specific boundary to move about.

d
Due to this molecular arrangement solids have a definite shape.
Where as liquids take the shape of the container. Gases do not have

he
any shape. Solids can be heaped. Liquids and gases cannot be heaped.
Do this : Put a drop of ink on the wooden table and also into a beaker

is
re S
containing water. What do you observe? What inference can be drawn?
B
bl
How do molecules in a gas move? Let us explore this by an activity.
be T

Activity 16.6
pu
K

Light an agarbathi in any corner of the room. You can smell its fragrance in
the whole room. How is this possible? Molecules are freely suspended in case
©

of gases. This helps the molecules to get dispersed to all corners of the room.
Gases do not have definite shape but they can be compressed. This property
of gas compression is used in our every day life. Here is one example.
You might have seen the LPG cylinder at home. What is the expansion of
LPG? Shake the cylinder, taking the help of elders at home. Listen to the sound
carefully. You will feel that the material in the cylinder is a liquid. LPG - Liquified
to

petroleum gas is in the liquid state in the cylinder. Why does it change to gaseous
state once it comes out of the cylinder? Gases when compressed, change to
liquid state. Once the pressure is released it changes into gaseous state.
t
No

Think : Why does LPG contain both the terms liquid and gas in its name?

Activity 16.7
Take three syringes of 10 ml each without needles. Fill one of the syringes
with sand, the second one with water and the third with air. Hold your thumb
at the mouth of the syringe. Press the piston. Which material can be compressed
easily? In which of the materials molecules can be brought closer more easily?

182
 Drop a few cubes of ice into fruit juice. Ice cubes though being in solid state
float on the surface of juice. Why is this so?
Take a beaker. Fill it with 20 mL (20 cm3) of water. Add 20 mL (20 cm3)
of groundnut oil to it. What is your observation? Why does oil float on water?
Cooking oil is lighter than equal volume of water and so floats on it.
In other words density of oil is less than the density of water.
The density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume.

d
The symbol most often used for density is t. It is a Greek letter and is

he
pronounced as rho.
Density = mass SI unit of density is kg / m3 .
volume

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
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to

Note: One ml is written as 1 ml. This is also equal to 1 cm3.

Activity 16.8
t
No

Take an empty injection bottle. Measure its weight using a physical balance.
Now fill the bottle with water and weigh it. Note the weight of water. Empty the
bottle, dry it and fill it with sand. Now note the weight of sand. Also note the
weight of materials like iron filings, raw rice, kerosene. What inference can be
drawn?
Take a cubical box of 1 cm length. Fill it with water. Find its weight using a
physical balance. Repeat this activity taking oil, milk and other materials which
are easily available. Fill in the table as shown below.

183
 Table 16.1-To Find the density of given materials.
Weight of the Density of
Sl Material Volume of
material taken the material
No the cube
in the box (in g) (in g/cm)3
1 Water 1 cc 1 1
2 Milk 1 cc 1.020 1.020

d
3 Groundnut oil 1 cc 0.91 0.91
4

he
5

is
Here is a person who has gone to a shop to purchase an egg. He has
re S
carried a bottle of water along with him. After purchasing an egg, the
B
person pours the water that was carried along with him into a container
bl
and immerses the egg. The egg floats on the surface of the water. The
be T

shop keeper is made to believe that the egg is rotten. Is there any science
pu
trick behind this? Find out and make a list of simple activities like these
K

which involves scientific facts. Remember science is to help people and

uplift humanity. Science should not be used to cheat people.
©

Think : Can purity of materials be tested based on its density?

Take 1 kg raw rice in one bag and 1 kg puffed rice in another bag.
Which of the bags is filled more? The weight is the same, but the volume
of the materials taken is different. Hence densities of different materials
are different.
to

Here is an activity which you can do in science fairs and exhibitions.

Activity 16.9
Take 20 cm3 of water in a beaker and add a few drops of white water paint
t

to it and stir well. Like wise take 20 cm3 of white kerosene in another beaker
No

and add a few drops of saffron oil paint and stir this too. Take 20 cm3 of carbon
tetrachloride in another beaker and add a few drops of green oil paint and stir
this also. Now pour all the three mixtures into another 100 cm3 beaker. Close
the mouth of this beaker with the help of a watch glass and shake the beaker
vigorously. Keep the beaker aside for about 20 minutes. You find three different
layers in the beaker. Green in the bottom, white in the middle and saffron on top.
Wow ! hats off to the tricolour that has been formed by the principle of science.
There is a question that needs to be answered. Why did the three mixtures not
mix with each other though they were mixed vigorously?

184
 The answer is simple. The densities of water, kerosene and carbon
tetrachloride are all different. In comparison with water which of these
liquids has more density and which of these has least density? Here
are few liquids like honey, water, saturated salt solution. Try find out
which of these has less density.
Find out : In the above activity the liquids do not dissolve in one another,
what happens if the liquids were to dissolve in one another?

d
Table 16.2 Density of some Materials

he
Material Density in g / cm3
Water at 4 0C 1.0000

is
re S
Mercury 13.6
B
Milkbl 1.026
be T
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Magnesium 1.7
K

Aluminium 2.7
©

Gold 19.3
Iron 7.8
Lead 11.3
Platinum 21.4
to

Uranium 18.7
Ice at 0 0C 0.92
t

Air 0.001293
No

Carbon dioxide .001977

Carbon monoxide 0.00125
Hydrogen 0.00009
Helium 0.000178
Nitrogen 0.001251

185
 As you all know SI unit of density is kg / m3. Density of water is 1000
kg / m3. Like wise density of milk is 1026 kg / m3. Now referring to the
above table express the densities of atleast five substances in SI units.
Know this : Sometime around 250 B.C., the Greek mathematician
Archimedes was given the task of determining whether a goldsmith had
defrauded the King. The king had provided a goldsmith with gold to make a
crown. The king suspected that the goldsmith had added less valuable silver to
the crown and kept some of the gold for himself. The crown weighed the same

d
as other crowns but due to its intricate designs it was impossible to measure

he
the exact volume of the crowns, so its density could not be determined.
The king challenged Archimedes to determine if the crown was pure gold.
One day while entering a bath tub, he noticed that water spilled over

is
re S
the sides of the tub. He realized that the amount of water that spilled out
was equal in volume to the space that his body occupied. He was aware
B
bl
that a given mass of silver would occupy more space than an equivalent
mass of gold. Archimedes first weighed the crown and weighed out an equal
be T

mass of pure gold. Then he placed the crown in a full container of water
pu
and the pure gold in a container of water. He found that more water spilled
K

over the sides of the tub when the craftsman’s crown was submerged. It
turned out that the gold smith had been defrauding the King! Legend has
©

it that Archimedes was so excited about his discovery that he ran naked
through the streets of Sicily shouting Eureka! Eureka! Which in Greek
means “I have found it” This led to the discovery of concepts called Density
and Specific gravity.
In milk collecting centres of your village, the person incharge will
be too concerned to know whether the milk supplied by producers is
adulterated. He uses a device to test this. The device is a lactometer.
to

Based on the readings of the lactometer milk may be accepted or rejected.

What is a lactometer? It is a device used to find the specific gravity of
milk. What is specific gravity?
t
No

Specific gravity is the ratio of density of a substance compared to

the density of fresh water at 4 °C.
Specific Gravity :
It is the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water at 40C.
t of subs tan ce
Specific gravity =
t of water at 4cC.
Referring to the table 16.2 find out the specific gravity of atleast five
materials. An example is given below.

186
 Density of water is 1000 kg / m3.
If density of Platinum is 21400 kg / m3 then its specific gravity is
21.4. Specific gravity is not expressed in any units. It is just a numerical
value indicating the ratio.
Find out : A doctor has advised a patient to get his urine tested for its
specific gravity. In adult humans normal specific gravity value range of urine
is from 1.010 to 1.020. What happens if the value is less or more? Does it
indicate any health problems?

d
he
Exercises:
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete
statement / question. Choose the right answer:

is
re S
1. The expression for density is
B

bl
a. mass b. mass – volume c. mass+volume d. mass ÷ volume
2. The intermolecular distance is higher in
be T
pu
a. solids b. gases c. liquids d. plasma
K

3. Oil floats on water because

a. density of oil is more than that of water
©

b. density of water is more than that of oil

c. densities of water and oil are equal
d. Oil does not dissolve in water
II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words
1. Device used to measure the purity of milk is _____________ .
to

2. S.I unit of density is __________________ .

3. Density of distilled water is ______________ .
t

III. Answer the following

No

1. Name the three states in which matter usually exists.

2. Define density of a substance.
3. What is specific gravity?
4. Why does an egg immersed in saturated salt solution float?
5. Find the density of a substance if its mass is 180 g and its volume
is 45 cc. Express the answer in SI units.


187
 Chapter 17
Our Colourful World
After studying this chapter students :
• distinguish between regular and irregular reflections.
• state the laws of reflection.
• represent image formation in a plane mirror geometrically.

d
• state the uses of concave and convex mirrors.

he
• calculate the focal length when image distance and object distance
are given for a concave mirror.

is
re S
• tabulate the data of experimental observations.
B
bl
• draw diagrams showing convergence and divergence of parallel
rays of light when incident on concave mirror and convex mirror.
be T
pu
• define refraction.
K

• state the effects of refraction.

• explain the meaning of the terms
©

1. total internal reflection 2. critical angle

• explain the effects of total internal reflection.
• name optical instruments containing convex lens and concave lens.
• define dispersion of light.
to

• illustrate by examples, the dispersion of light in daily life.

• give reasons for the formation of mirages.
Light
t
No

Light is a form of energy. Energy is the ability to do work. Can light

do any work? Yes, light can do work. It can activate your eyes. Plants
carry out photosynthesis with the help of light energy, and prepare food.
You know that food gives us energy for all our activities. Light enables
us to see the objects surrounding us. Our eyes sense the objects by the
light reflected by them or when the objects emit light. In photocells light
can be changed into electrical energy. Light has all the characteristics
of energy.

188
 Know this : Light is so important that many parents give the name of light
to their children. Ex: Prakash, Roshan , Noor, Jyothi.

Do you Know ?
Many prayer songs contain the meaning of moving from darkness to
light. Light has another meaning of knowledge. Ex: Sentences like “Please
enlighten us about the working of human eye”.

d
Major source of light is the Sun. We also produce light with the help
of candles, bulb, fl uorescent lamps and gas lamps.

he
Objects which have their own light are self luminous. Sun and stars
are self luminous. Moon appears bright. But it does not have its own

is
light. What happens when light falls on a surface? It gets refl ected. We
re S
see the moon by the refl ected light of the sun.
B
bl
Reflection: You are familiar with using of mirrors, seeing your
images in new steel plates, tumblers or spoons. You have seen multiple
be T
pu
images in a hair cutting saloon. You have seen images in the rear view
K

mirror of motor vehicles.

t ©
to
No

Fig 17.1 Refl ection of light in different situations

189
 d
is he
re S B
bl
Fig 17.2 Images in water bodies [Recall panchatantra story of a lion
be T
pu
which gets frightened by seeing its own image]
K

You can not see your image on a wall. But you can see your image
©

in a mirror. In both the cases there is reflection. What is the difference?

Regular reflection: In a perfectly flat surface or polished surface there
is regular reflection which enables to form an image. In regular reflection
the pattern of incident light is present in reflected light also.
Irregular or diffused reflection: Objects having rough surface reflect
light in all directions. Light gets scattered and images are not formed.
to

A new steel plate which will be like a mirror becomes rough after
many days of using and you can not see your image clearly because the
surface loses its polish due to the scratches formed during washing.
t
No

Fig 17.3 Rays reflected from irregular or rough surface

190
 d
he
Fig 17.4 Regular refl ection

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

Fig 17.5 Experiment: Laws of refl ection

To know more about the pattern of refl ection let us do an activity.

Activity 17.1
to

Obtain a rectangular piece of plane mirror from a photo frame shop. We can
also get such small mirrors from street vendors. Be careful about the edges of
newly cut mirrors. You can fasten paper strips along the sharp edged border
t

of the mirror. Take a cardboard and make a slit at the centre as shown in
No

fig. 17.5.
You can use the back of a ready made shirt box or banian box as the stand.
Keep a white sheet of paper on one side of the hollow box and pin it at
the four corners. Make incisions on the box to the size of the cardboard slit
and mirror and keep it on the table. Fix the mirror strip and the cardboard
slit perpendicularly in the incisions made. Pass light from a torch through the
opening of the cardboard slit, in an oblique manner. We can see light ray, getting
reflected after striking the mirror.

191
 The light ray which strikes any surface is called the incident ray.
The ray that comes back from the surface after reflection is known as
the reflected ray.
Think : If the walls of your room become perfectly polished like mirrors,
what will happen? Both regular and irregular reflections have their
advantages.
A ray of light is an idealization (approximation). In reality we have a
narrow beam of light which is made up of several rays. We use the term ray

d
for a narrow beam of light. A beam is a collection of light rays.

he
Now carefully draw a line on the paper with the help of
a pencil to mark the position of the mirror, the incident ray
and the reflected ray. Remove the mirror, comb and torch.

is
re S
Draw perpendicular line to the mirror at the point where the
incident ray strikes the mirror. This line is called the normal to the
B
bl
reflecting surface at that point.
be T
pu
K
©
to

Fig 17.6 Laws of reflection

Table 17.1
t

Sl. Angle of incidence (∠i) Angle of reflection (∠r)

No

No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

192
 The angle between the normal and the incident ray is called the angle
of incidence (∠i). The angle between the normal and the reflected ray
is known as the angle of reflection (∠r). Measure the angle of incidence
and the angle of reflection. Repeat the activity several times by changing
the angle of incidence. Tabulate the measurements.
Compare the angle of incidence and angle of reflection.
What is your conclusion?

d
What happens if a light ray is incident along the line of normal?

he
Activity 17.2
In the activity of 17.1, insert a scale below the white paper in the path of
reflected ray slightly to raise that part of the reflected ray. The reflected ray does

is
re S
not appear in the raised plane or part. This means incident ray and reflected
ray lie on the same plane.
B
bl
Laws of reflection:
be T

• Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

pu
K

• The incident ray, the normal drawn to the mirror at the point of
incidence and the reflected ray all lie on the same plane.
©

Laws of reflection are valid for all types of surfaces.

How is image formed in a plane mirror? What will be its nature?
A source of light ‘O’ is placed in front of a plane mirror PQ. Two
rays OA and OC are incident on it.
Remembering the laws of reflection draw the direction of the reflected
rays.
to

Draw normals to the surface of the mirror PQ, at the points A

and C. Then draw the reflected rays AB and CD at the points A and
t

C respectively. Extend them further. Do they meet? Extend them

No

backwards. Do they meet now? Mark this point as ‘I’.

For a viewer’s eye at ‘E’ the reflected rays appear to come from the
point ‘I’. The reflected rays appear to meet at I. It is a virtual image and
can not be caught on a screen. The image is also laterally inverted.
That means left of the object will become right of the image and right
of the object will become left of the image. The image on a plane mirror
is erect and it is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
In irregular reflection though the laws of reflection are followed, the
reflected rays are scattered and image is not formed.
193
 d
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Lateral Inversion

is
re S B
blFig 17.7 Image formation in a plane mirror
be T
pu
K
t ©
to
No

Do this : In the old method of printing, or the letters on a rubber letter

head seal, the alphabets will be latterly inverted. Hold a rubber seal in
front of a mirror and find out.

Think : Virtual images cannot be caught on a screen. Then how is the

virtual image formed by a mirror caught on the retina of our eyes?

194
 Know this : In the story of Mahabharata, Arjuna was able to aim at the
eye of the toy fi sh by looking at its image in the oil and won the Matsya
Yanthra competition. Was he aware of lateral inversion?

Do you know ?
You might have heard about whispering gallery of Golgumbaz where
original sound is refl ected seven times. This is called ‘echo’. Rolling Thunder
is also one effect of multiple refl ection of sound.

d
Echo of light or multiple reflections :

he
Multiple images are very familiar to the people who visit hair dressers
shop. You have studied in earlier classes about multiple refl ections.
Recall your experience of constructing a Kaleidoscope or Periscope, in

is
re S
your previous classes.
Reflection in a curved mirror:
B
bl
You might have seen many curved refl ecting surfaces.
be T
pu
Mainly there are two types of curved surfaces, concave and convex.
A new stainless steel spoon will be enough to see the pattern of images.
K
t ©
to
No

Fig 17.8 Fig 17.9

Refl ection in a stainless steel spoon

Hold the spoon as in the fi gure 17.8 in front of your face. You see
your image. Hold the spoon at different distances from your face. What
is your observation?
195
 Hold the spoon as in the fig 17.9 in front of your face. You see your
image. What is your observation?
Spherical Mirrors: Spherical mirror is a part of a sphere with polished
surface on one of the sides. There are two types of spherical mirrors
concave mirror and convex mirror.

d
is he
re S B
bl
Concave mirror Convex mirror
be T
pu
The point of convergence is `F’
K

Fig 17.10 Spherical mirrors

©

Spherical mirrors also obey the laws of reflection. Each part of the
spherical mirror can be considered as strips of small plane mirrors.
Activity 17.3
Repeat the activity 17.1. This time insert a concave mirror first and after
removing it insert convex mirror in the incision made for plane mirror. In place
of the slit place a comb such that only 4 to 5 teeth of the comb are exposed to
to

torch light. This can be done by covering the rest of the comb by a piece of black
paper. Observe the pattern of reflected rays.
t
No

Fig17.11 Fig 17.12

Reflection in concave mirror Reflection in convex mirror

196
 Concave mirrors are used by dentists and in solar furnace, and
in head lights of motor vehicles. Convex mirrors are used as rear view
mirrors in automobiles.
Know this : Convex mirrors always produce diminished virtual images
of an object. The principal focus ‘F’ of a convex mirror lies behind the
reflecting surface on the principal axis. (fig : 17.10)

d
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Mouth mirror used by dentists

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Enlarged view of vehicle head light Solar furnace

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Fig 17.13 Uses of curved mirror

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Image formation in a concave mirror

You need to know the following terms to study the nature of the
image formed by a concave mirror.
1. Pole of the mirror: usually the pole of the mirror is located at
the mid point of the curved surface of the mirror. The ray of light
along the principal axis which is incident on the pole of the mirror
retraces its path, along the principal axis. It is the centre of the
reflecting surface.

197
 2. Principal focus: It is the point of convergence of a parallel beam
of light which is also parallel to principal axis, after reflection
from the mirror. Light from a distant source such as sun rays are
sources of parallel beam of light. It is denoted as `F’.
3. Focal length: The distance between the pole of the mirror and
the point of focus of reflected parallel rays of light which are
incident on the mirror is called focal length. It is denoted by ‘f ’.

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4. Centre of curvature: It is the centre of the sphere of which the
mirror is a part it is denoted by the letter ‘C’

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5. Radius of the curvature: The radius of the sphere of which the mirror
is a part is called radius of curvature. It is denoted by ‘r’. Radius

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of curvature will be twice the focal length. r=2f.
6. Principal axis: The imaginary extended line on which the pole of
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the mirror, the point of focus and the centre of the curvature are
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located, is called principle axis.

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7. Object distance: The distance of the object from the pole of the
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mirror is called object distance. It is denoted by ‘u’.

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8. Image distance: The distance between the mirror and the image
is called image distance. It is denoted by ‘v’.
Experiment: To know the nature and position of the image formed by a
concave mirror. You need a lighted candle as the object and a mirror stand and
a screen.
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Fig 17.14 Image formation in a

concave mirror

Keep the candle in front of the mirror at different places on the principle
axis and adjust the screen by moving it to and fro to get a clear image
of the candle on the screen.

198
 Finding the approximate focal length of a concave mirror
First find out approximate focal length by focusing a source of
parallel beam of light. Mark the position as F. At a distance of 2f from
the mirror mark the radius of curvature of the mirror as ’C’.Keep the
candle on the principle axis at the following places and record your
observations.
1. Between Pole of the mirror and F

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2. At F

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3. Between F and C
4. On C

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5. Beyond ‘C’
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Record your observations in the table
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Position and Position and distance of the Nature of the image
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distance of the image (Inverted or diminished

object or same size or enlarged)
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1. Beyond C, You have to adjust the

. . . . . . . . cm screen between ‘F’ and
‘C’ . . . . . . . cm
2. At C You have to adjust the
. . . . . . . cm screen near the object .
. . . . . cm
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3. Between ‘C’ You have to adjust the

and ‘F’ . . . cm screen beyond C . . . . .
. cm
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4. At ‘F’ You will not get the

image, why?
5. Between the You will not get the
mirror and F image on the screen.
You will not be able to
measure the distance
of the image, why? But
you can see its virtual
image on the mirror.

199
 From the above experiment can you answer the following?
1. Where should the object be placed to get a diminished image of the
object on the screen?
2. Where should the object be placed to get a enlarged image of the
object on the screen?
3. Where should the candle be placed to get a parallel beam of light ?
From the table, if the focal length is ‘f’, image distance is v, object

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distance is ‘u’ you will notice that

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1 = 1 + 1 or f = uv
f u v v+u
product of image dis tan ce and object dis tan ce

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or focal length =
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Sum of image dis tan ce and object dis tan ce

Refraction: You have studied about opaque and transparent

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substances. bl
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Glass and clear water are familiar examples of transparent

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substances.
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What happens when a ray of light passes from one transparent

medium to another transparent medium?
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Recall your experiences.

1. The bottom of a water tank appears to be raised.
2. Pencil partially immersed in an oblique manner in water
appears to be bent.
3. A coin in a cup which is just invisible can be made visible by
pouring water in the cup.
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Fig 17.15 Refraction of light rays

200
 The bending of light when it passes from one transparent medium
to another is called refraction.
Like laws of reflection, is there any relationship between the angle
of incidence and the angle of refraction?
AB is normal at the point of incidence, O is point of incidence, MO
is incident ray and ON is refracted ray.
Water is a denser medium than air, when an oblique ray of light

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travels from rarer medium to denser medium it bends towards the

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normal. That means angle of incidence will be greater than angle of
refraction.

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Imagine NO as incident ray and OM as refracted ray (see fig17.15).
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Then we can say that when light passes from denser medium to rarer
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medium it bends away from the normal. That means angle of incidence
will be smaller than the angle of refraction.
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Activity 17.4
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Preparation of Refraction bottle:

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Obtain a flat bottle, like used perfume

bottles or honey bottles. Such other clear
plastic bottles can also be used. Cover the
bottle with brown paper, cutting out a
circular piece on one of its flat side. Follow
the diagram.
Pour water until half of this circular
to

opening is filled up. Add two drops of milk

to water. Through a small opening at the
top corner, pass powerful beam of torch
light. A key chain laser torch can also be
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used. When you use laser torch be careful

No

about it. Avoid direct contact of laser light

with the eyes.
Fig 17.16 Preparation of
Refraction bottle Compare angle of incidence and angle
of refraction, using a thin stick as normal
at the point of incidence.
Another effect of refraction of light is illustrated in the following
figure. Twinkling of stars is due to this effect.

201
 d
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Fig.17.17 The beams of light deviate from their
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path due to refraction.

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Total Internal reflection: If you observe carefully an aquarium

which contains a light source at the bottom of the aquarium, you may
probably observe the effect of total internal reflection.
Imagine rays of light OA, OB, OC and OD from a denser medium
striking water surface at A, B, C, and D respectively. AA1/, BB1/, CC1/
are refracted rays. But DD1 is reflected ray. This is called total internal
reflection.
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Fig.17.18 Total Internal reflection

202
 The angle of incidence (∠OCN) for which angle of refraction is
90 (∠MCC1) is called critical angle. Remember that for total internal
0

reflections the following conditions are necessary.

1. Light ray should pass from denser medium to rarer medium.
2. The angle of incidence must be larger than the critical angle.
Effects of total internal reflection
Mirages : People in hot dry area usually observe this frequently. Desert

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travellers sometimes see the image of palm trees under it as if there is

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water near the tree.

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Fig 17.19 Mirage

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In the above diagram which part of the air that is lower or upper is
a rarer medium?
Mirage like effect can also be seen on very hot day which gives an
illusion of pool of water at the far end of the sight we can see the illusion
on the upper part of a hot plate also. Light from the sun is bent by the
hot air near the earth. The sparkling of diamond is also an effect of total
internal reflection of light.

203
Optic fibres
You have studied that light travels in a straight line but you can
make it travel as you wish. You might have observed the decorative optic
fibres which are sold in toy shops and fancy stores.

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Fig 17.20 Decorative optic fibres

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You might have come across the word endoscopy in the medical field.
With this instrument doctors can really see the inside of your stomach.
This instrument consists of optic fibres.
How does an optic fibre work?
To day we are using optic fibres instead of traditional metallic wires
for laying telephone cables. How does it work?
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The principle is total internal reflection of light. A magnified diagram

of an optic fibre is given below.
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Fig 17.21 Total internal reflection in optic fibres

204
 Refraction of light through curved transparent medium
Activity 17.5

Take a glass plate; place a drop of clear water on it. Observe the letters of
a newspaper through the water drop. The letters appear big.

Activity 17.6

Take a glass tumbler with clean water in it. Dip your finger and ask your

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friend to observe the finger from the side of the tumbler. The finger appears big.

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Like curved mirrors there are curved transparent media.
Lenses : Any curved piece of transparent medium is called a lens. They

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are part of a spherical transparent medium. They can be curved on one
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side or both the sides. They are useful for bending light in special ways.
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Fig 17.22 Fig 17.23 Fig 17.24

Effect of a convex lens Effect of a concave lens Effect of a convex
lens
There are two types of lenses convex and concave See the fig 17.23
and 17.24.

205
Activity 17.7
Use a card board readymade shirt box like the one used to study the laws
of reflection using a comb and torch. You can perform the following experiment
to know that convex lens converges the light rays and concave lens diverges
the light rays.

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Fig 17.25 Light rays passing through convex and concave lens
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Like concave mirrors we can use convex lens to get inverted,

diminished or enlarged images of an object which can be caught on a
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screen.
Concave lens never forms real images. They form diminished images
of objects. This is useful in view fi nder of cameras where we can see
large area in small space.
Commonly used things which contain lenses are given in the
following diagram.
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Fig 17.26 Things which contain lenses

206
 Do you have a convex lens with you?
Yes you do have. Your eyes contain convex lens. How does this
lens help us to see? This lens is not made of glass but a soft jelly like
substance.
Dispersion of light : You are familiar with most spectacular event
rainbow. You have seen rainbow like colours in soap bubbles, in
fountains, and compact disc of computer devices. Some transparent

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plastic ball points, which have hexagonal or octagonal shapes also
produce rainbow like colours.

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Fig 17.27 Dispersion of light

White light is made up of ranges of colours of which seven are
not seen in a separated pattern. The splitting up of white light into its
to

constituent colours is called dispersion. In the rainbow you may not see
all the seven colours. It is due to overlapping of colours.
With the help of a narrow beam of light, glass prism and arrangement
t

of lenses it is possible to produce the band of seven colours using white

No

light. This band is called spectrum. There are many types of spectrum.
It is not necessary that the source of light should always be white to
get a spectrum. Composite light which contains a range of 3 to 4 colours
also produces a band of 3 to 4 colours. A glowing 40 W tungsten filament
bulb does not produce pure white light. It is a source of composite light.
It will also produce a spectrum but the spectrum may not be the same
as the spectrum of white light. The type of spectrum depends upon the
nature of source of light.

207
Activity 17.9

Produce a band of colours:

Immerse a plane mirror in an
inclined osition in a bowl containing
water. Let the reflecting surface be
partially or fully be immersed in

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water as shown in the figure. Allow

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sun rays to fall on the reflecting
surface of the mirror immersed in
water. Catch the reflected rays on

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Fig 17.28 Splitting of white light
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a screen of white paper. You will
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see band of colours like rain bow.
You will study more about lenses and dispersion of light in higher classes.
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Exercises :
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I. Four altertnatives are given to each of the following incomplete

statement / question. Choose the right answer:
1. Rear view mirror of motor vehicles contain

a. plane mirror b. convex mirror

c. concave mirror d. convex lens

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2. If a ray of light is travelling from denser medium to rarer medium

and if the angle of incidence is greater than critical angle, then the
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following takes place

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a. reflection b. refraction

c. dispersion d. multiple refraction

3. A concave mirror forms magnified inverted image when the object is

placed at

a. ‘F’ b. ‘C’ c. between ‘F’ and ‘C’ d. beyond ‘C’

208
 4. On a new stainless steel spoon if you see the image of your face
upside down, then that part of the spoon acts like,
a. convex lens b. concave mirror
c. convex mirror d. concave lens
5. You can see the image of your face on the surface of still water. But
if the water is disturbed your image will not be clear, because of

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a. total internal reflection b. refraction

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c. irregular reflection d. dispersion
II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words :

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1. The letter “P” looks like __________________ in a plane mirror.
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2. Watch repairers use the lens of the type __________________.
3. Bending of light when it passes from one transparent medium to
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another is called ________________________.
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4. Formation of rainbow is due to _______________________ .

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III. Answer the following:

1. Give one reason to prove that light is a form of energy.
2. What is the difference between regular and irregular reflection?
3. State the laws of reflection.
4. Mention the uses of concave mirrors.
to

5. Why is convex mirror used as rear view mirror in motor vehicles?

6. Mention any two effects of refraction of light in daily life.
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7. What are the conditions for total internal reflection to take place?
No

8. Write diagrams to show the refraction of parallel rays of light in (i)

convex lens and (ii) concave lens.
9. Mention any four devices that contain convex lens.
10. Draw ray diagrams of convergence and divergence of light rays in a
convex and concave lens.
11. What is dispersion of light?

209
IV. Match the following:
1. dispersion a. plane mirror
2. diminished image b. concave lens
3. enlarged image c. mirage
4. total internal reflection d. convex mirror
e. rainbow

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f. multiple reflections
g. glass slab

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Extended learning activities. preparation of multipurpose beam box

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Fig 17.29 Beam box

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You need the help of a carpenter for this. A rectangular shoe box
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type wooden box and photo frame cardboards with the white paper
pasted on it are required. Also a 40 to 60 watt bulb and bulb holder, a
comb are needed. The diagram 17.29 will make it clear.



210
 Chapter 18
FOOD AND ITS CONSTITUENTS
After studying this chapter students :
• describe the importance of food.
• list the major constituents of food.
• state the importance of each of the major constituents of food.

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• classify the food into various groups based on its predominant

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constituents.
• give examples for food rich in carbohydrates, fats and proteins.

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• describe the importance of roughages and water in our food.
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•
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conduct simple tests to detect the major constituents present
in commonly known food items.
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• appreciate the importance of balanced diet.
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All organisms require number of things to survive, grow and remain

active. They include air, water and food. No organism can survive for
©

long without food. One of the several things that are common to all living
beings is that they all need food to survive, remain healthy and to carry
out various activities. Humans are no exception to this. How long can
a person survive without food? Not long!
Food becomes your blood and bones, brain and muscles. Food
becomes your size and strength, energy and stamina. Food contributes
to

to your physique, effectiveness and emotional stability.

We know so much about food. What is food then? We take food
through the mouth. Can we call everything that we consume through
t
No

our mouth as food? When taken in through the mouth, it should digest
easily and provide the necessary materials and energy to the body.
Further, it should not cause harm to the body.
Think : Are there any items in your view which are not food although
they may provide energy to our body?
Water does not provide any nutrients. However water is highly essential
to our body. Can we consider water as part of our food? Our body requires
iron. Can iron nails be a part our food?

211
General Functions of food
Every living organism including humans needs energy. Energy
enables us to move, grow, and reproduce. Is this the only purpose of
food? The purposes of food are mainly three fold. Food promotes growth,
supplies energy and furnishes materials for the repair of body parts.
Every breath, every thought, every movement, wears out some portion of
our body. Various vital processes remove the worn and useless particles.
The body compensates for these losses by constant renewed supply of

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materials through food and drink.

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Fig 18.1 Various functions of food

Our body has to carry out many functions. Different functions

require different materials. Even if we get enough food to fill our stomach,
we can be unhealthy. This is because we do not get all essential elements
from just one type of food. Hence, we need to eat different kinds of food
to get all of the things we need for the body.

212
 Activity 18.1
Is there variety in the food you eat? What are the various types of food items
normally used in your home? Do all families use the same types of food? Find
out. What factors determine the type of food we eat?

Find out : What happens, if we do not get any or adequate food?

Discuss the problems that arise out of hunger. Hunger is not getting
enough of the right kinds of food to meet our needs. All countries and
regions have atleast some people who are hungry. Is it fair? Does it

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not reflect that we are living in an unequal society? What are your
views on this? Discuss how the people in the world can work together

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so that everyone will have enough and the right kinds of food to eat.
Constituents of food: Food contains nourishing substances called

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nutrients. Nutrients are the ultimate nourishing chemicals found in food.
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They keep our body fit and active. Different kinds of food contain different
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things essential to our body. The food may also contain constituents
that do not supply any nutrients. These non-nourishing materials are
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however essential to our body. Hence, they should form an integral part
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of our food. They include fibres and water.
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Fig 18.2 Major constituents of food

213
 Scientists have identified many nutrients in our food. Each of these
has specific functions. There are three major nutrients. These are energy
giving nutrients, protective nutrients and body building nutrients. You
have studied in your earlier classes about these nutrients. Knowing
about nutrients, their sources and functions adds purpose to our eating
habits. Further, it helps us to choose the kinds of food we eat.
Energy giving food

d
All our activities require energy. Our body needs energy even when
we are sleeping. Our energy supply comes from two major sources. Our

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major sources of energy are cereals, sugar, jaggery, some kinds of fruits
and potatoes. These foods contain large quantity of chemicals called

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carbohydrates. These are the compounds made of carbon, hydrogen and
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oxygen. We also get energy from the oils, butter and ghee. Many of the
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nuts and meat also contain fair quantity of oils and fats. We some times
refer to oils and fats as lipids. They serve as concentrated energy food.
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Fig 18.3 Some food items rich in carbohydrates

Carbohydrates on digestion turn into glucose. Glucose gets into

the blood. The blood supplies glucose to each living cells of the body.
Any inadequacy or excess of glucose might lead to adverse effects.
Insufficient supply of glucose may lead to tiredness, weakness and lack
of concentration. Excess of glucose can add to our weight. Hence, we
must take carbohydrates in moderate quantity.

214
 Carbohydrates help in the regulation of sugar in the blood
stream. This ensures adequate supply of carbohydrates to every cell.
Thus, carbohydrates act as a shield and protect muscles. Complex
carbohydrates such as cellulose are excellent source of fibre. Fruits, dairy
products, jaggery, sugar and vegetables provide simple carbohydrates.
Activity 18.2
Figure 18.3 shows some sources of carbohydrates. Observe the figure and

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make a list of food items rich in carbohydrates.

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person with intense and active lifestyle needs more carbohydrates.
Unused carbohydrates in the body are stored up as fats. Persons with
sedentary life style must be careful. Excessive collection of fats in the

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body may result in over weight and obesity. This may in turn lead to
many other health problems.
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Think: Athletes and sports people after an intense activity eat glucose.
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How does this help? Which is better in such situations: glucose common
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sugar or baked potatoes? Why do you think so?
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As you already know carbohydrates and lipids supply energy to our

body, who needs higher amount of carbohydrates in their diet?
©

The functions of carbohydrates are multiple. Therefore, it is

necessary to include food items with carbohydrates in our meal. For
instant energy generation, sugars and starch are perfect fuels. They help
to carry out physical activities efficiently and effectively. Fibres present
in carbohydrates such as cellulose keeps bowel movement smooth.
Consumption of carbohydrates in different foods will also pave way for
to

consumption of other essential nutrients. Therefore, it is necessary to

go in for variety of carbohydrate food sources. Carbohydrates add to
the taste and appearance of food. This makes the dish tempting and
t

mouth-watering. We use some of them as sweeteners. Therefore, we must

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eat food rich in carbohydrates. However, it is better to go in for natural

slow digesting carbohydrates like vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes and
whole grains.
Functions and principal sources of lipids
Lipids consist of molecules made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
They are insoluble in water. There are several types of lipids including
oils and fats.

215
 Lipids play a very important role in our body. They help in brain
functions, smooth movement of joints, clotting of blood and energy
production. Different lipids do different things. For instance, some
lipids help to bring down inflammation within the body and lubricate
the joints. Our body makes some lipids and we get some from our diet.

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Fig18.4 Some food items rich in lipids

Fat helps the body to absorb and to move the vitamins A, D, E, and
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K through the bloodstream. Our body would lack in these vitamins in

No

the absence of lipids. Cell membranes contain lipids. They lubricate the
cells. The lubrication serves as a protective barrier, which controls the
movement of materials. Lipids store energy and hence help in energy
production. However, excess lipids may cause weight gain and obesity.
Regular exercise and physical activity can control the problem. Lipids
also act as messengers within our body. Fats also help to maintain
healthy skin and hair. Thus, lipids are most essential to life.

216
 Think : Oils and fats in our diet is not the enemy but our life style is!

Most lipids of plant origin are in the form of oils. These are relatively
healthier. Most fats, on the other hand, come from animal sources.
They are not good for health. Doctors usually do not recommend butter,
cheese, whole milk, ice cream, cream, fatty meats, coconut and palm
for some people.

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Functions and principal sources of proteins

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Proteins are very important molecules in our cells. They are involved
in all cell functions. There are varieties of proteins. However, all proteins
we consume are typically constructed from a set drawn from 20 simple

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compounds called amino acids. Most amino acid molecules include
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atoms of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), a carboxyl group (-COOH) and an
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amino group (-NH2].
Each of the dietary protein has a specific structure. The structure
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determines the function of proteins in our body. Some proteins are
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involved in structural support. Some other proteins are involved in bodily

movement. Yet others assist in building up defence against germs. You
©

might have heard of enzymes. They are also protiens. These proteins
t to
No

Fig 18.5 Some food items rich in proteins

217
facilitate biochemical reactions inside our body. For example, there is an
enzyme called pepsin. It plays an important role in digestion. It works in
the stomach to break down proteins in food. Similarly, there is another
enzyme called lactase. It breaks down the sugar present in milk. Several
of the hormones in our body are proteins. They are messenger proteins.
For example, insulin helps in the metabolism of carbohydrates. It is one
such messenger protein. You must have heard of haemoglobin. This

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protein is present in our blood. It plays a crucial role in the transport of
oxygen in our body. Some proteins like keratin and collagen are fibrous

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and tough. They provide support to tendons and ligaments. For all
these activities and more, our body requires amino acids. Some of these

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must be present in diet, as our body cannot synthesize them.
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We must plan our diet to get the essential amino acids. Combining
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variety of right food together in one meal will give adequate protein to
our body. The body uses these proteins for maintaining healthy growth.
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Activity 18.3
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What are the foods rich in proteins? Look for information on this or consult
©

a doctor. What are the major foods that give proteins to your body? Make a list
of them. What else can you do to improve your protein intake?
Functions and principal sources of vitamins and minerals
Vitamins and minerals are required in smaller quantities for
maintaining health. Vitamins are essentially compounds of carbon.
There are several well-recognized vitamins. Some of them like vitamin
to

C and vitamin B are water-soluble. Others like vitamin A, D, K and E

are fat-soluble. We also need certain substances like beta-carotene and
folic acid, which get converted into vitamins in our body. We call such
t

substances pro-vitamins. For example, beta-carotene gets converted

No

into vitamin A in our body. All of these vitamins and pro-vitamins

promote our health. Table 18.1 gives various vitamins, their functions
and their sources:
Think : Does your diet provide you with all the vitamins? Do you know
of people who are suffering from ailments of one kind or the other due to
vitamin deficiency? Find out.

218
 Table 18.1: Some vitamins, their functions and sources

Vitamin Some Major Functions Some Natural

Sources
A Promotes skeletal growth, Fish liver oils, liver,
normal tooth structure, carrots, green,
healthy skin, eyes and night pappaya and yellow

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vision. vegetables, dairy

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products.

B1 Helps convert sugar and Whole wheat, dried

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starches into energy; promotes yeast, oatmeal,
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digestion, strenthen heart peanuts, pork,
B
blmuscle, promotes growth;
prevents fatigue
prawn, sunflower
seeds, soyabean
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sprouts.
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B2 Helps in releasing energy to Dairy products, liver,

body cells; enables utilization kidney, yeast, leafy
©

of fats, proteins and sugars. greens, fish, eggs.

B3 Helps to maintain a healthy Mushrooms, prawn,

digestive tract and nervous Tuna, Chicken, Beef,
system. In very large doses, Peanuts, enriched
lowers cholesterol Grains.
to

B6 Involved in amino acid Cereal grains, yeast,

metabolism, prevents certain liver, milk, wheat
t

skin disorders, retarded growth germ, meat, beef,

No

and convulsions bananas, milk, eggs.

B12 Promotes utilization of protein, Liver, beef, pork,

fats and carbohydrates; eggs, dairy products,
essential for formation of red shellfish.
blood cells; builds nucleic
acid; prevents anaemia; helps
nervous system.

219
 C Needed for absorption of Citrus fruits, berries,
iron, some proteins and folic green and leafy
acid; prevents oxidation of vegetables, tomatoes,
other vitamins; stops internal cauliflower, amla,
bleeding; strengthens blood orange
vessels maintains hard bones
and teeth; promotes stamina;
holds body cells together

d
prevents infections, colds,

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fatigue and stress; heals wounds
and burns.
D Promotes bone and tooth Egg Yolk, Milk,

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development and normal growth; Exposure to the sun
helps utilization of phosphorus enables body to make
B
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and calcium; maintains nervous
system and heart action;
its own Vitamin D
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prevents rickets.
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E Protects body’s store of Vitamin Soyabeans, vegetable

A, strengthens capillary walls; oils, sprouts, leafy
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regulates menstrual rhythm; greens, enriched flour,

prevents loss of other vitamins; whole wheat, wheat
helps blood flow to heart; lowers germ, whole grain
blood cholesterol and fatty acids; cereals, eggs.
vital to cell health; regulates
protein and calcium metabolism
to

K Helps in clotting of blood, assists Green Vegetables,

in the synthesis of proteins Liver, egg yolk; also
made by intestinal
t

bacteria.
No

Minerals in our diet: Our diet should essentially contain several

minerals including calcium, iron, copper, magnesium, zinc and iodine.
Each of these minerals play various roles in the functioning of our body.
For instance, calcium helps to build bones and teeth; helps in the proper
functioning of muscles, heart and nerves; relieves pain and cramps;
helps in clotting of blood. Dairy products, soyabeans, Ragi, sunflower
seeds and legumes are rich in calcium.

220
 Iron is another important mineral. It is a constituent of haemoglobin,
which plays an important role in oxygen transport. Liver, meat, oysters,
oatmeal, nuts, beans, wheat germ and greens contain iron.
Iodine helps in the functioning of thyroid gland. It prevents goitre.
It helps to burn fat; converts beta-carotine into vitamin A; regulates
energy production in our body and maintains hair, nail, skin and teeth.
Seafoods and vegetables are a good source of iodine.

d
Zinc in our diet will help to reduce cholesterol deposits; helps in the
making of enzymes and insulin; supports metabolism of carbohydrates;

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facilitates the proper functioning of prostate gland. Eggs, cheese, beef,
pork, wheat germ, brewer’s yeast and pumpkin seeds are some of the
good sources of zinc.

is
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Potassium is a mineral that helps to regulate fluid balance in our
B
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body. We also need it for the proper functioning of nerves and muscles.
peanuts, bananas, green beans, mushrooms and oranges are a few good
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sources of potassium.
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Activity 18.4
K

What other minerals are essential to our body? Find out the sources and
©

functions of each of those minerals. Represent the data collected in a suitable

table.
Functions and principal sources of roughages
Roughage foods are foods, which have high fibre content. They come
in different forms. The foods, which are rich in dietary fibre, are fruits,
vegetables and greens. These are also good source of vitamins, minerals
to

and other useful substances. Whole grains also provide roughage. Almost
all vegetables are excellent sources of roughage. Dietary fibre is important
because it provides volume to the food. This facilitates easy movement
t

of materials in the alimentary canal. Wavelike muscular movements of

No

the walls of the digestive tract bring about the movement of materials.
When the materials have little bulk, the movement of materials in the
large intestine and bowel movement becomes difficult. This is because
too much of water is absorbed from the undigested food. Hence, the
materials become relatively dry and hard. This results in constipation.
People often say they have the problem of ‘constipation’. To prevent this,
it is important to increase the volume of the intestinal content. We can
achieve this by increasing the roughage in our diet.

221
 History of dietary fibres: The word ‘Fibre’ gained currency in
1970s. This was due to Dr. Denis Burkitt. He made a hypothesis that
dietary fibre can prevent certain diseases. He and his colleagues made
a study on dietary contents in Africa. They discovered that Africans did
not suffer from certain diseases that are common in Western cultures.
For example, diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, gallstones,
intestinal problems, colon cancer etc were a rarity in African cultures.
They attributed this to high intake of dietary fibre and low intake of

d
refined carbohydrates. They also noted the emergence of such diseases

he
in the west after 1890. This followed the introduction of a new milling
technique that removed fibre from whole grain flour. Rightfully Dr.
Denis Burkitt was nicknamed as the ‘Fibre man’.

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Activity 18.5
B
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Make a list of foods you eat that are rich in fibres.
Functions of water in our body : The human body can last weeks
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without food but not without water. Water constitutes about 55–75 per
K

cent of our body mass. The prominent constituent of blood, digestive

juices, urine and perspiration is water. Water is essential for the hu-
man body. The body cannot store water and must have fresh supplies
©

every day to facilitate metabolic processes. We also need fresh supplies

of water to make up for losses from lungs, skin, urine and faeces. The
amount we need depends on our metabolism, the weather, the food we
eat and our activity levels.
Water helps to maintain the health of every cell in the body. It keeps
the blood thin enough to flow through blood vessels. It helps to eliminate
the wastes and excess materials. Water regulates body temperature
to

through sweating. It keeps mucous membranes, lungs and mouth in

moist conditions. Water helps digestion and prevents constipation.
It improves the texture of the skin and its appearance. It helps to carry
t

nutrients and oxygen to the cells. It serves as a shock absorber inside

No

the eyes, spinal cord and in the amniotic sac surrounding the foetus in
pregnancy. If you do not drink enough water regularly, there is some
increased risk of kidney stones, dehydration, urinary tract infections in
women. Babies and elders are vulnerable to dehydration. How can we
avoid this? One must increase water intake. Symptoms of dehydration
include headaches, lethargy, dry or cracked lips, dark-coloured urine
and physical weakness. Eventually urination stops, the kidneys fail
and the body cannot remove toxic waste products. In extreme cases,
this may result in death. Diarrhoea, vomiting, or both are the common
causes of dehydration.

222
 What should one do in case a person
is showing symptoms of dehydration?
You must have heard of Oral
Rehydration Solution. People call
this in short as ORS. It is a solution
of common salt and sugar in potable
water. Prescriptions from the ancient
Indian physician Sushruta date back

d
over 2500 years with treatment of

he
acute diarrhoea with rice water, coconut juice, and carrot soup.
However, this knowledge did not carry over to the Western world. Many
people there, died due to dehydration until the “Oral Rehydration

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Therapy”, became popular. In the late 1950s, Dr. Hemendra Nath
Chatterjee in India prescribed ORS for cholera patients and achieved
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good results.
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Activity 18.6
pu
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You can prepare ORS at home. Take one litre of potable water in a clean
vessel. Add one teaspoonful table salt and six teaspoonfuls of common sugar.
Give this in plenty to a person with dehydration. Ready packets of ORS prepared
©

as per the guidelines of WHO are available in market. They may contain glucose,
potassium chloride and trisodium citrate.

Think : An intake of 6-8 glasses of water a day is recommended. However,

some people either do not drink water or drink in very small quantities.
How can they survive? What are the other ways of feeding the body
with water? Make a list.
to

Tests for major constituents of food

Now you may be curious to know the principal nutrient present
in a particular food item. There are some simple tests to discover the
t

nutrient in a given food. You do not require big or costly equipments to

No

do this. Try these tests and discover for yourself. Take the help of your
friends, teachers or adults.
Simple tests for carbohydrates
Test for glucose: As you know, glucose is a simple carbohydrate.
To test the presence of glucose, you need a solution called Benedict’s
reagent. It is a blue solution of copper sulphate, sodium hydroxide, and
tartaric acid. It is available in a chemist’s shop. You also need a spirit
lamp and a test tube holder.

223
 Dissolve a pinch of glucose in about 5 ml water taken in a test
tube. Add about 5-6 drops of Benedict’s reagent and heat for about two
minutes. Note the change in colour if any. Appearance of a brick red
precipitate indicates the presence of glucose. Why do you get the brick
red precipitate?
Test for starch: Starch is a complex carbohydrate. To test for the
presence of starch, you need iodine solution. This is available in a
chemist’s shop. Take a small quantity of the given food stuff in a dish.

d
Add 2-3 drops of iodine solution. Note the colour change if any. The

he
appearance of a blue-black colour indicates the presence of starch.
Simple test for proteins
Biuret test - for proteins: You need a reagent called Biuret solution

is
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to conduct this test. It is a bluish solution containing sodium hydroxide
and a small amount of copper sulphate.
B
bl
Take about 5 ml of the solution in a test tube. Add 5-6 drops of
be T

Biuret solution. Wait for a while. Do not heat. A colour change from
pu
blue to pink indicates the presence of protein matter in the solution.
K

Simple test for lipids

©

Emulsion test for fats and oils: Emulsion is a mixture of two

liquids which do not mix with one another. It is a suspension of one
liquid in another. Take a few groundnut seeds. Crush it well and take
it in a test tube. Add a small amount of ethyl alcohol to it. Shake well.
Heat the test tube carefully on a waterbath. Do not directly heat on a
flame because alcohol is flammable. When the substance dissolves in
alcohol, filter or dilute until you obtain a clear liquid.
to

Take a small quantity of tap water in another test tube. Pour the
solution prepared above, gently, into the test tube. A whitish suspension
indicates the presence of fat or oil.
t
No

We have studied in this chapter many aspects of food. A balanced

healthy diet is one that provides all the nutrients to our body in right
proportions. We all need a daily intake of a variety of nutrients like
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and dietary fibre to
maintain normal health. We need these nutrients in varying proportions.
Taking balanced food will prevent many diseases and keep our body
healthy and active. You will study more about food nutrients in higher
classes.

224
 Exercises :

I. Four altertnatives are given to each of the following incomplete

statement / question. Choose the right answer:
1. The major compound present in the bones is the following metal a.
sodium b. iron c. calcium d. phosphorus
2. Children like to eat bakery items and chocolates. Elders advise them

d
to eat vegetables also, and not to keep aside curry leaves while eating
food items. This shows the importance of

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a. carbohydrates b. dietary fibres c. proteins d. lipids
3. A green leaf that has fallen down from a plant is taken and is kept

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in water for sometime and then taken out; It is then dipped in spirit
and iodine solution. The leaf turns bluish indicating the
B
bl
presence of
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a. starch b. oil c. protein d. fibre.

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II. Fill in the blanks with Suitable words :
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1. Emulsion test is conducted to detect ______________________.

©

2. Fat soluble vitamins are A, D, E and ______________________.

3. Amino acids contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
______________________.
4. The micro nutrient that is responsible for transportation of Oxygen
to the different parts of the body contains the metal ______________.
to

5. Biuret solution contains sodium hydroxide and __________________.

III. Match the following :
A B
t
No

1. Haemoglobin a. night blindness

2. Vitamin C b. clotting of blood
3. Vitamin A c. develops teeth
4. Vitamin K d. oxygen carrier
e. develops bones
f. improves immunity system
g. develops muscles

225
IV. Answer the following :
1. Why should we have variety in our diet?
2. List four major sources of carbohydrates to the people in your region.
3. What food items used in your region give lipids to the people who
consume them?
4. List the nutritional importance of proteins.

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5. Why do some people suffer from nutritional deficiencies despite having

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enough food?
6. Explain the importance of water in our diet.

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7. A beaker contains a thick liquid. How do you test whether it is a lipid?
B
bl
8. What is the function of calcium in our body?
9. Why is water essential to our body?
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10. List all the major classes of ingredients that should be present in
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balanced diet.
©

11. Make a list of food items that are rich in dietary fibres.
Think :
1. Why do young children both in rich and poor families suffer from
nutritional deficiencies? What are your suggestions to improve the
situation?
to

2. How does lack of nutrition affect your activities, studies and

personality? How can you help yourself?
3. What dietary changes in your home will improve the nutritional status
t

of your family members?

No



226
 Chapter 19
Digestion and Respiration
After studying the chapter students :
• define life process
• experimentally prove that carbon dioxide is required for photosynthesis

d
• appreciate the role of photosynthesis in bringing about biodiversity

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• differentiate between light and dark reactions
• prepare a transverse section of leaf

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• use microscope to view specimen
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• analyse the importance of being hygenic
B
• bl
make a comparative study between digestive system of cockroach and
be T

humans
pu
K

• compare respiration in cockroach and human beings

You have seen many types of living things around you, from tiny
©

insects to bulky trees and animals. If these living things are to survive
then there are many life activities that have to take place in them. Plants
and animals look so different yet they have certain life activities in
common. They are respiration, nutrition, growth, movement, response
to stimuli, excretion and reproduction. These are called life processes.
There are several life processes that keep them alive. Now in this chapter
to

let us study two of these life processes nutrition and respiration.

All organisms require food. Why is food essential? Where do
organisms get food from? You have already learnt that some organisms
t

can prepare their own food. Such organisms are called autotrophs.
No

All green plants are autotrophs. Green plants prepare their food by a
process called photosynthesis.
Activity 19.1
Sow a few bean / ragi seeds in two separate boxes. Allow the seeds to
germinate. Shift one of the boxes which contains plants to a dark room, and the
other box to a well lit and ventilated room. Observe the plants in the boxes after
about 48 hours. What is your conclusion?

227
 Know this : Meaning of Photosynthesis
Photo = Light, Synthesis = Preparing or putting together

At the time of origin of life, the earth had more of carbon dioxide.
Gradually algae and primitive plants started appearing. These algae and
the other lower plants utilized this carbon dioxide to prepare food, and
in turn gave back oxygen to atmosphere. Thus, level of oxygen increased
in the Earth’s atmosphere which is also a reason for newer kinds of life

d
forms to emerge on earth.

he
Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction. Like, in any of the other
chemical reactions, there will be reactants and products in photosynthesis
also. Reactants may also be considered as raw materials. What are the

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raw materials required for photosynthesis? Let us explore this with the
help of the following experiment.
B
bl
Experiment to show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthsis.
be T

Take two potted plants which are kept in a dark room for two days.
pu
Mark one of the pots as ‘A’ and the other as ‘B’. Place a beaker
K

containing Potassium hydroxide solution next to plant ‘A’ and a beaker

containing sodium bicarbonate solution next to plant ‘B’. Cover both
©

the pots separately by bell jars or polythene bags as shown in the

figure19.1. Take precautions such that air does not enter the polythene
bags. Place both the potted plants side by side in a well lit room for
about 48 hours. Test a few leaves of both the plants for starch. What
inference will you draw?
Note : Take the help of your teacher for testing the leaves for starch.
t to
No

Fig 19.1 Experiment to show that carbon dioxide is necessary for

photosynthesis
228
 Think : Why should the potted plants be kept in a dark room for about
48 hours before beginning the experiment?
What is the role of potassium hydroxide and sodium bicarbonate?

From the above experiment you may have come to the conclusion
that carbon dioxide is required for plants to prepare food in the form of
starch. Is carbon dioxide the only raw material used by the plants for

d
photosynthesis? No, they also require water.

he
Think: Anusha is walking in a garden next to a busy main road. She
collects a few leaves from a plant next to the main road. She observes a
dusty layer on the surface of the leaves. Will the dusty layer present on

is
the surface of leaf, affect food production?
re S
You have already learnt that roots absorb water and mineral
B
bl
nutrients from soil. How does carbon dioxide enter the plant body? We
be T

shall find the answer by conducting the following activity.

pu
Activity 19.2
K

Cut a thin section of Nerium leaf along the mid rib. Place the section in a
©

petridish containing water. Place this leaf section on a microscope slide. Add a
drop of water and cover the specimen with the help of a cover slip. Observe the
minute openings on the surface of the leaf.
t to
No

Fig 19.2 Leaf surface showing stomata A single stomata enlarged

The minute openings which you have observed are called stomata.
Carbon dioxide enters the plant body through stomata.

229
 d
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pu
K
©

Fig19.3 Section through the leaf

Apart from starch, oxygen is also a product of photosynthesis. Let

us examine this with the help of the following experiment.
to

Experiment to Show that oxygen is released during

Photosynthesis.
Take two troughs filled with water. Add a few crystals of sodium
t

bicarbonate to both. Place Hydrilla plants in both the troughs and

No

invert large funnels over them. Take two test tubes. Place small pieces
of steel wool into their bottoms. Fill the test tubes with water and
invert them over the narrow ends of each of the funnel. Place one of
the troughs in a bright sunny area where as the other trough in a dark
cupboard for about 48 hours.
Test the gas collected in the test tubes by introducing splinters. What is
your inference?

230
 d
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Fig 19.4 Experiment to show that oxygen is liberated during
photosynthesis

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As stated earlier, photosynthesis is a chemical reaction. It can be
represented with the help of an equation.
B
bl
Carbon dioxide + water
Sunlight
starch + oxygen + water
be T

Chlorophyll
pu

K

Sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2+ 6H2O
Chlorophyll
©

Where does photosynthesis take place in leaves? Already you have

learnt about an organelle called chloroplast. Photosynthesis takes place
in the chloroplast.
For better understanding of photosynthetic process, it is important
to recall the structure of a chloroplast. As you are all aware there are
two major regions called grana and stroma in the chloroplast. These
to

two regions are involved in two different phases of photosynthesis called

Light Dependent reaction which is also called Light reaction. Light
Independent reaction is also called Dark reaction.
t
No

Fig 19.5 Structure of chloroplast

231
 Light dependent reaction: Light dependent reaction takes place
in the presence of sunlight, in the grana region. During this reaction
water is decomposed into hydroxyl and hydrogen ions by the help of
light energy. Oxygen is given out by plants in this phase. Light energy is
converted to chemical energy and is stored in the form of ATP. What is
the use of Chemical energy that has been released during light reaction?
This energy is used to prepare starch during light independent reaction.
Light Independent Reaction: In this reaction carbon dioxide is

d
reduced to starch, utilizing the energy released during light dependent

he
reaction. This reaction takes place in the stroma region.
Note : Many times it is wrongly believed that light independent reaction
takes place only during night times.

is
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By now you are able to differentiate between the two phases of
B
bl
photosynthesis. What if sun would not have been present? Plants could
not have chloroplast. Soil did not contain all essential nutrients required
be T

for plants growth.

pu
You might have heard of a famous saying ‘struggle for existence’.
K

Will plants survive in the absence of these factors? If not all, some plants
can survive fighting some of the odds.
©

When soil is poor in nitrogen, plants try to obtain nitrogen by other

means. Here is a group of photosynthetic plants which obtain nitrogen
by trapping and digesting insects. Such plants are called insectivorous
plants. Example – Drosera, Nepenthes.
t to
No

Fig 19.6 Nepenthes Fig 19.7 Drosera

232
 Think : Can other common plants grow in areas where lots of insectivorous
plants grow?

You might have seen some plants growing on trees. These plants
capable of photosynthesis take shelter in the host tree. Such plants are
called epiphytes. Example – Orchids.

d
is he
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pu
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Fig 19.8 Orchids

©

Think : How do orchids absorb water?

Can animals prepare their own food? Not only animals, bacteria
and fungi also cannot prepare their food. These organisms are called
heterotrophs. Their mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic nutrition.
You might have seen compost heaps in your village. Compost
obtained by the decomposition of organic matter is an excellent nutrient
to

supplement to agricultural fields. How does this decomposition take

place? Thanks to fungi and bacteria which feed on organic matter by
decomposing the same. Hence bacteria and fungi are called saprophytes.
t
No

Think : Are all bacteria and fungi saprophytic ?

Let us do an activity. Take a few slices of bread. Sprinkle a few
drops of water on them. Keep them aside for two days. You will find a
spongy material appearing on the slices of bread. Observe these spongy
materials under a compound microscope.
Some times you might have seen blackish or grayish spongy material
on the inner surface of broken coconut. Observe them under a compound
microscope. These are fungi. How do fungi derive nutrition?

233
 d
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Bread mould Rhizopus Agaricus
Fig 19.9 Common examples of fungi

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Fungi derive their nutrition from dead and decaying organic matter.
B
bl
Think : What would happen if there were no saprophytes?
be T

Will moulds grow on slices of bread kept in a refrigerator?

pu
K

Have you ever been advised deworming by a doctor? You might have
heard or seen worms being eliminated in the faeces. Where were these
worms? From where would these worms get nutrition? Were they of any
©

use to host persons in whom they were found?

These worms were in the intestine. They had taken shelter and
nutrition from the host. But they are of no use to the host. Such worms
are called parasites. Many times they are found to be harmful and fatal
also.
Find out : Are head lice parasites? How can we get rid of their menace?
to

You can prevent these by proper treatment and also by being hygienic.

It would have been so nice if the organisms that take shelter and
t

nutrition from us had been helpful to us. Then we could have applied the
No

statement ‘a friend in need is a friend indeed’ to organisms also. Not all

organisms are our enemies; there are mutually beneficial organisms too.
You might have heard of bacteria called E.coli present in our intestine.
What woud happen if they were not present? Then we should have been
taking B-Complex tablets and injections regularly. These E.coli bacteria
take shelter and nutrition from us and in return provide us the vital
B-Complex vitamins. Here both humans and the bacteria are mutually
benefited. The mode of nutrition observed in E.coli bacteria is called
mutualism. This is also called symbiosis.

234
 Find out : Is mutualism found in plants?
Is there a symbiotic relation between insects and plants?
Heterotrophic Nutrition
You are already familiar that animals are heterotrophs. The type of
nutrition found in animals is called holozoic. Holozoic nutrition involves
five steps.

d
a. ingestion ingestion → digestion → egestion
b. digestion ↓

he
c. absorption absorption
d. assimilation ↓

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e. egestion assimilation
Animals take in food by a process called ingestion. The food that
B
bl
enters the animal’s body should be broken into simple usable forms; this
be T

is done by a process called digestion. Food can be reduced to simple

pu
usable forms mechanically and by using certain chemicals. Mechanically
K

food is crushed by teeth. Chemically food is digested with the help of

digestive enzymes. Digested food is directly taken into the cytoplasm
©

in lower animals such as amoeba. In higher animals such as human

beings digested food is absorbed and transported to cells and tissues
through blood. This process is called absorption. Digested food is stored
or utilized in the cells. This happens by a process called assimilation.
The undigested food particles are eliminated from the animal body by
a process called egestion.
You know that there are different types of animals. Is nutrition and
to

digestion similar in all animals? Let us find out by taking the examples
of amoeba, cockroach and human being.
t

As you are aware amoeba is unicellular. All life activities have to take
No

place in the same cell. Amoeba feeds on bacteria, diatoms, unicellular

algae, minute protozoa and even dead organic matter. Hence, it is an
omnivore.
How does amoeba move? Can the same locomotory structures
be used to take the food into its cell? Observe the following diagram,
look how the pseudopodium is surrounding the prey and ingesting.
Should a live prey not be killed before being ingested? If yes, should the
pseudopodia contain special substances to perform this task?

235
Activity 19.3
Refer science books and encyclopedias in your school library and find out
how pseudopodia is specialized to trap and kill the prey.

d
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Fig 19.10 Nutrition in amoeba.
B
bl
The ingested prey enters the food vacuole where digestion takes
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place. Digestive enzymes such as amylase and protease are secreted in

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the food vacuole. Amylase digests complex carbohydrates into simple
K

sugars. Protease digests proteins to its simplest forms. Digested food

is diffused into the cytoplasm from the food vacuole. Cytoplasm is
©

circulated through out the cell so that all parts of the cell receive
nutrients. Digested food is used for all its life activities. Undigested food
is egested with the help of pseudopodia.

Raju’s graph sheets are eaten away by cockroaches. His mother is

worried as tomatoes are drilled and eaten by cockroaches. He wonders
to

as to how a cockroach can eat and digest any thing? In order to find
the solution to his curiosity he collects a few cockroaches and places
them in a transparent plastic box. He places varieties of materials like
t

rubber, pencil piece, pieces of paper, coconut piece, piece of cloth and
No

green chillies. Cockroach feeds on almost everything!

Raju observes the external features of a cockroach using a magnifying

lens. You may also do this. You can identify three main regions called
the head, thorax and abdomen. Look at the figure 19.11; observe a
pair of feelers in the head region. These are also called the antennae.
Antennae sense the food and may push the food into the mouth. Food
is crushed in the mouth.

236
 d
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Fig 19.11 Cockroach

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Think : Do all insects feed just like the cockroach? Discuss with your
B
bl
teacher and friends. Observe an ant eating its food. It is really interesting.
be T
pu
Find out : The mouth parts of the cockroach’s which help in crushing the
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food.
Raju has a lot more curious questions regarding digestion in
©

cockroach. He decides to collect information from various sources.

He makes a list of his observations.
t to
No

Fig 19.12 Digestive system of cockroach

237
 Table 19.1: Cockroach digestive system : Parts and functions

Part of the Function Enzymes Function of the

alimentary secreted enzyme
canal
Foregut Food is crushed Salivary amylase Maltose
• mouth and lubricated.
• oesophagus Food pipe, allows --- ---
• crop food movement.

d
• gizzard Food is stored for a --- ---

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short while. --- ---
Acts as grinding
chamber.

is
Midgut
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Storage of food, a. amylase Amylase converts
major site of starch into maltose
B
• stomach blchemical digestion. b. maltase Maltase converts
be T

maltose into
pu
• haemocoel Digested food is glucose
K

absorbed through
(body cavity the stomach c. invertase Invertase converts
filled with walls into the
©

sucrose to glucose
blood) surrounding space
called haemocoel. d. tryptase Tryptase helps in
the digestion of
a. Stores digested proteins.
food
e. lipase Lipase helps in the
b. Digested food digestion of lipids.
to

is transported
from haemocoel --- ---
to various parts
t

of the body.
No

Hindgut Reabsorption of --- ---

• rectum water from faeces.
• anus Faecal pellets are --- ---
excreted.

Raju has a doubt as to what was the need for water to be reabsorbed
from the faeces in the hind gut of cockroach. Try help to him to find
the answer.

238
 Let us now learn how digestion process occurs in human alimentary
canal. Human digestive system is much more complex than the digestive
system of cockroach.
Alimentary Canal
Alimentary canal is  also called digestive tract. It is the  pathway
by which food enters the body and solid wastes are expelled. The
alimentary canal includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine and anus.

d
Think : Are human beings omnivores?

he
Why do human beings prefer eating cooked food?
What may happen if we consume only raw food?

is
re S
The ingested food is subjected to mechanical breakdown in mouth.
B
bl
Food is chewed and churned with the help of teeth and tongue. Saliva
makes food into a soft paste called bolus. Saliva contains salivary
be T

amylase which converts starch into maltose.

pu
K
t ©
to
No

Fig 19.13 Human digestive system

Activity : Chew about 10 grains of pounded rice(CªÀ®QÌ) for 10
minutes. How does it taste ? Why?
239
 Do you know ?
An adult human being secretes about 1 – 1.5 litres of saliva per day.

Bolus when swallowed enters the pharynx. Pharynx is the common

passage for both food and air. Bolus enters food pipe which is also called
oesophagus. A tissue called epiglottis prevents bolus from entering into
the wind pipe.

d
Think : What may happen if there is an accidental entry of food into wind
pipe?

he
Why do we get hiccups ?

is
Know this : Here is a person eating his food, while talking. He is not aware
re S
of the risk. Guide and educate him so that he comes out of this bad habit.
B
bl
The bolus passes through the oesophagus and reaches the stomach.
be T

This happens by the rhythmic contraction of the muscles that make the
pu
oesophagus. It takes around 7 to 9 seconds for the bolus to reach the
K

stomach. Oesophagus is a narrow muscular tube of length 20 – 30 cm.

©

Think : Oesophagus has no role in digestion. Why?

t to
No

Fig 19.14 Peristalisis

240
 Bolus which enters the stomach is stored for some time. Stomach
secretes gastric juice which contains hydrochloric acid. This hydrochloric
acid commonly kills the microbes that may have entered through food
and water. What may happen if too much of acid is secreted? Is there
any other use from the acid secretion? Digestive enzymes such as pepsin
and rennin are also secreted in the stomach. Pepsin converts proteins
into polypeptides. Rennin converts soluble milk proteins into insoluble

d
curds. At this stage, bolus in the stomach turns into a semi liquid
state called ‘chyme’. Chyme enters the small intestine, where digestion

he
continues further.
Bile juice, pancreatic juice and Intestinal juice act upon chyme and

is
re S
digest it further. Bile juice is produced by the liver and is stored in the gall
B
bladder. Pancreatic juice is produced in the pancreas where as intestinal
bl
juice is produced in the intestine. Bile juice emulsifies fats. Pancreatic
be T

juice contains protease amylase and lipase enzymes. Amylase converts

pu
starch into maltose, whereas lipase converts complex fats to simple
K

fats. Intestinal juice contains maltase, sucrase, lactase, peptidase and

©

lipase. Maltase converts maltose to glucose. Sucrase converts sucrose

to glucose. Lactase converts lactose to glucose and peptidase converts
polypeptides to amino acids. Digested food is absorbed by the finger
like projections of the small intestine called villi. This digested food is
circulated to all parts of the body with the help of circulatory system.
You will be learning regarding circulatory system in your later classes.
to

Undigested food is passed on to the large intestine. There is

reabsorption of water from the faeces in the large intestine. Faeces is
eliminated through the anus.
t
No

Find out : Here is an urban person who always eats lots of pizzas and burgers.
This person is experiencing difficulty in passing out faeces. What suggestion
would you like to give this person to over come this problem? List out other
digestive disorders and also suggest remedies to over come those disorders.

Note : Refer chapter 18 in your science text book. You may get some
ideas to help him overcome this problem.

241
Respiration

You know that energy is required to do work. Where do we get energy

from? In what form will that energy be present? The answers for these
questions can be learnt with the help of the following example.
After having completed a 400 m running race, an athlete feels
fatigue. She is given one or two spoonful of glucose powder. After
having consumed glucose she regains energy. This implies that energy

d
is released with the help of glucose. You may recall that complex

he
carbohydrates, get converted to glucose in digestion process.
Glucose on reaching the cells reacts with oxygen to liberate energy.

is
This process is called respiration.
re S
In some organisms energy can be released in the absence of oxygen.
B
bl
Like photosynthesis respiration is also a chemical reaction. The release
of energy from food may or may not utilize oxygen. If oxygen is used, to
be T
pu
break the food for energy liberation then it is called ‘Aerobic respiration’.
Else it is called ‘anaerobic respiration’. They can be represented with
K

the help of equations.

©

Aerobic Respiration
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 +6H2O + Energy
Anaerobic Respiration
Glucose → Ethyl Alcohol + Carbon dioxide + Energy
to

C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH +2CO2 + Energy

You have heard of Prokaryotes, they do not contain mitochondria.
Then how is energy released in them? Energy liberated during anaerobic
t
No

respiration is less than the energy liberated during aerobic respiration.

Let us learn the process of respiration in amoeba, cockroach and
human beings.
Respiration in amoeba takes place by diffusion through body surface.
Cockroach being a bit more complex contains a separate respiratory
system called tracheal system.
The tracheal system includes
Spirades of Trachea and Tracheoles
242
 Stigmata are respiratory openings in
cockroach. There are ten pairs of
stigmata which are also called spiracles.
Of these ten stigmata, two pairs are
present in thoracic region and eight
pairs are in the abdominal region. These
spiracles are present on the lateral side

d
of the body.

he
Trachea and tracheoles carry oxygen
from the diffused air to all the parts
of the body. Cells take in oxygen by

is
re S
diffusion and give out carbon dioxide to
B
the tracheole. Haemolymph, the blood
bl of cockroach, is involved in gaseous
be T

exchange between the cells. Carbon

pu
Fig19.15 Respiratory
dioxide is diffused out of the cockroach’s
K

system of cockroach
body through the spiracle openings.
©

Stand in front of a mirror,

observe the chest movements
as you take in and give out air.
Taking in and giving out air is
called breathing. How is
to

breathing related to respiration?

We breathe in and breathe
t

out air with the help of respiratory

No

system. Respiratory system

consists of nose, pharynx,
trachea, bronchi and lungs.
Lungs include bronchioles and
alveoli. Observe figure 19.16
and recognize the respiratory Fig19.16 Human respiratory system
parts.

243
 d
is he
re S B
bl
Fig19.17 Human lungs: - internal stracture
be T
pu
Air enters the nasal cavity through the nostrils. Dust particles
K

present in this air are prevented from reaching the lungs.

©

Think : What special structures of nasal cavity prevent the dust particles
present in the inhaled air?
A person in a dusty place often sneezes. Why?
Why should the inhaled air be warmed up in the nostrils?
Is it safe to breathe in air through mouth?

Air passes to the pharynx from where it is directed into the trachea
to

with the help of epiglottis. Trachea contains ‘C’ shaped rings which
prevent it from collapsing. Trachea is divided into two branches called
the bronchi. One bronchus enters the left lung whereas the other
t
No

bronchus enters the right lung. These bronchi are further branched
into bronchioles. Air sacs are present at the terminals of bronchioles.
These are called alveoli.
Blood circulating around the alveoli gives out carbon dioxide and
collects oxygen. Oxygenated blood reaches the cells and gives oxygen
to the cells. This oxygen is used for oxidizing glucose. In this process
carbon dioxide formed as a product is carried by blood to the alveoli.
This air is exhaled in the same pathway.

244
 Know this : “When the breath wanders, the mind is unsteady, but when
the breath is still, so is the mind still.” - Hatha Yoga Pradipika
You must have heard of a practice in yoga called Pranayama.
Breathing is life. It is one of our most vital functions. One of the Five
Principles of Yoga is Pranayama or breathing exercise, which promotes
proper breathing. In a Yogic point of view, proper breathing is to bring
more oxygen to the blood and to the brain, and to control Prana or the
vital life energy. Pranayama Yoga also goes hand in hand with the

d
Asanas. The union of these two Yogic Principles is considered as the
highest form of purification and self-discipline, covering both mind

he
and body.
IMPORTANCE OF PRANAYAMA

is
re S
The brain needs more oxygen than any other organ of our body.
If it is starved of oxygen it becomes inactive resulting in mental
B
bl
sluggishness, depression, negative thoughts, impaired vision and
hearing.
be T
pu
The advantages of pranayama:
K

1. Controlled breathing keeps the body fit and healthy

2. It increases longevity.
©

3. It tones up liver, stomach, intestine, digestive system and

kindles gastric fire.
4. It strengthens the nervous system, improves concentration
and calms the mind.
5. It eliminates negative thinking.
to

6. It decreases metabolic rate.

7. It decreases the heart rate and decreases breathing rate.
8. It decreases blood pressure and increases skin temperature.
t
No

9. It induces relaxation of mind and reduces mental tensions,

anxieties and worries.
10. It improves memory power and eliminates mental disorders.

Here are a few interesting facts:

1. While at rest the body takes in and breathes out about 10 liters
of air per minute.
2. The right lung is slightly larger than the left lung.
245
 3. Right lung has three lobes whereas the left lung has only two
lobes.
4. Surface area of lungs is roughly around the size of a tennis
court.
5. An adult at rest usually breathes 12 to 15 times in a minute.
Here is a conversation between a doctor and a patient.
Patient: Hello doctor.

d
Doctor: Hello….take a seat….what is your problem?

he
Patient: Dear doctor…..I have come here with a few health
problems….

is
re S
Doctor: Yes, please go ahead….
B
Patient: I have cough…..I cough continuously…..

bl
Doctor: Is it dry cough or wet cough???
be T
pu
Patient: Its wet cough …..There is discharge of sputum….....…
K

sometimes sputum is mixed with blood…..

Doctor: Do you get fever?
©

Patient: Yes doctor I do get fever…especially in the evenings…..I feel so

fatigued now a days….and also I have lost my appetite……and also
I have lost my weight…….
Doctor: Since how many days do you have these problems?
Patient: For a month doctor…..
to

Doctor: I suspect you have TB…..Let me confirm this through

various investigations……
t

Patient: Oh…..this is an infection caused by Mycobacterium

No

tuberculosis…..and this bacterium primarily infects the lungs…….

pulmonary TB is a respiratory disease…..
Doctor: Oh that’s really great….you know so many facts regarding
TB …… Do you know TB is curable!
Patient: Yes doctor….that’s the reason why I am not tensed…….
Are you familiar with any other respiratory diseases? Make a list
of respiratory diseases you are aware of and also mention a few tips to
avoid them.

246
 Exercises:

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete

statement / question. Choose the right answer:
1. The process of obtaining food and utilizing it in the body is
a. respiration b. nutrition c. excretion d. reproduction
2. One of these is a product of photosynthesis

d
a. starch b. glucose c. maltose d. sucrose

he
3. Insectivorous plants commonly grow in areas where soil is deficient
in
a. carbon b. nitrogen c. potassium d. phosphorus

is
re S
4. A person applies hydrogen peroxide on his wound.
This is to kill
B
bl
a. anaerobic bacteria b. aerobic bacteria
be T
pu
c. fungi d. protozoa
K

5. Amylase converts starch to

a. glucose b. sucrose c. lactose d. maltose
©

II. Answer the following:

1. What are life processes?
2. Explain the method of testing a leaf for starch.
3. Explain an experiment to demonstrate that oxygen is released during
photosynthesis.
to

4. Differentiate between the two phases of photosynthesis.

5. What are parasites? Give two examples.
6. Amoeba cannot digest fats. Why?
t
No

7. Explain respiration in cockroach.

8. Explain respiration in human beings.
9. Draw a diagram of human digestive system and label the parts.



247
 Chapter 20
REPRODUCTION IN HIGHER PLANTS
After studying this chapter students :
• understand the importance of reproduction in plants.
• draw the diagram of a typical flower.
• relate the structure and functions of the parts of a flower.

d
• state the importance of insects in plant reproduction.

he
You are aware of the fact that reproduction is one of the basic
characteristics of living organisms. Reproduction differs from many other

is
re S
characteristics of life such as nutrition and respiration. It is absolutely
necessary for the survival of the entire species, while it is not necessary
B
bl
for the survival of an individual organism.
be T

You have learnt in your earlier classes that there are two basic
pu
types of reproduction – asexual and sexual. Lower organisms such as
K

monerans protistans, algae and fungi generally reproduce by asexual

©

methods. Look at the examples like potato and sugarcane. The stem
can give rise to new plants. Green plants exhibit vegetative and sexual
reproduction.
Sexual reproduction involves the formation and fusion of specialized
reproductive cells called gametes.
to

In this chapter you will study the process of sexual reproduction in

the most advanced group of plants – the angiosperms, commonly called
flowering plants.
t
No

Flower is the reproductive structure of a plant. Flower is a part of

shoot system modified for the purpose of reproduction. Generally the
flower sprouts from the axil of a leaf, called bract. The flower is generally
borne on a stalk called pedicel.
Think : Are there plants, which do not produce flowers? Then how do they
reproduce?

248
 Look at this diagram showing the parts of a typical flower.

You can see that the tip of the

pedicel is enlarged to form a
disc shaped thalamus. In the
thalamus the different parts of
the flower are arranged in four
concentric whorls or circles. If
you look from outside to inside,

d
these whorls are the calyx,

he
corolla, androecium and
gynoecium.
Calyx is the outermost

is
re S
whorl composed of green
coloured units called sepals.
B
bl
They protect the inner parts of
be T

a flower in the bud condition.

pu
Fig 20.1 Structure of a typical flower
K

Corolla is the second whorl from outside. It is composed of usually

brightly coloured units called petals
©

Androecium is the third whorl from outside. It is composed of male

reproductive structures called stamens. Stamens produce pollen grains.
In the pollen grains male gametes are formed.
The innermost whorl is called gynoecium. It is composed of female
reproductive structures called carpels. Each carpel has a basal swollen
to

ovary, a middle elongated style and terminal sensitive region called

stigma. Ovary encloses the ovules. In the ovule female gametes, ova
are formed
t

Activity 20.1
No

Collect a fresh hibiscus flower. Identify the stamens and the ovary. Place
them in separate petridishes containing water. Split open the anthers of the
stamen. Examine the anther with a hand lens. You will be able to see yellow
coloured particles. These are the pollengrains. Cut open the ovary along its
length. Using the hand lens observe whitish structures inside the ovary. These
are the ovules.

In Angiosperms, process of sexual reproduction has two major events

namely pollination and fertilization.
249
 The process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
is called pollination. If the pollen grains get transferred to the stigma
of the same flower, it is called self pollination. If the pollen grains get
transferred to the stigma of another flower in another plant of the same
species, it is called cross-pollination.
In nature cross pollination is more common than self pollination. It
is because cross pollination has many advantages to plants.

d
Cross pollination occurs with the help of agents like wind, water
and animals. Flowers that are pollinated by wind are generally small

he
and dull coloured. They produce large number of dry and light pollen
grains. Sugarcane, maize and grass are common examples of wind
pollinated plants.

is
re S
In aquatic plants generally, we see the formation of separate male
B
bl
and female flowers. Male flowers detach from the plant, float on the
surface. The female flowers remain attached to the plant. Male flowers are
be T

carried towards the female flowers by water current, where they release
pu
pollen grains. Valisneria, Hydrilla and Elodea are common examples.
K

In most plants cross pollination is brought about with the help of

©

insects, like butterflies, moths and bees. Such flowers show certain
modifications to attract insects. These modifications are mainly
concerned with the colour of the petals. Some flowers contain glands
called nectaries which produce nectar to attract insects, that bring about
cross pollination. Flowers which open during night, usually have a dull
colouration, but have an aromatic smell that attracts insects.
Apart from insects, the only other group of animals that visit the
to

flowers are the birds. Several kinds of smaller birds visit the flower for
feeding on nectar and in the process bring about cross pollination. There
are also instances of flowers that are pollinated by bats and even snails.
t
No

The process which follows pollination is called fertilization. It

involves the fusion of the haploid male gamete in the pollen grain with
the haploid female gamete in the ovule.
To bring about fertilization, the pollen grains which get deposited on
the stigma of the carpel must penetrate the style and reach the ovule.
Hence it produces a projection called pollen tube which grows through
the length of the style and finally reaches the ovule. The pollen tube
contains male gamete.

250
 Activity 20.2
Take two slides containing a shallow pit. Such slides are called cavity slides.
Pour a few drops of water into one slide and a few drops of 2% sucrose solution
into another. Shake a slit open anther from a hibiscus flower into each of these
slides. Keep the two slides in a safe place for a about 4 hours. Later examine
the slides under a microscope What do you notice?
The pollen grains in the slide containing sucrose solution, show the formation
of the pollen tube. What is your inference?

d
Inside the ovule, there is a structure called embryo sac which

he
encloses the female gamete. The pollen tube reaches the embryo sac
Then male gamete in pollen tube and female gamete in embryo sac unite.
Thus fertilization takes place resulting in the formation of a diploid cell

is
re S
called zygote.
B
bl
It is interesting here to know the changes that take place in the
flower after pollination and fertilization.
be T
pu
• The diploid zygote develops into an embryo that later differentiates
K

into a seed, that later grows into a new plant.

• Surrounding the embryo, a nutritive tissue called endosperm is
©

formed.
• The entire ovule now becomes the seed.
• The coverings of the ovule transform into the seed coat.
• Ovary portion of the carpel gets transformed into the fruit enclosing the
seed.
to

• Petals, sepals and other parts of the flower fall off .

Thus, pollination and fertilization result in the formation of
seed which is enclosed in the fruit. This is a characterstic feature of
t

angiosperms.
No

You are aware of the fact that the variety of vegetables that we use
as food, are all parts of the angiosperm plants. Different parts of the
angiosperm plants serve as our food. It may be in the form of leaves,
stem, root, fruit or the seed.

Activity 20.3
• Make a list of the vegetable that are used for making food in your house.
Classify them into leaves, stems, roots, fruits and seeds.
251
 • Find out the vegetables used by your friends or neighbours. Did you notice
some differences?
The seeds that we use as a part of staple food are generally
distinguished into pulses, millets, cereals and grains.
· Pulses are the principal sources of proteins. Our country is the
largest producer and consumer of pulses. They are primarily
seeds occurring in variable sizes and colours inside a type of fruit
called pod. All of them belong to the pea family- Leguminosae.

d
They include, blackgram, pea and lentil.

he
· Grains are small, hard dry seeds with or without the fruitwall
attached. Most of the grains are generaly described as cereals.
They are produced primarily by varieter of grasses belonging

is
re S
to the family Poaeceae. Maize, rice, wheat, barley oats and
sorghum are the common Grains that account for more than
B
·
bl
85% of the total grain production in the world.
be T

Millets are coarse grains where the protein content is said

pu
to be higher. Jowar, bajra (pearl millet) and ragi are common
K

examples. The seeds are much smaller.

©

Exercises :

I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete

statement / question. Choose the right answer:
1. Seed develops from
a. ovary b. ovule c. embryo d. embryo sac.
to

2. Colour of night blooming flowers is usually

a. violet b. red c. yellow d. whitish.
t

3. The correct sequence of reproductive stages seen in flowering

No

plants is
a. gametes, zygote, embryo, seedling
b. zygote, gametes, embryo, seedling
c. seedling, embryo, zygote, gametes
d. gametes, embryo, zygote, seedling
4. The anther contains
a. ovules b. female gametes. c. diploid cells d. pollen grains.
252
 II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words :
1. Flowers with blue petals, nectar and strong scent are most likely
pollinated by _______________ .
2. Variations in the offspring is the characteristic of __________________
reproduction.
3. There is much wastage of pollen grains in ____________ pollination.

d
4. Fertilization leads to the formation of ________________ .

he
III. Answer the following :
1. What is reproduction?

is
re S
2. What is sexual reproduction?
B
bl
3. What is pollination?
4. Are insects friends of farmers? Explain.
be T
pu
5. Draw the diagram of a typical flower and label the parts.
K
©

Firm Determination : Have firm determination and strong will-pow-

to

er to cultivate good habits in order to achieve permanent happiness,

peace, success and fulfillment in life.
t

-Swami Vivekananda
No



253
 Chapter 21
Communication gadgets
After studying this chapter students :

. define the term electromagnetic wave.

. define the terms like audio frequency, video frequency and

d
radiofrequency waves.

he
define the term transducer with respect to microphone.

. give reason for modulation.

is
re S
. locate frequencies of radio stations by tuning the radio receiver
sets.
B
. bl
draw block diagrams of. a. Radio transmitter b. Radio receiver
be T
pu
. Identify similarities between radio and mobile phones with respect
K

to audio transmitter.

.
©

State the advantages of Internet.

People talk about ‘shrinking’ of the world. Is it really shrinking?
England has become very close. Does it mean that the distance between
India and England has decreased? Here the meaning is different.
It is said that Adilshah of Bijapur hired the service of an engineer
from Iran to build the historic Gol- Gumbuz. How did he send the
to

invitation to Iran from Bijapur? How much time did the engineer take
to reach Bijapur ?
Mahatma Gandhiji went to England to attend round table conference
t

by ship. The journey took many days.

No

If such things were to happen today Mahatma Gandhiji would have

reached England very quickly. Instead of going to England he would have
preferred the round table conference with Winston Churchill through
a “tele-conference”.
Vehicles like cars, trains, ships, aeroplanes, jets and rockets
move the people and goods to different places. They are the means of
transportation. Similarly we can move information, messages and visuals
from place to place.

254
 At about the speed of light which is 3 lakh kilometre per second,
it is possible to send a letter to America or Dubai. It is possible to see
Tendulkar hitting a sixer in South Africa almost at the speed of light
at our home. This exchange or transportation of information is called
communication. The remarkable progress in the field of communication
has shrunk the world. The places in the globe have become closer by
communication net work.
Do you know ?

d
Birds, animals also exchange information. Observation of their activities

he
may help you to infer their intention. Tribal people watch the behavior
of animals and hear the chirping sounds of birds, while adjusting to the
nature.

is
re S
Do you know ?
Relay drum beats as in Phantom comic, torch light signals by sea travellers ,
B
bl
light house on the sea coast were early methods of distant communication.
be T
pu
Know this : Famous poet Kalidasa imagined sending of messages on
clouds in his work “Meghasandesha”. Pigeons were also used to send
K

written communication.
©

In this chapter we shall study the fundamentals of modern

communication devices like Radio, Television, Telephone, mobile, Fax
and Internet.
Electromagnetic waves
You have come to know about the interesting aspects of light in the
previous classes and also in this class.
to

Light as you have studied, is just a part of broad electromagnetic

spectrum. You know about visible spectrum VIBGYOR.
t

This band of seven colours is visible

No

to our eyes but there are light waves

which are not visible to us. Above Red,
beyond violet also there are waves.
For example: Right in your
room, there are waves of Akashvani,
Bangalore. You can not see them. But
you can detect them using a radio.
Fig 21.1 Spectrum Electromagnetic waves which

255
have very long or short wave length are not visible to our eyes. Mutually
perpendicular electric and magnetic fields which are also perpendicular
to the line of propagation are known as Electromagnetic waves. They
help in transporting energy. They travel with a velocity of 3x108 m s-1
in vacuum that is 3 lakh kilometre per second.

d
is he
re S B
bl Fig 21.2 Electro magnetic wave
be T

pu
K
©
to

Fig 21.3 Uses of electro magnetic waves

t

Sound waves, waves on water, spring waves are all different kinds
No

of waves. They are called mechanical waves. They need a medium to

travel and have comparatively very less velocity than light or shall we
say electromagnetic waves?
All electromagnetic waves have the same velocity of 3x108 m s-1 in
vacuum but they differ from one another regarding wavelength and
frequency. Recall the terms frequency, wavelength and amplitude that
you have studied under the chapter Sound.

256
 Number of cycles per second is called frequency. Its unit is Hertz.
10 kilo hertz is written as 10 KHz or 10000 Hz. Distance between two
consecutive crests or troughs is called wavelength. Height or depth of
a wave is called amplitude, when it is represented by a graph.
Electromagnetic waves are broadly arranged in the increasing
order of their wavelength in seven categories. Though they have the
same velocity, they differ from one another regarding wavelength and
frequency. Some of them are harmful to human health, yet useful in

d
industrial and medical field.

he
Why should we know about electromagnetic waves ? It is because
they act like vehicles in most of the modern communication devices.

is
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

James Clerk Maxwell Heinrich Rudolf Hertz

to

Electromagnetic wave theory was first proposed by James Clerk

Maxwell, in the year 1864. They were first experimentally produced and
demonstrated by Hertz in the year 1887. Electromagnetic waves were
t

called Hertzian waves in the beginning.

No

The use of electromagnetic waves in sending wireless messages or

radio communication was first demonstrated by the Indian scientist
Acharya Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose two years before Marconi’s
demonstration. J.C.Bose’s demonstration of radio communication
was conducted in 1895 at Town hall of Kolkatta. Lieutenant Governor
Sir William Mackenzie witnessed Bose’s demonstration. Bose went to
London on a lecture tour in 1896 and met Marconi. Marconi was well
aware of the demonstration of J.C.Bose. But he claimed the patent.

257
J.C. Bose was not interested in patents. He made his inventions public
so that it may be useful for further research by other scientists. Bose’s
ideal is also followed by scientists like Roentgen, Pierre Currie who were
not interested in patenting on moral grounds.
J.C.Bose
Sir. J.C.Bose was a physicist, biologist,
botanist, archeologist and writer of science

d
fiction. He was a very popular Physics
Professor at the Presidency College,

he
Kolkata. His semiconductor devices which
detected radio waves are still being used
in many forms of modern radio

is
re S
communication.
B
bl
He is the first to produce electromagnetic
waves of 1 metre wavelength. The
be T

similarities of plant and animal tissues

pu
were shown by him. He used his own
K

invention the Crescograph to measure J.C. Bose

plant response to various stimuli.
©

Revaluation of scientific history puts Sir.J.C.Bose ahead of all in

radio communication.

Guglielmo Marconi 1874-1937

to

He received Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909, for

his outstanding work in wireless transmission.
First wireless stations were started in 1926
t

linking England and Canada due to his efforts.

No

He had many patents to his credit. He is

officially recognized as the inventor of radio.

Guglielmo Marconi

Radio: Radio is still the most popular electronic device used to listen
to music, speeches and weather bulletins. The low cost device namely
radio receiver does not require much technical skills to operate.

258
 Radio communication involves two things
• Radio transmitter
• Radio receiver
Radio transmitter
Music, speech or weather bulletin consist of sound waves which are
produced by vibrations. This information is called ‘intelligence’. These
sound waves are converted into electrical signals, called Audio Frequency

d
waves or AF in its short form. Microphones convert the vibrations into

he
AF. In microphones a thin film called diaphragm vibrates by sound
waves which are transferred to a crystal which is generally made from
quartz. Quartz is crystalline form of commonly occurring silicon dioxide.

is
re S
Crystals of such types produce electrical signals when they are
subjected to stress. The variations in AF are according to the variations
B
bl
of the sound waves.
AF signals are weak. They are strengthened
be T
pu
by electronic devices. The process of
K

strengthening the AF signals is called

amplification.
©

The amplified AF signals even if they are

strengthened cannot travel long distances.
They need a transport vehicle to travel
longer distances. These vehicles are nothing
but electromagnetic waves of wavelength
Fig 21.4 Microphone 1 m to 1 km.
to

Electromagnetic waves which carry the AF signals are called carrier

waves or Radio frequency waves or RF in short.
RF waves are produced separately, using oscillator coils, in the radio
t

transmitter. The contribution of H.R Hertz regarding production of radio

No

waves of required frequency should be remembered in this regard.

Each transmitter has its own vehicle that means its own RF waves.
In fact a radio station is recognized by the frequency of the RF waves
it uses.
Bangalore radio station transmits radio waves of wave length
490.1 m. Can you calculate its frequency ?

259
Activity 21.1
With the help of a radio receiver set, tune the radio at different frequencies.
You will listen to the programme of that radio station.

Try to find out frequency of some radio stations which are frequently used
by you or by your parents.

Think: If two or more persons start talking to you simultaneously, how do

d
you feel ?

he
If two radio stations have the same frequency, what will happen?

If you know the wavelength you can calculate the frequency.

is
velocity
re S
Velocity = Wavelength × Frequency or Frequency =
wavelength
B
bl
= 3 x 108 m s-1 =30,0000000 m per second
be T

Wavelength of a station = 300 m

pu
300000000 - 106 Hz
Therefore frequency of the radio station =
- 103 K Hz
K

300

The process of superimposing or mixing AF signals on RF waves

©

is called modulation. The modulated waves are further amplified and

transmitted by transmitting towers or antenna. The RF wavelengths
in the range of 10 m to 100 m, get reflected by the ionosphere of the
earth. The transmitted modulated wave covers large distances. This is
the major advantage of radio communication. FM stations or TV sta-
tions use high frequency waves which pass through ionosphere and are
to

not bounced. Relay stations or satellites are needed for long distance
communication of such stations.
t
No

RF AF Modulated wave
Fig 21.5

260
 Block diagram of Radio transmitter

Fig 21.6 Block diagram of radio transmitter

d
Radio receiver

he
To day there are variety of receiving sets. To listen to the particular
station the radio should be tuned to that station. Built in antenna

is
re S
receives the modulated waves.
B
bl
Detector separates RF from AF signals. The
process of separating RF waves from AF
be T

waves is called demodulation. The AF

pu
signals are amplified and fed to the speaker
K

to reproduce the original sound. Speaker

works in the reverse manner of microphone.
©

In this the coil starts vibrating when AF

signals are passed through it. The vibrations
are transferred to a diaphragm to produce Speaker
sound waves.
t to
No

Fig 21.7 Block diagram of a radio receiver

Television
When sound waves can be transmitted to longer distances, why
not the light from the objects? In radio transmission sound energy is
converted into AF signals. Is it possible to convert light energy into
electricity?

261
 You might have heard about photocells which convert light energy
into electrical energy. The idea took a shape by the experiments
conducted by JOHN LOGIE BAIRD.
John Logie Baird
J.L.Baird was a Scottish engineer, who is
best known as the inventor of television. His
degree course was interrupted by World War

d
I and he never graduated.
Using discarded parts of a bicycle lamp,

he
a torch, old motor, parts of a discarded radio,
he tried to send the visual signals using

is
electromagnetic waves.
re S
In 1930 from his London studio he
B
bl succeeded in making the face of a popular
singer appear on a screen for a short while.
be T

John Logie Baird His experiments were used later for war
pu
purposes. After the war there was tremendous
K

development.
How does a T.V. work ?
©

The image of an object is made to fall on a plate using T.V. camera.

This plate is called signal plate. The plate consists of many photo
cells. The light from the object is converted into video signals or video
frequency waves or VF in short. Before this process the image is scanned
as dots and lines by the scanner. Normally cathode ray tube is called
to

scanner. The VF signals are amplified and modulated on RF waves.

The modulated waves are amplified and transmitted through antenna.
Sound is transmitted as in a radio.
t
No

Fig 21.8 Block diagram of a T.V. Transmitter

262
 T.V. receiver
Antenna receives the modulated waves. Channel selection is nothing
but selection of frequency of a T.V. station. After demodulation, VF
signals are fed to the picture tube called cathode ray tube. The cathode
ray tube produces original picture. The sound is reproduced as in radio
receiver. Today there is revolution in the field of T.V. receiver sets. Huge
picture tubes are replaced by digital picture tubes or flat plasma T.V.
screens.

d
is he
re S
Fig 21.9 Block Diagram of a T.V. Receiver
B
bl
Know this : T.V. Transmission requires high frequency carrier waves.
be T
pu
They are not bounced by Ionosphere. They need relay stations for distant
K

transmission. Geostationary satellites like INSAT series are most useful in

distant T.V transmission. One Geostationary satellite can link 1/3 of the
globe by T.V network.
©

Know this : The remote control handset of T.V makes

use of infra red radiations of very low frequency of low
temperature. Depending upon the frequency of the infra
red radiations emitted by remote control, a channel is
selected, by the infrared sensor.
to

FAX How does it work ?

The long form of fax is facsimile transmission. All types of documents,
t

either printed or hand written, line diagrams and photographs can be

No

sent or received using the fax machine. It is different from electronic

mail. Information is sent through telephone line.
A fax machine scans the document by light and the image is changed
into electrical signals by photo cells. The message travels through
the telephone lines and received by the fax machine at the other end.
After de- coding , machine produces the copy of the original document.
Every fax machine has a number like a telephone. This has to be dialed
before sending a message.

263
 Alexander Bain invented fax. He was a
Scottish instrument inventor, technician
and clock maker. He invented electric
clock. Bain also installed the railway
telegraph line.

Fig 21.10 Fax Machine

d
Telephone

he
The trin-trin sound of a telephone is very familiar to you. You might
have also used the coin booth. The sound waves are converted into

is
electric signals by the mouth piece. The signals reach the ear piece at
re S
the other end by cables.
B
bl
There are many developments in the technology of telephone.
Instead ofFigusing traditional copper cables, we are using optical fibres
21.8 Fax Machine
be T

and light, preferably laser light. Recall ‘total internal reflection of light’
pu
in the chapter light. In a small space thousands of lines can be put.
K

Telephone is a two way cabled communication device.

©

Alexandar Graham Bell

Telephone was invented by Alexandar
Graham Bell. He was a British inventor,
Scientist, Engineer and professor. Above
all he was a teacher for the deaf.
The knowledge of the structure and
to

functioning of Human ear inspired him

to invent telephone.
Alexandar Graham Bell
t
No

Cellular telephone exchange system uses computerized techniques.

This has solved many problems of mechanical exchange system. You
are already familiar with terms like :
STD: Subscribers Trunk Dialing
ISD : International Subscriber Dialing
Each transmitting unit has its own code. For example Bangalore
code is 080. This number has to be dialed first and then the telephone
number for calling on the persons of different exchange areas.

264
 Mobile

Martin Cooper
Martin Cooper invented the hand
held cellular mobile phone. He was
an American Engineer. He was the

d
Divisional Manager and Vice President

he
of Motorola.

Martin Cooper

is
re S
How does a mobile work ?
B
bl
The working of mobile is similar to the working of radio. Mobile is a
two way radio system. It consists of both radio transmitter and receiver.
be T

It also consists of a portable microchip called a sim card (Subscriber

pu
Index Module) and a lithium-ion re-chargeable battery. All of this is
K

generally encased in a hard plastic frame. It contains display screen

and mini keyboard.
©

Today you come across a variety of models which are multifunctional.

They include alarm clock, calculator, camera, music player, games, Short
Service Message or SMS. Internet services and Multimedia Message
Service (MMS) are also available with some models.
The sound waves are converted into radio frequency waves and
travel without the help of cables and reach a receiver at nearby base
station. The base station sends the radio waves which are detected by
to

the receiver.
Messages are also transmitted and received through the base station.
t

Mobile users often use the word roaming. What is it?

No

Roaming means transferring the service of a home network to

another service provider. In simple words it means interlinking two
networks.
Advantages of mobile
• Communication between two persons even if they are moving
• Communication to and from a land line phone
• Voice message, text message facilities.

265
 • It can be used as a mini computer.
• Linking of entire globe by telecommunication using geo
stationary satellites.
Find out : Microwaves are used in mobile communication. With too many
users, the mobile towers are also increasing. The effect of microwaves which
have higher frequency than radio waves, on human health and also their effect
on birds, animals, plants have to be studied in detail for inventing safe guards.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

Fig 21.11 Mobile Service though satellite

Internet
to

With a computer and telephone connection linked to the network

of internet service, you can have access to any kind of information be
t

it music, film, encyclopaedia, news update, profiles of famous persons.

No

You can down load any information on any of the subject and a print
out can also be taken.
Activity 21.2
Learn to access Internet services. Create your own E-mail address and
try to send and receive information by E-mail in school computer laboratory if
available. Visit a nearby cybercafe. Learn to access internet services. You can
also learn it in your school if internet facilities are available.

266
 Exercises :
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete
statement / question. Choose the right answer.
1. Modulated waves of radio transmitter contain,
a. sound waves b. carrier waves
c. AF waves and carrier waves d. AF waves.
2. Increasing the strength of AF waves is called.

d
a. modulation b. transducing c. demodulation d. amplification

he
3. Telephone with cables was invented by.
a. Alexander Graham Bell b. Alexander Bain

is
c. Martin Cooper d. John Logie Baird.
re S
4. A person is singing in a Radio station. It can be listened to in a
B

bl
receiver almost at a speed of.
a. sound b. light c. 1/16th of a second d. 1/10th of a second
be T
pu
II. Fill in the blanks :
K

1. The device that can be used to send a copy of a document to other

places quickly is ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­___________________.
©

2. Original sound is reproduced in a radio receiver by _______________.

3. First person to demonstrate transmission of radio signals is______.
4. Two way radio communication device is called __________________.
5. Radio communication of long distance is possible without satellites
due to the presence of atmospheric layer ___________________.
6. Microwaves are used in ___________________ phones
to

III. Answer the following :

1. What are electromagnetic waves ?
t

2. What is modulation ?
No

3. Which part of the radio transmitter converts sound waves into audio
frequency waves ?
4. Which part of the T.V. transmitter converts light into electrical
signals ?
5. Draw a neat block diagram of radio transmitter .
6. The principle of radio and mobile phone is the same. How are the
two different from one another?


267
 Chapter 22
Food production–soil and water
management
After studying this chapter students :
• describe the importance of management of soil
• list the various practices in vogue for rational management of soil

d
• describe briefly each of the various practices followed for enrichment

he
and maintenance of the soil
• list the advantages and disadvantages of green revolution

is
• describe the advantages and disadvantages of organic manures and
re S
chemical fertilizers
B
•
bl
list the various types of chemical fertilizers commonly used by
farmers
be T
pu
• state the types of nutrients added to the soil by the use of various
types of chemical fertilizers.
K

• describe some of environmental friendly farming practices

©

• appreciate the contributions of Indians to the field of agriculture

We have studied many things about food and nutrients. Should we
not know from where we get our food? As you know, most of us procure
food from an outside source. One may obtain food in three principal
ways:
• Some persons obtain food by hunting, fishing, gathering wild
to

fruits, edible leaves and roots of plants in the wild.

• Some persons produce food by cultivating certain plants and
domesticating animals.
t
No

• Many persons buy food from the money earned.

You are in the second group, if you are born in a farming family.
Rest of us all fall into group three. Whatever may be the case, some
one must grow food. The law of nature is that most organisms thrive by
eating other organisms. Plants use soil minerals, water, air and energy
from the sun to manufacture their own food. Animals eat certain plants
or plant products. Humans eat both selected plants and some of the
animals or their products. The primary source of food for humans is the

268
 plant. The secondary sources are animals such as goats, poultry birds
and animal products such as milk and eggs. Thus, all organisms get
their food directly or indirectly from plants. Naturally available food are
insufficient to feed the mouths of ever-increasing population. Hence, we
have taken to agriculture where in we cultivate certain types of plants
in a given land area. Without agriculture, which involves the toil and
sweat of the farming community, the world cannot survive. Whether one

d
is rich or poor, engineer or labourer, everyone depends on the farmers
for their food. That is why we call them ‘annadathas’.

he
‘Agriculture’ is the science and art of cultivating crops, and raising
livestock. It was once the chief way of life in nearly every country. People

is
cannot live without food, and nearly all our food comes from crops and
re S
animals raised on farms. Many other materials such as cotton and wool
B
bl
also come from plants and animals raised on farms. Agriculture remains
the most important occupation in the world. Scientific methods and
be T
pu
machinery have made farming increasingly productive. The development
K

of improved plant varieties and fertilizers has helped to improve the

yields of some major crops. Scientific livestock care and breeding have
©

helped increase the amount of meat and products that animals produce.
At the same time, the use of tractors and other modern farm equipment
has sharply reduced the need for farm labour.
For getting best out of agriculture, the farming community needs
• Good seeds
to

• Availability of fertile land

• Water and irrigation facilities
t

• Manures and fertilizers

No

• Supportive social and economic environment

• Crop pricing policy
• Good prices for their produce.
• Science and technology
Can you think of any other factors, discuss with your friends and
teachers.

269
 In India, agriculture is still the largest occupation, engaging a large
section of our population. The success of our nation, our economy
depends critically on the quality and effective output of agriculture.
Several factors influence agriculture. Agriculture is a highly complex but
a very important enterprise. Hence, it is important for us to realize the
vast dimensions, problems and achievements in the field of agriculture.
By now, you should have an idea regarding the complexities,
problems and challenges in crop production. Let us now consider the

d
issues related to soil and water.

he
Importance of soil in agriculture
What is soil? It would be wrong to think of soils as just a collection of

is
fine mineral particles. Soil also contains air, water, dead organic matter,
re S
and various types of living organisms, although we must recognize that
B
the composition of these will vary from place to place.
bl
Different people view land and soil differently. Land and its soil is
be T
pu
a means of livelihood for the farming community. For the urbanites it
is, a place to construct buildings. To a child, it is a place and a thing
K

to play. It is a storehouse of minerals for a miner. Humanists see land

and soil as materials, which determine the existence of all forms of life
©

on earth. What is your view? What does soil mean to you? Soil plays a
major role in all human activities. In fact, all of us get our living directly
or indirectly from the soil. So does every other living organism.
Soil is an asset that we can hand over to countless generations
almost intact. Crops take up their requirements such as water and
minerals through the medium of soil. Soil also provides anchorage for
to

crops. It is the primary nutrient reservoir for plants. Thus, agriculture

highlights the role of soil in the production of food.
Need for soil management
t
No

Soil is one of the major factors that affect food production. Crop
plants need nutrients for their living, healthy growth and higher yields.
Crops well fed with nutrients are likely to grow fast, remain strong and
therefore show resistance to diseases. Crops that grow in soil depleted
with nutrients will show slow growth and may even die. Hence, it
is important to maintain the quality of the soil. Soil that has higher
capacity to supply the required nutrients is fertile soil. Conversely,
depleted soil is unable to provide nutrients and support. Natural and
human factors contribute to the depletion of soil. This makes the soil

270
 increasingly less productive and renders agriculture unsustainable.
Hence, we need to manage the soil to maintain its quality and fertility
to enhance its performance. The productivity and performance of soil
depends on several factors. They include soil fertility, water supply,
land-slope, depth to the water table, climate and cultivation
Soilless cultivation
Can we grow crops without using soil? Human ingenuity has

d
made it possible. A technology that enables growth of certain crops
without soil is available. It involves growing plants with their roots in

he
nutrient solutions and without soil. This is known as hydroponics.
We also call it ‘soilless cultivation’.

is
re S
A plant is a kind of biological factory. It requires a large number
of raw materials. These include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
B
bl
phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, magnesium, calcium, iron, manganese,
zinc, copper, boron and many others. Plants get carbon, hydrogen and
be T

oxygen from air and water. Most of the other nutrients are required
pu
only in smaller quantities. They are present in the soil in sufficient
K

amount. The problem is with the availability of nitrogen, phosphorus

and potassium. Lack of one or more of these in the soil limits crop
©

production. Hence, it is a major concern for the farming community. It

is the amount of these three nutrients along with humus, which usually
determine soil productivity. We shall learn about the ways of maintaining
these three nutrients later in the chapter.
Techniques of soil management
Soil management concerns all operations, practices and treatments
to

used to protect soil and its fertility so that crops can grow and yield
well. Under natural conditions, all plant materials return to the soil.
Therefore, the fertility of the soil will never decline. This is the case with
t

forests or grasslands untouched by human activity. When we grow a

No

crop, we take out all or a part of the plant produce. This is necessary to
feed people and domestic animals. This results in depletion of the soil
productivity. Intense and prolonged agriculture in a given land causes
a fall in land productivity. Luckily, science has helped us to understand
the factors that affect soil productivity.
Science has also given us ways of managing and maintaining
the quality of the soil. Figure 22.3 summarizes these techniques.
Maintenance of soil productivity involves two major issues namely;

271
• identification of the ways and prevention of loss of nutrients in the
soil
• taking steps to maintain and restore soil fertility. Here are a few
tips to maintain soil fertility. we may also call it techniques of soil
management.
Techniques in soil management
• Control erosion of top soil.

d
• Maintain the water balance and regulate soil temperature.

he
• Improve the soil structure and maintain a stock of organic matter.
Activity 22.1

is
re S
Can you think of any other points. Speak to a farmer and gather information.
B
bl
The valuable nutrients in the soil are either lost or taken out in
many ways. When we harvest crops, we remove largest amount of soil
be T
pu
nutrients. Can we avoid this loss? Erosion of the top soil also depletes
K

nutrients in soil. Nutrients are also lost when rainwater or irrigated

water takes away soluble nutrients. How can we prevent this loss?
©

Activity 22.2
Collect information about soil erosion and make notes on the causes of soil
erosion and ways of preventing it. Exchange the information with your friends.
Do you think that soil erosion is a serious problem? What types of agricultural
practices will reduce soil erosion? What are the other problems that arise by soil
erosion? Also, find out the meaning of the word ‘leaching’. How can you prevent
to

the loss of nutrients caused by leaching? Is there a loss of nutrients in your

home garden or school garden? What measures do you suggest to prevent this?
We can take measures to maintain or restore the soil nutrients. Do
t

you know any of these? Such measures include the following:

No

Proper use of land

We can reduce nutrient loss from the soil by using the land only for
those crops for which it is best suited. It is better to maintain a permanent
green cover on lands such as steep slopes that are particularly vulnerable
to erosion. Failure to do this means more erosion, which renders the
land unusable for agriculture. For instance, we find large chunks of
such unusable land in the Chambal regions of Madhya Pradesh.

272
 Crop rotation
Crop rotation is one of the oldest and effective strategies for
maintaining soil productivity. Many farmers grow several different crops,
one after another, in a regular sequence. This is better for the soil than
growing the same crop, season after season. In crop rotation, the crop
for a new season is from a different ‘family’ than the previous one. The
planned rotation may vary from 2 to 3 years or longer. We may grow

d
paddy or ragi in one season followed by a legume crop like groundnut.
This is a less intensive type of agriculture than single cropping. Is this

he
practice suitable for a country like India where grain needs are high?
Think. What is your view on this?

is
re S
Crop rotation also helps to keep the insect-pest population under
check. Generally, insect pests and disease-causing organisms are host-
B
bl
specific. For example, rice stem borer feeds mostly on rice. If you do
not rotate Paddy with other crops belonging to a different family, the
be T
pu
pest population increases because food is always available. However,
K

if you plant legume as the next crop, the insect pest is likely to die due
to non-availability of food.
©

How does crop rotation help to prevent the loss of nutrients? Crop
rotation gives higher protection against soil erosion. Crops that grow
closely together greatly help in preventing soil erosion. Crop rotation also
provides different types of root systems. Some plants have deeper roots.
Some spread horizontally while others go deep. Rotating such crops
enhances soil fertility. Have you heard of bacteria called Rhizobium?
to

Where do they live? How does it help to maintain the fertility of the
soil? Find out.
Mixed cropping and multiple cropping
t
No

In mixed cropping, farmers sow one main crop and one or two
subsidiary crops together on the same land. Mixed cropping technique
can be followed both in dry and wet lands. In this technique, crops
utilize soil nutrients more evenly. There is no extensive use of any
single nutrient. This also provides some kind of security for the
farming community against crop failure. Another advantage is that it
secures the family requirements of cereals, pulses, oil seeds and fodder
simultaneously.

273
 There is limited land available for agriculture. Hence, we must find
ways of increasing the yield per hectare. One way is to go for multiple
cropping. We must grow more than one crop in a year or season. This
requires good irrigation facilities and short duration breeds. We, in
India, have attempted multiple cropping by introducing such crops as
barley, potatoes and vegetables in addition to crops like paddy, maize,
jowar and bajra. What do farmers do in your region?

d
Keeping the land unused

he
Some farmers replenish soil fertility by keeping the land unused for
a season or two. They allow sheep and goats to graze and sit over the
land. Their droppings will enrich the soil. This ensures increased food

is
re S
production in the next cropping season.
Role of organic manures in soil management
B
bl
Organic matter in the soil consists of fresh organic matter and
be T
pu
humus. Fresh organic matter includes dead plant and animal material,
K

and animal droppings. Soil organisms transform such organic matter

into fine organic matter and humus. Humus in soil improves the soil
©

structure, resists soil erosion, retains water, and enriches the nutrients.
The presence of organic matter in the soil is fundamental to soil
productivity. Widespread use of decomposed organic matter maintains
and improves soil fertility. Organic manure is cheaper. Only cost involved,
is probably the labour. Organic manures bind loose soil, increase their
water holding power, help in aeration, assist in penetration of roots, add
to

plant nutrients and increase microbial activity that are helpful for crops.
We can make organic manures from any organic matter. Compost
made from any organic wastes such as animal dung, night soil, sludge,
t

sewage, sheep folding, and green manures. Edible and non-edible

No

oilcakes, blood meal, fishmeal, bone meal also provide essential nutrients
to the soil in relatively concentrated form. Cattle dung is probably the
largest source of organic manures for the farming community.
Think : Many farming families use cattle dung to make cakes. They use these
cakes as fuel for cooking and heating water. What are the disadvantages
of this practice? How can they get both manure and fuel from cattle dung?

274
 We must add organic manures in relatively large quantities. We
must add them before the sowing or planting of saplings. Why is it not
so useful to add organic manures in the middle of the cropping season?
What options do the farmers have?
Preparation of compost
How can we make manure from organic matter? The natural
decomposition process converts complex organic matter into manure. We

d
can however regulate and speed up this process. First, we must collect

he
and stack up the organic material in a heap inside a pit or vessel. The
decomposition is more intense in a heap. This is because the conditions
for decomposition are more favourable. The product is compost, which

is
re S
is nothing but well-decayed organic matter with humus and nutrients.
Activity 22.3
B
bl
You may want to prepare compost for your kitchen garden. You can do
be T
pu
that without much cost. Knowledge you gain from this experience may help you
K

understand some of the practices followed by farmers. The concept of ‘Thippe’

is an example of such practice. Do you have a small place around your house
©

or school? You can make compost even in a bucket or a plastic bag. Dig a pit.
Put any organic waste such as vegetable peels, Cowdung, fallen leaves from
trees, crop residues or even weeds into the pit. Make them into small pieces if
they are too large. Pour a layer of soil over them. Sprinkle water over the soil to
keep the matter moist. Go on heaping layer after layer until the pit or the bag is
full. Keep adding water after each heap. Microbes break up the organic matter
into simpler forms. Adding a few earthworms will also help. Leave it for 8-10
to

weeks. Compost is now ready for use.

Bio-fertilizers
t

Sometimes farmers add living microorganisms like Rhizobium,

No

Azotobacter, Azolla, Nitrobacter and Phosphotika to the soil. Adding

such organisms increases soil fertility and promotes plant growth.
These organisms add up nutrients by their activity and help to build
up the fertility of soil and safeguard the quality of crop products. For
instance, organisms like Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Acetobacter, and
blue-green algae help to mobilize nitrogen. A biofertilizer like Phosphotika
mobilises phosphorus.

275
Role of chemical fertilizers in soil management
Chemical fertilisers play an important role in crop production. They
are synthetically prepared to include the vital nutrients essential for the
plant growth. They contain the nutrients in specific ratios in a readily
usable form. We may adjust their dosage to suit the requirement. We
can easily assess the requirement by soil testing. Farmers may choose,
depending on the need, to use fertilizers that provide a single nutrient
or mixed fertilizers. Mixed fertilizers supply two or more nutrients. For

d
example, NPK has nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Monopotassium

he
phosphate has high content of both phosphorus and potassium. Urea
is a fertilizer which provides only one nutrient namely nitrogen.
One of the benefits of chemical fertilizers is that it is custom-made for your

is
re S
requirement. If soil in your farmland is rich in nitrogen and potassium,
what you need is a fertilizer that will take care of the phosphorus
B
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deficiency. Chemical fertilizers will give you the option to use only that
nutrient which is in deficiency. Further, chemical fertilizers have high
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NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium) ratio of nearly 60%. Most fertile
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of organic fertilizers can give only about 14%. Chemical based fertilizers
are cost-effective and can supply plants with the proper balance of
©

Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potash.

Problems of chemical fertilizers
Chemical fertilizers add several salts to the soil. Some of these have
a tendency to accumulate and alter the soil characteristics. This may
harm and destroy the soil fauna. Increased use of chemical fertilizers also
causes pollution of land and water. This affects the aquatic organisms
to

and their habitats. Thus, a chain of undesirable changes trigger in the

environment.
Alternate agricultural practices for soil conservation
t

Organic farming
No

Modern technologies had their problems. This gave momentum

to more eco-friendly agricultural practices. Organic farming is
the form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop
rotation, green manure, compost, and biological pest control,
to maintain soil productivity and control pests on a farm.
Organic farming strictly limits the use of chemical fertilizers and
synthetic pesticides and medicines.

276
 The organic farming movement began in the 1930s and 1940s as
a reaction to agriculture’s growing reliance on synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides. Today, various governments are making efforts to popularize
and promote organic farming. States like Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Kerala are showing greater
keenness in organic farming.
Water management

d
We all know that water is a critical input for agriculture. Will there be
enough water to grow enough food for all our population? It is probable

he
that our present practices of water use will lead to severe water and
environmental crises in many parts of the world in the coming decades.
Agricultural water management is increasingly important because of

is
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low water supplies. Better agricultural water management ensures
availability of adequate water for drinking. Lack of water is a constraint
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bl
to production of food grains. Thinking differently about using water is
essential for achieving our triple goal of ensuring food security, reducing
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poverty, and conserving ecosystems.
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Production of food and other

agricultural products take 70% of
©

the freshwater from rivers and

groundwater. There is a serious
competition for water for various
human activities fig. 22.1 shows
relative requirement of water for
agriculture and domestic Fig 22.1 Usage of water
consumption. Water disputes in
to

villages are common. We are also aware of interstate and international

disputes over water. Can you think of some of them? This raises
important questions. Who will get the water? who decides allocations?
t

Should we supply water for far off cities or to the nearby farmlands?
No

Should people in upstream get more water than those in downstream?

The competition for water is not just between human beings of
various shades. Water used for agriculture is at the cost of water supply
to others areas, plants and animals. This may even cause changes in
ecosystem too.
Our environment is under threat from our agricultural practices.
What practices are harming the environment and the ecosystem?
The problem will get aggravated and becomes unmanageable if we do

277
not address the issue now. How can we manage our water resources?
How can we get better yields by using less water? Do you have any
suggestions?
Know this : Water is a precious commodity for all forms of life. To focus
attention on the importance of freshwater and to promote sustainable
management of freshwater resources, the world observes International
World Water Day each year.
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)

d
in 1992 recommended the observance of World Water Day. The United

he
Nations General Assembly designated 22nd March 1993 as the first World
Water Day. Each year, World Water Day highlights a specific aspect
of freshwater. Do you observe such important days in your School?

is
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Efficient management of water in agriculture
B
bl
Efficient irrigation combines two factors: managing your water to
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apply the right amount at the right time, and installing and maintaining
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an energy-efficient irrigation system. Good water management means
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matching the supply of irrigation water with crop’s demand. Lesser

the water you waste, the lesser would be the use of electricity. Good
©

equipment design and maintenance means that your system should

supply most water possible for each kilowatt-hour of electricity you
use. These principles are the same for managing a small lawn or a large
commercial crop.
To improve water management, one
should first learn about crop and its
root system. Efficient irrigation will
to

just saturate the root zone. It does

not cause surface run off or allow
water to percolate below the root
t
No

zone. Timing is also vital to efficient

irrigation. When you learn to judge
the amount of water in the soil, and
you understand your crop’s tolerance
to soil-water depletion, you will
Fig 22.2 Plants with different know how much water to apply and
root zones. when. These factors will together
determine the percent of applied
water that ends up in the root zone.

278
 Think : Observe the plants shown in figure 22.2. Which of the plants need
more water? Why do you think so?

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K
©

Fig 22.3 Factors influencing agricultural water management

Efficient irrigation systems must maximize efficiency and minimize

labour and capital requirements. When it comes to efficiency, questions
such as when to irrigate, how much to apply, and can the efficiency
be improved become important. The type of irrigation system farmers
follow will vary from location to location, crop to crop, year to year, and
to

farmer to farmer. Figure 22.3 gives some of the important considerations

in irrigation practices.
t

Some factors influencing the irrigational practices

No

Activity 22.4
Observe figure 22.3 carefully. It lists some important factors that influence
the irrigational practices. Study them carefully. Give one example to show how
each factor influences agricultural water management. Exchange ideas with
your friends.
There are two broad classes of irrigation systems: 1. gravity flow
distribution, and 2. pressurized distribution

279
 Gravity-flow system is the traditional practice of surface irrigation.
Furrow irrigation is another name for gravity-flow systems. Water, in
these methods, flows from the source and distributed to the field through
open canals and ditches by gravity. Farmers control water movement
and direct it to the field. They release water along the upper end of the
field. Water flows to the field by means of open ditches, above ground
pipe or underground pipe.

d
Pressurized irrigation system consists of a network of pipes, fittings
and other devices designed and installed to supply water under pressure

he
to the farmland. The pressurized systems include sprinkler and trickle
methods. These systems are highly efficient irrigation practices. Water

is
distribution in these methods happens through pressurized pipe
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networks. A suitable pump usually provides the required pressure.
B
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Figure 22.4 gives a comparison between the various irrigation practices.
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Drip irrigation Sprinkler irrigation Furrow irrgiation

Fig 22.4 Comparison of the three irrigation systems.
Activity 22.5
Study the two types of irrigation systems listed above carefully. List the
to

advantages and disadvantages of each of these systems. Tabulate your

findings.
t

Green Revolution in India

No

Green Revolution refers to the boom in agricultural production

that resulted from the introduction of high-yielding varieties of seeds,
increased use of fertilizers and introduction of improved irrigational
practices. William Gaud coined this word in 1968. The revolution
involved a series of research, development and technology transfer
initiatives. The initiatives involved the development of high-yielding
varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure,

280
 and distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides
to farmers. All India Radio played a crucial role in the education of
farmers on various aspects of green revolution. These steps significantly
increased the food yield per unit of land both in India and worldwide.
The impact of green revolution in India was more impressive on the
production of wheat and rice.
Some people now blame this movement for causing Land degradation,
pollution of water, environmental harm and farmers’ suicides. The green

d
revolution, despite its success, has not really helped to remove hunger

he
from the world. There are more than 800 million people suffering from
hunger. About two-thirds of the undernourished in the world live in Asia
where green revolution was a great success! Green Revolution certainly

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reduced India’s grain imports substantially, but did not eradicate
hunger! Nearly one-third of our population is poverty-stricken and
B
bl
undernourished. About 5000 children die each day from malnutrition.
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Think : Mere increase in food production and the availability of food

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materials will not ensure freedom from hunger. What other factors
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contribute to the hunger and suffering of the people?

Architect of green revolution in India:
©

Dr. M.S.Swamynathan
Dr. M.S.Swamynathan, Indian
agricultural scientist, is called the father
of green revolution in India. Swaminathan
set in motion fundamental changes in
to

agricultural production in India that have

put an end to India’s age-old status as a
nation on the brink of starvation. He is an
outstanding scientist and researcher. He
t
No

has served many agencies and organizations

as an advisor, policy maker, and above all
as a great leader. He made relentless
efforts to find sustainable ways to achieve
peoples’ basic right to food. The grateful Dr. Swaminathan
nations have honoured him with many
national and international awards and several honorary doctorates. He
is a Fellow of the Royal Society of UK and of the National Academy of
Sciences of US

281
Agriculture in ancient India
Agriculture is no new vocation for Indians. According to archaeological
findings, Paddy was a crop grown along the banks of the Ganges in the
sixth millennium BC. Later, it extended to other areas. Several species of
winter cereals notably barley, oats, and wheat and legumes such as lentil
and chickpea were grown in Northwest India before the sixth millennium
BC. Archaeological research has also revealed the cultivation of several
other crops 3000 to 6000 years ago.

d
Rigveda mentions about productive and non-productive soils.
The Amarkosha describes 12 types of lands in its chapter on Bhumivargaha.

he
Fertility and physical characteristics were the basis for this classification.
The chapter on Vaisyavargaha mentions soils suitable for specific crops
such as paddy, barley, sesame, black gram and so on. Sangam literature
(200 BC to 100 AD) of Tamils in southern India provides information on soil

is
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types.
Ancient Indians appreciated the importance of manures in obtaining
B
bl
high crop yields. Krishi-Parashara states that crops grown without
manure will not give yield. It also describes a method of preparing
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manure from cowdung. Kautilya mentions the use of cowdung, animal
bones, fish, and milk as manure. Agnipurana recommends application
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of “excreta of sheep and goat” to increase flowering and fruiting of trees.

In Bruhat Samhita, Varahamihira recommends the use of sesame plants
©

as green manure. Surapala (1000 AD) describes the ancient practice of

preparing liquid manure called kunapa.
Indian knowledge base in mathematics, astronomy, and astrology was
strong. Krishi-Parashara and Bruhat Samhita give simple models for
predicting rains in a particular season.
Rigveda mentions irrigation of crops by river water through channels
as well as irrigation from wells. Buddhist literature provides evidence
of building small tanks for irrigation. Artha-sastra of Kautilya refers
to

to sluice gates of tanks and mentions, “persons letting out the water
of tanks at any other place other than their sluice-gate shall pay a
fine of six panas; and persons who obstruct the flow of water from the
t

sluice-gate of tanks shall also pay the same fine”.

No

People in southern India had developed extensive tank irrigation

systems during the first two centuries of the Common Era. Availability
of irrigation made it possible to extend cultivation of rice to large areas,
and thus improve food security. Ancient Indians irrigated their lands from
wells. Bullocks pulled a leather bag with ropes to draw water from wells for
irrigation. The so-called “Persian wheel” used for drawing water from wells
was first developed in northern India, prior to invasions by Turks.
Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda mentions methods of irrigation and ways
to locate groundwater, nourishment of soil and fertilizers.

282
 Know this : Several rulers in India gave priority for Agriculture. The
sages probably had convinced the rulers that prosperous agriculture is the
foundation for strong empires. The tradition had been to impose minimal
tax on farmers. We find examples of this in Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Rama asks his brother Bharata in Chitrakoot, “Dear Bharata, have you
ensured that all those engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry receive
your special care and attention?” In Mahabharata, Bhishma, advises
King Yudhishthira in “Shantiparva”: “Agriculture, animal husbandry and
trade are the very life of people. Have you ensured that the cultivators

d
do not desert the country because of the exaction imposed by you? It is

he
indeed the cultivators who carry the burden of the king on their shoulders
and also provide sustenance to all others.” Do we recognize this today?

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Exercises
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I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete
B
bl
statement /question. Choose the right answer:
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1. Rhizobium baceria is associated with the fixation of

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a. oxygen b. carbon dioxide

c. nitrogen d. water vapour.
©

2. Green plants, normally do not suffer from the deficiency of

a. phosphorus b. sulphur
c. iron d. carbon
3. One of the argument against too much use of chemical fertilisers is
that they
to

a. decrease the taste of the food b. reduce the nutrients in food

c. affect soil bacteria d. consume too much in water
t

4. One of the advantages of growing chilli plants between two rows of

No

green gram plants, is that

a. chilli plants are protected by the shade of dhal plants
b. nitrogenous fertiliser prepared by green gram plants can be utilised
by chilli plants

c. chilli plants get water from green gram plants

d. dhal plants are protected from pests in the presence of chilli plants

283
 5. Pressurised irrigation system has the advantage of.
a. washing away pests from the plants
b. conservation of water to maximum extent.
c. conservation of fertilizer in the soil
d. production of hydroelectricity.
II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words:

d
1. Father of green revolution in India is _____________________.

he
2. NPK fertiliser has the elements nitrogen, phosphorus and _________.
3. Urea which is a chemical fertiliser is a rich source of _____________.

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4. By using animal dung and organic waste we can make an organic
manure called _____________________.
B
bl
III. Match the following :
be T
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A B
K

1. deep rooted plants a. do not need nitrogenous fertiliser

2. plants that are not deep rooted b. need always rain water
©

3. plant roots containing c. need chemical fertilisers

rhizobium
4. loss of water d. occasional watering
e. frequent watering
f. furrow irrigation
to

g. need nitrogenous fertiliser

IV. Answer the following :
t
No

1. List any two advantages and two disadvantages of using chemical

fertilizers.
2. Why should farmers enhance the amount of humus in their
farmland? How do they do that?
3. Distinguish between organic manures and chemical fertilizers.
4. List some agricultural practices that help to maintain the fertility of
soil.

284
 5. How do you prepare compost manure?
6. List any three ways by which soil erosion occurs. State any two
measures to reduce the loss of top soil.
7. What are the advantages of organic farming ?
8. What are the advantages of pressurized irrigation systems over
gravity driven surface irrigation systems ?

d
9. Suggest measures to conserve water in agriculture.

he
Think
1. What is your view on organic farming? If you were to have a piece

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of agricultural land, do you opt for chemical farming or organic
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farming? Give reasons for your choice.
B
bl
2. How can we ensure food security for all people of our country?
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3. Why should we find ways for conserving water used for agriculture?
pu
What are your suggestions for the conservation of water?
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4. How can we make agriculture more eco-friendly?

©

What we want are Western science coupled with Vedanta,

Brahmacharya as the guiding motto. and also Shradha and faith in
to

one’s own self.

-Swami Vivekananda
t
No



285
 Chapter 23
Evolution of life
After studying this chapter students :
• understand the necessary changes that have occurred on Earth
during origin of life.
• distinguish between atomosphere of ancient and present Earth

d
• analiyse the importance of organic evolution

he
• understand the theories on organic evolution
You have by now become familiar with the idea that a large number
and variety of living organisms are existing on this earth. What is the

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reason behind this variety? Were they present right from the time of
origin of earth? You have already learnt that earth was formed about
B
bl
4.8 billion years ago and the first form of life appeared only about 3.8
billion years ago.
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What changes must have occurred on Earth leading to the formation
K

of life? What changes must have occurred in living organisms to make

them more and more complex? Let us try to find answers to such
©

interesting questions in this chapter.

When the Earth was formed about 4.8 billions of years ago, it was
a hot revolving ball of gas. The extremely high temperature and the dry
climate of the earliest Earth would have made it impossible for life to
appear and exist. It is now fairly clear as to what it means to be ‘alive’
or ‘living’. However, it is not clear as to ‘how life first originated’. With
the pieces of evidence available, scientists have traced the possible
to

chain of events which might have taken place on Earth in the last 1 to
4 billions of years.
You will recall that it was Louis Pasteur who conducted the famous
t
No

‘swan necked flask’ experiments. With this he proved beyond doubt that
all forms of life arise only from pre existing life. However, one question
still remained unanswered How did the first form of life appear on
Earth? The answer to this question came in the form of a theory, called
theory of chemical evolution. This theory was proposed by Oparin
and Haldane independently. The theory assumes that
• the Earth’s surface and atmosphere during the first billion years of
its existence, were radically different from those of to days conditions.

286
 • the primitive earth’s atmosphere did not have oxygen.
• the first life arose from a series of chemical reactions.
• solar radiation, ultra violet rays and lightning, must have been the
chief sources of energy for these chemical reactions.

d
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re S B
bl Fig 23.1 Early Earth
be T

In the initial days of Earth’s formation, heavy elements such as iron

pu
and nickel, were present in the centre of the Earth . Comparatively lighter
K

ones like aluminium and silicon formed the middle layer. Elements like
hydrogen, oxygen and carbon were found in the outermost layer. Due to
©

the high temperature, the atoms of these elements could not combine
to form molecules. As the Earth started cooling gradually, the atoms
started combining to form molecules.
As cooling of the Earth continued for thousands of years, the
atoms of different elements combined together at random. This led to
the formation of molecules. The earliest molecules formed were those
to

of hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2) ammonia (NH3)methane (CH4) carbon

dioxide (CO2) and water vapour (H2O). These compounds formed the
basic molecules for the origin of life. Even molecular oxygen (O2) is found
to have been formed. But it probably combined with other elements,
t

like carbon, hydrogen, aluminium, iron to form their respective oxides.

No

Hence, it is thought that the early atmosphere did not contain molecular
oxygen.
It is assumed that water vapour formed the clouds which then
resulted in continuous rainfall for hundreds of years. The rain water is
said to have filled the hollows and basins on the surface of the earth to
form oceans. With further cooling of the earth, the inorganic molecules
combined with one another to form simple organic compounds. Simple
sugars, fatty acids, glycerol, aminoacids and nitrogen bases were

287
presumed to have been formed at this stage. These changes took place
in the presence of high amount of energy provided by discharge of
electrical charges due to lightning and ultraviolet rays.
As the earth cooled further, these compounds combined among
themselves to form complex compounds. Haldane suggested that due
to the accumulation of the complex organic molecules, the sea water
ultimately became a sort of a ‘hot dilute soup’. In this soup, molecules
interacted and aggregated to form more complex molecules.

d
It is presumed that aggregates of large molecules formed large

he
sized particles due to the force acting between their molecules. These
aggregates have been called coacervates. Due to their affinity towards
water molecules, an envelope of water molecules is said to have formed

is
around each. This is said to have increased the chances of chemical
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reactions.
B
bl
Gradually breaking down and
building up of chemical substances
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started. The coacervates probably

pu
not only exhibited growth, but also
K

started multiplying. The coacervates

continued to constantly take in
©

new materials from the ocean and

release the degraded materials.
Thus, they exhibited the basic
properties of life such as
metabolism, growth and
reproduction. Gradually, group of
complex organic compounds,
to

nucleic acids are said to have taken

precise control of the coacervates.
This led to the establishment of Fig 23.2 Earth
t

nucleic acids as the genetic

No

material. In course of time, the

coacervates became established into the first living systems which have
been named protobionts. Some of the proteins in the protobionts are
said to have developed the ability to speed up the chemical reactions,
thereby functioning as the first enzymes.
In the course of time protobionts became enclosed in a protein lipid
membrane. This property improved their survival ability. Metabolism,
growth and reproduction became regular, precise and controlled, leading
to the formation of first cells.

288
 The first forms of life developed in the oxygen-free atmosphere.
Hence, it is believed that these primitive forms of life obtained energy by
the fermentation of organic compounds. Recall anaerobic respiration,
which you have read in chapter 20. They were thus, heterotrophs
requiring ready made organic compounds as food.
Autotrophs are said to have arisen much later in the primitive earth.
The appearance of autotrophs in the form of blue green algae, changed
the situation on earth. These organisms released free molecular oxygen

d
into the atmosphere, gradually transforming it into an oxidizing type.

he
The following table summarises the sequence of events on earth
leading to the appearance of life.
Table 23.1 Events on earth leading to the appearance of life.

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Changes in 4.8 3.8 2.5 Billion Present
B
time
bl Billion
years
Billion
Years ago
Years ago
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ago
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Radiation High uv uv light Less uv light very low level of

uv light
©

Constitiuents H2,CH4, NH3,H2O, O3,O2,CO2,

of H2O NH3, H2,CO2, N2 H2O,H2,N2
Atmosphere CO2, N2,

Molecules Simple Complex Organic

Molecules Molecules molecules
to

Produced by
cells
Cell/Life None None Protobionts Present day
t

forms forms
No

Organic Evolution
The primitive cells that resulted from chemical evolution, gradually
gave rise to organisms such as bacteria, algae, fungi and protozoans.
These organisms in turn, gave rise to a variety of life forms that
are existing today on the earth. This was possible due to the slow and
gradual process by which living organisms have undergone changes
from the single celled forms to the many celled forms of life.

289
 This slow and gradual process of change is known as organic
evolution. The process is the result of innumerable modifications which
the organisms have developed under the
influence of their environment. These
changes have been passed on from generation
to generation bringing about formation of
new varieties within and across species.

d
The occurrence of evolution is supported
by the innumerable direct and indirect

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evidences that we can gather from organisms
of the past and present. The mechanism

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of organic evolution, has been explained
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by ideas put forth by scientists from time
B
bl to time. These ideas came to be known as
theories in organic evolution. Following are
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some of the theories that try to explain the
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mechanism of organic evolution.

Lamarckism
©

One of the earliest ideas on organic

evolution was proposed by a French Zoologist
by name Jean Baptiste Lamarck. In 1809,
he proposed a theory, which came to be
popularly known as ‘Theory of inheritance
to

of acquired characters’. It is also described

as ‘Lamarckism’. The theory is based on
three main ideas new needs, use and disuse
t

of organs and inheritance of acquired

No

Fig 23.3 Major events in

characters.
the history of Life

• Environment is highly unstable and is subject to frequent

changes. Lamarck believed that such changes create new needs
in the organisms. If the organisms fail to make necessary changes
favourably, it cannot survive.
• The appearance of new needs forces the organism to put in
additional efforts to fulfill the needs. It may put particular part of

290
 its body into more and more frequent use. Similarly it may also
be necessary for the organism to put a part of its body into less
use or may not use it all. This idea came to be known as use and
disuse of organs. Any part of the body that is more and more
used, is likely to grow larger and become better and stronger.
In the same way any part of the body which is less frequently
used, has a tendency to become less prominent and may even
ultimately disappear. Thus, by a differential overuse and disuse

d
of various body parts, an organism would change to some extent
and acquire new characters.

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• Lamarck believed that such characters acquired by an organism
get transmitted to the future generations. In every generation,
fresh characters are acquired.

is
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As a result, after many generations the changes accumulate and the
B
bl
species become modified into a new one. Lamarck’s ideas on evolution
may be explained by citing a few examples from his own writings.
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The example of giraffe is cited in support of the idea of overuse
K

of body parts. Among mammals, you know that giraffe is peculiar in

having a long neck and longer fore limbs Lamarck. suggested that the
ancestors of giraffes were as small as deer. The availability of grass and
©

other small plants was depleting. This was due to severe competition
from other herbivores and drought. Lamarck suggested that giraffes
started stretching their neck and fore limbs in order to reach the leaves
of taller plants. This continued for several generations and as a result,
neck became longer, as also the forelimbs.
t to
No

Fig 23.4 Lamarck’s theory of use and disuse of parts

291
 The absence of limbs in snakes was interpreted by Lamarck as an
evolutionary change. He suggested that ancestors of snakes had four
well developed limbs. Snakes were hunted by more advanced group of
animals such as birds and mammals. In order to survive, they started
crawling on the ground and spent most of their time hiding in crevices
and holes. Thus, they started disusing their limbs. This resulted in
the limbs becoming degenerate and ultimately disappear. The limbless
condition was passed on to subsequent generations.

d
Lamarck’s ideas had some drawbacks. His theory can not explain

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how body cells pass on the acquired characteristics to reproductive cells.
Experiments have shown that acquired characters are not inherited and
inherited characters are not acquired.

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Darwinism
B
bl Charles Darwin proposed a theory in 1859 to
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explain the possible mechanism of evolution.

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This theory came to be known as a theory of
K

natural selection. It is more popularly known as

‘Darwinism’. This theory is based on the following
©

principles.
Charles Darwin

Darwin found an interesting feature in all organisms. All organisms

have a natural capacity to produce a large number of young ones. He
called this capacity as ‘overproduction’. Darwin gave many examples
to

to support this idea.

Elephants are the slowest reproducing animals. In a life span of
about 90 years, a pair of elephants may produce a maximum of six young
t

ones. Darwin calculated that if all the six young ones survive, grow and
No

reproduce at the same rate, there would be 19 million elephants in just

about 750 years. In spite of such an enormous rate of reproduction the
number of individuals in each species remains nearly constant over
long periods of time.
• Darwin reasoned that, as a result of high rate of reproduction,
there must be a competition between individuals. It is for sharing
food water, living space and other resources. This competition was
described by Darwin as ‘struggle for existence’.

292
 • He found that generally the young ones of an organism show
differences compared to the parent. He described the differences as
‘variations’. They are the rule of nature. They help an organism to
adjust better to the environment.
• Darwin believed that nature selects only those organisms which
have favourable variations. They continue to produce young ones
with these variations. This provides advantages to such organisms.
Darwin described this process as ‘natural selection’.

d
• Darwin presumed that only those organisms which have developed

he
advantageous variations have a better chance of survival. The less
adapted and the not adapted organisms get eliminated. This idea
came to be known as ‘survival of the fittest’.

is
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Thus, new species develop from the existing ones in a slow and
B
gradual way.
bl
Darwin believed that while variations are the raw materials for
be T
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evolution, natural selection is the operating force. However, Darwin
failed to recongnize the source of variations in the organisms. Hence
K

goes the common saying, ‘Darwin explained the survival of fittest, but
not their arrival’. He had no idea of the mechanism of inheritance.
©

Victor Hugo Devries in 1902 proposed the idea that variations

are brought about by sudden changes to the genetic make up of an
organism. Such changes are called mutations. The modern theory on
organic evolution is the synthesis of ideas from the theory of natural
selection and the mutation theory. These theories have been examined
in the light of present knowledge on how mutations occur. It is known
to

as Neodarwinism.

Exercises:
t

I. Four Allternatives are given to each of the following incomplete

No

statement / question. Choose the right answer

1. The term ‘hot dilute soup’, was used by
a. Oparin b. Darwin c. Haldane d. Pasteur
2. Which gas was absent in the atmosphere at the time of origin of
life?
a. ammonia b. hydrogen c. oxygen d. methane

293
 3. The first organisms on primitive earth were
a. autotrophic b. heterotrophic and anaerobic
c. parasitic d. prokaryotic and autotrophic
4. The greatest weakness in Darwin’s theory was his failure to explain
a. over production b. survival of the fittest
c. struggle for existence d. variations

d
II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words :
1. Earth was a hot revolving ball of____________ about 4.8 billions of

he
years ago.
2. Lightest element hydrogen was found in the ____________ layer of the

is
earliest earth.
re S
3. Variations caused by sudden genetic changes are called __________.
B
bl
4. Darwin explained the survival of the fittest, but not their__________.
be T

III. Match the following :

pu
K

A B
1. Lamarck a. neodarwinism
©

2. Darwin b. mutation theory

3. Hugo Devries c. theory of natural selection
4. Oparin d. theory of inheritance of acquired characters
e. theory of chemical evolution
IV. Answer the following :
to

1. What is organic evolution?

2. Explain Lamarck’s theory of use and disuse of organs with suitable
examples.
t
No

3 What is the role of variations in evolution ?

4. What is mutation?
5. What is neodarwinism?



294
 Chapter 24
Beyond the Earth
After studying this chapter students :
• define the term celestial sphere.

• distinguish between Geocentric and Heliocentric models of solar

system.

d
• list the members of the solar system.

he
• state the main features of moon.

is
• state the planets in the order of increasing distance from the sun.
re S
• locate the planets Mercury, Mars, Venus, Jupiter and Saturn
B
bl
without the help of telescopes.
be T

• distinguish between stars and planets.

pu
K

• explain the main features of the planets.

• recognise familiar constellations.

©

• name the zodiacal constellations.

• describe the contribution of some personalities associated with the

study of celestial objects.

Solar system
to

Have you observed the night sky on a cloudless day? If you spend
some time watching it you will really enjoy. The patterns in the sky have
inspired many design makers and poets too. Clear moonless night in a
t

place away from the city, is best for watching the sky. Even otherwise
No

it is a good experience to watch it.

You may notice moon and thousands of twinkling stars which
are unevenly distributed. You see many recognizable patterns of stars.
If you observe carefully you may also see shining star like objects which
do not twinkle. Occasionally you may see streaks of light which gives
the impression of falling stars.

295
 These objects appear to be located on a huge sphere. You appear
to be at its centre. This sphere is called Celestial Sphere. What could
be the radius of such a sphere ? Objects in celestial sphere are called
celestial objects.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K
©

Fig 24.1 Celestial sphere

to

Direct observations show that most of the celestial objects appear

to move from East to West. This observation made many people think
t

that we are at the centre of the universe and all other celestial objects
No

are moving around us. Based on these observations people developed a

model. In this model earth is considered as centre of the universe and
all other celestial objects moving around us. The model is popularly
called ‘Geocentric model’. Greek philosopher Aristotle, Ptolemy and
many other philosophers believed in this system. Based on geocentric
model it was not possible to explain many events like solar eclipses and
the variations in the path of planets.

296
 Nicholas Copernicus, proposed an alternative model called
‘Heliocentric’ model. He placed the Sun at the centre of the observable
universe and all other celestial objects including the earth as objects
moving around the Sun. Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galile provided
scientific evidences for this model. Indian astronomers “Neelakanta
Somasatvan (Somayaji)” based on a suggestion of “Parameshwara” had
proposed a model similar to ‘Helio centric’ system earlier. Development

d
of telescope and mathematical calculations based on gravitational laws,
helped in better understanding of ‘Heliocentric model’.

he
Note : Heliocentric model has also undergone changes. You will learn
about it in higher classes.

is
re S
Let us know about some members of Heliocentric model. Solar
B
bl
system is a small part of the entire universe. Solar system has one star
be T

that is Sun as the centre and the members like planets, moving around
pu
it. Solar system as we understand today, comprises of the following
K

• The Sun which is the centre of the solar system

©

• Eight planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,

Uranus and Neptune
• The Asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter
• Satellites of the planets, which are also called the moons of the
planets.
to

• Comets such as Halley.

• Artificial satellites and space crafts.
t

Sun
No

Sun is the centre of the solar system. It has a radius of 109 times
that of the earth. It mainly consists of Hydrogen and Helium. The
reactions in the sun release enormous amount of energy. A part of the
energy is received by the earth in the form of heat and light. Life on
earth is sustained by this energy. You will study more about Sun in
the higher classes

297
 Know this : The sun light that you are seeing right now has left the sun
about 8 ½ minutes ago. That means it is 8 ½ minutes old. The velocity
of light is 300000 km per second. The distance between earth and sun is
therefore about 8 ½ × 60 × 300000 = 150 million km = 1.5 × 1011 m

Planets
Planets appear as shining objects. Sometimes they are mistaken

d
for stars. Among so many stars and planets, how can you recognize
a planet? Stars twinkle but planets do not. Why? This property helps

he
you to distinguish between a star and a planet. Stars are self luminous,
planets are not. Planets reflect sunlight and appear bright. Stars have

is
re S
very large size when compared to the planets. They appear small because
of their long distance from the earth. We can observe only four planets
B
bl
easily without a telescope. They are Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.
be T

You may observe another planet Mercury just before sunrise and just
pu
after sunset if the sky is clear.
K

We shall study about members of solar system in the order of their

©

distance from the sun.

t to
No

Fig 24.2 Planets in our solar system

298
 Period of rotation: Time taken by a planet or satellite to rotate
once around its own axis.
Period of revolution: Time taken by a member of the solar system
to go around the sun once.

Mercury
Mercury is the nearest planet to the

d
sun. Sun rises or sets within about two
hours of Mercury’s rising or setting. You

he
can spot it at the place of sunrise or
sunset, early in the morning or soon

is
after the sunset. But it is difficult to get
re S
a good view. Mercury has heavily
B
bl cratered surface (see the fig.24.3)
Surface temperature varies from 427 0C
be T

to -183 0C. Its specific gravity is 0.99.

pu
Its period of rotation and period of
K

Fig 24.3 Mercury revolution are 59 days and 88 days

respectively .
©

Venus
Venus is the second planet. It can be
recognized easily. Its atmosphere is
made up of mostly carbon dioxide.
Sun rise and Sun set as seen from
to

the planet will be in the West and

East direction respectively. Can you
give reason for this?. Its period of
t

rotation is 243 days and takes 224

No

days to go around the sun once. It

means a day on Venus is longer than
its year.
What is the duration of day and
Fig 24.4 Venus
year on earth? Compare the speed
of rotation of Earth and speed of rotation of Venus. What is your
conclusion?

299
 The surface temperature of Venus should be less than that of
Mercury considering its distance from the Sun. But it is comparable
to Mercury. It is about 400 0C. This is due to green house effect or
warming of the earth in common language. Carbon dioxide blocks long
wavelength infrared radiations and heat is trapped inside. The specific
gravity of Venus is 0.95.
Activity 24.1

d
observe the sky at around sunset. In the western direction above the hori-

he
zon you will notice a bright shining celestial object. It is the first object that you
can see in the western sky before the cover of darkness. It is Venus. You can

is
see it in eastern sky much before sunrise. People call it morning star or evening
re S
star though it is a planet.
B
Earth bl
be T

Earth is the third planet from the sun. Earth has one known natural
pu
satellite, the moon. Earth is the only planet in the solar system on which
K

life is known to exist. What makes earth so special? Which factors help
©

life to originate, evolve and develop ? Several conditions are necessary

to co-exist for this. Can you list them?

Think : Is there any kind of life existing in any other celestial body?
Attempts are being made to find an answer for this question. One such
programme is SETI: SEARCH for EXTRA TERRESTRIAL INTELLIGENCE.
to

Nearly two thirds of the earth’s surface is covered with water. Earth
has an atmosphere which extends to a height of a few hundreds of
kilometres, though we can not exactly define its boundary. The layers
t
No

of atmosphere contain nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour

and small quantities of other gases.
Moon
When we talk about moon many times we become poetic. Many
songs and many poems are written by the inspiration of different
phases of moon. It appears as a big bright celestial body during full
moon day which arouses curiosity. You might have seen it many times

300
 during day time also. It is the only known natural satellite of the
Earth. There are huge craters on moon. It has no atmosphere. India
explored this satellite by its programme called “Chandrayana I” in the
year 2009. Earlier America undertook a historic mission. On July 21,
1969 American astronaut Neil Armstrong landed on the Moon. He was
followed by Edwin Aldrin.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T
pu
K

Fig 24.5 Craters on moon Fig 24.6 Apollo
©

How did the two talk to each other when there is no air for sound
to travel? How did they get oxygen ?
Recall : Draw pictures of different phases of moon which you have
studied in earlier classes

Mars
to

Mars is the fourth planet . It is a reddish planet. Space crafts like

Viking have explored Mars, for evidence of life.
t
No

Some places in mars have moderate range of temperature. It has

oxygen, nitrogen and water. It has frozen carbon dioxide near the poles
which look like caps. It is the presence of these factors that made us
to think about the existence of some form of life on Mars. Mars has
two natural satellites Phobos and Deimos. The specific gravity of Mars
is 0.72. The surface temperature varies from less than 0 0C to 25 0C
Period of rotation of mars is about 24 1 hours. Its period of revolution
is 687 days. 2

301
 d
is he
Fig 24.7 Mars Fig 24.8 Rover on Mars
re S B
bl
Asteroids and Meteoroids
Between the vast space of the orbits of Mars and Jupiter there are
be T
pu
thousands of irregular shaped lumps of rocks that orbit the Sun. They
K

are asteroids. Some asteroids are also found in other parts of the solar
system. But the main asteroid belt is between the orbits of Mars and
©

Jupiter. The largest asteroids are Ceres, Pallas, Juno and Vesta.
Meteoroids are chunks of matter which may originate from asteroid
belt. Some times they may enter the earth’s atmosphere and burn up
due to the heat generated by friction. These meteoroids which burn
completely are called ‘meteors’ which we call shooting stars. They are
also called falling stars. If a large number of them in the sky happen to
to

appear at the same time, they cause a shower of meteors. During the
visit of a comet some fragments of the comet burn up after entering the
t

earth’s atmosphere. Bigger meteoroids sometimes survive the journey

No

and hit the earth resulting in craters and vents on the earth’s crust.
They are called meteorites. Many planets, satellites have large craters
formed by the impact of meteorites.
Leonid showers
Somewhere around the mid November in the constellation Leo that
is in North-East direction if you watch the sky after mid night you may
observe more number of meteors.

302
 Jupiter

Jupiter is the fifth planet. It
is the biggest planet of the solar
system. Its Orbital period is
nearly 12 years. Its day is about
10 hours. That means it rotates

d
very fast. Due to fast rotation

he
it is bulged at the equator and
flattened at the poles. The thick
gas clouds which are attached

is
re S
to the planet due to its strong
gravitational force also rotate with
B
bl
Fig 24.9 Jupiter the planet resulting in bands.
be T

These bands are visible through

pu
(Guru, Brahaspathi)
a telescope. Try to identify this
K

planet in night sky.

©

The specific gravity of Jupiter is 0.24. Jupiter is far away from the
sun. Can you imagine its surface temperature?

Galileo identified four satellites

of Jupiter using a telescope
to

prepared by himself. They are Io,

Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.
There are many other satellites of
t

Jupiter. Io is an interesting
No

satellite because it has active

volcanoes. Voyager space craft
discovered a ring system around
the planet. Jupiter emits radio Fig 24.10 Jupiter and its
signals. four large satellites

303
Saturn
Saturn is the sixth planet. It
is the second biggest planet. It is
a most fascinating experience to
view this planet using a telescope.
Its special feature is prominent
ring system. The ring system is

d
made up of many small ringlets.
The ringlets are made up of icy

he
matter. Its specifi c gravity is less
than that of water. You can

is
Fig 24.11 Saturn and its ringlets imagine a piece of the planet
re S
Saturn fl oating on water. It has
B
bl
many satellites among which Titan is of special interest. It is the only
natural satellite which has its own atmosphere in the solar system.
be T
pu
Saturn has specifi c gravity of 0.13. It is the lowest when compared to
K

other planets. Its period of rotation and revolution are 10 hrs 15 minutes
and 29.46 years respectively.
©

Uranus

Uranus is the seventh planet and it is the

third largest planet. A ring system around this
planet was discovered by Prof.J.C.Bhattacharya
and K.Kuppuswamy of Indian Institute of
to

Astrophysics Bangalore. The planet was fi rst

discovered by William Herschel. It is a peculiar
planet in the sense that its axis of rotation has
t

a tilt of about 820 . Except Venus all the planets

No

rotate from west to east with some tilt. Uranus

has a specifi c gravity of 0.29. Its period of
rotation and revolution are 13 hours and 84.02
years respectively.This planet appears to rotate
on vertical axis. Compare this to the tilt of the
earth.

Fig 24.12 Uranus

304
 A globe will help you to compare the axis of rotation of Uranus with
the axis of rotation of the earth.

Know this : You have seen the models of globes .You might have
wondered why the model of the earth is inclined instead of being straight.
What might be the reason? Can you imagine the model of uranus ?

Neptune :

d
he
Neptune is the eighth planet. The planet
Neptune can be seen only with the help of

is
re S
a telescope. Earlier its existence was
predicted by mathematical calculations.
B
bl Its specific gravity is 0.3. Its period of
be T

rotation and revolution are 18 hrs 30

pu
minutes and 164.81 years respectively.
K

Fig 24.13 Neptune

©

Pluto

Earlier Pluto was considered as a planet of

the solar system. But in 2006 the
International Astronomical Union (IAU)
to

adopted a new definition of a planet and

according to this Pluto does not qualify
as a planet of the solar system. However
t

it continues to be a member, of the solar

No

system. It is also called dwarf planet.

Fig 24.14 Pluto

Activity 24.2
Find out the reasons for removing Pluto from the list of planets.

305
Comets
Comets are guests of the solar system in the sense that they have
very long orbital periods and appear rarely.
Major constituents of nucleus of a comet are silicates and matter
made up of frozen gases.
Comets are spherical in shape. When they come near the Sun they
develop tails. Why? They become visible when they are close to the

d
sun and earth. Many astronomers
have the habit of watching comets

he
through their telescope and
studying their orbital period.
Many comets are named after

is
re S
their discoverers. One such comet
is Halley’s comet which can be
B
bl seen once in 76 years. It was last
seen in 1986. When is it likely to
be T
pu
be seen next?
K

Activity 24.3
Collect information about the
©

Fig 24.15 Comet

different comets that have appeared
in the past 60 to 70 years.

Superstitions about the Comets

Some people think that comets are messengers of disasters, such as
wars, epidemics and floods. But these are all myths and superstitions.
Appearance of a comet is a natural phenomenon. We have no reason to be
to

afraid of it.
t
No

Can we add new members to solar

system ? In addition to the natural
satellite moon, we have added
many smaller moons in the form
of artificial satellites which are
useful to us in many ways. Can
you list their uses?

Fig 24.16 Artificial satellite

306
 Stars
Apart from members of the solar system there are celestial objects
which arise our curiosity. Let us study about them. You see many
twinkling celestial objects in the night sky. These are stars. They appear
to be at the same distance. Why?
Sun is the nearest star to us. You know that light takes about 8½
minutes to reach the earth from the sun.

d
The light from the stars of the night sky takes years to reach the
earth. Imagine what might be their distance ! They must be quite huge.

he
The distance of stars is usually expressed in terms of a unit called light
year. One light year is the distance travelled by light in one year. This

is
is equal to 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 × 300000 km. Consider the star Sirius.
re S
It is the brightest star in the night sky. It is about 8.7 light years away.
B
bl
That means when you look at it, the light that enters your eye has left
the star 8.7 years ago.
be T
pu
You observe stars of different colours. They have yellow, orange,
white, red and blue colour. How are temperature and colour related?
K

Activity 24.4
©

Heat an iron wire with insulated handle. First it becomes red. When heating
is continued it turns into orange yellow and whitish in colour before it melts down.
Activity 24.5
Observe the blue flames of a LPG stove when it is being used. Also observe
the change in colour of the blue flames when water drops get sprinkled on the
flame. Can you give reason for change in colours?
to

Relatively red, orange, yellow, white and blue colours indicate the
increasing order of temperature of stars.
t

Star patterns in the sky

No

When you look at the stars in the night sky you observe certain
patterns. The patterns remain unchanged over a period of time. People
imagined some objects, animals, mythological characters formed by
joining the positions of stars. The region around recognisable pattern
of a group of stars is called a constellation. The sky is divided into 88
constellation regions. Each region is named after that constellation. For
example group of seven stars in the North is called Saptharshi Mandala
or Big Bear or Ursa Major.

307
 Ursa Major with seven stars moves around the pole star. You may
see it in the morning of winter season in Karnataka.

d
is he
re S B
bl
be T

Fig 24.17 Ursa major constellations with pole star

pu
K

Note : Real appearance will be the dots. The lines drawn are imaginary.
©

Constellation Cassiopeia in northern region of the sky can be used

to locate the position of pole star during early night of winter season.

Know this : Apart from using Mariners’ Compass there are different
methods of fi nding the directions. One such method is locating pole star
and also identifying the locations of Constellations. It also helps to know
the approximate time, month. Some easily identifi able constellations are
to

Ursa Major, Orion, Cassiopeia, Leo Major.

Cassiopeia
t
No

Fig 24.18 A few constellations

308
 Orion is the most easily recognized constellation in winter season. Its
movement can be easily monitored. This constellation has red coloured
star betelgeuse. It has also blue coloured star Rigel. It can lead to the
location of the Star Sirius, when a straight line is drawn from the belt
consisting of three stars in the straight line. Refer the diagram.
Zodiac

d
The movement of the sun, the planets and the moon appear to
follow a path from east to west. This apparent path is called Zodiac belt.

he
Twelve constellations which are located in this path are called Zodiacal
constellations.

is
re S
1. Aries (Mesha)
B
bl
2. Taurus (Vrishabha)
be T
pu
3. Gemini (Mithuna)
K

4. Cancer (Karka)
©

5. Leo (Simha)

6. Virgo (Kanya )

7. Libra (Tula)
to

8. Scorpius (Vrischika)

9. Sagittarius (Dhanu)
t
No

10. Capricornus (Makara)

11. Aquarius (Kumbha)

12. Pisces (meera)

Fig 24.19 12 Zodiacal constellations

309
 Contrary to the popular belief of 12 zodiacal constellations, there
is 13th Zodiacal constellation. Its name is Ophiuchus. It is a large
constellation located around celestial equator. Other name of this
constellation is serpentarius meaning Serpent- Bearer.
Our curiosity to understand more about stars leads us to galaxies
and stages of life cycle of a star. You will study about them in higher
classes.

d
Extended Activity 24.6

he
Make your own planetarium and also visit a planetarium.

is
1. Take a cheap opaque flat bottom plastic bowl. Paste white paper
re S
on the flat surface. Mark the constellation Ursa Major or Orion on it.
B
bl
With a sharp pin, pierce holes at the bottom of the plastic bowl on the
stars of the constellation. A powerful lamp with diffused light ( Filament
be T
pu
lamps should not be used; otherwise pin hole camera effect will be
K

found ) like LED lamp should be placed inside. In a dark room project
the holes on the roof of the room. You will see the constellation. If you
©

use a bigger bowl with many constellations marked as holes you can
rotate it and observe the movement.

Exercises :
I. Four alternatives are given to each of the following incomplete
statement / question. Choose the right answer :
to

I. The constellation that helps to locate north star is,

a. Cassiopia b. Orion c. Taurus d. Leo

t
No

2. The second biggest planet of the solar system has,

a. lowest density b. density equal to water

c. highest density d. density equal to earth

3. The poles of this planet faces the sun for longer periods of time
than any other planet.

a. Mars b. Uranus c. Jupiter d. Saturn

310
 4. Polar ice caps of the planet mars are due to ,
a. solidified water
b. solidified carbon dioxide
c. volcanoe’s erupted near the poles
d. cover of dust particles that reflect light .
5. Heat waves are trapped to maximum extent in the planet,

d
a. Mercury b. Venus c. Earth d. Neptune,

he
II. Fill in the blanks with suitable words
1. Radio signals are emitted by the planet _____________________.

is
re S
2. The colour of the planet Mars is __________________________.
B
bl
3. Winter season constellation is ___________________________.
be T

4. Asteroids are mainly found between the orbits of ______________.

pu
5. Ultraviolet rays from the sun can be filtered by the earth’s
K

atmospheric layer called ______________________________.

©

III. Match the following :

A B
1. highly tilted planet a. earth
2. satellite of Jupiter b. titan
3. constellation c. halley
to

4. third Planet from the sun d. Io

e. uranus
t

f. ursa Major
No

g. sirius
IV. Answer the following :
1. Which planet is called morning or evening star ?
2. Which planet was removed from the list of 9 planets in 2006 ?
3. Express the following in km
a. 10 light minutes b. 10 light days c. 10 light years.

311
 4. Name the following :
a. Most fascinating planet with set of ring system as viewed from a
telescope
b. Nearest planet to the earth c. Nearest planet to the sun
d. Biggest planet of the Solar System
5. Why do Comets develop tails as they approach the sun ?

d
6. How are satellites different from planets?

he
7. Which satellite has active volcanoes ?
8. Give reason for the following :

is
re S
a. A person in England can recognize the pole star easily than a
B

bl
person in Bangalore.
b. Mercury is difficult to observe
be T
pu
c. A day on Venus is longer than its year
K

d. Green house effect is prominent on Venus.

©

V. State true or false :

1. Saturn has the highest density
2. Venus can be seen overhead in the night sky.
3. Aries (Mesha) is a Zodiacal constellation
4. Mars contains oxygen in its atmosphere
to

5. Moon has no atmosphere

6. Titan is a satellite of Jupiter
t
No



312
 FOR QUICK GLANCE
Sl. Planets Diameter Year in Earth Day in Earth Main Gases in Number Main features Average
No. Time Time atmoshere of Natural distance of
moons planets from
sun in million
km
No
1 Mercury 4878Km 88 days 59 days Traces of 0 Daytime temperatue 8800 58
Argon, Neon, F(4700 C); nighttime -3000F(-
Helium 1830C)
t ©
2 Venus 12102Km 224 days, 17 243days Carbon 0 Rotates east to west instead of 107
hrs diaxide(very west to east, as other planets do
to
thick)

3 Earth 1.2756Km 365 days, 6 hrs

K
1 day, 23 Nitrogen, 1 Only body known to have life; 149
hours, 56 Oxygen mild climate, water as solid,
minutes liquid, gas
be T
4 Mars 6.792 Km
minutes
B
687 days,23 hrs 24 hours, 37 Carbon
dioxide(thin)
2 Ice-capped poles, four seasons,
dust storms
224

313
re S
5 Jupiter 14.2984Km 11 years, 11 9 hours,56 Hydrogen, at least 16 Colourful bands of gas, marked 768
months minutes Helium by lighting, with auroras near
poles; Great Red Spot is storm
bigger than Earth
pu
6 Saturn 12.0536Km 29 years, 5 10 hours, 39 Hydrogen, at least 18 Circled by colourful ice rings 1,424
months minutes Helium ranging in width from fingernails
to houses
bl
7 Uranus 5.1118Km 84year 17 hours, 14 Hydrogen, 17 Tipped sideways so pole not 2,848
minutes Helium, equator-faces Sun
is
Methane

8 Neptune 49582Km 164years 16 hours, 7 Hydrogen, 8 Winds of 1,500 Kph(930 mph) 4,480,000
minutes Helium, highest recorded on any planet
he
Methane
d
 REFERENCE BOOKS

• A Text book of Physics by Mary Jones, Feoff Jones and Philip

Marchington

• A Text book of Physics by Lakhmir Singh and Manjith Kaur.

d
• Concise Biology by Taylor E.L.B.S.

he
• Fundamentals of Biology by M.B.V. Roberts.E. L. B. S.

is
• Understanding Environment by Kiran Chokkar and Others,
re S
Sage Publications New Delhi
B
bl
• Environmental Studies From Crisis To Cure by R. Rajagopalan
be T

Oxford University Press.

pu
K

• Encyclopeda Brittanica 2010 Edition

• Wikipedia encyclopedia
©

YOU CAN ALSO VISIT THESE WEBSITES

www.en wikibooks.org/wiki/high school

to

www.ehow.com
www.share2learn.com
t

www..sciencemaste.com
No

www.library.thinkquest.org
www.biology.arizona.edu

314