Government of Karnataka

SOCIAL SCIENCE

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(Revised-2022)

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8
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EIGHTH STANDARD
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English Medium
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KARNATAKA TEXT BOOK SOCIETY (R)

6th Cross, Malleshwaram, Bengaluru - 560 003

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 PREFACE
The Textbook Society, Karnataka has been engaged in producing new textbooks
according to the new syllabi prepared which in turn are designed based on NCF –
2005 since June 2010. Textbooks are prepared in 11 languages; seven of them serve
as the media of instruction. From standard 1 to 4 there is the EVS and 5th to 10th
there are three core subjects namely mathematics, science and social science.
NCF – 2005 has a number of special features and they are:
• Connecting knowledge to life activities.
• Learning to shift from rote methods.
• Enriching the curriculum beyond textbooks.
• Learning experiences for the construction of knowledge.
• Making examinations flexible and integrating them with classroom
experiences.

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• Caring concerns within the democratic policy of the country.
• Make education relevant to the present and future needs.

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• Softening the subject boundaries-integrated knowledge and the joy of

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learning.
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The child is the constructor of knowledge.
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The new books are produced based on three fundamental approaches namely.
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Constructive approach, Spiral Approach and Integrated approach

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The learner is encouraged to think, engage in activities, master skills and

competencies. The materials presented in these books are integrated with values.
The new books are not examination oriented in their nature. On the other hand they
help the learner in the total development of his/her personality, thus help him/her
become a healthy member of a healthy society and a productive citizen of this great
country, India.
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In Social science especially in standard V the first chapter deals with the historical,
geographical, cultural and local study of the division in which learners live. Chapters
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on sociology, business studies and commerce are introduced in standard VIII as per
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the guidelines of NCF-2005. A lot of additional information is given through box

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items. Learners are encouraged to work towards construction of knowledge through

assignments and projects. Learning load of memorizing dates has been reduced to
the minimum. Life values have been integrated with content of each chapter.
The Textbook Society expresses grateful thanks to the chairpersons, writers,
scrutinisers, artists, staff of DIETs and CTEs and the members of the Editorial Board
and printers in helping the Text Book Society in producing these textbooks.

Prof. G.S. Mudambadithaya Nagendra Kumar

Coordinator Managing Director
Curriculum Revision and Textbook Preparation Karnataka Textbook Society®
Karnataka Textbook Society® Bengaluru. Bengaluru.

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 FOREWORD
The text book which is being prepared for the high school students has come
out differently and distinctively. This book has come out with unique features while
compared with the previous texts that have appeared in the Text book. It should be
noted that the 8th standard text book has incorporated Political Science, Sociology,
Economics and Business Studies along with the traditional subjects like History and
Geography as per the guidelines of NCF-2005.

We have made all the attempts to make this text easily understood and read
comfortably, since this is a project of the Government oriented towards the common
man. The present text has included the creative curriculum in order to discourage
rote-learning in the system. We have designed the texts as it should correlate with
the experiences of the students. We have deleted unnecessary dates and data that
are burdensome to the students. Instead, the text gives attention to the historical

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understanding and the process. Besides, the text has provided ample information in
order to understand contemporary affairs in the boxes throughout the text. We have

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endeavoured to project these issues as part of the experience of both the students

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and teachers. Members of the text book preparation committee dedicated themselves
to prepare this text on international academic standards.
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I acknowledge the members of the text book preparation committee for bring-
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ing this text successfully. I extend my gratitude to the Editorial Board, Translation
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Committee, Scrutinizers and Chief Advisors for their valuable suggestions in bringing
out this text book.

I am grateful to Prof. G.S. Mudambadithaya, Officers and technical assistant

of the Karnataka Text Book Society for their dedication in involving in the text book
preparation project. I thank Dr. Shashikantha Koudur of NITK, Surathkal for his
effort in editing the language in the text book.
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Prof. Vijay Poonacha Thambanda

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Chairperson
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Text Book Committee

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 Text Book Committee

CHAIRPERSON
Dr || Vijay Poonacha Thambanda, Professor, Department of History, Kannada University, Hampi,
Vidyaranya, Bellery.

MEMBERS
Dr || M. Shashidhar, Associate Professor, Department of History, Bangalore University, Bangalore-56.
Sri N. Sathyaprakash, Asst. Master, Vidyavardhaka Sangha High School, Ist Block, Rajajinagar,
Bangalore-10.
Sri P. A. Kumar, Retd. Head Master, Vijaya High School, 3rd Block, Jayanagara, Bangalore-11
Dr || Lakshmipathi .C .G, Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, Smt. VHD Home Science Col-
lege, Sheshadri Road, Bangalore- 01.
Sri K. R. Manjunath, Principal, MES Pre-University College, BTM Layout, Bangalore-76.

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Sri B. Hanumantharao, Lecturer, Govt. Pre-University College, Chikkaballapura.
Sri G.N. Kempaiah, Lecturer, Govt. Pre-University College, Dandinasivara, Turvekere Tq., Tumkur Dist.
Sri A.S. Dikshit, Retd. Principal, Vani Education Centre, Basaveswaranagar, Bangalore-79.

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Sri Shaik Irfan, Drawing Teacher, Police Public School, KSRP Campus, Koramangala, Bangalore.

SCRUTINIZERS IS
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Dr || Rajaram Hegde, Professor, Deparment of History, Kuvempu Univesity, Shankaraghatta, Shimoga.

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Prof. T.D. Devegowda, Professor, Deparment of Political Science , Dean (study centers) K S O U, Mysore.
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Dr || Ranganatha, Professor and Head, PG center of Geography , Maharani’s woman Arts & Commerce
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College, Mysore.
Dr || Jogan Shankar, Professor, Department of Sociology, Mangalore University, Mangalore.
Dr || S.R. Keshav, Faculty, Department of Economics, Bangalore University, Bangalore-56.
Dr || K. R. Srilakshmi, Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, Govt. First Grade College,
6th Block, Jayanagar, Bangalore.

EDITORIAL BOARD
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Dr || R. L. M. Patil, Retd. Professor, Department of Political Science, Bangalore University, Bangalore-56.

Dr || Eshwarappa, Professor, Department of Geography, Bangalore University, Bangalore-56.
Sri Ramprasad, (History ) Principal, Sri ARS PU College, Hariharapura, Chikkamagalore District.
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TRANSLATORS
Prof. Geetha Sreenivasan, 329/1, 1st Cross, 23rd Main, Sarakhikere Village, 5th Phase, JP Nagar,
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Bangalore-78.
Dr || Ranganatha, Professor and Head, PG center of Geography , Maharani’s woman Arts & Commerce
College, Mysore.
Sri K. R. Manjunatha, Principal, MES Pre- University College, BTM Layout, Bangalore-76.

CHIEF COORDINATOR
Prof. G.S.Mudambadithaya, Coordinator, Syllabus Revision and Text Book preparation committee,
Karnataka Text Book Society, Bangalore.

CHIEF ADVISOR
Sri H.S. Ramarao, Managing Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bangalore- 85.
Sri Nagendra Kumar, Deputy Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bangalore -85.

PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
Sri A. T. Rangadasappa, Senior Asst. Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bangalore -85.

IV
 About the Revision of Textbooks
Honourable Chief Minister Sri Siddaramaiah who is also the Finance
Minister of Karnataka, in his response to the public opinion about the
new textbooks from standard I to X, announced, in his 2014-15 budget
speech of constituting an expert-committee, to look into the matter.
He also spoke of the basic expectations there in, which the textbook
experts should follow: “ The textbooks should aim at inculcating social
equality, moral values, development of personality, scientific temper,
critical acumen, secularism and the sense of national commitment”,
he said.

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Later, for the revision of the textbooks from class I to X, the
Department of Education constituted twenty seven committees and

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passed an order on 24-11-2014. The committees so constituted were
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subject and class-wise and were in accordance with the standards
prescribed. Teachers who are experts in matters of subjects and
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syllabi were in the committees.

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There were already many complaints, and analysis about the

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textbooks. So, a freehand was given in the order dated 24-11-2014 to the
responsible committees to examine and review text and even to prepare
new text and revise if necessary. Eventually, a new order was passed
on 19-9-2015 which also gave freedom even to re-write the textbooks
if necessary. In the same order, it was said that the completely revised
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textbooks could be put to force from 2017-18 instead of 2016-17.

Many self inspired individuals and institutions, listing out the
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wrong information and mistakes there in the text, had sent them
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to the Education Minister and to the Textbook Society. They were

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rectified. Before rectification we had exchanged ideas by arranging

debates. Discussions had taken place with Primary and Secondary
Education Teachers’ Associations. Questionnaires were administered
among teachers to pool up opinions. Separate meeting were held
with teachers, subject inspectors and DIET Principals. Analytical
opinions had been collected. To the subject experts of science, social
science, mathematics and languages, textbooks were sent in advance
and later meeting were held for discussions. Women associations
and science related organistation were also invited for discussions.
Thus, on the basis of all inputs received from various sources, the
textbooks have been revised where ever necessary.
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 Another very important aspect has to be shared here. We constituted
three expert committees. They were constituted to make suggestions
after making a comparative study of the texts of science, mathematics
and social science subjects of central schools (NCERT), along with
state textbooks. Thus, the state textbooks have been enriched basing
on the comparative analysis and suggestions made by the experts. The
state textbooks have been guarded not to go lower in standards than
the textbooks of central schools. Besides, these textbooks have been
examined along side with the textbooks of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala,
Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra states.
Another clarification has to be given here. Whatever we have done
in the committees is only revision, it is not the total preparation of the

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textbooks. Therefore, the structure of the already prepared textbooks
have in no way been affected or distorted. They have only been revised

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in the background of gender equality, regional representation, national
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integrity, equality and social harmony. While doing so, the curriculum
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frames of both central and state have not been transgressed. Besides,
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the aspirations of the constitution are incorporated carefully. Further,

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the reviews of the committees were once given to higher expert

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committees for examination and their opinions have been inculcated

into the textbooks.
Finally, we express our grateful thanks to those who strived in all
those 27 committees with complete dedication and also to those who
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served in higher committees and experts of revised text also. At the same
time, we thank all the supervising officers of the Textbook Society who
sincerely worked hard in forming the committees and managed to see
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the task reach it’s logical completion. We thank all the members of the
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staff who co-operated in this venture. Our thanks are also due to the
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subject experts and to the associations who gave valuable suggestions.

Veeranna S. Jatti Prof. Baraguru Ramachandrappa

Managing Director Chairman-in-Chief
Karnataka Textbook Society (R) Textbook Revision Committees
Bengaluru. Karnataka Textbook Society (R)
Bengaluru.

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 Text Book Revision Committee

CHAIRMAN IN CHIEF
Prof. Baraguru Ramachandrappa, Chairman, State Textbook Revision Committee,
K.T.B.S. Bengaluru.
CHAIRPERSON
Dr. Aswathanarayana, Professor, Department of History, University of Mysore, Mysuru.
MEMBERS
Dr. Aswathanarayana, Professor, Department of History, Bangalore University,
Bengaluru-56.
Dr. J. Somashekar, Professor, Department of Political Science, Vijayanagar Sri
Krishnadevaraya University, Ballari.
Dr. H.D. Prashant, Professor, Department of Developmental Studies, Kannada University,

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Hampi, Vidyaranya.
Dr. S.T. Bagalkoti, Professor, Department of Studies in Economics, Karnatak University,

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Dharwad.

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Prof. P. Mallappa, Professor (Retd.), Department of Geography, J.S.S. College, Mysuru.
Dr. B. Shekhar, Professor, Department of Studies and Research in Commerce, Tumkur
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University, Tumakuru.
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Sri A.S. Dikshit, Principal (Retd.), Vani Education Centre, Basaveswaranagar,

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Bengaluru-79.
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Sri Iaranna M. Ambi, Asst. Teacher, G.H.S. Tadakodu, Dharwad Taluk and District.
Sri D.N. Venkatesh, Drawing Teacher, G.H.S. Uramarkasalagere, Mandya Taluk and
District.
SCRUTINIZERS
Sri Ashok V.Shettar, Associate Professor, Deparment of History and Archaeology, Karnatak
Univesity, Dharwad.
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Dr. M.S. Talawar, Professor (Retd.), Deparment of Studies in Education, Bangalore

University, Bengaluru.
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Dr. Dhasharath Naik, Professor, Department of Economics, Gulbarga University, Kalaburagi.

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Dr. Haseen Taj, Professor, Deparment of Studies in Education, Bangalore University,

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Bengaluru.
TRANSLATORS
Sri R. Sadananda, Lecturer, Government Pre University College, Arkalavadi, Chamarajnagar
District.
Sri Nisar Ahamad, Lecturer, Government Pre University College, Kamalapura, Hosapete,
Ballari District.
CHIEF ADVISOR
Sri Veeranna S. Jatti, Managing Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru- 85.
Sri Kodandaramaiah. N, Deputy Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru -85.
PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
Smt N. S. Sowmya, Senior Asst. Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru -85.

VII
 FOREWORD

On review of text books

The textbooks published in the year 2014 went under revision the same
year for political reasons. The revised textbooks reached the students only
in 2017-18 school year. The changes made in revised textbooks came under
wide scrutiny and criticism. Since there was an all-round objection that such
a textbook revision was done with an objective of propagation of a certain
ideology that benefitted self-interests, side-lining education’s core intention, the
honourable Karnataka Government in 2021 formed a committee mandating to
re-review such textbooks. The committee has reviewed in depth, such textbooks

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which had attracted objections, and has recommended certain changes. Today’s
children are tomorrow’s nation, they say. The future of our society depends on

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what we teach the children of today in schools. The textbooks that students

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study must have healthy thoughts and concepts. It must not be spreading
mutual distrust, hatred, neglect amongst the different class and communities
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of the society; should incite nationalism and patriotism. The textbooks should
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provide objective information about the past events of state and nation. They
must introduce local culture, language and traditions to the students. Overall,
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the textbooks must make the students fine, responsible, conscious, open
minded and honourable citizens. The textbook revision had to be made by
bearing this responsibility in mind. We had to build a framework for ourselves
for reviewing and revising the textbooks. Primarily, our intention was to ensure
that the social science textbook
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(1) contained no content that was disrespectful towards any caste, religion,
philosophy, community or individual
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(2) subjects to be presented in a systematic, chronological order

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(3) had to be made knowledge-bank instead of an information dump of

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unnecessary matters
(4) had to be made bereft of any self-interest ideology
(5) had to be devoid of half-truths, falsehoods, exaggerations, judgemental
information and instead must present facts which have authoritative
basis
(6) had to contain all subjects with deserving representation
(7) had to include historically neglected facts, based on their importance
(8) had to be corrected for the errors, as far as possible.
At every stage of revision, we were cautious that social science textbooks
have to make our students conscientious citizens who will have love, pride
VIII
about our nation, not create a community that has negligence and repulsion
for a few castes, communities, languages and religions of this nation.
The ‘best textbook’ is an ideal state. Our intention is to walk towards such
an ideal state. However, to create such a thing in exact sense is not possible.
With this humbleness, we have completed re-reviewing the textbooks and
present you the revised version. This is only a review, not a comprehensive
recreation. The intent and form of the already created textbooks (2014) remain
intact. The entire revision has happened following the state syllabus framework
which itself is based on the national curriculum framework. In addition, the
intent of the Constitution has been upheld. I am grateful to all my colleagues of
the review committee who have finished this job in the best possible way. Also,
thankful to all the officers and staff of the textbook association who cooperated
in the smooth conducting of the committee’s functions. This revision, we

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believe, will reflect the intent of the new National Education Policy and also
become the starting point for the comprehensive revision of textbooks to come.

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Veeranna S. Jatti Rohith Chakrathirtha

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Managing Director Chairman

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Karnataka Textbook Society (R) Karnataka Textbooks Review Committee

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Bengaluru.
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 Text Book Revision Committee

CHAIRPERSON
Sri Rohith Chakrathirtha, Member, Kannada Development Authority,
Vidhana Soudha, Bengaluru.

MEMBERS
Dr. Rajaram Hegde, Chairman (Retd.), Department of History & Archaeology,
Kuvempu University, Shivamogga.
Dr. N. Sathya Prakash, Retd. Head Master, VVS High school, Bengaluru.

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Sri Ranganath, Principal, Rastrothana Vidyakendra, Hagari Bommanahalli,

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Ballary Dist.

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Sri B.K. Vasuki, Teacher, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan’s BBMP Public School,
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Bengaluru.
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Dr. Anantha Krishna Bhat, Kodiyalaguttu, Dwaraka, Kodiyal Bail, 2nd Cross,
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Mangaluru.
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Dr. Vithal Potdar, Senior Research Associate, The Mythic Society, Bengaluru.
Sri K.R. Manjunath, Asst. Teacher, National High School, Bengaluru.
Smt P. Radha, Senior Asst. Director, DSERT, Banashankari 3rd stage, Bengaluru.
Sri Sandeep Kumara P.L., GPT, GMPS Siddanahosahalli, Bengaluru North-1.
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ADVISORS
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Sri Veeranna S. Jatti, Managing Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru.
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Sri Kodandaramaiah. N, Deputy Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru.

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PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
Smt N.S. Sowmya, Senior Asst. Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru.

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 CONTENTS

HISTORY
Chapter Page
CHAPTERS
No No.

1. SOURCES 1

2. BHARATHAVARSHA 5

3. SINDHU-SARASWATI CIVILIZATION 12

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4. PROMINENT CIVILIZATIONS OF THE WORLD 21

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5. SANATANA DHARMA 36
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6. JAINISM AND BUDDHISM 43

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7. MAURYAS AND KUSHANS 50

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8. THE GUPTAS AND VARDHANAS 55

9. SOUTH INDIAN DYNASTIES : 63

SHATHAVAHANA, KADAMBA, GANGA

10. THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI AND 71

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THE PALLAVAS OF KANCHI

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11. THE RASHTRAKUTAS OF MANYAKHETA 78

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AND THE CHALUKYAS OF KALYANA

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12. THE CHOLAS AND HOYSALAS 86

OF DWARASAMUDRA

POLITICAL SCIENCE
13. MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 92

14. CITIZEN AND CITIZENSHIP 96

15. DEMOCRACY 104

16. LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT 111

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 SOCIOLOGY
17. MAN AND SOCIETY 124

18. MAN AND CULTURE 129

19. SOCIOLOGY IN DAILY LIFE 132

20. KINDS OF SOCIETIES 135

GEOGRAPHY

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21. THE EARTH–OUR LIVING PLANET 139

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22. LITHOSPHERE 146

23. ATMOSPHERE IS 163

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24. HYDROSPHERE 176

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25. BIOSPHERE 184

ECONOMICS
26. MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF ECONOMICS 190
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27. BASIC CONCEPTS OF ECONOMICS 195

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BUSINESS STUDIES
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28. MEANING AND IMPORTANCE 203

29. EMERGENCE OF DIFFERENT BUSINESS 212

ORGANISATIONS

30. LARGE SCALE BUSINESS ORGANISATIONS 218

XII
 HISTORY
CHAPTER-1
SOURCES

After studying this chapter you learn :

• About the sources required to study history.
• The different types of sources of history.
• The importance of archaeological sources
• To understand the importance of Halmidi inscription.
• The oral sources also support the study of history.

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Why are sources necessary for writing of history?
What are sources? Sources are the basic materials necessary for

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the construction of history. They give details of a particular period.
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Sources are the essential ingredients for the construction of
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history. They are very important for understanding the past events.
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History can be compared to a human body. Sources are like the

skeleton of the human body. It follows that
without sources, there can be no construction of
history. The kind of source used determines the
kind of view we get about the history. This is the
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reason why there is no universal history. It is well

known that there should be definite sources for
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all facts and events described in history. Sources

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can be classified into two groups.

1. Literary sources
2. Archaeological sources.
Literary sources are of two kinds.
1. Native Literature
2. Foreign Literature.
Archaeological sources are of three kinds
1. Inscriptions
2. Coins
3. Monuments HuienTsang
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 Literature produced by Indians is called native literature, and
the sources comprising such literature are called native literary
sources. Vishakadatta’s ‘Mudrarakshasa’, Kalhana’s ‘Rajatarangini’,
Ashwagosha’s ‘Buddha Charita’, Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’, the
‘Tripitikas’ of Buddhist literature, Srivijaya’s ‘Kavirajamarga’ are some
of the literary productions worth mentioning.
The writings of foreign visitors, explorers and scholars comprise of
foreign literature and such writings are called foreign literary sources.
Megasthanes’ Indica, HuienTsang’s ‘Si-yu-ki’, Fa-hien’s ‘Gho-kho-ki’,
Ceylon’s ‘Deepavamsha’ and ‘Mahavamsha’, the writings of Furneo
Nuniz and the writings of Barbosa and Nicolo Conti who visited the
Vijayanagar Empire are some examples of this kind of source.

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What are archaeological sources? Do you know about them?
Archaeological sources are the inscriptions, coins, monuments,

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pottery, and other artefacts that have been obtained during

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archaeological excavations. BL
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Study of Inscriptions
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Inscriptions are the living fact-bearers

of a particular period. They provide us
information about religion, culture,
economy, administration and other
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aspects of that period. The earliest

inscription obtained in our country has
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been the inscription written by the

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Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. He got the

inscription engraved on rocks and stone
pillars. Such inscriptions are found in
many places in India. These are mostly
in Bramhi script of Prakrit language.
Some inscriptions have been found in Halmidi Inscription
Greek, Armic and Kharoshti script too.
Ashoka’s inscriptions have been found in Maski and Bramhagiri in
Karnataka. The first inscription available in the Kannada language
is the Halmidi inscription. This was written during the reign of King
Kakutsavarma of the Kadamba dynasty.
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Study of Coins
Numismatics is the study of the evolution, nature and development
of coins. Coins have been minted by using a variety of metals. These
play a significant role in re-constructing history. They are valuable
sources of information regarding the religion, culture, administration,
social and economic aspects of the periods to which they belong.
Study of Monuments and Ruins
Stupas, basadis (Jain temples), temples,
palaces, forts and ruins are the kinds
of monuments which exist today. These
monuments enable us to know about the
civilization, technology, social and economic

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conditions of that period. They reflect the

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achievements of kings and administrators.

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Ashoka pillars, Ajanta and Ellora caves,
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the Elephanta caves, Badami, Aihole and
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Pattadakallu of Karnataka are evidences of

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India’s glorious heritage.

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Coins Indian architecture is unique.

Innumerable stupas, basadis, chaityas
and thousands of temples have emerged
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throughout India over the centuries. A study

of these help us to know indirectly about the
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religious, political, social and economic life

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of that period.
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Oral Sources
Today, many oral sources are being used
to understand the diverse Indian heritage.
From time immemorial, human society has
preserved its experiences and memories in
the form of lyrics, poems and songs, they
are passed on from generation to generation
through oral communication. This tradition Sage Shuka narrating
existed before the advent of writing. Indian mahabharatha to
Parikshit and the sages
history begins with this oral tradition. The
3
Vedas survived as oral tradition for many generations after which
they were recorded in written form.
Legends
There are many legends related to individuals, events and customs
in many parts of India. Legends are also referred to as Sthala-Puranas.
Usually they do not provide direct information for the study of history.
They reflect social beliefs. They also highlight the glory of certain
individuals or the significance of a particular place. Generally we
come across stala-puranas related to religious places.

EXERCISES
I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :

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1. The two kinds of literary sources are _________ and __________.

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2. The literary source of Aswaghosha is _____________.

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3. The first inscription found in the Kannada language is ______.
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II Answer the following questions in brief :

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4. What are sources?

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5. Give two examples for native and foreign literature each.

6. What are archaeological sources? Explain with examples.
III Activities :
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7. Discuss with your teacher how one event in history leads to

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another and forms a chain of events.

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8. Visit a monument and collect information about it.

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9. Collect antique coins.

10. Visit Archaeological Museum.
IV Project :
11. Collect information about coins and prepare a small project
report on it.



4
 CHAPTER-2

BHARATHAVARSHA

After studying this chapter you learn :

• About the physical features of India.
• India is both subcontinent and peninsula.
• To identify the neighbouring countries of India.
• About the living style of man in pre-historic period.
• About the stone ages of pre-historic period in India.

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The geographical environment has influenced every country and race

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in the world. There is an intimate relationship between human life and

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the environment. Hence it is necessary to learn about the geographical
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environment in order to know about human history. India is a

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sub-continent occupying a huge area in the southern part of the

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Asian Continent. It is a peninsula, surrounded by water on three

sides and land on one side. India shares its boundaries with Pakistan,
Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar.
Earlier all these areas were together called as Bharathavarsha,
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Bharatha Khanda, Sindhudweepa, Akhandabharatha and Greater

India too. It consists of 28 states and 9 union territories and one
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national capital region (Delhi).

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India’s geographical features comprise the Himalayan range of

mountains in the North, the Indo-Gangetic plain, the Deccan Plateau
in the South and the Coastal region. The snow-capped mountains
in the North include some of the tallest mountain peaks in the
world. They help to preserve the safety and security of India. There
have been a few intrusions into ancient India from the northern
Himalayan region. The attacks have been mainly from the north-
western side through the valleys of Bolan and Khyber passes. The
flat Indo-Gangetic plains are an extremely fertile area. The ancient
civilizations of Indus Valley and Vedic period flourished here. Many

5
battles have been fought from time to time to establish control over
this area. Usually, the dynasties that established control over this
fertile gangetic plain also established empires in this area.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K

South East Asia

TO
T
O
N

The Narmada river separates India into two - Malwa plateau or

Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau, in the south. The Mauryas and
the Guptas ruled these two areas of ancient India. The Indian coastline
is vast and stretches over 6,100 kms. The eastern coastline is called
the Coromandel Coast & Utkal Coast, whereas the western coastline is

6
 ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

referred to as Konkan and Malabar coast. The numerous ports on this

coastline had attracted the Romans from time immemorial. Foreign
trade was carried on in those days only through sea-routes. Thus
these ports developed and became the cause for the rise of powerful
kingdoms in the South like the Pandyas, the Cheras and the Cholas.
7
 The diversity in the Indian geographical environment has also
influenced the lives of communities living here. Despite the cultural
diversity, there exists a cultural unity which binds all these diversities.
Unity in diversity is the essence of this culture.
The Prehistoric Age
The period before the discovery of the art of writing is called the
Prehistoric age. This is so because we do not find evidence to the
linguistic development or to the use of script. We do not get any
written records for the study of history of this period. Then how do
we get to know about the people and their life in the prehistoric age?
The scholars who study this period are called archaeologists. In this
age, man was a nomad and indulged in hunting and food-gathering.

ED
Archaeologists have discovered some implements created and used by
these people. Probably they used weapons made of stone, wood and

H
bones. Among these, only weapons made of stone have survived today,

IS
providing us sources for study. Human beings in the prehistoric age
BL
EP S

used stone implements to peel the skin and separate the flesh and
R TB
U
bones of animals, to scrape the bark of trees, and to cut fruits and
BE @K

roots. The people used to create handles out of bones and wood, and
using them like spears and arrows, hunted animals. They used stones
as axes to chop down trees and cut them up into logs. They might
have used wood to build huts for themselves, or to make handles for
TO

their weapons.
Where did the Pre-historic man live?
T
O

The relics of the hunting and food-gathering man are available in

N

Bimbetka, Hunasagi and Kurnool in India. There are many other sites
in which such relics have been found. Most of these sites have been
discovered along the banks of rivers and lakes. Furthermore, since
stone implements were essential for the survival of people of that age,
they chose areas abundant with stone which could fulfil their needs.
Areas where people used stones to create various implements have
been considered as industrial sites.
How do we get to know about such industrial sites? Usually we
get to see stone implements around rocky areas. People might have
rejected some rocks as unsuitable for their implements. Heaps of
8
broken rock or stone-chips obtained during the creation of implements
abound in such areas. It is possible that people lived for a long time
in these places. These sites are called residential and industrial sites.
Awareness about fire
Signs of ashes have been found in the caves of Kurnool. They
reveal the awareness and the use of fire by the people of the Stone
Age. Probably fire was used for various purposes to cook food, for
lighting and safety from animals.
Drawings found in caves
We get to see some drawings in many caves in which people
lived in the Stone Age. Even today we can see the drawings done on

ED
the walls of caves and on rocks. Such cave-drawings can be seen in
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka. There are beautiful

H
drawings of wild animals and of hunting.

IS
BL
EP S
The changing environment
R TB
U

It is believed that 12,000 years ago a major change took place in

BE @K

the world’s environment. The earth’s temperature began to increase

gradually. This led to the development of grasslands in many places.
Birds and animals began to multiply in unprecedented numbers.
Animals like deer, elks, goats, sheep and others flourished in these
TO

grasslands. Man who had been hunting animals, began to observe

their nature, food habits and the way these animals breed. Over a
T

period of time, he captured these animals and domesticated them.

O

This was the way the practices of animal husbandry and dairy farming
N

began. Man had by now, learnt to catch fish in streams and lakes.
Human beings noticed in the meantime that some grain bearing
grass had grown naturally. the grains and cereals like rice, wheat
and barley were obtained from such plants. Man learnt to use them
as food, gradually he learnt to grow them too.
Archaeologists refer to the age we discussed now, by different
names. The age which prevailed 2 million years ago is the oldest
period and is called the Old Stone Age, and it stretched over a period
of 12,000 years. This long duration has been classified into three
stages is - the Early, Middle and Late Old Stone Ages.
9
 ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
Implements
BE @K

Diagram showing the stages of the Prehistoric age

TO
T
O
N

The period from 12,000 years to around 10,000 years is called

the Middle Stone Age. The implements of this period are generally
very small and hence they are called delicate stone implements. Man
used to fashion handles from delicate stone for weapons made from
bone and wood. He used those implements as axes and saws. Along
with these tools, weapons of the old kind too continued to exist.
10
 The New Stone Age began after 10,000 years. The stone weapons
of this period are different from those of the earlier periods. These
weapons were bright and had sharp blades. People of this age used
grinding stones for grinding leaves and herbs and for powdering grains
and cereals. Some pots and pans of this period have been found, a
few of which have been decorated. Pots were used for storing grains.
They were also used for cooking rice, wheat and other grains and
cereals. People of this age had learnt to weave cloth.
EXERCISES
I Complete the following sentences by using suitable words in
the blanks :
1. Geographically, India is a ___________.

ED
2. Signs of ashes have been found in caves of _________.

H
3. The implements of the Middle Stone Age are called

IS
________________. BL
EP S

II Answer to the following questions in brief :

R TB
U

4. Describe briefly the physical features of India.

BE @K

5. What are the valleys through which the attacks on India have
taken place?
6. What is meant by ‘Prehistoric Age’?
TO

7. How did animal husbandry and dairy farming evolve?

8. The different periods of prehistory have been given various
T
O

names by archaeologists. What are they?

N

III Activity :
9. Visit a cave along with your parents and learn more about it
from your teacher.



11
 CHAPTER-3
SINDHU-SARASVATI CIVILIZATION

After studying this chapter you learn :

• About ancient civilizations of India.
• To analyse urbanization, special features of the cities,
town planing, life style and the decline of towns.
• About the development of vedic period, life style during vedic period
and post vedic period.

ED
Sindhu-Sarasvati
Who is not aware of the Vedas? That, Rig-Veda is the world’s oldest

H
literature, is a matter of pride for Indians. Vedas encompass not just

IS
matters of bhakti, spirituality but several subjects that narrate the
BL
EP S

history of our nation. After studying the details and description of

R TB
U
rivers, seas, mountains, the Earth, flora and fauna, lifestyle of people
BE @K

of those times, Scholars have penned the history of ancient India.

Of these numerous details, Sarasvati River is an important one.
Sarasvati used to be a gigantic river. It contracted over the years due
to natural causes and finally disappeared at around 2000 B.C.E.
TO

Based on this, historians have proved that the timeline of Rig-Veda

is older than 3000 B.C.E. at the least. That is, 5,000 years before the
T

current era!
O

Hundreds of antiquity sites, townships are discovered in the

N

basin region of Sarasvati. Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro are some of

the first ones to have been discovered. Experts found the traces of
civilization for the first time in these ancient towns – all the reason
why Harappa civilization is a more common term used to identify
ancient Indian civilization. However, it is most apt to call it Sindhu-
Sarasvati civilization instead. The region where rivers Sindhu, Vitasta
(Jhelum), Asikni (Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Vipasha (Beas), Shutudri
(Sutlej) and Sarasvati flowed, itself is the homeland of this ancient
civilization. Apart from these, the plains created by rivers Gangaa
and Yamuna, Gujarat, Baluchistan, and other regions are also key
for studying ancient India.
12
Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization period has been termed as post-Vedic
period by the experts. By the turn of this period, all four Vedas had
been formulated. The cultural aspects that can be seen in Atharva-
Veda largely resemble the aspects found in Harappa and other towns.

Discovery of ancient towns

The story of discovery of ancient bases of Sindhu-Sarasvati

civilization is fascinating.

Around 1921, technicians at Punjab’s Sindhu valley discovered

some Harappan sites when they were laying rails. They appeared
as mounds made of best quality of earthen bricks. They used these
bricks as sleepers for rails. They found several more such buildings in

ED
the due course of time after which the archaeologists took up ground
research. The archaeologists were convinced that those buildings

H
were part of a town. There were similarities in the sites discovered

IS
after this with the ones discovered earlier – all around an existing
BL
EP S
R TB

town called Harappa. Hence, they were collectively termed as Harappa

U

civilization. Even before this major discovery, in 1917, a major site

BE @K

was discovered in Kalibangan.

Town Planning

Two or more divisions can be seen in Harappan towns. The

TO

western parts are smaller, but elevated. Archaeologists call it fort.

T

The eastern parts are generally wide and low-lying. They are called
O

villages. Every division had a wall of burnt clay bricks constructed

N

around it. The bricks were laid in an inter-locking fashion which had
ensured that such walls were stronger. The usage of burnt clay bricks
indicates the advancement of the civilization.

A ground-level tank can be seen constructed in another town

Mohenjo-Daro. The experts have identified it as an open bath. Built
with bricks, precautions have been taken to ensure the structure was
leak-proof. Stairs are located at two sides of the tank which has rooms
built all around. Perhaps, the water to this tank was supplied from
a nearby well, and the water was drained out after usage. Prominent
people of the town would be bathing in this bath, it is presumed.
13
 ED
Public bath at Mohenjo-Daro

H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO

Swastik Sun Seal

T
O
N

Bronze Dancing Doll Torso of a man Sindhu Script

Fire places are found in the towns of Kalibangan and Lothal.

Well-arranged grainaries can be seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and
Lothal.
The low-lying space – the village – was the habitat part of the
town. They were planned and built quite systematically – well planned
14
houses, roads and drains can be seen there. The houses were built
with bricks and walls were strong; generally, the houses were of
one or two storeys. The inner core space had rooms surrounding.
The doors faced the street; None of the windows were street-facing,
though. The houses had baths, some with wells for water supply.
Water availability was abundant. Every household having its own
bath was a big thing back then. Such information shows that the
Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization population led a prosperous life.
Towns had internal drainage system, the drains of which were
built with bricks and covered with stone slabs. The drains of houses
were connected to the external drains. Domestic grey and black waters
were led into the external drains through these connecting drains.
Cover slabs had holes to enable regular maintenance. It is understood

ED
that separate officers were appointed for maintenance. The drainage
system alone shows how superior the systematic thought process of

H
IS
the then town-planners, grievance-less execution and maintenance,
BL
and interest towards civil responsibilities were.
EP S
R TB
U
Such well-equipped town construction is
BE @K

not seen in Egypt, Mesopotamia and other

civilizations. Even in terms of physical
expanse, the Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization
was more advanced and bigger than the
contemporary ones.
TO

Cultural details
T
O

Apart from
N

the buildings, the

artefacts found
are mostly metal
and precious
stones. Beads and
seals are found in Shivling found at
Mother Goddess large quantities. Kalibangan
Teracota Idol Harappan beads had demand even in the
distant Mesopotamia. The technique of drilling a diametrical hole
through a bead was well practised by Harappans. Pots with various
designs are also found. Bangles made of metals and shell material
15
are found in abundance along with female figurines adorning them
in different patterns. Women wearing such bangles made of shell
is believed to be sacred and practised even today across the sects.
It is possible that there were smaller towns/ settlements built only
for bangle-making. The township system shows a clear hierarchical
arrangement – precious metals, stones and jewellery must have been
worn by the administrative section while the commoners wore beads.
Women used to wear vermilion on their foreheads, a practice which
is alive even to this day.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
Seals of Pashupathi, Bull and Unicorn
BE @K

The seals show still undeciphered script. They could engrave

scripts on the seals even back then. Vrushabha (bull) is one of the most
important figures found on seals of those times with the leaf of the
TO

sacred fig (peepul or ashvattha) tree being another prominent figure

on the seals. Several idols with different yoga and namaskara postures
T

are also seen. Vrushabha, Shiva’s vehicle, also that stands as figura
O

of dharma; the leaf of a fig tree, also known as yajnya-vrukha; yoga,

N

one of the vaidika aspects – all these facts point at the continuation
of vaidika tradition since the Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization times.
Weavers used to work with cotton, sometimes even silk. There
were artists who worked on stones, ivory and such materials. Woollen
blankets, wooden furniture, articles that enhanced the beauty of the
buildings were in vogue. Bronze has been one of the important alloys
found in ancient civilizations. The copper needed to create the alloy
was available in Baluchistan, Rajasthan, etc. People had mastered
the art of bronze making after centuries of effort. Such technology
helped them create several items from hard tools to mirrors. The
16
metrology and measurements followed during this civilization match
the descriptions in Kautilya’s Arthashastra – which were in use till a
few centuries back in our country.

A temple dedicated to Agni (sacred fire) worship is found in

Banavali, Haryana. Platforms of worship are seen in Lothal, Kalibangan
and other sites. Dholavira town was planned on measurements that
were proportionate to the ‘mahavedi-s’ used in vaidika yaga-s. The
same ratio is later seen in texts starting from vaidika band of
Shatapatha Brahmana, Shulbasutra-s, etc. to the later encyclopaedia
of Brihatsamhita – only goes on to show the normality in our traditions.

Literature, music, dance, painting,

sculpture and other art forms were

ED
well established. Female figurines in
dancing posture, drum and string

H
IS
instrument sculptures, several varieties
BL
of masks obtained during the exploration
EP S
R TB

excavations confirm their deep interest

U

in art. The famous dancing female

BE @K

Fire altar at Banavaali

figurine obtained in Mohenjo-Daro is
seen as the original form of Indian woman with its posture and the
bangles that it wears. Toy carts, tops, whistles, etc. were in vogue,
as toys for kids.
TO

Farming and trading

T
O

Sindhu-Sarasvati population were dependant on farming and

N

trading. Wheat, barley and pulses were their primary crops. The
bullock cart modelled and used back then is still in use in almost
the same way. Hunting and fishing were also vastly practised. Cotton
farming was done to manufacture textiles. Since several of the towns
of the era were situated on the banks of rivers, it is obvious that they
were experts in irrigation which helped in their farming. They were
involved in rearing of cattle including bull, cow, buffalo and sheep,
goat and poultry. Oxen were used to plough the fields. Commerce and
trading were equally important to them. Urban centres used to trade
with country side and foreign nations –Baluchistan, Sourashtra and
Deccan regions were prominent among them. Several seals found in
17
Mesopotamia indicates the close ties that existed between the Sindhu-
Sarasvati and Mesopotamian civilizations.
A huge construction is found in Lothal, Gujarat which is most
probably a ship dockyard. Lothal was their primary centre of sea
trade. Dholavira had best of practices of rain water management. A
one-third of the town was reserved for this, experts opine.
It goes on to show how advanced the Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization was.
The decline
Historians have ascribed several reasons for the decline of urban
centres. Some claim, the drying up of rivers, drastic change in their
course could be the reason; some others feel loss of forests could be

ED
reasons, because of long-term flooding of the region, which could also
have forced the population from sites along Sindhu and in Western

H
Punjab to migrate Eastwards and towards the South. However, the

IS
civilization continued until much later in Lothal, Gujarat which finally
BL
EP S

got infused into our culture.

R TB
U
BE @K

All in all, the Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization is a great sign of Indian

pride.

From nomadic life towards village settlement

TO

After the nomadic life stabilized, hutments and houses were built
traces of which can still be seen. Pit houses are found in Burzahom,
T

Kashmir. Those people used to build bore holes in ground and live
O

underground to save themselves from harsh cold and wild animals.

N

The underground bunker used to have steps for access. Clay pots
are found inside and outside such bunkers. These were used for
cooking either inside or outside the bunker based on the weather.
Mehrgarh is situated on the way to Iran, near the fertile plains of
Bolan pass. People here cultivated barley and wheat and raised
sheep and goats. Mehrgarh is the first of the villages found from
this era. The people here used to live in well built houses, some
of which had four or more rooms. Apart from fossils of animals,
many graves are also found. It appears that animals were also
buried along with humans.

18
 Vedic society
Vedic times had brahmana and kshatriya varnas based on several
characteristics and lifestyles. Those were mainly into learning and
teaching were brahmanas while the ones who were responsible
for the protection and nurturing of society were kshatriyas. The
common people were called ‘vishah’. Vaishyas were those who
were into trade and commerce; shudras were those who were
into physical work at every level. There were sabha and samiti
in administrative system to provide guidance. Sabha had several
people representatives while samiti had specifically a few experts.
The priest, army general and village head and others used to assist
in administration. The priest used to be the king’s guru and guide.

ED
Army generals used to be involved much into administration and
defence affairs. Village heads used to look after the well-being of

H
people in villages which were the basic blocks of administration.

IS
BL
EP S
Those were the times when there were tribes by name Bharata,
R TB

Puru, Anu, Druhyu, Turvasha and Yadu. They used to fight over
U
BE @K

protection of cattle – the key wealth of those times. These fights

were helped by usage of horses. Well cultured, respected people
were addressed as Arya. The word arya indicates no tribe but all of
Indians. A group of selfish traders called pani used to accumulate
wealth unethically and used to fight to protect it too.
TO
T

Arya-Dravida Division
O
N

In the later half of nineteenth century, the British resorted to divide

and rule Indians on the basis of caste and religion. Arya-Dravida
division was created for the sake of it. Christian Missionaries first
proposed and propagated that the word Dravida was indicative
of a tribe. The later historians kept amplifying the idea. However,
there are no evidences to claim that Arya and Dravida were specific
tribes. The theory of Aryans having come to India from outside
has been proved false. The architect of Indian Constitution, Dr.
B R Ambedkar also has strongly condemned the Aryan migration
theory.

19
 EXERCISES
I Answer the below questions in one sentence.
1. How old is Rig-Veda as on today?
2. Which are the sapta-Sindhu rivers?
3. In which year, was Kalibangan region discoved?
4. Which year were the ancient civilization traces found in
Harappa?
5. What are the symbols/ pictures found on the seals of Sindhu
civilization?
6. Which town was the primary centre for sea trade?
7. List out the tribes of Vedic period.

ED
8. Which site had the system of rain water harvesting?

H
9. Who has said that Aryan migration theory is wrong?

IS
10. The dimensions of towns of Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization
BL
EP S
R TB

match the mentions of which literary work?

U

II Answer the below questions in three-four sentences.

BE @K

11. How were the traces of Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization found?

12. What are the materials/ items found during the archaeological
excavation of Sindhu-Sarasvati sites?
TO

13. Explain the construct of baths of this civilization.

T

14. Which alloys were in use in this civilization? What are their
O

traces?
N

15. Who created the myth of Arya-Dravida?

III Answer the below questions in seven-eight sentences.
16. How was the township construction done in Sindhu-Sarasvati
civilization?
17. Sindhu-Sarasvati civilization seals show the continuity of
vaidika tradition. Explain how.
18. How was the social system during the vedic age?
19. How were the farming and trading practices in vedic age?

20
 CHAPTER-4

PROMINENT CIVILIZATIONS
OF THE WORLD
After studying this chapter you learn :
• The great civilizations of the world - Egypt, Mesopotamia and China.
• Art, architecture and life style of different civilizations.
• The development of Greek civilization and their contributions to
world culture.
• The development of Roman civilization and their contributions.
• Ancient columbian civilization in America Maya, Aztecs and Inca.

ED
Many other civilizations flourished in various parts of the world

H
at the time of Indus Valley Civilization. We can see the Egyptian

IS
civilization, Mesopotamian civilization and Chinese civilization in
BL
EP S

Asia and Africa.

R TB
U
BE @K

The Egyptian Civilization

Generally all civilizations have originated in river valleys. The
Egyptian civilization could take birth due to the presence of the river
Nile. The relics obtained here reveal the grandeur of Egypt. Huge
TO

pyramids, sculptures, temples and the inscriptions in these temples

tell us a lot about Egyptian culture and history.
T
O

The Contribution of Egyptians

N

The Egyptians were expert farmers. They knew a lot about

irrigation. They had built temples. They invented the calendar which
has helped us to measure time. More than anything else, they had
mastered the art of writing. It was a symbolic language. It consists of
small drawings and has been called hieroglyphics (sacred writings).
The Nile Valley
Every rainy season, the Nile river would transform the Nile valley
into a huge lake. After the valley dried up in summer, a fertile layer of
clay soil would form the grazing field and adjecent agricultural lands.

21
The work that would need the labour of hundreds of people, was being
done by the kind river all alone. This fertile land provided food for the
population of the first town in the area. Not all agricultural regions
were within the valley. Hence it was through small canals and wells
that they were responsible for the development of a complex system
of irrigation through out the land.
The prosperous, wealthy Egyptian peasants and citizens in their
liesure engaged themselves in the creation of artistic works. The
role of priest was created to interpret nature and explain it. The
priests were scholars and shouldered the responsibility of protecting
written documents. They believed in life after death. They believed
that man had to give an account of his deeds on earth to Osiris,
the most powerful God of Life after Death. The priests considered

ED
that life on earth was temporary and was needed only to prepare for
the next life. Thus the whole of the Nile valley was reserved for the

H
IS
dead. The dead body would be smeared with various chemicals and
BL
wrapped with a thin cloth. The entire body was in this way preserved.
EP S
R TB

The body protected thus was called ‘mummy’. It would be kept in a

U

specially designed coffin. The grave was considered the true ‘place’
BE @K

for an Egyptian. Hence all around the dead body, items needed for
daily use and small dolls of a cook and barber would be kept to fulfil
all future needs.
In the beginning,
TO

graves were created by

T

carving into boulders on

O

the hills. As the

N

Egyptians moved north,

they had to construct
graves in the desert
itself. Tall towers were
built on these graves
using huge blocks of
stone in order to protect
Pyramid the eternal sleep of the
dead. Kings and wealthy
people vied with each other to build taller and taller towers.

22
 The Greeks called these structures ‘Pyramids’. The kings of Egypt
were called ‘Pharaohs’. ‘Pharaoh’ means ‘a person who lives in a
palatial house’. The peasants who had accepted the rule of powerful
Osiris, now accepted the rule of Pharaohs too.
After an independent, prosperous life for twenty centuries, Egypt
was ruled over by an Arabian shepherd tribe called Hyksos which
attacked it and after defeating it, ruled for 500 years. They looted the
wealth of the natives, and hence did not become popular. The Jews
who came wandering through the deserts in search of shelter were
also hated by the people of Egypt. By co-operating with the foreign rule
the Jews even assisted them in collecting taxes and in administration.
In 1700 B.C.E. the people of Thebes rose in revolt against the

ED
foreigners. After a prolonged conflict, they succeeded in driving Hyksos
out of their country. Egypt became free once again. After a thousand

H
years, it came under the rule of Sardanapalus of Assyria.

IS
BL
EP S
The Persian Emperor Cambyses occupied Egypt in the 6th Century
R TB
U
B.C.E. Alexander occupied Persia in the 4th Century B.C.E. Egypt
BE @K

became a province of Macedonia. One of Alexander’s military generals

declared himself the King of Egypt and established the dynasty of the
Ptolemies. He founded the city of Alexandria. At last came the Romans
in 39 B.C.E. The last Egyptian queen, Cleopatra, tried her best to
save her country. It was said that the Romans feared her beauty
TO

more than her troops. However, in 30 B.C.E., Caesar’s successor,

T

his relative, Augustus, did not succumb to her beauty like his uncle,
O

but defeated her army, though he spared her life. When he planned
N

to carry her away along with the other spoils of the battle, Cleopatra
consumed poison and ended her life. From then onwards, Egypt
became a province of Rome.
The Mesopotamian Civilization
Mesopotamia is an area which lies in a valley between two rivers.
Many of the places described in the Old Testament can be seen here.
The land which inspires awe and fascination is called the ‘Land
between the rivers’ or ‘Mesopotamia’ by the Greeks. The two rivers,
Euphrates and Tigris, have made this West Asian barren land very
fertile. It was the fertility of this area that attracted the people to it.
23
Since food crops could be grown with little effort, the northern hilly
tribes and the southern nomadic tribes of the desert tried to establish
control over this area. The rivalry between these tribes led to number
of endless conflicts. However, in the midst of these conflicts, there
emerged a civilization of strong and brave race. The Sumerians were
the first ones to evolve a system of writing in Mesopotamia. For
30 centuries all those who entered the fertile valley – Sumerians,
Babylonians, Assyrians and Chaldeans – used this system of writing,
which was called Cuneiform.

The most important area of this civilization was the southern part
of the valley between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. From olden
times, this area had been referred to as Babylonia. The northern part

ED
of Babylonia was called Akhad and the southern part Sumer. The
northern part of Mesopotamia was known as Assyria.

H
IS
The Hanging Gardens of Babylonia
BL
EP S
R TB

The legendary Hanging Gardens were created on the banks of

U

the river Euphrates around 7th Century B.C.E. This was one of
BE @K

the seven wonders of the Old World. But it is surprising to note

that the Babylonian cuneiform records which make a mention
of the city, its palaces and its walls, are totally silent about the
Hanging Gardens. Most of the scholars are of the view that King
TO

Nebuchadnezzar II was the one who created the gardens.

T

Nebuchadnezzar’s wife Amitis was from Mead. It is said that

O

Nebuchadnezzar got the gardens built in order to console his wife

N

who was missing the beautiful environment of hills, trees and

flowers of her motherland. Some scholars Opine that the gardens
were created by Assyrian queen Sammu-Ramat. In reality, the
gardens did not hang in the air. The trees and bushes were
grown at different levels (or terraced land) of the ziggurats. When
the branches hung at different levels and swayed, they gave the
onlooker an impression of being a hanging garden. The Euphrates
provided the water for these gardens.

The history of Mesopotamia is a story of end less hatred and conflict.

The Sumerians, the hilly tribe from the north, were the first to come
24
here. They who used to worship their gods on top of the hills, after
coming to the plains, built artificial hills and established their places
of worship there. These were called Ziggurat. The Jews called these
the Towers of Babel.

ED
H
Ziggurat

IS
BL
The Law Codes of Hammurabi
EP S
R TB
U
The main source of the law codes of Hammurabi are the rock
BE @K

edicts found in 1901. Today this has been kept in ‘The Louvre’
museum of Paris. Hammurabi’s law enforced the logic of ‘An eye
for an eye and a tooth for a tooth’. Hammurabi’s Law Codes are
one among the most ancient of the codes available to us. They were
probably written to protect the rights of all sections of Babylonian
TO

society, especially women and slaves.

T
O

The Sumerians had entered Mesopotamia in 4000 B.C.E. Later

N

they were overpowered by the Akkadians, one of the tribes of the

Arabian desert. These are known as Semites. After a thousand years,
these Akkadians came to be ruled over by the Amorites, another
Semitic tribe. The most famous king of the Amorites was Hammurabi.
He got built a fabulous palace for himself in Babylonia. He framed
the codes of justice and made Babylonia to be considered the best-
administered kingdom in the whole of the Old World. The Hittites who
came later, occupied the valley and destroyed all that they could not
carry away. These Hittites were defeated by the Assyrians who were
the followers of ‘Ashura’, the desert God. The Assyrians occupied
25
the whole of West Asia and Egypt till about 7th Century B.C.E., and
collected taxes from all the people there Another Semitic tribe, the
Chaldeans, re-established Babylonia in the 7th Century B.C.E. and
developed it into a prominent capital of that time. Nebuchadnezzar was
the greatest king among them. He encouraged the study of science.
But the Chaldeans came under the attack of the Persians in the 6th
Century B.C.E. Two hundred years later, Alexander transformed this
place of the Semitic peoples into a Greek province. After the rulers
of the Romans and Turks who followed Alexander, this civilization
declined and turned into a wilderness.

The Chinese Civilization

It is a special feature of all ancient civilizations that they were

ED
established on river valleys. The Chinese civilization was no exception

H
to this. But the river which led to the establishment of the Chinese

IS
civilization was known as ‘China’s Sorrow’. This was the Hwang
BL
EP S

Ho river. During the floods this river changed its course in an

R TB
U
unpredictable manner and inundated houses and agricultural lands.
BE @K

It would render all the canals useless. This was the reason the people
of that area referred to it as the ‘Symbol of Sorrow’.

According to excavations, the first ruling family of the Chinese

civilization was the Shang dynasty. It ruled in the period between
TO

the 18th century B.C.E. and the 12th century B.C.E. Under the rule
T

of this dynasty, the people had developed a wonderful culture by

O

the 14th century B.C.E. The Shang dynasty was overpowered by the
N

neighbouring Chau dynasty. The Chau dynasty continued the good

traditions of the Shang culture and ruled till 250 B.C.E.

In the Chou dynasty there was a section of officials below the

kings. The king allotted portions of land to the officials. In return
for that, the officials supported the king during battles. In the social
stratification, the communities in the next level were the merchants
and craftsmen. Apart from them we can find a great majority of
peasants as well. In the lowest strata of social hierarchy were the
slaves. The prisoners of war were made slaves by the kings.

26
 The Great Wall of China

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K

The Chinese Empire consisted of many small provinces. Seven

big states were created bringing these smaller provinces under
them. Every state that was created thus, constructed a wall along
its boundary for protection. Emperor Qin Shihuangti ordered that
the walls of the northern chinese states be connected. This enabled
TO

the northern walls to ward off the attacks of invaders from the
T

north. The construction of the great wall began in the 7th century
O

B.C.E. and continued till the 16th century. The worn-out parts
N

were repaired and strengthened. When the work was completed

it stretched to more than 5000 kilometers. It is one of the seven
wonders of the world.

The Shang kings spent quite an amount of time in conquests

and battles. Hence the army was in prominance. The soldier enjoyed
a dignified place in society. Soldiers wore bronze helmets and metal
armours. The bronze daggers, axes, bows and iron-tipped arrows
which they used have been found. The people of the Shang dynasty
depended on agriculture. They had a well-organized system of
irrigation. They used to grow plenty of rice.
27
 Porcelain
It is believed that porcelain originated in China. Semi-
porcelain objects were in use from 1600 B.C.E. By the time of the
reign of the Han dynasty (200 B.C.E.), glazed porcelain had been
developed. It had developed into an exotic art. The ancient Chinese
used to bury their dead along with porcelain pots, animals and
the objects loved most during their lives.

The Chinese used to wear thin cotton dresses. They used silk
too, and engaged in silkworm-rearing. Silk- manufacturing was a
prominent industry. The Chinese used to make excellent pots, and
had learnt to make various objects from porcelain. It was a custom of

ED
the Chinese to worship their ancestors. They believed that a dead man
became a spirit and that the spirit had special powers. The dead body

H
IS
was buried along with various wooden articles, pots, bronze vessels
BL
EP S
and other objects. The tombs of kings used to be quite large. The
R TB
U
Chinese tradition of writing began with pictures and got transformed
BE @K

into an ideographic script. Writing on silk and bamboo slips. Porcelain

and the Great Wall are the exceptional contributions of this culture.

Greek Civilization
TO

The Greeks came from the north to the region of the Aegean
sea. These tribals who were mainly shepherds, came in search of
T
O

grasslands. Every group which came in this manner had a distinctive

N

name: the Acheans, the Ionians and the Dorians. These people called
themselves Hellenese or the Greeks. The Greeks originally belonged to
tribes. There used to be a king looking after many tribes. The people
used to engage in agriculture and animal-husbandry. They also used
to engage in making pots, swords and ornaments. Trade was through
barter system. Battles and conquests formed adventurous activities
of their lives. The Greeks believed that their Gods lived on Mount
Olympus. They prayed for good harvests and success in their various
activities. There were no priests among the Greeks. The king prayed
on behalf of all the people.
28
 Alexander
He was the king of Macedonia in Greece. In his short lived
life, he set out to conquer the whole world. He was successful
in building a huge empire. He defeated the Persian army and
advanced towards India. Aristotle, one of the greatest scholars
of Greece, was his teacher. After fighting on the Indian borders
while on his return to Greece, Alexander died at Babylonia in
323 B.C.E.

Slavery was practised in Greece. This enabled the Greeks to enjoy

leisure time and engage in various arts and luxury. Their Olympic
Games were popular games played once every four years. Importance
was given to different arts in Greece.

ED
Roman Civilization

H
IS
We can see the relics of BL
EP S
ancient Roman civilization in
R TB

present-day Italy. The original

U
BE @K

inhabitants of Italy were the

people of North Africa, Spain
and France. They migrated
to Italy around 4000 years
ago. After some time, the
TO

Greeks and Etruscans came

and settled here. The Italians Amphitheatre
T
O

are the descendants of these

N

people. The Italians learnt the language, religious beliefs and art from
the Greeks.
Rome was under the rule of a monarchy. The Roman’s had
‘Assembly’ and a ‘Senate’, as two political advisory institutions. The
Assembly was made up of all middle-aged men, whereas the Senate
was an elite institution which was very influential. The Senate had
the power to reject the proposals of the Assembly and the king. In
the 6th century B.C.E., monarchy was abolished and a republic was
established. Around 3rd century B.C.E. the administration of the
whole of Italy came under the republican states. Even under the
Roman republic, the Senate and the Assembly continued as advisory
29
institutions. The members of these institutions headed the armies
during war. They enforced the law and dispensed justice.
There were two classes in the Roman society: the Patricians and the
Plebians. The Patricians were the elite in society. They were land-
owners and formed the upper class. It is they who controlled the
Senate. The Plebians were the common people. They were the ordinary
workers, small land-owners, artisans, small traders and soldiers.
Their rights were limited. They were meant to paying taxes, and to
undergo punishment. The decisions taken by the Council and the
Senate regarding the Plebians could be rejected by the Tribunes. In
the 5th century B. C. the Plebians rebelled against this system. As
a result, the Patricians granted them some concessions. Thus the
Plebians got the right to choose the members of the Tribunes. It was

ED
around this time that a rule-based on ‘Roman law’ was established.

H
This provided awareness over their rights and learnt to oppose the

IS
violation of their rights. BL
EP S
R TB

A desire for expansion exposed the Romans into newer conflicts.

U

Hence they batteled with Carthage, a coastal town in North Africa.

BE @K

Sicily was a fertile area. The Romans fought for control of this area
for 118 years. These wars are referred to as the ‘Punic Wars’. The
Carthegens were defeated in this war. By early 1st century B.C.E., the
Romans had conquered Greece, parts of Asia and Egypt.
TO

Gladiator
T
O

The wrestlers of ancient Rome were called Gladiators. There

N

were both expert and amateur wrestlers among them. The fights
were organised to entertain the ‘civilized’ spectators. These fights
which were fought between human beings, and sometimes between
human beings and animals, ended in gruesome deaths of the
participants. The place where the combat between the gladiators
were fought was called ‘Amphitheatre’ and ‘Colosseum’. Criminals,
slaves and prisoners-of-war who had lost their citizenship rights
were taken as gladiators. Gladiators on acquiring fame and wealth
were sometimes given freedom. Recently, a film titled ‘Gladiator’
has become famous world-wide.

30
 Conquests and victories had enabled Rome to acquire vast wealth
and riches. Rome won over a lot of gold and innumerable slaves.
Rome not only had Patricians and Plebians but also had slaves. The
slaves did not have the rights of citizenship. They were the private
property of their owners. Slaves were also sold. There were instances
when the slaves secured their freedom under special conditions. The
Romans who had immersed themselves in status egos used the slaves
as gladiators. They were amused at the combat of the gladiators from
the amphitheatre. A majority of the slaves and prisoners lost their
lives in such games.

Over a period of time the chaos engulfed the Roman state. Now
rebellions and assassinations took place. Bribery and corruption

ED
during elections became the order of the day. At this juncture,

H
around 60,000 poor and exploited slaves rose in rebellion under

IS
the leadership of Spartacus. One year after their strugle they were
BL
EP S

ruthlessly suppressed. Around 60,000 people were crucified at this

R TB
U
time.
BE @K

The Generals on account of continual wars reduced the authority

of the senate to insignificance. Pompey and Julius Ceasar are
prominent among the hundreds of such military generals. These
TO

two vied with each other and finally Caesar emerged victorious
against Pompey and tried to become a dictator. The result was that
T

Brutus and his associates assassinated Caesar in the premises of

O
N

the Senate. Later on, the authority was passed on to Julius Caesar’s
nephew, Octavius. He took revenge against those who conspired in the
killing of Caesar. With Octavius, the republican form of government
came to an end. Octavius ruled under the title Augustus. He called
himself ‘Princep’ too. ‘Princep’ meant ‘The First Citizen of the State’.
He introduced many reforms and ruled for 44 years. The kings who
came after Augustus were dictators. The Senate lost all its power.
The king assumed supreme power and became a tyrant. From here
onwards, we see the deterioration of Rome.

31
 Each culture is responsible for the development of its language.
The Roman reign was responsible for the development of the Latin
language and literature. Rome also gave rise to distinct architecture.
The Pantheon is a temple, whereas the Colosseum is an auditorium.
Roman sculpture has been inspired by the Greeks, and is full of
life. On account of the birth of Jesus Christ and the religion that he
preached Rome acquired prominence.

The American Civilizations

Maya, Aztec and Inca are the ancient Columbian civilizations

of America. They represent the culture of the Indian aborigines of
America.

The commemorative idols depict leaders and kings. These are

ED
called Olmec. The evidences and the excavations found here reveal a

H
centralized society with an hierarchical system.

IS
BL
EP S
Maya Civilization
R TB
U
The American-Indian aborigines of Yucutan area of Mexico are
BE @K

called the Mayas. Their language is called Yucutec. The Mayas were
the most advanced among the ancient American Indians. The ruins
of cities built of stone have been obtained in Yucutan of Mexico,
Guatemala and Honduras.
TO

The life of the Mayas

T

Around a large site named Tikal, pyramids, ‘palaces’ and

O

courtyards have been found all around stretching one square mile.
N

In all ceremonial centres and on either side of the courtyards,

there used to be pyramids. Beneath them were buildings with many
rooms. In front of these, there used to be mammoth stone pillars, of
which a few were plain pillars. Usually depictions of gods, priests,
important leaders in administration and hieroglyphic writing would
be carved on these pillars.
There is no evidence of the use of metal among the Mayas. Even
in early 16th century, copper and gold were rare.

32
The Aztecs
Texcoco is a lake in Mexico. The Aztecs built their city on an
island in this lake.
When the Spanish army entered the Mexican valley in 1519,
they spotted the beautiful city on the island in a lake. That city was
Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztecs, which had grown to symbolize
their wealth and power. As the Spanish stepped into the city, they
saw three wide roads. One of them led to the palace, the second led
to the ornate temple and the third led to the pyramids. All these came
under the Spanish conquest.
The Aztecs were worshippers of Nature. They tried to please God
in many ways, one of them was human sacrifice. As the Aztec empire

ED
grew, they sacrificed more and more human beings to please the
gods. It is believed that when the temple-pyramid of Tenochtitlan was

H
dedicated, around 20,000 prisoners were sacrificed. The Spanish

IS
army which advanced under the leadership of Hernando Cortez in
BL
EP S
R TB

1517 is said to have caused its cultural defeat too.

U

Inca
BE @K

The Inca empire which flourished during the 15th and 16th
centuries spread in the areas of Peru, Ecuador, Chile and Argentina.
The talent of the Incas can be seen more in their organizational
TO

ability than in their artistic interests.

T

The palace on the island in Lake Titicaca and the Moon Temple
O

are two famous buildings of the Incas.

N

The Incas had developed new ways of making pots, cloth and in
working with metals. Creation of gold jewellery had progressed very
well in parts of North Peru.
The Sun God was the most important deity of the Incas. This
was the reason that there was a Sun Temple in all Inca centres. They
worshipped objects of nature like the Moon, the Stars and lightning,
and prayed to other natural phenomena.

33
 EXERCISES
I Complete the following sentences by using suitable words in
the blanks :

1 Hieroglyphics are called _____________.

2 The kings who ruled Egypt are called ___________.

3 The Greeks referred to Mesopotamia as ___________.

4 The most famous king of the Amorites is __________.

5 ‘Princep’ means ___________.

6 The language of the Romans is __________.

ED
7 Texcoco is a ______________ in Mexico.

H
8 The ruling deity of the Incas was ___________.

IS
BL
EP S

II Match the following :

R TB
U

A B
BE @K

9 Hwang River a Mesopotamia

10 Cuneiform b King of the Amorites
11 Cleopatra c Shang
TO

12 Hammurabi d China
T

13 Chinese dynasty e the last Egyptian queen

O
N

III Answer in brief the following questions :

14 Which are the civilizations of ancient Columbia?

15 Who are the ‘Mayas’?

16 How are ‘mummies’ preserved?

17 Write a paragraph on the Pyramids.

18 How was ‘Hwangho River’ China’s sorrow?

34
IV Activities :
19 Learn about the life history of the Greek philosophers from
your teacher.
20 Study and watch Shakesphere’s drama Julius Ceasar.
21 Collect information about the Nile river.



ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

35
 CHAPTER-5
SANATANA DHARMA

After studying this chapter you learn :

• Learn about meaning and importance of sanatana dharma.
• The aspects of Indian cultural heritage.
• Causes for diversity in Indian culture.
• Develops unity in diversity.

oṁ sarvebhavantu sukhinaḥ

ED
sarve santu nirāmayāḥ
sarve bhadrāṇi paśyantu

H
IS
mākashchit duḥkhabhāg bhavet
BL
EP S
oṁ śāntiḥ, śāntiḥ, śāntiḥ
R TB
U
We all would have heard this shloka, the meaning of which goes:
BE @K

May everybody be happy; May Everybody be free from disease;May

everybody have good fortune; May none fall on evil days. Such a
universal thought is itself the foundation of sanatana dharma.
Sanatana means very old also means eternally new. Sanatana dharma
TO

was born in this country which is now called Hindu dharma.

T

The meaning of Veda

O
N

Bhadrampashyema - may we hear only good; maa vidvishavahai

- may we not hate anyone, etc. are called the Shanti Mantras. These
are found in the Upanishads which are a part of Vedic literature.
Now, let us see what the word Veda means. The word has its root in
the dhatu ‘vid’ which means knowledge. Vidya, vidvamsa, vidyarthi,
etc. take form the same root sound.

Vedas are apaurusheya - that, not written by someone, but are

the mantras that dawned upon the rishis (ascetics) through their
tapas; fruits of their parallel and extraordinary knowledge experiences.
Hence, they are the repository of an entire sect’s deep knowledge and
36
extraordinary experiences.The way how one cannot limit the gain of
knowledge over several thousands of years of mankind to one person,
we can also not limit the Vedic knowledge to a few individuals’ efforts
– it is one entire community’s knowledge bank.
Classification of Vedic knowledge
Vedas have laid the basic foundation for sanatana dharma. Also
called Shruti, Vedas are the world’s oldest available literature. Vedas
which indicate the dawn of India’s religious literature, are around
5000 years old. They themselves are a result of thousands of years
of several hermits’ vision. The mantras formulated by the Rishis in
praise of their deities are called Rikku-s. The group of rikku-s is called
a Sukta. The collection of sukta-s created by a Rishi’s disciples and

ED
progenies is called a Mandala. The aggregation of several mandala-s
created by several groups of Rishi-s is called a Samhita.

H
IS
The enormous corpus of Vedas existed during those times was so
BL
EP S
huge that it was practically impossible to study and teach all of it in
R TB

one human lifetime. Hence, Krishna-dvaipayanamaharshi classified

U

and divided the corpus and came to be called as Vedavyasa. This

BE @K

classification resulted in the shaping of four Vedas – Rig, Yajur,

Sama and Atharva. These were taught by Vedavyasa to his disciples
Paila, Vaishampayana, Jaimini and Sumanta, respectively. Over the
times, these grew to become independent Vedas despite which there
TO

is an interdependency between the four Vedas but no contradictions.

Exponents belonging to all four Vedas take part in the yajnyas
T
O

conducted by singing hymns of deities.

N

Nature of Vedas
A Veda is classified as Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and
Upanishads. Each of the four Vedas has its own set of Samhitas,
Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.
Samhita: Consists of hymns in praise of deities. These are hymns
of praying the deities and fulfilling the aspirations through yajyna
rituals.
Brahmana: That part of a Veda which describes system and order
of conducting yajyna-s.
37
 Aranyaka: That part which describes the interdisciplinary meaning
of hymns and rituals.
Upanishad: That part of Vedas which are philosophical writings
that describe the ways of realising the ultimate supreme spirit.
Rig-Veda samhita has 1,028 sukta-s, 10,552 mantra-s. All these
mantra-s are written to literary meters of gayatri, ushnik, puraushnik,
kakup, anushthup, bruhati, and others. Sukta-s are further classified
into 85 anuvaka-s and 10 mandala-s. Those who study Rig-Veda in
traditional ways classify it into 8 ashtaka-s, 64 prapathaka-s, 2,024
varga-s and 10,552 mantra-s.
Theist and Atheist sects

ED
The entire religious literature of sanatana dharma can be
bifurcated into vaidika and avaidika. The literature born out of Vedas

H
is vaidika, everything else is avaidika. Further, there are theist and

IS
atheist paths. All of vaidika literature is theist. However, the avaidika
BL
EP S

literature has both theist and atheist paths. Contrary to the popular
R TB
U
belief, atheism in sanatana dharma does not mean not believing in
BE @K

the existence of God.

Smriti literature
Vaidika literature’s primary branch is shruti. The four Vedas
TO

are together called shruti. The other branch of vaidika literature is

smriti. All of vaidika literature that supplements shruti is smriti.
T

The one which is heard is shruti and the one which is remembered/
O
N

memorised is smriti.
Smriti literature can be divided into three parts. The first one is
vedanga-s dharma shastra-s, etc. Vedanga is the group of texts that
describe the subjects and rules to be followed to understand the
meaning of Vedas. The key parts of vedanga are shiksha, vyakarana,
chandass, nirukta, jyotisha and kalpa, without the knowledge and
background of which if one delves into studying Vedas, then there is
a danger of improper understanding of mantra-s. On the other hand,
dharmashastra-s are texts that lay out the rules required to be followed
for an individual’s religious and well-cultured society’s existence and
sustenance. Manu-smriti, Yajnyavalkya-smriti, Parashara-smriti and
38
other treatises instruct how a society must progress in the path of
dharma.
Smriti literature’s second part is itihasa (history) works of
Ramayana, Mahabharata, the eighteen Purana-s and equal number
of upa-puranas. Also included here are upanishad-s and poems
related to purana-s.
Smriti literature’s third part constitutes the pillars of Indian
philosophical system – the six darshana-s: nyaya, vaisheshika,
sankhya, yoga, purva-meemamsa and Uttara-meemamsa.
Religions and their Heads
The three key branches of vedanga are advaita, vishishta-advaita

ED
and dvaita. These were established by Shri Shankaracharya, Shri
Ramanujacharya and Shri Madhvacharya respectively. Following

H
IS
these three religious streams, other principles like shuddha-advaita,
BL
bheda-abheda, achintyabheda-abheda and others were formulated.
EP S
R TB

Among these, shakti vishista-advaita is pro-Shiva. Kashmirashaiva

U

darshana, shaivasiddhanta, veerashaiva are some of the important

BE @K

sects of Shaiva darshana. The other sects here are pashupata,

kalamukha, kapalika, maheshvara, etc.
Jaina and Bauddha religions
TO

The general understanding of those who believe in Gods are theists

and those who do not, atheists is an incorrect proposition. The very
T
O

idea of ‘belief’ in Gods is alien to sanatana dharma. The idea was

N

seeded when semitic religions entered India. The sanatana dharma’s

understanding has been that everything is God and there is nothing
that is not God. The sanatana dharma’s definition of theist and atheist
are quite different. Those who believe in Vedas, the theory of karma
and rebirth are essentially theists; all the literature that believes
in these is theist literature. Hence, the darshana-s of sankhya and
purva-meemamsa which believe in the above but do not recognise the
necessity of gods, are still theist philosophies. However, since Jaina
and Baudhha religions believe in fruit of karma and rebirth but do
not in Veda-s, they are considered atheist. Even thoughJaina and
Baudhha religions do not deny the vedic concepts of papa, punya and
39
moksha, since they deny Vedas, vedic rituals and Brahma, they are
atheist religions. Bauddha belief denies eternal atma concept while
Jainism believes in the same. Sanatana dharma’s foundation itself
is viewing atma as house of pure happiness.

Beginning of idol worship

Vedas consider Brahma as saguna and nirguna. Having name and

form is saguna and transcending them is nirguna. Worshipping of
saguna deities can be seen in Vedas itself. The Agama literature that
grew as a theist literature by believing in Veda-s provides a large space
for idol worship. Vaishnava, Shaiva and Shakta are three important
Agama branches. Since these three incorporate beliefs in Veda-s,
karma and rebirth, they are considered as theist sects. Shaiva and

ED
Vaishnava agama-s further enabled the formulation and growth of

H
ritualistic procedures, iconography, temple architecture and designs,

IS
etc. Similarly, Shakta agama further gave birth to a vast area of
BL
EP S

philosophy called tantra. These three agama’s are largely responsible

R TB
U
for the way how temples are created, worshipping rituals, celebration
BE @K

of festivals and many such traditions in sanatana dharma.

Diversity despite unity

Sanatana dharma has evolved and grown over the last 3-4
TO

millennia due to the broad foundation of diversity despite unity.

Based on the features described in this chapter, the differences
T

between sanatanadharma and Western religions can be clearly

O
N

understood. The followers of Semitic religions have to believe in

one prophet, one God and one religious text and have to follow the
commandments issued by the god through a messenger. However, in
sanatana dharma, there is no concept of one God, one prophet, one
text and one set of commandments. Multiple deities worshipped in
sanatana dharma are only forms of the creator of the universe – the
supreme Brahma. Sanatana dharma has space for both vedic and
a-vedic literature and traditions. Sanatana dharma has space for
both theist and atheist religions. The intent of sanatana dharma has
been ‘aanobhadrahkrtavoyantuvishvatah’ – let noble thoughts come
to me from all directions of this world.
40
 Let us hear and speak good; let us inculcate good behaviour;let
us live happily with good health; let us give up hatred and jealousy;
let us not commit violence and treachery; let us respect guru-s and
elders; have devotion in deities; let us earn knowledge by walking
in the right path to our fullest strength and character – this, is the
essential message of sanatana dharma.

Veda-s have both prose and poetry. Rig-Veda’s mantra-s are in

poetry form while Yajur-Veda is mostly in prose. Several treatises
(vedanga-s) that were written to explain Vedas are in the form
of sutra-s and hence known as sutra literature. Sutra-s are
unambiguous, made of minimum words, formed to give complete
meaning and are universal statements. Sutra-s can be compared
to modern world’s equations and formulae. Pantanjalimaharshi’s

ED
yoga-sutra, Goutama rishi’s nyaya-sutra etc., are all sutra

H
literature. The smallest sutra, ‘anushcha’, is made of just three

IS
letters; can be found in brahma-sutra.
BL
EP S
R TB
U

In India, much of worldly literature also has grown as a part of

BE @K

sanatana dharma. Ayurveda, vrukshayurveda, music, dance,

architecture, mathematics, chemistry, law, etc., have flourished
on this soil. All of these in one way or the other are grateful to
Veda-s for their growth. For instance, the scholars must be aware
TO

of astronomy if they have to study Veda’s. Similarly, those who

conduct vedic rituals must have the knowledge of the formation of
T

sacrificial altars. Since these are tied to mathematics, mathematics

O
N

also grew along with the spread of Veda’s. This is how the worldly
knowledge systems and sanatana dharma are linked inseparably
with each other.

EXERCISES
I Complete the below sentences with suitable answers :
1. The other name of sanatana dharma is …………………
2. Upanishad is a part of ………………
3. The word Veda is derived from …………… root sound.

41
 4. The meaning of ‘vid’ is ……………….
5. The one that is heard is called …………… and the one that is
memorised is ………….
6. India’s two main history works are ………. and ………….
7. The Indian philosophical pillars are ………….
8. The vast area of philosophy that derives origin from Shakta-
agama is ……….

II Answer the following questions in brief :

9. What is the meaning of Veda?
10. How many mantra-s are there in Rig-Veda? How are the
grouped?

ED
11. Name any two poetic meters used in Rig-Veda.

H
IS
12. Name the four skanda-s of Veda-s.
BL
EP S

13. Who classified the Veda-s? Why?

R TB
U

14. Name the four key sects of shakti vishista-advaita.

BE @K

15. What is theist literature? Name two theist texts.

16. What is a Sutra? Give examples of sutra literature.
17. What is the difference between sanatana dharma and semitic
TO

religions?
T

18. What is the key message of sanatana dharma?

O
N

III Activities :
19. Listen to the traditional recital of vedic hymns. Know which
language the Veda-s are created in.
20. Gather at least five shanti-mantras and their meaning.
21. Understand the messages that Veda-s give out and note them
down.


42
 CHAPTER-6
JAINISM AND BUDDHISM

After studying this chapter you learn :

• Learn about Jainism and Buddhism.
• Understands the principles of Jainism and Buddhism.
• The spread of Jainism and Buddhism.

Jainism
Jainism is one of the very ancient religions. Traditionally, the

ED
Jains believed in the existence of 24 Tirthankaras. Rishabha was
the first Tirthankara whereas Parswanatha was the 23 Tirthankara.

H
IS
Parswanatha was born as the son of King Aswasena in the 8th century
B.C.E. It is believed that he renounced all luxury and indulgence, and
BL
EP S
R TB

attained immortality. He renounced society and became a hermit. He

U

preached four principles for a peaceful life.

BE @K

The four principles preached by

Parswanatha, were :
1. Non-violence
TO

2. Truth
3. Astheya (not to steal)
T

4. Aparigraha
O

(not to own property)

N

The fifth principle of Bramhacharya

was taught by Vardhamana. He
was the 24th Tirtankara.
Vardhamana Mahaveera
(599-527 B.C)
Vardhamana was born in
Kundala grama in Vaishali,
one of the republics. His father
Vardhamana Mahaveera was Siddhartha, the king of the

43
Gnatrika tribe. His mother was Trishaladevi, the princess of the
Republic of Licchavi.
At the age of 30 Vardhamana set out in search of truth and
renounced his family and house. He wandered for 12 years in this
quest, and meditated. He punished his body by fasting. At the age
of 42, he achieved enlightenment (Kaivalya). Vardhamana controlled
his senses and achieved power over comfort and pain. Due to this
achievement, he came to be known as ‘Mahaveer’ and became a ‘Jina’.
A Jina was one who had over come his senses and become victorious.
Thus his followers came to be called Jains.
Mahaveera spent thirty years, i.e., the rest of his life preaching his
knowledge to the people around the Ganga and Yamuna rivers. He
travelled towards Western India preaching his thoughts. He attained

ED
nirvana in his 72nd year in Pavapuri of Bihar.

H
Mahaveer taught five vows and three principles of behaviour. The

IS
latter are called Triratnas. BL
EP S
R TB

The 5 vows are as follows :

U
BE @K

1. Non-violence 2. Truth
3. Astheya 4. Aparigraha
5. Brahmacharya
The triratnas are as follows :
TO

1. Samyakgyan 2. Samyakdarshan 3. Samyakcharitra

T
O

Jainism does not reject the existence of God completely, yet it

N

advocates atheism. It denies the role of God in the daily affairs of

people. It places God at a lower level than Jina.
The Jains believe that every animate and inanimate thing possesses
a soul. They also believe that it is only through purification of the
soul that one can achieve freedom from rebirth and attain nirvana.
Purification is possible through meditation, fasting, punishment of
the body and thereby, destruction of the body. This process is known
as sallekhana. The concept of Karma is a very important aspect of
Jainism. According to this, a human being can attain salvation only
through good and holy acts. To attain enlightenment, the soul had
to achieve freedom from the bondage of the body.
44
 Traditionally, we get to see two important sects among Jains called
Swethambars and Digambars. Those saints and their followers who
wear white clothes are called Swethambars, whereas those saints and
their followers who do not wear any clothes are called Digambars.
After the first Jain council, the preachings of Mahaveer were compiled
in 12 volumes. These were called 12 angas by the Jains. They are in
Prakrit language.

Very early, one group of Jains migrated to the South due to the
famine in Bihar, and settled down at Shravanabelagola. Thus even
here, Jainism spread and many works were written in Kannada,
Telugu and Tamil languages. The famous Kannada poets Pampa,
Ranna, Janna and Ponna were Jains.

ED
Buddhism

H
Siddartha who later became known

IS
as Gautam Buddha was born in the 6th
BL
EP S

century B.C.E. His father Shuddodana

R TB
U
was the king of the republic of Shakya.
BE @K

Renouncing royal luxury and familial

pleasure, Siddartha became a hermit.
Disillusioned with the prevailing ways of
life, he embarked upon a quest for truth.
TO

Attaining enlightenment, he became

Buddha. After becoming Buddha, the
T

‘Enlightened One’, he first went to

O

Sarnath near Banaras. There, in the deer

N

park, he gave his first sermon. This has

been called Dharma Chakra Pravarthana.
Goutam Buddha
Here he preached the Four Noble Truths
and the Eightfold Path.
The Four Noble Truths declare that the whole world is full of
sorrow and suffering. They also explain the root cause of sorrow.
Buddha realized that desire was the root cause of sorrow. Only by
the liberation of excessive desires could a peaceful life be led. Buddha
preached the Eight Fold Path for eliminating desires. This is called
the Middle Path.

45
The Eight Fold Paths are :
Right 1. Action
2. Speech
3. Vision
4. Livelihood
5. Effort
6. Recollection
7. Resolve
8. Thought.
Followers of the New Religion
Wealthy merchants, artisans and common people were inspired
by the new teachings. Buddha gave his messages in Prakrit, the

ED
language of the common man and related them to various aspects of
their tradition. The atmosphere of the new cities changed the ways

H
IS
of life of the people. The new religions became a ray of hope in the
BL
changed circumstances. Buddhism, especially, took on a new role of
EP S
R TB

transforming the lives of people.

U
BE @K

Buddha and his

followers visited Kosala,
Magadha and many cities
on the Gangetic plain
and spread his messages
TO

there. They walked from

T

one city to another and

O

devoted their lives for

N

others. In his 80th year,

Buddha’s glorious life of
selfless service came to
Sanchi Stupa an end at Kushinagar.
This has been called ‘Mahapari nirvana’.
Viharas were constructed in all the areas in which Buddha
wandered. People preserved his relics and bones in chaityalayas and
stupas, and in memory of his accomplishments started worshipping
him in chaityalayas and stupas. This was how the first temples, idols
and idol-worship began.

46
 Buddhism spread not only in India but also in foreign countries.
Chinese travellers like Fa Hien, It Sing and Hiuen Tsang have
described vividly the glory of Buddhism. Buddhism had spread
to Malaya, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Sri Lanka and
Bamiyan too. Boulders have been cut from mountains and shaped
into statues of Buddha. Even today we can see gigantic statues of
Buddha in Angkor Vat of Cambodia and Bamiyan of Afghanistan.
Unfortunately, the huge statues of Buddha in Bamiyan came under
attack and were destroyed in recent times.
In 1956, inspired by Buddha’s teachings, India’s prominent
social philosopher and architect of the constitution, Baba Saheb
Dr. B.R.Ambedkar embraced Buddhism.

ED
Dharma and Religion

H
IS
The concept of religion is a European one. It refers to an
BL
EP S
individual’s beliefs regarding man and society. It is centered
R TB

around God. When it is not centered around life in this world,

U
BE @K

it becomes philosophy. Each religion has sacred books of its

own. These books reveal the thoughts of the person responsible
for the birth of the religion. As religions grew, different sects
developed among them. In the Indian context, Judaism, Islam
and Christianity can be called religions. Here a distinction can be
TO

made between theists and atheists. Traditions that approve vedic

authority or faith in the existence of god are considered theistic
T
O

traditions. Traditions denying the vedas or having no faith in the

N

existence of god are considered atheist. The concept of Dharma

is related to a way of life.

After Buddha’s death, his followers collected his teachings and

tradition in the form of Tripitakas. These are Vinaya, Dhamma and
Abhidhamma pitakas. Over a period of time, disagreements developed
in the teachings and different branches of Buddhism sprang up. Thus
Hinayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana and their sutras came into being.
Today we see many organizations across the globe adopting different
ways of realizing Buddha.

47
Foreign Invasions
During this period, there sprang up city-states in Greece. Ancient
Persia had grown into a powerful empire. These two areas engaged
in continual conflicts. The Akhimenians were one group who ruled
Persia. In 6th century B.C.E. King Darius of this dynasty established a
strong empire. His kingdom extended up to the Indian border during
his time. In 4th century B.C.E. the Macedonian king Alexander won
over the Greek city-states and captured Persia. Thus even the part of
the Persian kingdom which had spread up to the Indian border, came
under the control of Alexander. After overpowering Persia, Alexander
entered India through the passes in Kandahar and Hindu Kush. He
advanced till Ravi and Beas rivers, and unable to proceed further,
he crossed the Indian border through river Jhelum, and on his way

ED
back home, he died at Babylonia.

H
IS
The battle between Alexander and Paurava:
BL
EP S

When Alexander accepted the invitation of Ambhi, the king

R TB
U
of Taxila, and came to India, it was with Paurava that he had to
BE @K

confront. Paurava was also called Porus. The two armies faced
each other on the banks of the river Jhelum which was flooded
and wild at that time. Alexander’s army attacked Paurava who
had never expected anyone to cross the swollen river, and won.
TO

Alexander asked the captured Paurava how he desired to be

treated. Paurava replied with pride and courage, ‘‘As one king
T

deserves to be treated by another”. Paurava’s brave adventures

O

have been immortalized in Greek writings. Alexander’s attack

N

led to the consolidation of small and big republics and the

establishment of the Mauryan dynasty. The arrival of the Greeks
influenced North Indian art and science. Proof of this influence
can be found in the famous art form known as Gandhara art
which existed at that time.

48
 EXERCISES
I Complete the following sentences by using suitable words in
the blanks:
1 The first Jain Tirthankara was ____________.
2 Vardhamana was born at __________.
3 Mahaveera attained ____________ in his 42nd year.
4 Mahaveera attained Nirvana at __________ in his 72nd year.
5 The original name of Gautama Buddha was __________.
6 Buddha delivered his first sermon at __________.
7 The first sermon of Buddha is called _________.

ED
II Answer in brief the following questions:

H
8 Write in detail about Mahaveera’s life.

IS
9 What are the triratnas?
BL
EP S
R TB
U
10 Name the sects among the Jains.
BE @K

11 What is the middle path?

12 Who were the people influenced by the new religion?
13 Write a note on the Tripitikas.
TO

III Activities :
14 Collect information about the life of Mahaveera.
T
O

15 Collect pictures relating to the life of Gautama Buddha.

N

16 Learn the meanings of words like dharma, sect, theism and

atheism.



49
 CHAPTER-7
MAURYAS AND KUSHANS

After studying this chapter you learn :

• That first ever empire of India was Mauryan empire.
• About the empire, Ashoka’s achievements, administrations
and contributions to art and architecture.
• About the history of Kushan’s, administration and contributions
of Kanishka.
• Locating (marking) the region of Ashoka’s empire on the India

ED
map.

H
The Mauryan Empire

IS
BL
The Mauryan empire was the first Indian empire. They ruled
EP S
R TB

the kingdom from Magadha. Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara

U
and Ashoka are the prominent kings of this dynasty. The dynasty
BE @K

was established by Chandragupta Maurya. The Greek ambassador

Megasthenes recorded the fame of Chandragupta in ‘Indica’ and
immortalized him. The contents of ‘Indica’ are not known to us
since this work has been lost. But certain descriptive excerpts have
TO

been found in the works of some Greek writers. Chanakya was

Chandragupta’s minister. He became widely known as Kautilya. His
T

ideas are described in the work ‘Arthashastra’.

O
N

Arthashastra
In 1902, R.Shamasastry a renowned sanskrit scholar, found,
in the Oriental Library of Mysore, the manuscript of Arthashastra
written by Kautilya. The Arthashastra is not merely economics as
understood by the western world. Arthashastra containes topics
like principles of administration of a kingdom, the responsibilities
of a king and his ministers, foreign policy, financial management,
etc. Stress is laid on the spy network and military system. Even
after thousands of years, Kautilya’s Arthashastra has been
attracting scholars by its uniqueness.

50
 Ashoka is a famous king of this dynasty. Five important
city centres can be identified during this period. They were
the capital of the Mauryas, Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjain, Kalinga
and Suvarnagiri. These were major link routes too. Taxila
was the gateway to north-west India. Ujjain was the route
to trade from north to south. Kalinga was the gateway to the sea
through the river Ganges. Suvarnagiri was in the Deccan region, i.e., the
modern Karnataka. All these areas were trade routes and were in
contact with one another.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

51
 The Battle of Kalinga
Eight years after his coronation, Ashoka conquered Kalinga.
150000 soldiers were captured in this battle. 1,00,000 people
died during the battle. Seeing death and suffering the battle had
caused, Emperor Ashoka was moved. He was saddened by the
realisation that innumerable, innocent people who had been in
perfect harmony with their fellow-human beings and were leading
simple, virtuous lives, had either died or been wounded and
separated from their loved ones. This was the reason that after
conquering Kalinga, Ashoka experienced deep regret and, inspired
by ‘Dhamma’, advocated peace.

ED
Ashoka carried on the administration
of his vast kingdom from different

H
centres. All centres proclaimed the

IS
aspirations of the king. His aspirations
BL
EP S

were expressed through edicts. These

R TB
U
edicts, which can be seen on rocks and
BE @K

stone pillars, have been the first ever

inscriptions available to us. Ashoka
was transformed after viewing the huge
loss of life during the Kalinga war.
TO

Compassion as preached by Buddha

influenced Ashoka. He spread the
T

teachings of Buddha throughout the

O

co u n t r y . H e ap poi n ted D h arma

N

Mahamatras for this purpose. His views

on Dharma are expressed in his edicts.
These are well-known as Ashoka’s
Dharma.
We see vast developments in trade
and agriculture during this time. The
government had adopted various The Dharmachakra
engraved on the pedestal
measures to improve agriculture.
Special tax concessions were given towards this end. There were many
officials to carry on the administration of the vast empire. A permanent
52
 army was also found
Many of the edicts issued by Ashoka necessary. To carry out all
are in Prakrit. They are in Brahmi
these activities, taxes were
script. Ashoka’s rock edicts have
needed. Land tax was the
been found at Brahmagiri, in
main source of income for
Karnataka.
the king and various
The capital found in the Sarnath officials served in collecting
pillar of Ashoka has been adopted by taxes. Spies kept the king
the Indian government as National informed. They had
Emblem. established control over
trade and commerce by
regulating sea and land routes. Different taxes were levied on these.
The Kushans

ED
After the Greeks, it has been the Kushans who have influenced

H
Indian history and culture. They gave special impetus to the spread of

IS
Buddhism. The Mahayana sect received greater encouragement under
BL
EP S

their patronage. Gandhara sculpture flourished during their time.

R TB
U

An important dynasty after the Mauryas is that of the Kushans.

BE @K

They were basically from a nomadic tribe which had migrated to India
from Central Asia. They were the progeny
of Yuchi. The Sakas and the Parthians
were the other foreign communities that
TO

had settled in the north-western part of

India. The Kushans defeated the Sakas
T
O

and the Parthians, and settled in the

N

Gandhara region.
The founder of this dynasty was
Kujalakadphisus. Vimakadphisus and
Kanishka are the noteworthy kings of this
dynasty. The Yuchis were basically tribals.
The Yuchi factions became united under
the leadership of Kujalakadphisus. He
crossed the Hindu Kush range and settled
in Kabul and Kashmir. During the time of
Vimakadphisus, gold coins were brought
out. From then onwards, the Kushans Gandhara style Buddha
53
minted mainly gold and copper coins.
Kanishka came after Vimakadphisus. During his reign, the
Kushan dynasty flourished greatly. He established his rule in 78 C.E.
and heralded a new era. This era is called the ‘Saka’ era.
Kanishka’s rule had spread up to Sanchi in the south and Banaras
in the east. His kingdom, which included Central Asia too, was a vast
empire. Purushapura was his capital. Mathura was another significant
town of his time.
Due to the patronage given by Kanishka, Buddhism could prosper
much more than before. We get to see many Buddhist scholars like
Nagarjuna, Aswagosha, Vasumitra, Sangaraksha and others at this
time. The fourth Buddhist conference was held at Kashmir under the

ED
leadership of Kanishka. Like Ashoka, even Kanishka sent missionaries

H
to Central Asia and China to spread Buddhism. During his reign, art

IS
and architecture got encouragement.
BL
EP S

EXERCISES
R TB
U

I Complete the following sentences by using suitable words in

BE @K

the blanks :
1 Chanakya came to be known as __________.
2 The capital of the Mauryas was ___________.
TO

3 The founder of the Kushan dynasty was __________.

4 The new era of Kanishka’s reign is called the ______________.
T
O

II Answer to the following questions in brief :

N

5 Name the important cities of Ashoka’s period.

6 Describe Ashoka’s administration.
7 Which dynasty did the Kushans belong to?
8 What was the extent of Kanishka’s empire ?
III Activities :
9 Learn about the Gandhara art.
10 Collect information from your teacher about the Buddhist
Conference which took place during Kanishka’s rule.

54
 CHAPTER-8
GUPTAS AND VARDHANAS

After studying this chapter you learn :

• About the famous rulers, expansion and growth of Gupta empire.
• About their contribution to administration literature and science.
• About the growth of Vardhana’s and their contributions to
literature and education.
• To know the extent of Gupta empire in the map of India.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

55
 After centuries of political instability, the
Gupta Empire rose in the 4th century C.E.
Sanskrit language and its vast literature
bear a mirror to this age. The guptas
probably came over from Magadha.
Chandragupta I married a Licchavi
princess and strengthened his kingdom.
It is believed that the Gupta era began
with his reign in 320 C.E. He was called
the Maharajadhiraja.
We see his son Samudragupta after
him. His achievments have been
Mehrauli Iron Pillar commemorated in the Allahabad prashati

ED
written by Harisena. This is in Sanskrit language and has been inscribed
on Ashoka’s pillar. Most part of India was under the rule of the Guptas

H
during the time of Samudragupta.His Aswamedhayaga brings to mind

IS
the Vedic rituals and traditions Samudragupta was not just a conquerer,
BL
EP S

but a great poet and a lover of music too. His passion for music can be
R TB
U
seen in the gold coins which depict him playing on the veena.
BE @K

The Iron Pillar at Mehrauli in Delhi near Qutb Minar is important.

It is 23 feet and eight inches in height and weighs 6,000 kg. It is
one of the finest examples of the technical skill of the time. It has
TO

not become rusty till now. If phosphorus is mixed with iron resting
process will be delayed. That shows in those days Indians had a
T

sound knowledge about metallurgy.

O
N

Meghadoota
This is a poetic creation of Kalidasa, and is one among his very
famous work. Yaksha is exiled by King Kuber for having neglected
his duties. In this situation, the yaksha stops a passing cloud and
persuades it to carry a message of love to his wife who lives near
the Kailash mountain. He describes the beautiful scenery on the
route to his wife’s place . Even today this poem is famous all over
the world. It has been translated into all the Indian languages
and major languages of the world. People have been enjoying the
dramatization of Meghadoota till today.

56
 Chandragupta II expanded the kingdom of Samudragupta and
brought stability. He defeated the Sakas and made Western India
a part of the Gupta Empire. He developed relationships with many
Indian royal families through marriage and became very influential.
He earned the title of Vikramaditya. His reign is memorable more
for the encouragement given to literature and art, rather than for its
battles. The famous Sanskrit poet and dramatist, Kalidasa, belonged
to this age. Meghadoota, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava and Ritu
Samhara are his lyrical contributions. Abhijnana Shakuntala is one
of his noteworthy plays. Sudraka’s Mricchakatika and Vishakadatta’s
Mudrarakshasa are the other literary works of this period.

Abhijnana Shakuntala

ED
This is considered the best drama of Kalidasa. The story of
Shakuntala is in the Mahabharata. In the story, King Dushyanta

H
while on his hunt in the forest, happens to come to Sage Kanva’s

IS
ashram. There he sees Shakuntala, falls in love with her and
BL
EP S

both get married in Gandharva style. All this takes place in

R TB
U
the absence of Sage Kanva. After some time, Dushyanta leaves
BE @K

Shakuntala in the ashram and returns to his capital. During this

period of separation, Sage Durvasa arrives at Kanva’s ashram.
Seeing Shakuntala lost in the thoughts of Dushyanta and finding
none to attend him was enraged. Sage Durvasa lost his temper
TO

and cursed her saying, “Let the one in whose memory you are,
forget you”. When he realised his own harshness, Sage Durvasa
T

suggested a way to be free from the curse. He says that an object

O

given to her would ultimately bring back his memories of her.

N

The object was a ring that Dushyanta had given to Shakuntala.

As Sage Durvasa had said, Dushyant forgets Shakuntala. After a
period of time the disciples of sage Kanva took Shakuntala to the
court of Dushyanta to unite them. She was pregnant at that time.
On the way, Shakuntala lost the ring which would have brought
back recollection in Dushyanta. Thus Dushyanta was is unable to
recognize her. Shakuntala leaves the palace in humiliation. After
a few days, the ring was found in the stomach of a fish, and on
seeing it, Dushyanta recalls everything. He was filled with remorse.

57
 Some time later, while he was returning from a journey, he pays a
visit to Sage Maricha’s ashram. There he sees a small boy playing
with lion cubs, and when he enquires about his background, he
comes to know that the boy is his own son, Sarvadamana. In this
manner, Dushyanta is united with his wife, Shakuntala, and son.
Abhijnana Shakuntala is one of the greatest plays in the world.
It has earned great acclaim all over the world.

The Gupta Empire was subjected to continual attacks of the

Huns and thus, declined soon. The Guptas did not have a fully
equipped large army. The vassal kings would fulfil the requirements
during times of war. Hence, the vassals had become very powerful.
The bureaucracy consisted of Kumar Amatyas. They head various

ED
positions. The administration was decentralized. The priests received

H
many grants. They would be granted many villages. Many temples

IS
saw development due to this. These areas not only enjoyed financial
BL
EP S
and administrative concessions but also became independent in all
R TB

matters. However, over a period of time, the local people, farmers and
U

artisans began to be controlled by the landlords. In this way, society

BE @K

grew more and more complex.

During this period, the trade that the Guptas had with the
Westerners collapsed. Consequently, their economic system suffered.
TO

The restrictions imposed on their empire obstructed their internal

trade too. Trade was limited to villages. The collapse of trade led to
T

the decline of the trade centres. Pataliputra got reduced to the size
O

of a village.
N

Based on the sentiment of bhakthi, this period witnessed creation

of various religious texts like the Puranas and the Dharmashastras.
Varahamihira, Bhaskara-I, Aryabhata, Charaka and Sushruta were
the great scientists of this time. Varahamihira, Bhaskara-I and
Aryabhata made significant contributions to the study of astrology,
astronomy and mathematics. Charaka wrote Charaka Samhita.
Sushruta wrote Sushruta Samhita which dealt with surgery.

58
Scientists of the Gupta Period :
1. Dhanwantari: He was a famous scholar in the field of medicine.
He was a specialist in Ayurveda. He is the father of Indian
Medicine. His chief contribution to the medical field has been
the Ayurvedic dictionary.
2. Charaka: He was a medical scientist. His major contribution to
the field of medicine has been the Charaka Samhita.
3. Sushruta: He was a surgeon. He was the first Indian to explain
the process of surgery. He has recorded that in those days,
there used to be a separate wing to treat soldiers. Like modern
surgeons sushruta was a welknown surgeon of yester years

ED
and contributed significantly to the field of surgery.

H
IS
4. Aryabhata: He was a famous astronomer and mathematician.
BL
EP S

He is the prominent scientist who come after Varahimihira. His

R TB
U
contribution to Astronomy and Mathematics has been highly
BE @K

significant.
This is the reason that the Aryabhata award is being presented
by the Indian Government to great scientists. The first Indian
satellite has been named after Aryabhata. He is believed to have
TO

invented ‘the zero’. He was the first Indian to master algebra. He

reiterated the fact that solar and lunar eclipses happen not due
T
O

to Rahu but solar eclipse is caused when the moon is between

N

the sun and the earth. Lunar eclipse - when the earth is between
the sun and the moon.
5. Varahamihira: He was a famous astronomer. He wrote a book
on astronomy named Panchasiddhantika, In addition to this, he
wrote Bruhat Samhita, Bruhat Jataka and Laghu Jataka. He was
a scholar in many fields like astronomy, astrology, geography,
metereology, etc.

59
 THE VARDHANS

The Gupta Empire which had flourished for two centuries,

disintegrated around 6th century C.E. Many small kingdoms sprang
up at this time. The kingdom of the Vardhanas was one of them. They
ruled from Thaneswar in 6th century. Some copper inscriptions, Bana’s
Harshacharita and the Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang’s writings throw
light upon this period.

Pushyabhuti is the founder of this dynasty. Prabhakaravardhana

and Harshavardhana are the prominent kings of the dynasty. After
the death of his father, Prabhakaravardhana, and his brother,
Rajyavardhana, Harsha became the king of Thaneswar.

ED
His sister Rajyashree was married to the king of Kanauj. When the
king of Bengal Sashanka killed the king of Kanauj, Harsha captured

H
IS
Kanauj, and attacked the king of Bengal. Bengal and Magadha came
BL
under his rule. But he could not advance beyond the Narmada river
EP S
R TB

in the south. The Kannada king of the Chalukyas, Pulakeshi II,

U

halted his progress, and forced him to go back. This achievement

BE @K

of Pulakesh II has been immortalized in the panegyric (prashasti)

inscription written by the court poet, Ravikirti. Harsha lossed his
Harsh (joy) due to his defeat.
TO

The king’s rule was assisted by the council of ministers. The

bureaucracy consisted of the Mahasandhivigraha (the negotiator),
T
O

Mahabaladhikruta (military general), Bhogapati (tax official) and Doota.

N

The kingdom had been divided into provinces. Land tax was the major
source of income for the kingdom. Feudatory chiefs paid tribute to the
king. The king gave them land, grants and in return, got the help of
their armies. When the king became weak, the feudatory chiefs became
independent.

Land grants were given to other communities and religious people

as well. Harsha gave prominence to Buddhism. We get details of the
popularity of Buddhism from Hiuen Tsang’s writing. The Buddhist
wing. Nalanda University was full of activity during this period. It
enjoyed royal patronage.
60
 Nalanda
Buddha’s followers
believe that ‘Nalanda’
was the name of
Buddha in his
previous birth. This
is famous as an
ancient university.
Buddha had visited
Nalanda. Mention
has been made of
the 25 metre tall
bronze image of

ED
Buddha that

H
Harshavardhana gifted to Nalanda. Kumaragupta had made

IS
contributions to a fine arts school here. Nagarjuna the Chief
BL
EP S

exponent of middle path, Dinnaga and Dharmapala were the other

R TB
U
famous scholars who taught here. The Chinese traveller, Hiuen
BE @K

Tsang, visited this place and stayed for some time. He has given
a detailed description of this place. There were stupas, chaityas,
viharas, rest houses, benches here and there to sit and rest awhile,
meditation rooms, lecture rooms and many other structures reveal
the glory of this place. The Gupta kings and Harshavardhana
TO

have been the famous patrons of this place. An accidental fire

T

destroyed many texts at Nalanda.

O
N

EXERCISES
I Complete the following sentences by using suitable words in
the blanks :
1 The Guptas began their reign from the place ____________.
2 Chandragupta I was called __________.
3 One of the great play of Kalidasa is ____________ .
4 Vishakadatta’s literary work is _______.

61
 5 The literary work written by Sudraka is _________.
6 The founder of Vardhana dynasty was _________.

II Answer in brief the following questions :

7 Write about Chandragupta II.
8 What were the reasons for the downfall of the Gupta Empire?
9 Name the great scientists of the Gupta Age.
10 How was the administration during the Vardhana rule?
11 Write about Nalanda University.

ED
III Activities :

H
12 Collect details about all the works of Kalidasa.

IS
13 Collect information and pictures of the scientists of the Gupta
BL
EP S
R TB

period.
U
BE @K


TO
T
O
N

62
 CHAPTER-9

SOUTH INDIAN DYNASTIES :

SHATHAVAHANA, KADHAMBA, GANGA
(FROM 3RD CENTURY B.C.E. TO 13TH CENTURY C.E.)

After studying this chapter you learn :

• About the growth of Shatavahanas in south India, their
achievements, administration, art and architecture.
• The achievements of Shatakarani.
• That Kadambas were the first to establish an empire in
Karnataka.

ED
• About the establishment of Ganga dynasty, their contributions
to art, architecture and literature.

H
IS
• Locating the areas of Shatavahana’s, Kadambas and Gangas.
BL
EP S
R TB

The Vindhya mountains separate North and South India. The

U

area between the Vindhya mountains and Kanyakumari in the

BE @K

south is called South India or the Deccan region. The Shatavahanas,

Kadambas, Gangas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas and Pallavas have been
the important dynasties of this region.
The Shatavahanas (230 B.C.E. to 220 C.E.)
TO

The Shathavahanas were the first to have established a dynasty

T

in the Deccan. They had settled themselves in the land between the
O
N

Godavari and Krishna rivers. They were the vassels of Chandragupta

Maurya and were paying tributes to him. In 220 B.C.E. Simuka
became independent and made Srikakulam, his capital.
Gautami Puthra Shatakarni : He was a prominent king of this
dynasty. He had done away with the bitter enemies of the kingdom ,
the sakas, beyond the borders of India. Shalivahana Saka is supposed
to have been started by him.
He expanded his kingdom to include not only Konkan, Birar,
Saurashta and Malawa, but also many new areas. He had titles
such as ‘Trisamudratoyapitavahana’ and ‘Shatavahana Kulayasha
63
pratishtapanakara’. Yajnashri Shatakarni was the last king of this
dynasty. During his time, on account of continual attacks by the
Shakas, the empire declined.
During the Shatavahana rule, the king was supreme. The kingdom
had been divided into provinces called Janapada for purpose of
administration and officers had been appointed to look after them.
The cities and villages were looked after by self-governing institutions.
There was no discrimination on the basis of varna in the society.
Even women held high offices and had status in society. There were
people of different occupations like farmers, merchants, goldsmiths,
fishermen, carpenters, weavers, medicine man etc. There were
accupational associations. Later these associations emerged as

ED
commercial and trade organisations. There was encouragement for
even foreign trade, and Nasik, Kalyan, Broach and Bhatkal were trade

H
centres.

IS
BL
EP S
The Shatavahanas who followed the Vedic tradition, encouraged
R TB
U
other religions like Buddhism and Jainism and believed in harmony.
BE @K

They promoted art, literature and education. Literature was

created in Prakrit, the language of both scholars and common people.
Gathasaptashati written by Hala is an example of this.
TO

The Ajanta and the

Amaravati paintings
T

belong to the period of the

O

Shatavahanas. Temples,
N

viharas and chaityalayas

were also constructed. A
chaityagraha was built
in Karle by the Banavasi
merchant Bhootapala.
During the period of
Chaityalaya at Karle the Shatavahanas, the
Kannada region was prosperous
kannadigas were adventurous and able administrators. They had
enriched Indian culture by their contributions.
64
 The Kadambas (325 C.E. to 540 C.E.)
This is the first dynasty to be established in Karnataka. Their
capital was Banavasi which is in present North canara district.
Mayurasharma was the founder and a great king of this dynasty.
When Mayura sharma was insulted by the Pallava king, Shivaskanda
Varma, he adopted the kshatriya way of life and became Mayuravarma.
He defeated the Pallavas in a war and established the Kadamba
empire. He is the pride of all Kannadigas.

Map of
Kadamba
Dynasty

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

65
 According to the Chandravalli inscription at Chitradurga, Mayuravarma
is said to have increased the height of the wall of the chandravathi lake.

The Kadambas made special contributions to Karnataka and

Indian culture. There was political unity for around three hundred
years under the Kadamba rule. Royal priests, ministers and military
generals played a significant role in administration. For administrative
ease, provincial officers had been appointed to look after the provinces.
Land revenue was the main source of income in the kingdom. The
occupations such as carpentry, goldsmithy, blacksmithy, weaving,
oil-extraction, pottery were the main ones in the society. There was
greater encouragement for agriculture and trade. Most of the people
followed varnashrama. Greater importance was given to patriarchy

ED
and joint family.

H
Though they were the followers of the Vedic culture, the Kadambas

IS
encouraged Jainism and Buddhism. They gave charity to Jain temples
BL
EP S

and scholars at Hangal, Puligere and other places, and promoted the
R TB
U
spread of Jain culture.
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Madhukeshwara Temple, Banavasi

66
 Buddhism was also flourishing in the Kadamba kingdom. It
inculded Ajanta and Banavasi, two of the important centers of
Buddism. The temples were centers of festivals and celebrations. Both
Prakrit and Sanskrit received encouragement. First Prakrit and later
Sanskrit became the court language. Kannada was the language of
the people. The ancient Halmidi inscription shows the characteristics
of the Kannada language which was in use in the 5th century. This
has been the first inscription available in Kannada.

The Malavalli inscription is in Prakrit language. The Talagunda

inscription is the first Sanskrit inscription found in Karnataka.

The Kadambas laid the foundation for architecture in Karnataka.

They built many temples and basadis in Banavasi. During this period,

ED
educational centers like agraharas, brahmapuris and ghatikas were
established. The main agraharas of that time were found in Talagunda

H
and Balligave. The agraharas were like residential schools.

IS
BL
EP S
The Gangas (350 C.E. to 1004 C.E.)
R TB
U
The rise and fall of the dynasty of Ganga rulers constitute an
BE @K

important chapter in early history of Karnataka. The founders of the

Ganga dynasty claimed their descent from the Ikshvaku dynasty.
They ruled from Kuvalala, Talakadu and Manyapura (today’s Manne
in Nelamangala, Bangalore Rural district).
TO

The Gangawadi kingdom which began with the rule of Dadiga

(also known as Kongunivarma), was ruled by 27 kings. Durvinita was
T
O

a famous king of this dynasty. He was a brave warrior and scholar.

N

He ruled for a long period and gained control of Punnata in order to

strengthen his Kingdom. The Nallala copper inscription reveal that
he constructed many lakes for the purposes of irrigation. He was a
lover of Literature and wrote creative works in Sanskrit and Kannada.
He even translated the Prakrit work ‘Vaddakatha’ of Gunadya in to
Sanskrit.
The Contributions of the Gangas
The king had a council of ministers to help him. The ministers
supervised different branches of administration. The administration
in the villages was very systematic. The village committee looked
67
after land revenue, justice, sanitation and defence. Agriculture was
the main occupation. There were other occupations like weaving and
black smithy. They had trade relations with other countries.
Though the society at the time of the Gangas had been divided into
different sects and castes, they were all interdependent. The practice of
a patriarchal undivided family was common. Social values like honesty,
loyalty, bravery and patience were prominent among the people.
Chaityalayas, temples, mathas and agraharas were centers of
education. There were Brahmapuris and Ghatikas for higher education.
Talakadu, Shravanabelagola, Bankapura and Peruru have been named
as centers of learning.
Since the Gangas were Jains, Jainism flourished here. Poojyapada,

ED
Vajranandi, Ajitsena and others popularized this religion. Further, they

H
installed a 58 foot monolithic idol of Gommateshwara at Shravanabelagola

IS
and made it a famous centre. You must have heard about the Maha
BL
EP S
Mastakabhisheka of Gommateshwara which takes place once in every
R TB

12 years even to this day.

U
BE @K

Bahubali-Gommateshwara
Gommateshwara (Bahubali) of
Sravanabelagola is a symbol of
TO

life of renunciation. The Statue

of Gommateshwara was installed
T

by Chavundaraya, the minister of

O

Rachamalla IV. Among 100 brothers,

N

Bharata was the eldest, Bahubali

the youngest. After Bharata was
coronated as the king, he finds a
Chakraratna (a special wheel), won
all the kingdoms and became an
emperor. Even before that, all his
brothers accepted his sovereignty.
But when Bahubali did not accept
it, both of them got ready to engage
in a battle. Gommateshwara

68
 Bharata lost in drushti yuddha, jala yuddha and malla yuddha.
At the end of malla yuddha, Bahubali lifted Bharata and spinning
him in the air like a wheel, was about to throw him away, suddenly
he lost all interest in everything around him, and put his brother
down. He bowed to his brother and went away to meditate for
nirvana, standing all the time. As he did not achieve salvation,
he realises that as long as he stood in his brother’s kingdom and
meditated, he would not achieve nirvana. Later Bharata came and
said that the whole kingdom was Bahubali’s, and that he was
ruling it on Bahubali’s behalf. Then Bahubali achieved nirvana.

The Ganga kings encouraged art and architecture. They built

beautiful temples and basadis. The Kapileshwara temple at Manne,

ED
Pataleshwara and Maruleshwara temples at Talakad, Kolaramma

H
temple at Kolar, Nagareshwara temple at Begur and the statue of

IS
Gomateshwara at Shravanabelagola are examples of their architecture.
BL
EP S
The significant contribution of the Gangas has been the tall pillars
R TB

called Manastambhas and Brahmamanasthambas.

U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Pathaleshwara Temple in Talakadu

The Ganga kings were lovers of literature and due to their

encouragement to Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada languages, many
works were written in these languages. Madhava II wrote commentary
on Dattaka Sutra.

69
 Durvinita wrote the Sanskrit work ‘Shabdavatara’, and translated
Gunadhya’s ‘Vaddakathe’ into Sanskrit. Sree Purusha wrote
‘Gajashastra’ and Shivamadhava wrote ‘Gajashtaka’, a Kannada
work. Poet Hemasena wrote ‘Raghava Pandaviya’, Vadibasimha wrote
‘Gadya Chintamani’ and ‘Shatra Chudamani’, whereas Nemichandra
wrote ‘Dravyasara Samgraha’ and Chavundaraya wrote ‘Chavunda
Purana’, Raya became famous.
EXERCISES
1 Complete the following sentences :
1 Simukha made _________ his capital.
2 The literary work written by Hala is ________.
3 The first inscription in Kannada is ___________.

ED
4 Banavasi, the capital of the Kadambas, is in today’s _____________

H
district.

IS
5 The prominent king among the Gangas was __________.
BL
EP S
R TB

6 The literary work written by Chavundaraya is ____________.

U
BE @K

II Answer in brief :
7 Who was the last king of the Shatavahanas? How did their dynasty
become weak?
8 Write about the art of the Shatavahanas.
TO

9 What were the values which influenced the Ganga society?

10 Name four literary works of the period of the Gangas.
T
O

III Activities :
N

11 Discuss with your teacher the way to read inscriptions.

12 Visit a historical temple nearby and collect its details. Share the
information with your classmates.
IV Projects :
13 Cultivate the habit of reading inscriptions.
14 Study one inscription and do a project on it.
15 Visit the capitals of the Gangas and collect information on
them.

70
 CHAPTER-10
THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI
AND THE PALLAVAS OF KANCHI

The Chalukyas of Badami (540 C.E. – 753 C.E.)

After studying this chapter you learn :

• The beginings of Chalukyas of Badami, the expansion of the
empire under its foremost king pulakeshi II.
• Religious, social, military and judicial system.
• The extent of empire under the Chalukyas of Badami with the
help of a map.

ED
• The contributions of Pallavas of Kanchi to the field of literature,

H
religious, art, architecture and the field of education.

IS
BL
EP S
Many powerful kings ruled Karnataka in the 6th century C.E. They
R TB
U
were the Chalukyas of Badami. They established their supremacy
BE @K

in Karnataka for over two centuries continuously, and ruled with

immense glory. The Chalukya dynasty occupies an important position
in the history of South India and is one of the powerful dynasties of
India.
The rule of the Chalukyas began in the 6th century and ended in
TO

the middle part of the 8th century. Raja Jayasimha is the founder of this
T

dynasty. The most powerful and noteworthy emperor of this dynasty

O

is Pulakeshi II. Overpowering the Gangas, Kadambas and Alupas, he

N

extended his empire. The Pallavas were at the peak of glory in South
Deccan. Since Mahendravarma did not accept the sovereignty of
Pulakeshi, Pulakeshi defeated him. When Harshavardhana, who was
ruling in North India, he advanced upto the banks of river Narmada,
Pulakeshi stopped him and earned the titles of ‘Dakshinapatheshwara’
and ‘Lord of the Peninsula’ for his daring act.
Pulakeshi II could not rule the whole of his kingdom from one
centre. He appointed his younger brother, Kubja Vishnuvardhana, as
the provincial head of Vengi and Jayasimha as the head of Gujarat
province. Later on, Chalukyas ruled the kingdom for around five
centuries under the name of ‘Chalukyas of Vengi’.
71
 Hiuen Tsang visited the Chalukya
capital. He has given a detailed
description of Pulakeshi II and the
Chalukyan kingdom. He has said that
the king was just and kind. The army
was disciplined and the soldiers were
courageous warriors who were not
afraid of death. The subjects were
lovers of truth, contented, self-
respecting, prosperous and loyal to the
king. They respected the king very
much, and the king loved his subjects.
Pulakeshi II was an optimistic

ED
emperor. He had friendly relations
with foreign kings too. Arab historians

H
IS
report that he had diplomatic relations
BL
with the Persian king, Khusru II.
EP S
R TB
U
After some years, the Pallava king,
BE @K

Narasimhavarma I took revenge on the

Chalukyas for the defeat of his father Mahendravarma. He occupied
the Chalukyan kingdom and captured Vatapi. During the time of
the last Chalukya king, Kirtivarma, the Rashtrakutas captured this
kingdom.
TO

The Contributions of the Chalukyas

T
O

The Chalukyas developed the Kannada land, language and

N

culture, and protected its religion, literature, art and architecture.

They were the ones who gave the name ‘Karnataka’ to this land. The
reign of the Badami Chalukyas is a great and glorious period in the
history of Karnataka. This age is noteworthy not only for its military
exploits but also for its art and literature.
They ruled for around 200 years. The king was actively involved
in administration. The kingdom was divided into districts called
vishaya and the vishayadhipati used to look after it. The village was
the smallest unit of the administration. The village leaders looked
after the village accounts and administration.
72
 The Chalukyas encouraged all traditions and sects like that of the
Shaivas, Vaishnavas and the Jains. They supported the construction
of Jain temples and Buddhist viharas too.
The Chalukyas of Badami patronized literature. Kannada and
Sanskrit developed very well. Kannada was their state language.
During this period, the tripadi form of poetry came into existence.
Though there are no literary works produced in Kannada at this time,
there are many inscriptions written in Kannada. One of the poem in
the inscription of Kappe Arabhatta of Badami is in tripadi form.
Poem in the inscription of The Sanskrit scholars of this
Kappe Arabhatta time are Ravikirti, Vijjika and
Akalanka. Kaumudi Mahotsav, was

ED
written by Pulakeshi II’s daughter-
in-law, poetess Vijjika, and Hara

H
Parvatiya of Shivabhattaraka are

IS
BLimportant Sanskrit dramas.
EP S
R TB

The Chalukyas of Badami were

U

great builders as well as art-lovers.

BE @K

They built beautiful temples at

Badami, Aihole and Pattadakallu.
They developed a special style of
sculpture called ‘The Chalukya
TO

Style’ in Indian architecture. They

built cave-temples in the rocks of
T
O

Badami. They encouraged many

N

artists and sculptors.

The best temples in the Chalukya
style are in Aihole and Pattadkallu. Aihole was one of the cradles of
temple architecture. Evolution of the series of temples architecture
was first experimented here. This style found its full experssion
at Pattadakallu. Thus we see the famous temples of Lokeshwara
(Virupaksha) and Trilokeshwara (Mallikarjuna) here. We get conclusive
proof of the Chalukyas’ artistic achievement in the towering sculptures
of Vishnu, Varaha, Harihara and Ardhanarishwara in the caves of
Badami. Even painting received encouragement. The Ajanta paintings
of this period are world-famous.
73
 ED
H
IS
BL
EP S

Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakallu

R TB
U

The Pallavas of Kanchi (350 C.E. to 895 C.E.)

BE @K

The Pallavas are the first kings of Tamilnadu. They enjoyed a

special place among the dynasties which ruled South India. They ruled
from the 4th century to the 9th century. In the beginning, they were
TO

the officials of the Shatavahanas. When the Shatavahana dynasty

declined, the Pallavas declared themselves kings of the territory.
T
O

Shivaskandavarma was the first king of this dynasty. The

N

Pallavas and the Kadambas harboured perpetual enmity towards each

other. Sub sequently, Pulakesh II of the Chalukya dynasty defeated
Mahendravarma of the Pallava dynasty. Narasimhavarma I who came
later, was the most famous of the Pallava kings. He took revenge on
the Chalukyas by defeating Pulakeshi II and capturing Vatapi. These
daring acts won him the titles of Mahamalla and Vatapikonda. Hiuen
Tsang had visited Kanchi during his reign. Narasimhavarma built a
city on the sea coast near Kanchi and named it Mahabalipuram. Many
monolithic temples were built by him. During the reign of Aparajita
Pallava, Aditya of the Chola dynasty put an end to the Pallava rule.
74
The Contributions of Pallavas
They introduced systematic administration in Tamil Nadu. Their
contributions are significant in literature, religion, art, architecture
and education. When the Chalukyas reigned in Vatapi and the
Pallavas in Kanchi, it was a heroic age in the South. Their kingdom
was strong and organized. There were ministers and provincial
officers. The kingdom had been divided into mandala, nadu and
grama. The gramasabha dealt with the problems of the village. The
gramabhojaka looked after the village administration.
The Pallavas encouraged both Sanskrit and Tamil. Kanchi was
the center of Sanskrit literature. Bharavi (the author of Kiratarjuniya)
and Dandi (the author of Dashakumar Charita) were the poets in the

ED
Pallava court. King Mahendravarma himself wrote a social drama,
‘Matta Vilasa Prahasana’ and a book Bhagavadujjuka. The Pallavas

H
encouraged all religions.

IS
BL
EP S
The early Pallava kings were Buddhists. The great scholar
R TB

of Nalanda University, Dharmapala, was born in Kanchi. Since

U

Mahendravarma was a follower of Jainism, there were many Jains

BE @K

in the kingdom.
TO
T
O
N

Mahabalipuram Pancharatha

75
 Shaiva and Vaishnava religious sects became popular during the
7th century. 63 Great saints called Nayanmars propogated the Shaiva
faith. 12 Alwars saints propogated the Vaishnava faith.

This age witnessed the rise of the Bhakti movement. It also

supported the revival of the Vedic religion. Slokas were written in
Tamil. These have become the treasure of Tamil literature.
The Pallavas were lovers of art and architecture. They built many
temples in their kingdom, which are noteworthy for their artistic skill.
The Pallava architecture can be classified into temples that have been
carved out of stone, and temples with structural pattern.
Many temples carved in rocks can be seen in Mahabalipuram.

ED
Wonderful monolithic sculptures have been carved in these temples.
They tell the stories from Mahabharata and Bhagavata. The

H
Pancharathas are the famous monolithic temples. The carving of

IS
‘Arjuna’s Meditation’ has emerged as an excellent work of art.
BL
EP S
R TB

The temples of Kailasanath, Ekambarnath and Vaikunta Perumal

U

at Kanchi, and the coastal temple at Mahabalipuram are excellent

BE @K

examples of ancient Indian architecture.

The temples became centres of religious and artistic activities.
The rural folk assembled in the courtyard of the temples in the
TO

evenings and discussed many issues. The people came here during
their leisurely hours and listened to the Puranas or sang devotional
T

songs. In this manner, the temples became cultural and educational

O

centres.
N

The Pallavas had a good naval force. Merchants had trade relations
with South Asian countries like Malaya, Indonesia and others. We can
see the influence of Indian language, faiths, traditions and culture
in those countries.

76
 EXERCISES
1 Fill in the blanks :
1 The Pallava king who was defeated by Pulakeshi is ___________.
2 The dynasty which gave the name Karnataka is ___________.
3 The writer of the Sanskrit drama Hara Parvatiya is
____________.
4 The Pallava king who earned the title Vatapikonda is
___________.
5 The painting The Meditation of Arjuna is in _________.

II Answer the following questions in brief :

ED
6 How did Pulakeshi II extend his empire?

H
7 Describe the administrative system of the Chalukyas.

IS
8 The Chalukyas were lovers of literature. Explain with
BL
EP S

examples.
R TB
U

9 Name the Pallava kings who ruled from Kanchi.

BE @K

10 How did the Pallavas encourage Sanskrit and Tamil?

III Activities :
TO

11 Discuss in groups the contributions of the Chalukyas to Kannada

language.
T
O

12 Learn about tripadis from your Kannada teachers and by

N

reading Kannda books.

13 Pay a visit to Kanchipura and Mahabalipuram.
IV Projects :
14 Pay a visit to a place of historical importance and collect
information about it.
15 Draw pictures of temples, collect pictures and form an album.


77
 CHAPTER-11
THE RASHTRAKUTAS OF
MANYAKHETA AND
THE CHALUKYAS OF KALYANA

After studying this chapter you learn :

• Dantidurga, the founder of Rashtrakuta dynasty and
Amoghavarsha its most famous ruler.
• The contributions of Rashtrakuta’s to administration, literature
and architecture.
• The administration and literary contributions of Kalyana
Chalukyas.

ED
• The extent of Rashtrakuta territory from the map of India.

H
IS
The Rashrakutas (753 C.E. to 973 C.E.)
BL
EP S
R TB

The Rashtrakutas were Kannadigas. They were the tributary kings

U
of the Chalukyas in the beginning. Later they became famous as the
BE @K

rulers of the vast kingdom in the South. The Rashtrakuta age is a

glorious epoch in the history of Karnataka. The credit of taking the
glory of Karnataka to its peak goes to them. Their kingdom, which
extended from the Narmada river in the North to the Cauvery river
TO

in the South, has also been immortalized by the Kailasanath temple

at Ellora and by the first Kannada work, Kaviraja Marga.
T
O

The kingdom which began with Dantidurga, continued with

N

Krishna, Govinda II, Dhruva, Govinda III, Amoghavarsha and others,

and reached its peak of glory. The early reign of Amoghavarsha had to
face many obstacles. But he was not interested in feuds and desired
peace. Hence he got rid of the enemity by developing matrimonial
relations with the Gangas and the Pallavas. Since he was a peace-loving
king, he had to give up some territories in the north. The ports of the
west coast were busy trading centres and enjoyed great prosperity by
developing trade relations with Persia and Arabian. Many travellers and
merchants visited the kingdom during this period. Prominent among
them was the Arab travaller Sulaiman. He has praised Amoghavarsha
as ‘One of the four powerful emperors of the World.’
78
 Amoghavarsha was brave and peace-loving, and encouraged
all faiths. After him, Krishna II, Indra III and Krishna III ruled the
kingdom.
The weakness in
administration during the
period of Karka II paved the
way for the rise of his
tributary Tailapa II of the
Kalyana Chalukyas and
brought the end of the
Rashtrakuta rule.
The Contributions of the

ED
Rashtrakutas

H
The kingship among

IS
the Rashtrakutas was BL
EP S
hereditary. There used to
R TB

be a Council of Ministers
U

to assist the King. There

BE @K

would be a prominent
person in the Council of
Ministers appointed as
the Mahasandhivigrahi
TO

to look after the foreign

The Rashtrakuta Empire
affairs. For the purpose of
T
O

administrative convenience, the kingdom was divided into Rashtra

N

(Mandala), Vishaya, Nadu and Grama.

The leader of the grama was called gramapati or prabhugavunda.
He was the leader of the village army too. He was assisted by the village
accountant. There were grama sabhas also. There used to be an official
called nadagavunda in the nadus. Similar officials would be there in
the vishayas and rashtras. The vishayapati and the rashtrapati were
the officers for the vishaya or the district and the rashtra respectively.
Land revenue, toll on goods, houses, shops, and tax on occupations
like operating ferries, formed the income of the kingdom. Foreign trade
also brought lot of income to the state in the form of taxes.
79
 The Rashtrakutas encouraged both
Kannada and Sanskrit. Excellent
works were written in Sanskrit.
Trivikrama wrote Nalachampu, the
first champu work in Sanskrit
literature. Halayudha wrote
‘Kavirahasya’. Jinasena,
mathematician Mahaveeracharya,
grammarian Shakatayana,
Gunabhadra, Veerasena were in
Amoghavarsha’s court. Pampa,
known as Adikavi wrote Adipurana
and Vikramarjunavijaya in Kannada.
Ubhayakavi Ponna composed ‘Shanti

ED
Nadoja Pampa
Purana’. Shrivijaya, who was in the

H
court of Amoghavarsha, wrote ‘Kavirajamarga’. This is the first work

IS
in Kannada. It is a master piece. All these reveal how Kannada
BL
EP S

literature has developed from ancient times.

R TB
U
BE @K

The Kannada University, Hampi, has been awarding the title

of Nadoja in memory of the first poet, Pampa, to veteran achievers
in Karnataka every year.
TO

Another noteworthy prose work of the Rashtrakuta period

is Vaddaradhane. The author of this is Shivakottacharya. It is a
T

collection of Jain religious stories. Special importance has been

O
N

given to use of native Kannada words here. There is liveliness

in plot, structure, characterization and dialogue. This is a great
prose work belonging to the pre-Pampa age, and enjoys eternal
significance in the history of Kannada literature.

Agraharas and mathas were the prominent educational centres

in those days. Knowledge was imparted about Sanskrit, the Vedas,
astrology, logic and the Puranas. Salotgi in Indi taluk of Bijapur
district was one of the leading centres of learning.
The Rashtrakuta kings were devotees of Shiva and Vishnu, and
have built many Shiva and Vishnu temples. Jainism had received
80
royal patronage and became a wide-spread religion. Apart from these
even other religions were encouraged.
The Rashtrakuta kings were patrons of art. Their great contribution
to Indian art can be seen in the Ellora and Elephanta cave temples. The
Kailashnath temple at Ellora built by Krishna I is a monolithic wonder.
This temple has been carved from a rock 100 feet high, 276 feet long
and 154 feet wide. Nearby is the famous Dashavatara cave temple.
The sculpture at the Elephanta caves near Mumbai is a milestone
in the Rashtrakuta sculpture. The statues of Ardhanarishwara and
Maheshamurti (three-murthy) have been exquisitely carved. The
structural Rashtrakuta temples are in Shiravala of Raichur district.
There is a beautiful Jain temple at Pattadakallu.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Kailasanatha Temple, Ellora

The Chalukyas of Kalyana (973 C.E. - 1189 C.E.)

The period of the Chalukyas of Kalyana enjoys an honourable
place in the history of India. They gave special encouragement to
art, literature and education. They provided opportunities for the
development of Kannada and Sanskrit. They gave patronage to famous
81
Kannada poets like Durgasimha, Ranna, Nagachandra and others.
Vachana literature came into prominence during this period. The
credit of building a new city called Kalyana and making it the capital
goes to Someshwara-I.
Tailapa-II who had been a tributary king of the Rashtrakutas, defeated
the Rashtrakuta king, Karka -II, and, captured Manyakheta, then
he established the kingdom of the Kalyana Chalukyas. He ruled for
approximately 24 years. Someshwara - I is one of the important
kings of this dynasty. He built a new city called Kalyana and made it
his capital. This is today’s Basava Kalyana in Bidar district. Though
Someshwara-I had to wage many wars, he took care to see that his
kingdom did not shrink in any way. He defeated Rajadhiraja Chola
in ‘Koppam’.

ED
Vikramaditya-VI, the son of Someshwara-I, is the greatest king of

H
this dynasty. He was an extremely courageous warrior and excellent

IS
administrator. He began the ‘Chalukya Vikrama era’ in 1076 C.E. He
BL
EP S

suppressed the revolt of the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana. He had

R TB
U
established contact with the Srilankan King Vijayabahu.
BE @K

Vignaneshwara (the author of Mitakshara) who lived during his

time has remarked that there was never a great city like Kalyana in
the past and can never be in the future. The king like Vikramaditya
TO

has never been seen nor heard of.

T

The kingdom began to decline

O

during the period of kings who came

N

after Vikramaditya VI and Someshwara

III. It became very weak during the
period of Someshwara IV and Kalachuri
Bijjala occupied Kalyana and began
to rule it. It was at this time that
the social revolutionary Sri Jagajyoti
Basaveshwara came to the limelight. He
devoted his life to spreading the values
of the Veerashaiva sect to the common
people.
Coins
82
 Mints were set up in Lakkundi and Sudi to mint coins like
gadyana, pana, drumma, pon and suvarna.

Basaveshwara preached in three

forms: soft advice, harsh criticism, strict
warning. He taught that surrendering
oneself to Shiva with total devotion was
the only path to salvation. He declared
that work is worship. He established
Anubhava Mantapa in 1162 C.E.
He wrote his vachanas in coloquial
Kannada.

ED
Jagajyothi Basaveshwara

H
IS
The Contribution of the Kalyana Chalukyas
BL
EP S

Like the Chalukyas of Badami, the Chalukyas of Kalyana too

R TB
U
have made special contributions in various fields. The kingship was
BE @K

hereditary. The kingdom was divided into provinces (mandala) and

small provinces (nadu). There were kampanas (today’s hobli) to enable
smooth functioning of administration of villages.
TO

Land revenue was the main source of income for the kingdom.
The other sources of income included sales tax, toll and tax on
T

professions. There was an officer called ‘Kaditavergade’ appointed to

O

look after collection of land revenue. There were different guilds in

N

trade and business.

Literature received encouragement during the period of the

Chalukyas. Kannada literature prospered with the support of
Jain scholars. The notable works of this period are ‘Gadayuddha’
(Sahasa Bheema Vijaya) written by Ranna, ‘Panchatantra’ written
by Durgasimha, ‘Vikramankadeva Charita’ composed by Bilhana,
‘Dharmamruta’ composed by Nayasena and the legal work,
‘Mitakshara’, authored by Vignaneshwara. ‘Manasollasa’ written by
King Someshwara III is considered as a sanskrit encyclopaedia.

83
 The unique contribution of the Chalukyan period has been the
Vachana literature. Akkamahadevi, Allamaprabhu, Machayya and
others were leading vachanakaras.
The Chalukyas were not only lovers of literature but also patrons
of art. Their contribution in the field of art is vast. Famous temples
like the Kashi Vishweshwara temple at Lakkundi, Mahadev temple
at Itagi, Mallikarjuna temple at Kuruvatti, Trikuteshwara temple at
Gadag are noteworthy examples of their art. The kings of this dynasty
built innumerable temples and contributed to making the Kannada
land home to fine arts.
Music and dance forms too prospered. During their period
Musicians and dancers used to be appointed to serve in the court.

ED
Queen Chandralekha patronised many music scholars and dancers.
‘Manasollasa’ and the work of Jagadekamalla II ‘Sangeeta Chudamani’

H
discuss many topics related to music, dance, art and jewellery.

IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Kashi Vishveshwara Temple, Lakkundi

84
 EXERCISES

1 Fill in the blanks :

1. The founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was _____________.
2. The Chalukya king of Kalyana who was responsible for the
defeat of the Rashtrakutas was _________.
3. The author of ‘Kavirahasya’ is ____________.
4. The famous poem written by Ponna is ____________.
5. The most famous king among the Kalyana Chalukyas was
___________.
6. The person who can be called ‘the pioneer of the social
revolution’ is __________.

ED
II Answer the following questions :

H
IS
7. How was the administrative system of the Rashtrakutas?
BL
EP S
8. Write about the educational system under the Rashtrakutas.
R TB
U
9. Write about the Ellora temple.
BE @K

10. How did the Kalyan Chalukyas encourage literature?

III Activities :
11. Share from the experiences of students or teachers who
TO

have visited temples of the Rashtrakuta period.

12. Go on a trip to Manyakheta or Ellora.
T
O
N

IV Projects :
13. Discuss on Ellora in peer groups and write an essay on it.
14. Collect pictures of Manyakheta.
15. Write an essay on the life of Basavanna.



85
 CHAPTER-12

THE CHOLAS AND HOYSALAS

OF DWARASAMUDRA

After studying this chapter you learn :

• About expansion of chola empire and the contributions to
different fields.
• About the establishment of Hoysalas, contribution to religious,
literature, art, and architecture field.

THE CHOLAS (850 C.E. - 1279 C.E.)

ED
After the Pallavas, the Cholas secured a firm hold on many areas

H
in Tamilnadu, Andhra and Karnataka and ruled from the 9th century

IS
to the 13th century. To them goes the credit of spreading Indian culture
BL
EP S
in foreign lands. They constructed grand temples.’Brihadeeshwara’
R TB
U
temple is their contribution. They became famous by encouraging
BE @K

Tamil literature.

The Cholas were under the Pallavas for sometime and later became
independent. According to Sangam literature, Karikala Chola is the
founder of this dynasty. Vijayalaya Chola revived the kingdom and
TO

made Thanjavur as his capital.

T

An important king among the Cholas was Rajaraja I. He was a

O

brave and great warrior. He was an able administrator. As the founder

N

of the Chola empire, he strengthened its foundations and expanded

his kingdom. He overpowered the Cheras, Gangas and Pandyas. He
built a naval force. He captured Sri Lanka. We can see the domination
of the Tamilians in Malaysia and Singapore. Their influence in the
political, economic and cultural activities of those countries can
be seen. They began overseas trade which continued till date. The
Brihadeeshwara temple built by Rajaraja Chola I in Thanjavoor, is a
very famous one.

The Chola empire weakened during the period of Rajendra Chola

III, and the Pandyas could overpower them easily.
86
The Contribution of the Cholas
The Cholas had set up an able and efficient administrative
system. The kingdom had been divided into mandalam, kotwangi,
nadu, kurram or community of villages and tara-kurram. There was
a committee of villagers called Ur in every village.
The foremost quality of the Chola administration was the
development of the self-governance of the village. The grama sabhas
were the first sabhas. Tara-kurram was a village. Every kurram had a
village committee named mahasabha. This was also called perumguri
and its members perumakkal. The members were chosen through
election. Only Sanskrit scholars and rich people were allowed to stand
for election.

ED
One-sixth part of the land yield was being collected as tax.

H
Special attention had been given to the irrigation system. The Cholas

IS
constructed many lakes, and the Bellandur lake near Bangalore is
BL
EP S
one of these. They built a huge pond in Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Brihadeeshwara temple, Thanjavoor

87
 The Cholas were Shaivites, and they built many Shiva temples.
The Brihadeeshwara temple in Thanjavur is 500 feet tall and it is in a
courtyard 250 feet wide. Its shikara is 200 feet tall. The Choleshwara
temple was built by Rajendra Chola.
The Aprameya temple near Channapatna, the Choleshwara
temple in Begur near Bangalore and the Mukteshwara temple near
Binnamangala are the temples built by the Cholas in Karnataka.
The temples used to function as economic and cultural centres. The
idols of Shiva, Ganapati, Vishnu, Durga and Kartikeya of this time
are famous.
The Cholas established many agraharas to encourage education.
The Uttaramerur agrahara is famous among these. The temples were

ED
centres of education. They were also centres of religious activities.
This was a period in which Tamil literature found an all-round

H
development. Noteworthy works are Ramayana written by Kamba,

IS
Periya Purana composed by Sekkilar and Thirukkadeva’s Jeevaka
BL
EP S

Chintamani.
R TB
U

THE HOYSALAS OF DWARASAMUDRA

BE @K

(984 C.E. TO 1346 C.E.)

After the Chalukyas became weak in Karnataka, it was the
Hoysalas who became strong. The founder of this dynasty, Sala, on the
TO

order of a Jain monk, Sudatta, fought with a tiger and, killed it near
Sosevuru village (today’s Angadi) in Mudigere taluk of Chikmagalur
T

district. It inspired the people to exclaim ‘Hoysala!’, and he established

O

this empire. These kings made significant contributions to literature,

N

education, art, architecture and

irrigation.
Vishnuvardhana was
the important Hoysala king
who came after Nrupakama,
Ereyanga and Ballala. As a
great king of this dynasty,
he won Gangavadi from the
Cholas and earned the title
‘Talakadugonda’. In order The emblem of the Hoysalas
88
to commemorate this victory, he built the Kirtinarayan temple in
Talakadu and the Chennakeshava (Vijayanarayana) temple at Belur.
He tried to expand his kingdom but was defeated by the Chalukyan
king Vikramaditya VI.
Ramanujacharya could not spread the message of Vishishtadvaita
sect in the Chola kingdom and came to Bittideva’s (Vishnuvardhana)
court, and under his patronage, spread his faith in the whole of
Karnataka.
This kingdom declined during the reign of Ballala III. During the
same period, the Vijayanagara empire came into power.
The Contributions of the Hoysalas

ED
The Hoysalas had brought into practice
provincial system of administration. The

H
power of rulling was given to the Princess,

IS
Queens and the Royal family. The officials
BL
EP S

looked after the administration of the

R TB
U
nadu and vishayas. In the villages, there
BE @K

used to be the representatives of the

government like the gowda, senabova,
talawara and others.
In order to encourage agriculture, the
TO

Hoysalas built innumerable lakes like

the Shanti Sagara, Ballalaraya Samudra,
T
O

Vishnu Samudra etc. In the cities, there Ramanujacharya

N

used to be guilds among the people following different occupations.

Land revenue was the main source of income for the kingdom. A
unique feature of this society was that the king used to have a special
army of guards called ‘garuda’. When the king died, these guards
would also sacrifice their lives. (suicide squads)
Agraharas, mathas and temples were centres of education.
There were excellent educational institutions at Melukote, Salagame,
Arasikere and other places. Here study of the Vedas, Vedashastras,
Kannada and Sanskrit used to be carried on.
Kannada literature flourished immensely. Rudrabhatta wrote
89
‘Jagannatha Vijaya’, the great poet Janna wrote ‘Yashodhara Charite’,
Harihara composed the Champu poem ‘Girija Kalyana’, Raghavanka
authored ‘Harishchandra Kavya’ and Keshiraja wrote ‘Shabdamani
Darpana’. Even in Sanskrit, memorable works composed were
Sreebhasya by Ramanujacharya and Parasharabhatta, composed
Sri Guna Ratnakosha.
During the period of the Hoysalas, different religions like
Jainism, Buddhism, Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Veerashaivism and
Srivaishnavism were encouraged.

This poem from the Belur temple The architecture of

advocates communal harmony: the Hoysalas is world-
famous. The Hoysalas
got their innumerable

ED
temples built in soap

H
stone.There are five

IS
BL features that can be
EP S
seen in all their
R TB
U
temples. They have the
BE @K

star-shaped sanctum
sanctorum, upa-
peetha (jagati),
decorative panels,
shikara and pillars.
TO

There are beautiful idols of Madanikas (Shilabalikas) on the

T

brakets of the pillars of Chennakeshava temple at Beluru.

O
N

Chennakeshava Temple, Beluru A shilabalike

90
 The military general, Ketamalla, built the Hoysaleshwara temple
at Halebidu. The Keshava temple constructed by Somadandanayaka
at Somanathapura is famous. There are many temples and basadis
in Arasikere, Govindanahalli, Doddagaddavalli and Bhadravati. All
these are noted for their extremely delicate carving. The Hoysala
architecture has influenced all other architectural styles of the later
years. Dasoja, Chavana, Jakana and Dankana were some of the
famous sculptors of this time.
EXERCISES
I Fill in the blanks :
1 The capital of the Cholas was _________.
2 The committee of the villagers in every village during the

ED
period of the Cholas was _______.

H
3 The most famous Chola educational centre or agrahara was

IS
________.
BL
EP S
4 The temple in Begur near Bangalore built by the Cholas is
R TB
U
________.
BE @K

5 The army of bodyguards during the time of the Hoysalas was

_________.
6 The poetic work written by Raghavanka ________.
II Answer in brief the following questions :
TO

7 Who was the founder of the Chola kingdom?

T

8 Write a note on the significant features of the Chola

O

administration.
N

9 Describe the encouragement given by the Hoysalas to

literature.
III Activities :
10 Discuss in class the visit you paid to a nearby temple.
11 Learn more about the Belur shilabalikas from your teacher.
IV Projects :
12 Visit Belur and Halebidu and write a project-report on it.
13 Learn in detail about Hoysala art.


91
 POLITICAL SCIENCE
CHAPTER-13
MEANING AND IMPORTANCE
OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
After studying this chapter you learn :
• Understand the concept of political science.
• Explain the process of development in political science.
• Know and recognise the political thinkers and their
contributions.
• Know the importance of political science.

ED
Political science is one of the social sciences dealing with the

H
political activities of man. It deals with the state and government. It

IS
studies the origin and nature of state and forms of political institutions.
BL
EP S

The study of state is the main subject matter of political science.

R TB
U

As a subject of the study of political science began with the Greeks.

BE @K

Though Egyptians, Babylonians, Persians, Indians and Chinese have

mentioned their ideas or thoughts about politics much earlier to
Greeks they failed to develop it as a systematic study. Politics was
given status of an independent science by Greeks. Greek philosophers
TO

like Socrates and his disciple Plato were great political thinkers. Plato
in his famous book “Republic” for the first time discussed the nature
T

and functions of state and government. Aristotle, the ancient Greek

O
N

thinker and the student of Plato is recognized as the ‘Father of Political

science’ for his valuable contributions to its growth and development.
He wrote the first treatise on political science called “The Politics”.
In this famous book Aristotle discussed the origin, development and
functions of state Kaoutilya’s work on econimics was also had more
information about political principles.
Greeks used the term ‘politics’ for the study of state. The term
‘Politics’ is derived from the Greek word ‘polis’ which means ‘city-state’
and therefore a subject which deals with the affairs of city-state and its
working was called politics by ancient Greece. However in modern times
scholars have preferred to use the term ‘political science’ for this study.
92
 Now a days the word ‘Politics’ refers to the practical aspect of the
problems of the state and government. More exactly, it means the
actual political activities taking place in a state. Current problems of
the state, election campaigning, political party activities, the day to
day happenings in the state legislature or in the union parliament in
which the politician takes part, etc comprise politics. Whereas, the
discipline of political science is a study of origin and development of
the state, the functions of government, rights and duties of citizens
etc. Hence the proper title of this subject of study must be ‘political
science’.
It is the study of the state in the past, present and future, of
political organization, political functions and political theories.

ED
Thus we find that the state, government and other problems
connected with them fall within the purview of political science.

H
IS
Importance of Political Science BL
EP S
R TB

The knowledge of Political Science is most essential in the present

U

age. The progress and development of a state depends upon the

BE @K

thinking, knowledge and Political involvement of the people.

 Political Science helps to understand the birth and growth of
a state. It provides information about the type of Governments
TO

and Political activities involved in the functions of the State.

 Political Science provides information about the origin and
T
O

development of ideas such as Monarchy, freedom, justice,

N

laws, equality, good government, wars and peace etc.

 It provides information about the structure and functions of
the state and central governments.
 In the light of the past and the present activities of the
government, Political Science helps to plan the future
activities of the state. It also helps to establish a modern
welfare state.
 Political Science provides knowledge about the Constitution
and laws of the state.
93
  Political Science helps to understand about the organs of the
government i.e., Legislature, Executive and Judiciary and
their functions.
 Political Science develops Political consciousness among the
people. It keeps the government and the people politically
alert and active.
 The knowledge of Political Science helps leaders and civil
servants to understand and solve the problems of the people
effectively.
 The knowledge of political science helps to raise good
leadership and good citizens.
 Political Science helps to understand the important Political

ED
institutions like political parties, federal system and local

H
bodies.

IS
 Political science deals with ideologies which inspire and
BL
EP S
R TB

influence political involvement of people.

U

 Political Science provides the knowledge of international

BE @K

relations especially the occurrence of wars among nations

and the importance of peace and co-operation.
Thus the study of Political Science helps us to understand
TO

the need for a state, good governance of the state, the role of the
leaders and people’s participation. It helps the people to become
T

good, responsible, cultured, and active citizens. The knowledge of

O

Political science contributes to the establishment of a just, peaceful,

N

progressive and a happy state, which is the dream of millions and

millions of people for a long time every where.

94
 EXERCISES
I Fill up the blanks:
1 The word Politics was derived from the Greek word __________.
2 ‘Republic’ was the work of __________.
3 Aristotle wrote a book on political science and it is called ____.
4. Kaoutilya’s work relating to political science is __________.
II Answer the following questions :
5 What is political science?
6. Who began the systematic study of Political Science ?
7 Who is called the Father Political Science?

ED
8 Give definition of Political Science.

H
IS
9 Mention use of the study of Political Science?
BL
EP S

III Activities :
R TB
U

10 Prepare an album highlighting the nature of Political system

BE @K

in the early period.

11 Discuss the statement of Aristotle given in the book in your
classroom with the help of your teacher.
TO

12 ‘The social needs of man led to the rise of the state’ – is it so?
Arrange a talk on the topic in your classroom.
T
O

IV Projects :
N

13 Imagine that you are a member of ancient Greek city state

and discuss any one particular issue of the city state.
14 ‘Dictatorship suppresses the freedom of an individual and
democretic institutions’- Collect information and prepare
charts.
15 Collect information on political ideas found in our epics.



95
 CHAPTER-14
CITIZEN AND CITIZENSHIP

After studying this chapter you learn :

• Know the meaning of citizen and citizenship.
• Differentiable between citizen and citizenship.
• Differentiable between citizen and alien.
• Know the methods of acquiring citizenship and reasons for
losing citizenship.

Meaning

ED
The meaning of citizenship varies from time to time. In ancient

H
Greece the word citizenship had a narrow meaning. Then, it referred

IS
to those persons who took direct and active part in the administration
BL
EP S
R TB

of the state. In ancient Greece, citizenship was a privilege conferred

U
upon selected few. Women, manual workers and slaves were denied
BE @K

all the rights of citizenship.

But in modern times the term citizenship conveys broader
meaning. The term citizen, in modern times, refers to a person who
is a fulfledged member of the state, enjoying all rights- civil, political
TO

and economic and owing allegiance to the state to which he belongs.

T

Vattel defines a modern citizen as a member of a civil society,

O

bound to it by certain duties, subjected to its authority and an equal

N

recipient of its advantages. Accordingly a citizen is a member of a

state who, owes allegiance to it and enjoys the protection and benefits
granted by it. Thus a citizen is a permanent member of the state, who
possesses civil and political rights and owes allegiance to the state
to which he belongs.
There is a difference between subjects and citizens. Before 1947
we were the subjects of the British. After independence we became
the citizens of India. Generally people who belong to and live in a
state are its citizens. To be a citizen proper one has to fulfil certain
conditions which are legal. There is a relationship between the state
96
and the citizens. The state provides protection and certain facilities
to its citizens while the citizens in turn maintain the state, obey the
laws and owe their allegiance to the State. A citizen is one who is a
member of a state and enjoys certain benefits in his state. They are:

 He enjoys security and gets protection from the State.

 He enjoys a peaceful life as the state ensures law and order.
 In modern times under social welfare schemes he enjoys
benefits like education, health, insurance, settlement,
employment and such others provided by the state.
 He enjoys both the civil and political rights.
 He enjoys the fundamental rights guaranteed by the State.

ED
 He can participate in the Political processes like voting and

H
contesting in the elections.

IS
 He is eligible to occupy certain offices such as those of the
BL
EP S

President of India, Vice-President, Judge of Supreme court,

R TB
U
High Courts and such others.
BE @K

 He is eligible for recruitment to all public services.

Difference between a citizen and an alien

A citizen is a member of the state. He owes allegiance to it. He is

TO

protected by the state and enjoys civil and political rights. An alien,
T

on the other hand, is one who has come to reside temporarily in a

O

state. He owes allegiances to the state of his orgin. He is a foreigner

N

in the state of temporary residence but a citizen of the state from

which he has come.

The chief differences between the citizen and alien are the
following:

1. Citizens are permanent residents of their state. Aliens are

temporary residents.

2. Citizens enjoy political rights, aliens are not given political

rights like right to vote, right to contest election, right to hold
public offices, etc.
97
 3. Citizens owe allegiance to their state. They are bound to fulfil
their obligations to the state. An alien is a foreigner who is
a citizen of another state. He should respect and follow the
laws of the state in which he is temporarily living.
4. A Citizen cannot be driven out of his state. An alien can be
asked to leave the country of temporary residence for various
reasons such as illegal activities, expiry of visa period, etc..
Methods of acquiring citizenship
There are two ways of acquiring citizenship namely- by birth
and by naturalization.
1. By Birth: The most important mode of acquiring citizenship
is by birth. The great bulk of citizens in every state are citizens by

ED
birth. Birth within the territory entitles a person to citizenship.

H
2. Naturalisation: Citizenship can also be acquired through

IS
naturalization. According to this method, an alien can become a
BL
EP S

citizen after fulfilling certain conditions. Though these conditions

R TB
U
vary from state to state, some of the general principles which are
BE @K

observed may be summed up as follows:

a) Domicile or Residence : Long residence in a foreign state
entitles a person to acquire the citizenship of that state. In
England and USA it is five years. In France it is ten years.
TO

b) Marriage : A woman acquires the citizenship of her husband’s

T

country when she marries a foreigner. But the husband does

O

not get the citizenship of his wife’s country. The condition of

N

marriage in Japan and some other countries are quite dif-

ferent.
c) Foreign service : A person appointed in the service of a
foreign state may be granted the citizenship of that country.
Many countries do not permit the foreigners to serve in the
public service for suspicion of their loyalty.
d) Application : In all states an alien may be granted citizenship
if he applies for it and satisfies certain conditions. Usually,
all states demand the applicant to be solvent and be a person
of good moral character.
98
 e) Property : A person who purchases property in a foreign
country, desires to become a citizen of that country may be
granted the citizenship. In Mexico there is such provision.
But in recent times the foreign countries may not provide
opportunities to foreigners to buy landed property.

Methods of acquiring citizenship in India

Parliament is the sole authority to legislate the laws on citizenship

in our country. State legislatures have no powers in this matter. The
Citizenship Act was enacted by the Parliament of India in 1955 and
it elaborates the provisions for the acquisition and termination of
citizenship. The Act was amended in 1986. This amendment made
the acquisition of Indian citizenship more stringent. The Citizenship

ED
Act 1955 prescribes modes of acquiring citizenship. They are :

H
1. Citizenship by birth : Every person born in India on or after

IS
26 January 1950 shall be a citizen of India by birth. Those who
th BL
EP S

were born before 26th January 1950 and also domiciled in India were
R TB
U
granted citizenship.
BE @K

2. Citizenship by descent : Every person born outside India on

or after 26th January 1950 shall be a citizen of India by descent if
either of his parents is a citizen of India at the time of his birth.
TO

3. Citizenship by registration : If any person who is not an

Indian citizen, if he desires to become Indian citizen he can acquire
T

the Indian citizenship as per the constitution or The Act of Citizenship

O
N

through Registration.

4. Citizenship by naturalization : Foreigners can acquire Indian

citizenship by naturalization by submitting an application to the
concerned authority i.e. the President of India. Certain conditions
have to be fulfilled by them before submitting the application. They
should have lived in India for not less than the period of five years.

5. Citizenship by the incorporation of a new territory : If any

new territory becomes a part of Indian union, then the government
of India by an Act notifies the persons as to whom Indian citizenship
is granted.
99
 Loss of Citizenship in India : Just as citizenship may be
acquired, it can also be lost for a variety of reasons. Some of the
important ways of losing citizenship may stated as follows:
1. Renunciation : Any Indian citizen can renounce his citizenship
voluntarily by submitting an application before the concerned
authority.
2. Termination : If any citizen of India acquires the citizenship
of any other country his Indian citizenship is terminated by law. This
procedure does not require the submission of any application.
3. Deprivation : If any person has obtained the citizenship of
India by fraud or if he/she has indulged in anti national activities or
shown disloyalty towards the Constitution of India, the government of

ED
India deprives him/her of his/her citizenship. It is forced termination.

H
IS
Types of Citizenship : There are two types of citizenship. They
BL
are single citizenship and dual citizenship. In single citizenship people
EP S
R TB

have only one citizenship that is National citizenship irrespective of

U

the province that he belongs to. There is no separate state citizenship

BE @K

for e.g. India. In federal states like USA and Switzerland there is dual
citizenship. That means every individual obtains state citizenship in
which he lives and national citizenship also.
TO

Citizen and the Government : There is a close relationship

between the state and the citizen. There is no state without citizens.
T

The state or the government protects the interests of the people. It

O

provides protection from foreign aggression. It maintains law and order

N

and promotes unity. It frames the laws and curbs aggressive elements
and violence so that peace can be maintained in the state. It undertakes
social, economic plans and educational programmes for the benefit
of its citizens. It plans and undertakes programmes to overcome the
problems of illiteracy, poverty, inequality and unemployment etc. In
addition the Constitution guarantees fundamental rights.
The citizens have certain duties towards the nation. Rights and
duties are like the two faces of the same coin. A citizen derives many
benefits from the nation. Similarly he has certain obligations and
functions to perform.
100
  He must respect the Constitution and obey the laws of the
government.
 He must protect the national honour and dignity by his
words and deeds.
 He must not indulge in anti-national activities.
 He must oppose and check the evil practices like corruption,
nepotism, dowry, child marriage, etc., through constitutional
means.
 He must take part in the political activities of the state as
the quality of the government depends on the quality of
citizens.

ED
 He must place the national interest above the personal interest

H
and work for national progress.

IS
 He must be service minded and must be prepared to sacrifice
BL
EP S
R TB

for the sake of nation.

U
BE @K

 He has the obligation like paying taxes and defending the

nation.
In addition to these functions certain fundamental duties are
incorporated in our Constitution. The purpose of these fundamental
TO

duties is to make citizens aware of their social and economic

obligations. It also helps the citizens to understand as to what they
T

should do or what he should not do in the interests of the country. So

O
N

a citizen should follow and practise these fundamental duties in the

interests of community, nation and their own progress. There should
be a cordial relationship between the citizens and the government. It
should be based on the principle of give and take.

Fundamental duties are incorporated in our constitution in 1976

through 42nd amendment. The fundamental duties are included
under article 51(A).

101
 EXERCISES

I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :

1 The people living in India under the British rule were termed
as __________ .
2 A temporarily residing foreigner in our country is called
_________ .
3 Citizenship Act was passed in the year __________ .
4 The method through which you have acquired citizenship is
__________ .

II Answer the following questions briefly :

ED
5 What is citizenship ?

H
6 What are the benefits enjoyed by a citizen ?

IS
7
BL
Name the body which has the authority to legislate the laws
EP S
R TB

on citizenship in India.
U
BE @K

8 Mention the methods of acquiring citizenship.

9 Explain citizenship by naturalisation.
10 What are the methods of losing citizenship ?
TO

11 Mention a situation under which citizenship is terminated.

12 Mention the types of citizenship and write the differences
T
O

between them.
N

13 What are the duties of a citizen towards his nation ?

III Activities :
14 Prepare a pictorial representation of the fundamental duties
and exhibit it in your school.
15 Discuss the benefits of fundamental rights under the guid-
ance of your teacher.
16 Discuss the importance of right to equality and right to free-
dom in India (under the guidance of your teacher).

102
 17 Prepare a pictorial chart showing the methods of acquiring
and losing citizenship and exhibit it in your classroom.

18 Discuss the benefits of single citizenship in India.

19 Supposing the dual citizenship as in US is introduced in India,

how does it benefit us? Discuss.

IV Projects :

20 Collect information from the newspapers and magazines about

the violation of fundamental rights and the remedial measures
taken.

ED
21 Collect information from the authorities concerned about the

H
procedure to be followed by an Indian if he wants to stay in

IS
BL
EP S
a foreign country for a short period of time.
R TB
U
BE @K


TO
T
O
N

103
 CHAPTER-15
DEMOCRACY

After studying this chapter you learn :

• Know the meaning of democracy.
• Understand the features of different types of governments.
• Indentify the different types of democracy and their differences.
• Explain the features, success factors of democracy merits and
demerits of democracy.
• Explain adult franchise system and general election system in India.

ED
• Describe the duties and responsiblities of political parties in
a democratic system.

H
• Analyse the responsiblities of mass media in democracy.

IS
• Know about Right to Information Act - 2005.
BL
EP S
R TB
U
Democracy is one of the ancient forms of government. Traces
BE @K

of democracy were seen in Antient India. Ex.: Sabha and Samithi

during Sindhu-Saraswathi period. Many revolts and revolutions
have taken place in the world to establish the democratic form of
Government. The word ‘Democracy’ is derived from the Greek word
Demokratia meaning ‘Rule of the people’. Elections play an important
TO

role in democracy. Elections provide an opportunity to the people to

form their own government. It works on the principle of one man,
T
O

one vote. The government is formed by the people and the people are
N

the decision makers. Abraham Lincoln, the former President of USA

has defined democracy as ‘a government by the people, of the people
and for the people.’ Democracy is a form of government where the
supreme power belongs to the people.
Different forms of Government
Monarchy: Monarchy is an old form of government.
In monarchy the king heads the government. He
enjoys vast powers. He is the law maker. This type of
monarchy is called ‘absolute monarchy’. In Qatar,
Kuwait and in some of the countries of Arab world Abraham Lincoln

104
absolute monarchies still exist. In the contemporary period the
constitutional monarchy exists in Japan and England. In Constitutional
monarchy the elected house is the law making body, where a the
king/queen remains as the nominal head.
Dictatorship: Dictatorship is the other form of government. Adolf
Hitler in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy were dictators. In
dictatorship the authority rests in the hands of one individual who is
not crowned. The dictators have scant respect for democratic values
and principles.
Military Dictatorship: In military dictatorship the political power
rests with the highest military authority. The people are denied the
freedom of expression, freedom to criticizing the government policies
and forming associations. Media and Judiciary are controlled by the

ED
military. Earlier it was existant in Pakistan.

H
Communist Government: The people have regulated freedom

IS
in this kind of government. Political parties other than communist
BL
EP S

party do not exist. There is no scope for private ownership. All means
R TB
U
of production are nationalized. In China, North Korea and Cuba
BE @K

communist governments are functioning.

All forms of governments have merits and demerits. In
democracy merits are more than demerits. It has greater faith in
common man and his potentiality. These advantages have made
TO

democracy a popular form of government.

Types of Democracy : There are two types in Democracy. They are
T
O

direct democracy and indirect democracy (Representative Democracy).

N

Direct Democracy: In direct democracy the people directly

participate in electing their government, making polices and laws for
their own progress and development. The system of direct democracy
can be practised only in countries of small size and population. This
system was practised in ancient Greece and presently practised
in Switzerland. Direct democracy becomes more effective through
referendum and initiative. Direct democracy is difficult to practise
in India because of its vastness and size of the population.
Indirect Democracy: Indirect Democracy is most suitable in bigger
nations like India, USA and such other nations. In indirect democracy
105
the people elect their representatives through periodical elections and
send them to legislative bodies. These representatives involve in the
process of law making and also control the administration. Democracy
is defined as a government by the elected representatives through
elections conducted from time to time. The elected representatives in
turn elect their leader and also the highest executive of the country.
Characteristics of democracy
1. Democracy is based on the consent of the people.
2. It is representative government where people elect their
representatives and they make laws.
3. It is based on the principle of universal adult franchise.
4. Elections are held at regular interval in a free and fair manner.

ED
5. Citizens enjoy fundamental rights, hence there is scope for

H
individual development.

IS
6. The government is responsible to the people.
BL
EP S
R TB

7. People have the right to change and challenge the government.

U
BE @K

8. There is rule of law and government’s powers are limited

constitutionally.
9. It recognizes political parties and entrusts special responsibility
on the opposition party.
TO

10. It upholds the sense of dignity in the common man.

11. The main basis of democracy are liberty and equality. The people
T
O

enjoy maximum liberty and equality. In democracy there is no

N

disparity among the people on the basis of caste, religion and

position or status.
12. In democracy, people are the ultimate source of sovereignty
(supreme power), and government derives its power from them.
For this purpose elections are held at certain intervals. In India
general elections take place once in five years.
13. Democracy is a welfare state and in it special attention is paid to
the welfare of the people as a whole and not to a particular class.
Factors essential for the success of democracy
1. People should have an urge to protect democracy.
106
2. People must always be vigilant.
3. Tolerance is one of the basic qualities needed for the success of
democracy. They must work with the spirit of give and take.
4. Success of democracy depends upon good leadership. The leaders
must have the ability to understand the problems of the common
man. He must possess the qualities of service, patriotism and
spirit of sacrifice.
5. Efficient opposition party keeps the government alert. It checks
the ruling party from becoming dictatorial.
6. Well informed and educated electorate contribute to the success
of democracy.
7. Success of democracy depends upon the role of the people.

ED
People must compulsorily vote during election. People must be

H
free from corrupt practices. The people must elect efficient and

IS
non-corrupt representatives who can solve their problems.
BL
EP S

8. Free, fearless and unbiased press contributes to the success of

R TB
U
democracy.
BE @K

9. Well organized, efficient and responsible local bodies strengthen

democracy.
Merits of Democracy
TO

Many countries have accepted democracy as the best form of

government because of its merits. The merits of democracy are as
T
O

follows:
N

 It protects the rights and independence of the people through an

independent judiciary.
 It is based on the principles of equality.
 It provides an opportunity to people to involve themselves in
decision making and framing laws.
 People elect representatives and the government of their choice.
 Decisions are taken after debate and discussion. Decisions are
based upon public opinion.
 Opposition checks the misuse of power by the government.
107
 The fundamental rights provide an opportunity for the development
of the personality of an individual.
 It brings about a peaceful change of government through elections
and thus reduces the danger of revolution.
 Democracy develops nationalism, patriotism, respect to people
and creates unity in the midst of diversity.
Demerits of Democracy : Democracy has certain demerits or defects.
The demerits in democracy are as follows:
 Lack of respectable educational qualification, managerial skills,
leadership qualities, ignorance of social, economic, political issues
and selfish attitude of the representatives weaken democracy.

ED
 The competition among the political parties for power results in
favouritism and corruption.

H
IS
 Interests of the party becomes more important than national
interest.
BL
EP S
R TB
U
 Defections from one political party to another leads to unstable
BE @K

government.
 The caste factor, the use of money and muscle power in the
elections weaken the government in the democratic set up.
 Law making in democracy is a lengthy procedure.
TO

 Conducting elections is expensive and much time consuming.

T

 The majority party at times becomes dictatorial and the opinion

O
N

of the minority is suppressed.

 The uneducated poor people are often exploited by the people in
power.
 Anti-social elements exert influence on the government with their
money and muscle power.
Universal Adult Franchise: In India we have representative
democracy. Elections play an important role in a representative
democracy. People have the right to vote in elections. In India voting
right is provided to all people aged 18 and above, regardless of caste,
qualification, creed, religion, language and gender.
108
 Before 1989 the minimum voting age in India was 21 years. Through
the 61st amendment of 1989 the voting age is reduced to 18 years from
21 years.

Good government always depends upon the voter. So the voter

must not come under the influence of caste, creed, money or muscle
power while voting. The voter must be careful while choosing a
candidate. He must choose the candidate with good qualities and
capabilities as stated below :
 The candidate must have a zeal and interest to serve the
society.
 The candidate must have concern towards the problems of
the people and should be easily approachable.

ED
 The candidate must be educated, loyal, honest and service

H
minded.

IS
 The candidate must not be corrupt and must be a model to
BL
EP S
R TB

others in selfless service, character and actions.

U
BE @K

 The courts should not have declared him/her as a criminal

and he / she must be free from criminal activities.
 The candidate must not have indulged in anti-social and
anti- national activities.
TO

Elections
T

Elections are important in the democratic set up. Elections are

O

held at periodical intervals. In India elections are conducted once in

N

five years but this period varies from country to country. Elections
conducted once in five years on routine is called General elections.
If the elections are conducted to fill the vacant seats within the
stipulated term of five years, such elections are called by-elections. The
Election Commission is set up by the government of India through the
constitutional procedures to conduct elections. Its headquarters is at
New Delhi. Presently it has one Chief Election Commissioner and two
Election Commissioners. They are appointed by the President of India.
Parliament has authority to decide the number of Commissioners it
should have. There is State Election Commission at the state level to
conduct election to Panchayat Raj institutions.
109
 EXERCISES
I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :
1 The word Democracy is derived from the word __________ .
2 The party that commands majority in the legislature and looks
after the administration is called _________ party.
3 The minimum age to vote in India is __________ years.
4 The elections conducted once in five years in a routine manner
is termed as _______ elections.
II Answer the following questions briefly :
5 What are the advantages of democracy?
6 Mention the different types of Government.

ED
7 How is direct democracy different from indirect democracy?

H
8 What is universal adult franchise?

IS
9 List out the essential factors for the success of democracy
BL
EP S
R TB

10 Why is efficient opposition party an essential factor in

U

democracy?
BE @K

11 Mention the Characteristics of Democracy?

12 Why are periodical elections necessary in democracy ?
13 The success of democracy depends on the votes. Discuss.
TO

III Activities :
T

14 Discuss in groups the salient features of democracy,

O

dictatorship and communist form of Government and decide

N

which form of Government is best suited in the modern

context.
15 The best leadership contributes to the success of Democracy.
arranged discourse.
IV Projects :
16 With the guidance of your teacher prepare a project report on
the direct democracy practised in Switzerland.
17 Prepare a report on the role of public opinion against
corruption in India in 2011.

110
 CHAPTER-16
LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT

After studying this chapter you learn :

• Know the importance of forming local self government.
• Explain the objectives and functions of local self government.
• Describe the formation, administration, responsibilities and
duties of local government.

The concept of local self government in India is very old. Many

ED
ancient kingdoms of India gave importance to the growth of local
self government. Local self government provided a link between the

H
government and the masses. It helped the people of the locality to voice

IS
their problems. The local government helped to solve local problems at
BL
EP S

the local level with the co-operation and involvement of the people. The
R TB
U
involvement of people in administration strengthened the democratic
BE @K

institution at the grassroot level. The people were vested with powers
of electing representatives to local administrative bodies. The self
governing bodies called local self government became the basis for
the decentralization of power. Acts of 1919 and 1935 passed by the
TO

British provided more powers to local self governing institutions in

India. After independence the government of India appointed many
T

committees and passed Acts to realize the dream Grama swarajya of

O

our father of the Nation.

N

In addition a direction was included in Indian Constitution which

states that the state shall take steps to organise village panchayat
and provide them with adequate powers and authority to function
efficiently. 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments which came
into effect in 1993 became the milestone in the history of Panchayat
Raj system.
The local self governments functioned in Karnataka in the
pre – independence period. In the post independence period many
committees were appointed by our state government to establish and
strengthen local bodies in our state. In 1983 the Panchayat Raj Act
111
was introduced and it came into effect in 1985. According this Act Zilla
Panchayat at district level, Taluk Panchayat at taluk level and Grama
Panchayat at village level were created through direct elections. Later
in 1993 the Panchayat Raj Act was amended to strengthen the Act of
1983. The Act also made provision for the creation of Grama Sabhas.
To keep pace with the modern developments many amendments to
Karnataka Panchayat Raj Act have been passed. The objectives of the
local self government are :
 To involve the local people in solving the problems of their
own locality.
 To provide the knowledge of administration to common people.
 To help in decentralizing powers and make the administration
become more efficient.

ED
 To train or develop leadership qualities among people at the

H
grassroot level.

IS
Functions of Local Self Governments: The functions of the local
BL
EP S
self governments like Grama Panchayats, Taluk Panchayats and Zilla
R TB
U
Panchayats are varied. A few important functions are :
BE @K

 To maintain and protect the panchayat property.

 To prepare the annual budget of the local body.
 To undertake health and family welfare programmes.
 To plan and undertake the developmental works like laying of
TO

roads, electrification, housing and supply of drinking water,

etc.
T
O

 To encourage and implement the primary, secondary,

N

adult and informal education programmes.

 To maintain cleanliness and sanitation of the area.
 To prevent all sorts of pollution and to provide better health
facilities.
 To provide facilities for the distribution of essential commodities
like food grains, kerosene etc.
 To ensure prompt registration and reporting of birth and
deaths.
 To encourage agriculture, animal husbandry, khadi and
handicraft industries.
112
  To undertake the programmes for conservation of soil, water
and forest.
 To execute the agricultural extension programmes to help the
farmers.
 To plan and implement the welfare schemes for the benefit of
SC, ST, weaker sections, women and children.
 To provide marketing facilities, street lighting facilities and
reading room facilities.
 To collect taxes, fees and penalties.
 To identify the beneficiaries for the various projects and
welfare programmes of the government.
Sources of Income : The local self governing bodies require funds

ED
to implement various plans and projects. The main sources of income

H
for local bodies are

IS
 Amount collected through water cess, health cess, education
BL
EP S
R TB

cess, library and reading room cess.

U

 Amount collected through building tax, vacant land tax, taxes

BE @K

on business establishments, markets, entertainment houses

and advertising bodies.
 Taxes collected from the tourist spots.
TO

 Rental and lease amount collected on their properties.

 Financial grants from the state government.
T
O

Composition of local self

N

governing bodies
Grama Sabhas : Grama Sabha
is a village council. There is no
election procedure to Grama Sabha.
All the members of Grama or
village aged 18 and above can take
part in Grama Sabha meetings.
The president of Grama Panchayat
presides and the members of
Grama Panchayat attend the Grama Sabha
113
meetings. Grama sabha must meet at least once in six months.
Grama sabha discusses the problems of their village and also the
welfare measures undertaken for the progress and development of
the village. It recommends the names of the beneficiaries to various
governmental schemes.
Chart of Panchayat Raj in Karantaka

Zilla Panchayat Taluk Panchayat Grama Panchayat

(District Administration) (176) (5659)
(30)

ED
H
IS
Structure of Grama Panchayat (Karnataka)
BL
EP S
R TB
U

}
Adhyaksha
BE @K

Elected by the members of

Grama Panchayat.
Upadhyaksha
TO

Secretary Appointed by the

Government.
T
O
N

Village 1 Village 2 Village 3 Village 4 Village 5 Village 6 Village 7 Village 8

Representative WM WM WM WM WM WM WM
/ Wardmember

Members of these wards form Grama Sabha

(Karnataka has – 5,659 Grama Panchayat )
Villages with 5,000 to 7,000 population.
Adjacent small villages join to form / create Grama Panchayat
Every 400 residents – 1 ward member / representative
114
 The term of Grama Panchayat is five years and the term begins
from the date of the first meeting of Grama Panchayat.
Grama Panchayats: Grama Panchayats are formed on the basis
of population. Village or group of villages with a population between
5,000 and 7,000 form Grama Panchayat. Regions of Uttar Kannada,
Dakshina Kannada and Malnad regions form Grama Panchayat only
with the population of 2,000. The members of the grama panchayat
are elected by the adult population of the Panchayat area. One
representative for 400 voters is elected. Reservation is provided to
schedule caste, schedule tribe, backward classes and women.

As per second amendment of Panchayat Raj Act of 2000, a

panchayat member must have a toilet in his house. If he does

ED
not have, he must arrange to have one within one year of getting

H
elected.

IS
BL
Grama Panchayat meetings must be held at least once in two
EP S
R TB

months. Minimum one third of the members of the Panchayat must

U

be present to take decisions. All the members of the Grama Panchayat

BE @K

together elect Adhyaksha and Upadhyaksha for a term of 30 months.

Adhyaksha presides over the meetings of Grama Panchayat and in
his absence Upadhyaskha manages the deliberations. Reservation
policy is applicable to the posts of Adhyaksha and Upadhyaksha.
TO

Standing Committees are formed for the efficient administration of

Grama Panchayats.
T
O

A full time official called Secretary is appointed to look after the

N

executive work of the Grama Panchayat. Recently provision is made to

appoint one Panchayat Development Officer (PDO) through Karnataka
State Public Service Commission. (KPSC).
Taluk Panchayats: Panchayat Raj Act of 1993 provides an
opportunity for the creation of Taluk Panchayat at Taluk level. Taluk
Panchayat comprises of the members directly elected by the eligible
voters. The number of members in the Taluk Panchayat is based
on population of the taluk. There is one elected representative for
every 10,000 voters. Reservation is provided to SC, ST, backward
communities and women. Besides, one fifth of the presidents of
115
Grama Panchayats serve as the members of Taluk Panchayat.
The Presidents are chosen through lots (lottery system). They are
nominated on rotation basis for a period of one year. The term of the
Taluk Panchayat members is five years. They have the right to resign
or can be removed by the Government. MLAs, MLCs and MPs of that
jurisdiction can attend the Taluk Panchayat meetings.
The Taluk Panchayat meetings must be held at least once in two
months. In case of utmost importance special meetings are conducted.
The president of Taluk Panchayat presides over the meetings. In his
absence vice president presides over the meetings. President and vice
president are elected by the Taluk panchayat members for a term of
20 months. The standing committees are constituted to bring about
efficiency in administration. The government appoints the executive

ED
officer to look after the executive work of Taluk Panchayat. In revenue

H
matters his powers are equal to that of magistrates. Taluk Panchayats

IS
have certain functions to perform in addition to the functions of local
BL
EP S
bodies. They are,
R TB
U
• To consolidate the annual plan proposals of the Grama
BE @K

Panchayats and to submit those to Zilla Panchayat.

• To implement all the welfare programmes suggested or ordered
by the Zilla Panchayat or state government.
TO

Zilla Panchayat: Zilla Panchayats are constituted at district

level to look after the administration. Earlier they were called district
T

boards. The members of the Zilla Panchayat are directly elected by

O

the people of the district. The total number of representatives vary

N

from district to district based on the population. One representative

for a population of 30,000 in Dakshina Kannada, one representative
for a population of 18,000 in Kodagu (Coorg) and one representative
for a population of 40,000 in other areas are elected. In addition the
presidents of Taluk Panchayats, MLAs, MLCs and MPs of that district
are the members of Zilla Panchayat. They can attend the meetings and
vote. Reservation of seats are provided to SC, ST, backward classes
and women. The term of the members is five years.
Zilla Panchayat meetings are to be held at least once in two
months. One president and one vice president are elected for a term of
116
30 months. The President of Zilla Panchayat is called Zilla Adhyaksha.
Zilla Adhyaksha presides over the meetings of Zilla Panchayat. In his
absence vice president will presides over the meetings. The president
has the powers to sanction one lakh rupees for relief measures during
the period of calamities. Five standing committees are formed for
efficient administration of Zilla Panchayat. Chief Executive Officer
(CEO), equal to the rank of the District Commissioner is appointed
by the State government to look after the executive work of the Zilla
Panchayat. He takes part in Zilla Panchayat meetings and discussions,
but has no right to vote.

Zilla Panchayat is like the district government. It has vast powers

in the implementation of developmental programmes and welfare

ED
schemes in the district. All the developmental programmes and
schemes of the government are routed through Zilla Panchayats. In

H
IS
addition it has the following functions :
BL
EP S

 To create an atmosphere of mutual trust, confidence and

R TB
U
co-operation between Grama Panchayats, Taluk Panchayats
BE @K

and Zilla Panchayat for successful implementation of

government projects and programmes.

 To bring about co-ordination among all the departments

for successful implementation of programmes and also to
TO

supervise such developmental work.

T
O

 To encourage and provide support for the establishment of

N

co-operative societies, co-operative banks and such other co-

operative institutions.

 To execute the work as directed by the state government.

A separate Election Commission is constituted at state level to

conduct elections to local bodies as per Panchayat Raj Act 1993.
The Election Commission so constituted conducts the elections to
Grama Panchayats, Taluk Panchatyats and Zilla Panchayats in
Karnataka.

117
Urban Local Bodies
There are many towns and cities in the state. Towns and cities
are categorised as urban areas. In urban areas people have better
facilities of education, health, transport, drinking water, sanitation
and entertainment. At the same time there are many problems in
urban areas. In order to solve these problems and to provide good
governance, the urban local self governments or urban local bodies
are set up. There are three types in urban local bodies. They are :
 City Corporation (Mahanagara Palike) – Major cities
 Town Municipalities or Municipal Corporations – Towns and
Cities

ED
 Cantonment wards : under the control of Defence.

H
The state government has powers to declare a particular area as

IS
a city or a town on the basis of certain factors like population, income
BL
EP S

etc., These urban local bodies have many functions. They are :
R TB
U

 To prepare the budget and to get the approval of the council.

BE @K

 To look after the overall administration of the town or city.

 To prepare a good town planning system and to implement it.
 To provide good roads, transportation, water supply, electricity,
TO

education, market and health facilities.

T

 To maintain cleanliness by providing good sewage system and

O
N

disposal of urban waste.

 Granting permission to build structures, maintaining of local
body buildings and properties.
 Registration of births and deaths.
 To provide parks, sports and entertainment facilities.
 To improve the living conditions in the slum areas by providing
facilities.
 To establish orphanages, old age homes, beggar colonies, juve
nile homes and child welfare centers.
118
  To undertake the construction of swimming pools, stadiums,
museums, bus stations, reading room facilities, public libraries,
veterinary hospitals, theatre for cultural programmes, whole
sale market yards and crematoriums.
 To plan for rain harvesting.
 To encourage cultural activities.
 To undertake measures for the improvement or progress of
backward classes and weaker sections.
 To encourage and to undertake such measures which can help
to maintain greenery, cleanliness, and beauty of the town or
the city.

ED
Sources of Income

H
IS
In order to bring about the development and progress of the area
BL
EP S
and also to implement various plans and projects, the urban local
R TB

bodies require funds. The main sources of income are from the taxes
U

levied and collected on buildings, vacant sites, shops and vending

BE @K

carts etc. In addition, they collect rent from the buildings of the local
bodies rented out to offices, market yards, shops and town halls etc.
Water cess, market cess and cess on entertainment houses yield
revenue. The grants provided by the state government help the local
TO

bodies to undertake welfare measures.

T

Composition of urban local bodies

O
N

Town Municipalities or Municipal Corporations: An urban area

is classified as a town or a city on the basis of the population. An
area with a population between 20,000 and 50,000 is considered as a
town. Town municipality is the governing body of that area. Similarly
an area with a population between 50,000 and 3 lakhs is considered
as city. The governing body of that area is called a City Municipality.
The governing bodies of Town Municipalities and City Municipalities
have elected representatives called Councillors. The Councillors are
directly elected by the people of that town or city. The number of
councillors vary from place to place depending on the population of
that area. In Town Municipality the number of councillors are between
119
23 and 27 whereas in City Municipalities the number is between 31
and 37. Beside, the State Government nominates five members who
have good experience and knowledge in municipal administration.
These nominated members take part in debates and discussions of the
council meeting but have no right to vote. The local MLAs, MLCs and
MPs can also attend the council meetings and vote. SC, ST, backward
classes and women are provided reservation as per the rule in these
local bodies. The President and the Vice President are the heads of
the local bodies. They are elected by the councillors. The President
presides over the council meetings and helps in smooth functioning
of the local body. In the absence of the President, the Vice -President
looks after the functions. The term of the urban local bodies is five
years. Under certain special circumstances the State Government has

ED
powers to extend the term. Four standing committees are constituted
for the smooth and efficient administration of the local bodies. The

H
Chief Officer is the Administrative Officer of the municipal body. He

IS
is appointed by the Government. He looks after the entire executive
BL
EP S
R TB

work of municipality besides providing the necessary information to

U

the council.
BE @K

City Corporation or Mahanagara Palike

City Corporation or Mahanagara palikes are constituted as per
Karnataka Municipal Corporation Act of 1976. The City Corporation
TO

or Mahanagara Palikes are formed in the areas with more than

two lakh population and an income of more than Rs. One crore.
T
O

The members of the City Corporations are called Corporators. The

N

number of Corporators in the corporation is decided on the basis of

the population. The number of corporators should not generally be
less than 30 and not more than 100. The state government decides
the size of the corporation.

There are ten city corporations and one Bruhat Mahanagara

Palike in Karnataka. Bangalore City Corporation is called Bruhat
Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BBMP).

City is divided into smaller electoral divisions called wards.

One corporator is elected from each ward. Corporators are directly
120
elected by the people of that city. Certain seats are reserved to SC,
ST, backward classes and women. Besides these elected members,
the state government nominates five members possessing good
experience and knowledge in town planning, health, education and
Municipal Administration. The five nominated members can take part
in corporation council meetings but have no right to vote. The MLAs,
MLCs and MPs representing that area can also attend the meetings
of the corporation council and vote. The term of the corporators is
five years and the term can be extended upto one year by the state
government depending upon the circumstances.

The Mayor and Deputy Mayor are the leaders of the corporation.
They are elected by the corporators. Their term of office is one year.

ED
The Mayor Presides over the corporation meetings. He/She takes

H
measures to implement the decisions of the council meetings. He/She

IS
establishes control over the executive work of the corporation. Standing
BL
EP S

Committees are set up to bring about efficiency in administration and

R TB
U
also to assist the Mayor.
BE @K

Karnataka Municipal Corporation Amendment Act is passed in 2011.

The Act applies to eleven corporations of Karnataka including that of
Bangalore. The Act provides opportunity for community participation in
TO

Municipal functions. According to this Act each corporation will have

two more representative bodies namely the area sabhas and the
T

ward committees. These two committees involve in the develop-

O
N

mental schemes of the corporation.

The Commissioner is the real executive of the City Corporation.

Generally he is of IAS (Indian Administrative Services) cadre. He
is appointed by the State Government for a term of three years.
He participates in the council meetings and provides the required
information to the council. He implements the decisions of the council.
He assists the Mayor in preparing the budget and also in the executive
functions of the corporation.

121
 EXERCISES

I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :

1 The Karnataka Panchayat Raj Act that is in force now was

passed in the year_______ .

2 The body of the village council in which all the voters of the
village can participate is _______ .

3 The President of Grama Panchayats are chosen to Taluk

Panchayats on the basis of _______ system.

4 The officer appointed by the Government to look after the day

to day executive work of Zilla Panchayat is called __________

ED
5 The total number of City Corporations in Karnataka including

H
Bangalore is ________ .

IS
BL
EP S
II Answer the following questions briefly :
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U
6 What are the objectives of Local Self Government?
BE @K

7 How is the local body of your area formed?

8 Mention the functions of your local body.

TO

9 What are the sources of income of your local body?

10 List out the members who have right to vote and those who
T
O

have no right to vote in the local bodies.

N

11 Mention the need for constituting standing committees in

local bodies.

12 List out the group of members who have been provided

reservation in the local bodies.

13 What should be the population to classify an area as town or

city.

14 What are three tiers of Panchayat Raj in Karnataka ?

122
III Activities :
15 Invite the head or a member of the local body of your area to
the school and discuss the problems of your area and also
the programmes undertaken to solve such problems.
16 Supposing you are a member of local body of your area, what
measures would you undertake to solve the problems of your
area.
17 Conduct a mock local body meeting in your class room with
the help of your teacher.
18 Discuss the need for providing reservation in local bodies.

ED
IV Projects :

H
19 Study and collect information about the local bodies which

IS
functioned in ancient India.
BL
EP S

20 Survey the area in which you live and collect the information
R TB
U
about the problems of the area that needs to be attended.
BE @K

21 Survey the area in which you live and prepare a report about
the facilities provided by the Government and how the people
of the area are benefited by these facilities.
TO

22 Interview any five or six members of the local bodies and col-
lect information about the measures taken by them to improve
T

their wards and prepare a report.

O
N



123
 SOCIOLOGY
CHAPTER–17
MAN AND SOCIETY
After studying this chapter you learn :
• Justify that ‘man is a social animal’.
• Understand socialization and human expressions through
such process.
• Identify the early sociologists.

Among all the living beings on earth, it is only human beings who

ED
have complete awareness about their existence. They contemplate
over their goals and purposes in life. It is due to this that innumerable

H
questions arise in people’s minds. Why is man called a social being? Is

IS
man God’s creation? Why are there differences between groups? What
BL
EP S
R TB

is that strength which unites people and groups? Why does society
U
undergo constant change? Is this change a sign of progress? In order
BE @K

to find answers to such questions, and to study human society in a

methodical manner, many attempts were made in a scientific man-
ner in the past.
As a result of all these attempts, a new branch of study originated.
TO

This study was called sociology. In order to carry out a scientific study
of human society, we will have to understand the differences between
T
O

animal society and human society.

N

Man differs from all other animals. He is civilized and is

diffrent from other animals. He is creative. There are many reasons for
this. One of them is the structure of his fingers, especially his thumb.
We realize the significance of the thumb when we write. Though
animals too have fingers, these fingers are not of much use to them. The
second reason is his upright posture. This is very helpful in tackling
any danger. Thirdly, it is man’s teeth. They enable his consumption
of food and are, indirectly, the cause for his physical and mental
development. The fourth, and the most important reason is man’s
brain. It is due to the development of this brain, its perceptions and

124
creativity that the civilized society which we see today has been cre-
ated. But animal’s lives are limited to indulgence in food, fear and
pleasure.
Man is a Social Being
The relationship between man and society is unique. There is
no society without man, nor man without society. That is the reason
many sociologists are of the opinion that man is the creation of soci-
ety, and society, that of man. If we close our eyes and ask ourselves,
“Would it be possible for me to live all alone in my town?” everyone
would come up with the same answer. And that is, impossible. Isn’t
that so? Man is a social animal. He desires to live with others around
him. Society is necessary for the development of all of us, because

ED
social relationships are necessary for man’s existence. That is the
reason human society has been called a web of social relationships,

H
and man, a social being.

IS
Socialization
BL
EP S
R TB
U
If we have to become members of society, we have to live amidst
BE @K

society. If we do not live among people, we will not be able to learn

language, study, play games, experience thought processes or
the body language that we have learnt now. This process of
learning is called socialization. The family, school, peer groups, mass
TO

communication etc., enable our socialization. The family provides us food,

nurturance, education and security. Parents help us to grow mentally and
T

physically healthy.
O
N

The school provides formal education. We learn to co-operate and

live with others interacting with our peer groups. The mass media
give us knowledge about the world around us and enable us to live in
harmony with it. Due to all this help from various quarters, man is
able to lead a successful life in society.
The Necessity of the Social Environment
If man does not grow in a social environment, he cannot imbibe
the qualities of a human being. An individual cannot be socialized
outside the society and group. In order to understand the truth of this
statement, the following instance can be studied:
125
 Kamala, a girl who was found in Midnapore in 1920, had spent
nine years among the animals in the forest. She used to walk on all
fours legs like an animal and eat raw flesh. Later, in the company of
human beings, she learnt to ate cooked food, to speak and behave
like other children. But she was not aware her own nature. What is
evident from this instance is that man, if he is not in human society,
becomes an animal. This has been proved by many other experiments
by social scientists.
Human Beings and Language
How do we express our feelings? We can express hunger, thirst,
sleepiness, sorrow and happiness through our bodily gestures and
signals. But we cannot convey all our feelings only through body

ED
language. Language becomes inevitable in such situations.

H
Our languages have words such as father, mother, brother,

IS
sister, uncle, aunt etc., including relations between human beings.
BL
EP S
Thus language is needed to understand specific relationships and
R TB

feelings perfectly.
U
BE @K

Man knows language, where as animals do not. This is the

difference between man and animals. Just imagine how the world
would be without language. There would be no textbooks, schools,
mass media or civilization! Human society would be just like animal
TO

society. Therefore, while studying society, language is treated as a

very important aspect of the society.
T
O

Early Sociologists
N

Let us know about the sociologists who

developed sociology in the early stages. So-
ciologists are those who study the society,
culture, behaviour, social relationships,
etc. Some of the early sociologists are as
below:
Auguste Comte was the one who gave
the name Sociology to the scientific study August Comte
of society. Hence he is considered the Fa-
ther of Sociology. Herbert Spencer was the British sociologist who
126
lived in the 19th century. He studied the evolution of society.

Herbert Spencer Max Weber Emile Durkheim

Emile Durkheim, the French sociologist, lived in the latter part of

the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century. He worked
hard at making sociology a science. Max Weber was a German soci-
ologist. He was also a great scholar in the fields of Economics, Phi-

ED
losophy and History. He did a sociological study of the Labour force

H
and the Christian religion.

IS
Karl Marx was a German philosopher. He was
BL
EP S
R TB

highly knowledgeable about History, Economics,

U

Philosophy and Christian Religion. He extended

BE @K

the scope of sociology.

The British introduced Sociology in the
Bombay University in 1914. Leading Indian
sociologists have been G.S.Ghurye, M.N.Srinivas,
TO

A.R.Desai, Iravati Karve, S.C.Dubey and others. Karl Marx

T
O

EXERCISES
N

I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :

1 Man is a _________ animal.
2 Formal education is provided by the _________.
3 The Father of Sociology is ___________.
4 Man to become a human being _________ is necessary.
5 Human beings express their feelings through __________.

127
II Answer the following questions in 2/3 sentence each :
6 How is man a social being?
7 What is socialisation?
8 Describe Kamala, the one who was found in Midnapura.
9 Name some early sociologists.

III Answer the following questions in 4/5 sentences each :

10 Explain ‘Man is a social being’.
11 Explain the relationship between human beings and language.
12 What are the differences between human society and animal
society?

ED
13 What does Sociology deal with?

H
IS
IV Activity : BL
EP S

14 Collect the pictures of Sociologists.

R TB
U
BE @K


TO
T
O
N

128
 CHAPTER–18

MAN AND CULTURE

After studying this chapter you learn :

• Know the concept of culture and its development.
• Analyse cultural variety and tradition.

In our daily conversations, the word `culture' is generally used to

refer to good behaviour, customs, traditions and rituals. Let us see
how this word is used in sociology.

ED
The word culture is derived from Latin word `colere’, that means

H
cultivate . Various sociologists have defined this word in different

IS
ways. Culture is that complex system involving knowledge, the arts,
BL
EP S

morality, law, customs, abilities and talents that we learn being

R TB
U
members of society. In short, whatever we are, that is our culture.
BE @K

Culture is shaped by the geographical features, traditions and

needs of that particular society. That is the reason we cannot call one
culture good and another culture bad. Culture is transmitted from one
generation to another. The language we have learnt has been passed
TO

on to us by our elders. Culture is subject to change constantly. As

you might have observed, the style of dressing, hairstyles, food habits
T
O

have changed a lot over the past ten years. Thus the culture of one
N

society differs from that of another society.

Cultural Diversity
Let us imagine that we are walking along a famous street in
Bangalore, the capital city of Karnataka. We will get to see people
dressed in various kinds of clothes, people belonging to different races
and people conversing in different languages.
There cannot be the same kind of culture in any society. There
will be different cultures depending on the religions and life styles
followed by the people. We call this pluralistic culture.

129
 Even when cultures vary, they can influence one another deeply.
For instance, the chudidar worn by women is a kind of dress which
has come from the Moghuls to us. In the same manner, the trousers
and shirts that we wear, the English language that we speak have
come to us from the British. In India we get to see a pluralistic culture
consisting of hundreds of tribes, thousands of castes, many races
and hundreds of languages. That is the reason why India is said to
have unity in diversity.
Customs and Traditions
Now that we have understood what culture is and how diverse
it can be. Let us know what constitutes culture. Culture is made up
of beliefs, values, rules, social conventions and morals. These can

ED
collectively be called customs and traditions.

H
Freedom, true friendship, cleanliness, humility, patriotism etc.

IS
are values. Values can be understood as the behaviour expected of
BL
EP S
human beings by society. Values enable us to determine what is good
R TB

and bad in every culture.

U
BE @K

There are conventions and moral codes to complement rules.

Conventions are the activities we engage in again and again in our
daily lives. We engage in eating, sleeping, greeting and other similar
activities according to the prevailing conventions without giving much
TO

thought to them. These activities are inseparable parts of culture.

For example, you do not ask your teacher everyday how you have
T

to sit down to eat or sit in the class. You will have learnt all of them
O

just through practice of conventions. Conventions enable us to do

N

our daily duties without any hesitation.

EXERCISES

I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :

1 Culture means _________.
2 Conventions are activities _________________________.
3 We get to see unity ________ in India.

130
II Answer the following in a sentence each :
4 What is culture?
5 Give examples of the cultural diversity in your environment.
6 What are customs and traditions?
7 Give examples for customs and traditions.

III Answer the following in four-five sentences each :

8 Give an example of a convention.
9 Explain cultural diversity.
10 Describe the various aspects of culture.

ED
IV Activity :

H
11 Describe a fair held in your locality and discuss about it with

IS
your elders. BL
EP S
R TB
U

BE @K
TO
T
O
N

131
 CHAPTER–19
SOCIOLOGY IN DAILY LIFE

After studying this chapter you learn :

• Understand the importance of social interaction and daily life.
• Understand the role of conciousness.
• Know the importance of body language and conversation in social
interaction.

ED
H
Daily Life

IS
While referring to women, some people may remark that they are
BL
EP S

not very knowledgeable. This remark reveals their understanding

R TB
U
that women are weaker than men and they are to be neglected. But
BE @K

such remarks are just casual talk full of prejudices against women
and are not scientific truths. When it concerns knowledge, there is
no diffrence between men and women.
The above example illustrates the fact that though general
TO

knowledge is helpful to us in our daily lives, it does not provide us

answers to certain important questions. In such situations, sociol-
T
O

ogy is of great help to us. It is possible for sociologists to carry out a

N

study of women, and scientifically prove that they are also as strong
and as capable as men.The above explanation prove that sociology
provides us with the right information needed for our daily lives. It
enables us to study all subjects without any prejudices.
The Individual Body Language And Conversation
We interact with many people in our daily lives. This process is
called social interaction. Social interaction involves more than two
people communicating among themselves through language and
symbols, and influencing one another’s behaviour and thoughts.

132
 We cannot lead our daily lives without communication. The
language that we speak depends on the area we reside in. We learn
the language that is suitable for our environment, or else it will be
difficult to lead our lives. Sometimes we use a different kind of com-
munication to satisfy our needs. If we do not know language, we
cannot converse with anyone. On such occasions, we express our
feelings through body language or facial expressions.
Role Conciousness
You might have noticed doctors and nurses when you visited a
hospital. After examining the patient, the doctor suggests necessary
medicines and treatment. The nurse gives the medicine to the patient
and looks after him according to the instructions of the doctor. In

ED
the same manner, as the teacher enters the classroom, he may ask
you various questions. Through those questions, he tests whether

H
you have studied at home or not. You also ask questions about the

IS
topics you have not understood and get clarifications.
BL
EP S
R TB

However, you do not go to the hospital and ask questions about

U

your school lessons. Or put questions about your illness to your

BE @K

teacher and ask for medicines. Why do you do so? That is because
we expect the doctor to do his duty towards health, the teacher to
teach lessons and the nurse to treat us. We do not get confused about
these duties. This performance by every person of his role is known
TO

as role consciousness.
T

Even in our family, we perform many roles as brother, sister, fa-

O

ther, mother, grandfather, grandmother, etc. Every individual adopts

N

many roles according to his age and conditions.

EXERCISES

I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :

1 We express our feelings through ____________.
2 Sociology enables us to study every subject without any
__________.
3 Social interaction is _____________________.

133
II Answer the following questions :
4 How does sociology enable us to understand the society in
our daily lives?
5 Give an example to illustrate the importance of language.
6 What is role-consciousness?

III Answer the following in four-five sentences each :

7 Describe the relationship between language and society.
8 Explain role consciousness with an example.

IV Activity :

ED
9 Write an essay on your role in society as brother/sister.

H
IS

BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

134
 CHAPTER–20
KINDS OF SOCIETIES

After studying this chapter you learn :

• Make a list the different types of society.
• Understand the features of different types of societies.

We do not get to see the same kind of society everywhere. Various

aspects like lifestyles, culture, customs and traditions, professions
etc., differ from place to place. We can see even now many people of

ED
the cowherd-community making a living by hunting and gathering
roots and tubers. Similarly, when we go to rural areas, we can see

H
IS
innumerable sheep, cattle, other pet animals, and also green fields
stretching as far as the eye can see. We can also notice clusters of
BL
EP S
R TB

houses, isolated houses, farmers carrying ploughs, women carrying

U

water in pots from wells.

BE @K

In cities like Bangalore, Hubli, Mumbai and Delhi we see roads

teeming with traffic, noisy crowds, vast suburbs and slums. We can
also come across people wearing different kinds of clothes, factories
TO

spewing smoke, tall buildings, universities and huge hospitals.

This means that society is not the same everywhere. It is of
T
O

different forms in different places. Hence we classify societies into

N

different kinds. These are:

1 hunting and food-gathering society
2 cattle-rearing society
3 farming society
4 industrial society
1. Hunting and Food-Gathering Society
This is the simplest and the oldest of all forms of human
societies. This society is very small, comprising very few people, and
adopts a nomadic life style. The weapons they use are – axe made
135
from stone, spear, dagger etc. These people hunt wild animals for their
survival. They also gather fruits, seeds, roots, tubers and vegetables
grown wildly in the forest. They do not have any desire to earn money.
They lead lives sharing everything with others.

Features of this society

1 This society comprises very small and scattered groups of people.

It never has more than 40-50 people.

2 Since this society keeps on moving from place to place, the people
have to move to a new place in search of food when it is scarce
in one place.

3 People in this society do not desire to earn wealth.There is no

ED
concept of wealth in their society. Whatever they get, they share
it with one another.

H
IS
4 The whole society is bound together by means of relationships.
BL
EP S

There is no personal identity. Family and relationships are the

R TB
U
only mutually related institutions.
BE @K

5 Since there are no political institutions, there are no categories

of the rulers and the ruled here.

2. Cattle-Rearing Society
TO

The society which rears herds of cattle for its livelihood is a

T

cattle-rearing society. Here the people satisfy their needs by hunting,

O

cattle-rearing, food-gathering. Even today we can see cattle-rearing

N

societies in parts of Africa and Central Asia.

Features of this society

1 These societies are comparatively big and consist of several

hundreds to thousands of people. For example: The Bhaktiyari
community has about 5000 to 1,50,000 people.

2 These societies can be usually seen on grasslands, hilly regions,

deserts and areas not suitable for agriculture. These are the
areas congenial for cattle-rearing. That is the reason their main
occupation is cattle-rearing.
136
3 In this society, the one who possesses the largest number of cattle
becomes more powerful than the others. He is considered rich and
becomes the leader of the group. As rich families go on progressing,
they lead to the birth of leadership in society. This leads to
inequality in society.
3. Farming society
A farming society depends on cultivation of vast areas of land for
the livelihood. People make use of animals to plough the land.
Features of this society
1 A ‘Farming Revolution’ began with the invention of the plough
around 3000 B.C.E. With this, the production of food too

ED
increased. Food production increased much more when animals
were used to draw the plough.

H
IS
2 Cultivation is the main occupation in the farming society. Hence
BL
EP S
people stayed in the same place. With this permanent settlement
R TB

of people, villages took shape.

U
BE @K

3 Since increased food production was possible in the fields, it was

not necessary for everyone to work there throughout the day.
Therefore, majority of the people engaged themselves in other
activities. As a result, cities evolved, and their population too
TO

increased significantly.
4. Industrial Society
T
O

The society which depends on industries that manufacture

N

products with the use of science and technology is called an industrial

society.
Features of this society
1 New inventions transformed the society totally. The steam engine,
internal combustion engine, electric energy, nuclear energy and
others have brought about and are bringing wide-ranging social
and economic transformation.
2 Many people migrate to cities where industries are established.
Therefore, the population in cities increases.
137
3 Division of labour is needed to run industries. Division of labour
involves division of the work according to the skills of the workers.
In the industrial society, we see division of labour in all aspects.
EXERCISES
I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :
1 The members of the hunting society used _____________
weapons.
2 In farming _________ is used for ploughing.
3 Division of tasks according to skills is called ______________.

II Answer the following questions :

ED
4 What is meant by ‘Cattle-rearing’ society?

H
5 What do you mean by ‘Farming society’?

IS
6 What is meant by ‘Industrial society’?
BL
EP S
R TB

7 What are the kinds of societies?

U
BE @K

III Answer the following in four-five sentences each :

8 Describe the life style in the hunting and food-gathering
society.
TO

9 Mention the features of the cattle-rearing society.

10 Explain the features of the farming society.
T
O

11 Describe the features of the industrial society.

N

IV Activities :
12. Compare and contrast the lifestyle of urban & rural people
area with help of teacher.
13. Sit in groups, discuss the concept of an ideal society.



138
 GEOGRAPHY
CHAPTER-21
THE EARTH – OUR LIVING PLANET
After studying this chapter you learn :
• Other names of the Earth.
• The size of the Earth and distribution of water on it.
• To recongnise the continents and oceans of the world.
• About latitudes and longitudes, time, local time standard time
and international date line.
• To mark (locate) the oceans and continents on the world map.

ED
H
Do you know where we are living?

IS
We are living on the Earth. It is the third planet from the Sun.
BL
EP S

The Earth is the home for all forms of life like plants, animals and
R TB
U
human beings because of its suitable distance from the Sun, range
BE @K

of temperature, life supporting gases, atmosphere, water cycle etc.

Our Earth is called by many names. Some of them ‘Living Planet’,
‘Unique Planet’, ‘Watery Planet’, ‘Blue Planet’.
Size of the Earth: Distribution of Land and water bodies
TO

The Earth is the fifth largest planet in the Sun’s family. The
T

diameter of the Earth is approximately

O

4 times greater than the Moon and it

N

is around 107 times less than that of

the Sun.
The total geographical area of the
Earth is 510 million sq kms of which
361 million sq kms (70.78%) is covered
by water and 149 million sq kms
(29.22%) is covered by land. Thus the
Earth has unequal distribution of land
and water. The ratio between the land
and the water bodies is 1: 2.43. Earth
139
The Earth’s shape is often described as Geoid, which literally means
‘Earth shaped’, or ‘Oblate spheroid’. The Earth is flattened at the
poles and bulged at the equator. The Equatorial diameter of the
Earth is 12756 kms and the Polar diameter is 12714 kms Equatorial
circumference - 40,076 kms and Polar circumference - 40,008 kms.
The difference of 42 kms in diameter is the proof for regarding the
earth as Geoid.
The land bodies of the Earth are known as Continents. There are
seven continents, namely Asia, Africa, North America, South America,
Antarctica, Europe and Australia. The continents are land masses of
large size. Asia is the largest continent in the world while Australia is
the smallest continent. The large water bodies on the Earth are called
oceans. There are four major oceans. They are the Pacific ocean, the

ED
Atlantic ocean, the Indian ocean and the Arctic ocean. The Pacific
is the largest and deepest ocean while the Arctic is the smallest and

H
IS
shallowest ocean.
BL
EP S

The land and water bodies are unevenly distributed between the
R TB
U
Northern and the Southern hemispheres. The Northern Hemisphere
BE @K

has 60% of land and 40% of water. Therefore it is called the ‘Land
Hemisphere’. On the other hand there is 81% of water and 19% of land
in the Southern Hemisphere and so it is called the ‘Water Hemisphere’.
Latitudes and longitudes
TO

How do we understand the location of a place, direction and distance

T

between places?
O
N

The Earth is spherical in shape. Therefore it is difficult to locate

the places, the direction and calculate distance between places. In
order to understand the relations between different places on the
Earth and their exact location, we have to understand their position,
their distance from any fixed point and also their exact direction. To
know the position, distance and direction east and west or north and
south, a network of lines are drawn on the globe. These are known
as lines of latitudes and longitudes. The horizontal lines are the lines
of latitudes and the vertical ones are the lines of longitudes. These
lines intersect each other at right angles and create a network called
grid or graticule.
140
 N
O
T
TO
BE @K

141
R TB
EP S
U
BL
IS
H
ED

World Physical
 LATITUDES : Latitude is an imaginary
line which joins all the places which
have the same angular distance north
or south of the equator. It is measured
in degrees. The Equator (00) is the
longest line of latitude known as the
Great circle. It is equal to the circum-
ference of the Earth. Other lines of
latitudes are of shorter length. The
length of lines of latitude decreases
with the distance from the equator. All
lines of latitudes are circles and paral-
PARALLELS OF LATITUDE AND
MERIDIANS OF LONGITUDE lel to the Equator. Therefore, lines of
latitude are called parallels of latitude.

ED
There are 90 of latitudes on each side of the equator - 900 of North
0

H
and South are points. Including equator totally there are 181 latitudes

IS
on the globe. The ground distance between two degrees of latitudes
BL
EP S

is 110.4 kms.
R TB
U
BE @K

Important latitudes
1. 00 latitude-Equator or Great Circle.
2. 23½0 North latitude – Tropic of Cancer.
3. 23½0 South latitude – Tropic of Capricorn
TO

4. 66½0 North latitude – Arctic Circle.

T
O

5. 66½0 South latitude – Antarctic Circle.

N

6. 900 North – North pole.

7. 900 South – South pole

LONGITUDES : The imaginary lines that intersect equator at right

angle joining the north and south are called longitudes.
On the globe, longitudes are shown as a series of semi-circles
that run from pole to pole passing through the equator. All lines of
longitude are of equal length. Lines of longitude are called Meridians
(‘meri’-mid and ‘dian’-day) because all places along the same meridian
of longitude experience noon or mid-day at the same time.
142
 The meridian passing through Greenwich (England) has been
chosen as Prime Meridian. It is marked as 00 longitude. There are
180 of longitudes to the east of Greenwich and 180 to the west. Thus
there are 360 of longitudes. The zone between the Prime Meridian
and 180 E longitude is called the Eastern Hemisphere. The opposite
zone is called the Western Hemisphere.
The distance between two consecutive longitudes decrease
gradually with distance from the equator. This is because the
meridians of longitude converge at two poles. On the equator the
distance between two consecutive meridians is 111 kms.
Longitude and Time : There is a definite relation between longitude
and time. The earth is rotating on its axis and completes one rotation
in 24 hours. This means 360 longitudes are covered in a period of 24

ED
hours. This gives rise to a time difference of 4 minutes for every one

H
degree of longitude, 60 minutes or one hour for every 15 degrees of

IS
longitude (360X4=1440/60=24 hours). The time difference is to be
BL
EP S
added (E.G.A- East-Gain-Add) in case of places to the east of G.M.T
R TB
U
and in case of places to the west the time difference is to be subtracted
BE @K

(W.L.S- West-Lose-Subtract).
Local time : The time according to the longitude of a place or accord-
ing to the position of Sun at that place is known as the Local time.
This is based on the local meridian passing over that place. When
TO

the Sun is shining vertically over the longitude it is 12 noon at that

place. All places situated on the same meridian have the same local
T

time. Every longitude has its own local time.

O
N

Standard time : As the local time varies from place to place, it would
create considerable confusion if each place were to follow its own local
time. In order to avoid confusion many countries follow uniform time
throughout the country. Such uniform time is based on the central
meridian of the country or the meridian on which the most impor-
tant city is located. This uniform time which is followed throughout
a country is called Standard Time of that country.
In India, 82½0 East longitude is considered as the Standard
Meridian of the country. It passes through Allahabad of Uttar Pradesh.
The time based on this Meridian is called the Indian Standard Time
(IST). It is 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of G.M.T.
143
 Time Zones : In certain countries of the World, where the
longitudinal extent is so large (more than 450 of longitude) that there
is often a difference of three to four hours between one part and the
other, the land surface is divided into Time Zones. The whole globe is
divided into 24 such time zones so that the time in each zone differs
from the other by only one hour.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K

Time Zones and International Date Line

Large countries like Russia, USA, Canada and Australia have

vast longitudinal extent. Therefore they have different time zones.
TO

Russia has 11 time zones, USA and Canada have 5 time zones and
Australia has 3 time zones.
T
O

International Date Line (IDL) : The problem of time in countries

N

of the world was solved first by the standard time and then by the zonal
time. But the circumnavigation of the world brought a new problem
in keeping the correct date and day in the week for the travellers.
Therefore a line passing through 1800 meridian diametrically opposite
to the G.M.T was adopted as the point where circumnavigators should
make adjustments. This line is supposed to pass Pacific ocean along
the 1800 meridian but makes short detours in order to avoid land
masses. This is known as the International Date Line because the
date and day is changed whenever people cross this line by ships or
aeroplanes.
144
 Any ship crossing this line from west (Asia to North America)
to east takes a day twice while the ship crossing this line from east
(North America to Asia) to west drops one day.
EXERCISES
I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :
1 The total geographical area of the Earth is __________ Sq. Kms.
2 The shape of the Earth is __________ .
3 The equatorial and polar diameters of the Earth is ____________
and ____________ Kms.
4 The 23½0 North latitude is called as ____________ .
5 The Indian Standard Time is based on ____________ longitude.

ED
II Answer the following questions briefly :

H
6 Why is the Earth called ‘Living Planet’?

IS
7 Why are the Northern and Southern hemispheres called Land
BL
EP S
R TB

and Water Hemispheres?

U

8 What are latitudes and longitudes?

BE @K

9 Mention the difference between local time and standard time.

10 What is the International Date Line?
III Define the following :
TO

11. Unique planet 14. Continents

T

12. Size of the Earth 15. Prime Meridian

O
N

13. Geoid 16. Indian Standard Time

IV Terms to Remember :
17. Living Planet 20. Antarctic circle
18. Equator 21. Zonal Time
19. Arctic circle 22. International date line
V Activity :
23. List out the countries of the Eastern hemisphere and
Western hemisphere on the basis of longitudes.

145
 CHAPTER - 22
LITHOSPHERE

After studying this chapter you learn :

• The meaning of lithosphere and its importance.
• The structure of the earth and its composition.
• Structure of rocks.
• About the internal forces-volcanoes, earthquakes, tsunami etc.,
and their effects on life on the earth.
• The external forces like temperature, wind, rain and rivers.

ED
• The meaning of underground water and its impertance.

H
IS
Meaning and importance
BL
EP S
The outer-most solid layer of the earth is known as the ‘Lithosphere’
R TB
U
(Litho means ‘rock’). This layer is very thick in the continents and quite
BE @K

thin under the sea floor. The lithosphere consists of rocks, minerals,
soils etc. Life exists on this layer with the help of the atmosphere
and the hydrosphere. Continents are parts of the lithosphere where
different land forms like mountains, plateaus, plains, etc., are found.
TO

Earth’s Interior and Composition

Do you know, what is there inside the Earth?
T
O

Our planet Earth is more than 4.6 billion years old and still in the
N

process of changing. Man is in quest of understanding this change

and eager to know more about inside the earth. What is inside the
earth is still a mystery for man. With years of study and research
human beings have been able to get information about the materials
inside the earth up to 10 to 12 kms. Going beyond this depth is very
difficult due to the increase of temperature (10 C for every 32 meters).
To understand more about the earth’s interior humans are dependent
on indirect evidences such as seismic waves, volcanic materials etc.
The earth’s interior comprises of various materials in different forms.
On the basis of density of material, chemical composition and physical
146
state of matter the earth’s interior is classified into 3 main layers. They
are the Crust, the Mantle and the Core.
The Crust: The crust is the uppermost layer of the earth, rich
in Silica, Aluminium and Magnesium. The depth of this layer is around
60 kms from the surface. In the upper part of the crust only lighter
materials are found. It is called SIAL (Silica and Aluminium) or
continental crust. The lower part of the crust is rich in Silica and
Magnesium and it is called SIMA or oceanic crust.
The Mantle: The Mantle is the second and the middle layer of
the earth. The depth of this layer is up to 2900 kms from the surface.
The materials are in semi liquid or partially molten state which is
called magma. The mantle is composed of dense and rigid rocks
which have predominance of minerals

ED
like magnesium and iron. The mantle

H
has two parts a) Upper mantle or the

IS
Asthenosphere is partially in a molten
BL
EP S
condition and b) Lower mantle or
R TB

the Mesosphere in solid condition.

U

The contact zone of the crust and

BE @K

the mantle is called ‘Mohorovicic

Discontinuity’ or Moho. While the
boundary that separates the Mantle
from the Core is called ‘Gutenberg
TO

Discontinuity’. Here the rocks are

different in chemical composition from
T

those below and above.

O
N

The Core: This is the innermost

layer of the earth. The depth of this
layer is up to 6371 kms from the
surface. The most important materials
of the core are Nickel and Ferrous
(Iron). So it is known as NIFE. The
core is divided into two sub layers a)
The outer core is known as molten
core, where the materials are in liquid
and in molten form. b) The inner core
known as solid core. Interior of the Earth
147
Facts File
Some deepest land mines in the world
1. The Akola peninsula of Russia is around 12 kms.
2. The Kimberly diamond mine in South Africa is around 3.9 kms
3. The Gold mine at KGF in India is around 1.5 kms.

ROCKS
Rocks are the solid inorganic substances that are found in the
crust of the earth. They are aggregates of minerals. Rocks are formed
due to various natural processes. On the basis of mode of formation,
rocks are classified into three types. They are (1) Igneous rocks, (2)
Sedimentary rocks and (3) Metamorphic rocks.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K

1. Igneous Rocks : The word ‘Igneous’ means ‘fire’ derived from

TO

the Latin word ‘Ignis’ or

Sanskrit word ‘Agni’. Igneous
T
O

rocks are those which have

N

been formed by the cooling of

molten matter of the earth.
Igneous rocks were the first to
be formed, therefore they are
also called Primary rocks.
The two important types
of igneous rocks are :
(i) Intrusive igneous rocks
: When the molten materials
(magma) of the Earth’s interior Cycle of Rock

148
do not reach the earth’s surface, they cool and solidify (quite slowly)
below the surface and called intrusive igneous rocks. These rocks are
made of large crystals and are found at great depth inside the Earth
eg., Granite, Diorite and Gabbro.
(ii) Extrusive igneous rocks: Rocks formed by solidification of
magma above the earth’s surface are known as extrusive igneous
rocks. These rocks are generally fine grained or glassy because lava
after reaching the surface of the earth cools and solidifies quickly eg.,
Basalt and Andesite.

The rock materials in the liquid or molten state is called ‘magma’ and
when it comes out from the earth is called ‘lava’.

2. Sedimentary Rocks : The word Sedimentary is derived from a

ED
Latin word ‘Sedimentum’, which means ‘settling down’. Sedimentary

H
rocks are formed by the agency of water, wind and ice. These agents

IS
break and erode the igneous rocks, transport those broken fragments
BL
EP S
and deposit them at certain places. The deposit of these materials
R TB

often occurs in the form of layers or strata. Therefore sedimentary

U

rocks are called stratified rocks. The sedimentary rocks are formed
BE @K

after the disintegration of igneous rocks. Therefore they are called

secondary rocks. These rocks are also called aqueous rocks because
they are formed in the water bodies (Lake, Sea and Ocean beds).
TO
T
O
N

Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks: Rocks built up by

fragments of pre-existing rocks which have been produced by the
processes of weathering and erosion eg., Sandstone (Arenaceous
rocks) and Shale (Argillaceous rocks).
149
 Chemically formed sedimentary rocks: Chemical sediments are
commonly formed by the process of evaporation of water containing
salts in solution eg., Rock salt, Gypsum etc.
Organically formed sedimentary rocks: Organic sediments are
those derived by the accumulation of remains of organisms, such
as shells of marine organisms, remains of plants and animals eg.,
Limestone (Calcareous rocks) and Coal (Carbonaceous rocks).
3. Metamorphic Rocks :Metamorphic rocks are those which are
formed by the process of metamorphism or alteration of pre-existing
rocks. Metamorphism means change of form which may be physical
or chemical or both by the influence of heat and pressure.
Example:

ED
a) Granite -> Gneiss d) Sandstone -> Quartzite

H
b) Basalt -> Schist e) Coal -> Graphite

IS
c) Limestone -> Marble BL f) Graphite -> Diamond
EP S
R TB

Metamorphic rocks are the hardest rocks on the earth. These

U
BE @K

rocks supply precious stones. ex :-Sapphire, Ruby and Emerald and

Diamonds etc.
FORCES OF THE EARTH’S CRUST
The Earth has two important forces that change the face of the
TO

earth. They are internal forces

T

and external forces.

O

INTERNAL FORCES
N

These are the forces which

originate inside the crust and
influence the surface features
of the earth eg., Volcanoes,
Earthquakes etc. The internal
forces are also called Endogenic
forces.

Structure of a volcano

150
VOLCANOES
A volcano is a vent or narrow opening in the Earth’s crust
connected by a pipe to an underlying magma chamber, through which
magma, rock fragments, lava, ash, steam, flames and other gases
are emitted from the interior of the Earth. A passage in the earth’s
crust through which magma and other volcanic materials are ejected
is called ‘Vent’. The funnel-shaped hollow at the top of the cone of a
volcano is called ‘Crater’. A large basin-shaped crater bound by steep
sides is known as ‘Caldera’.
Types of Volcanoes : On the basis of the periodicity or frequency
of eruption volcanoes are classified into three types.
Active Volcanoes: Volcanoes which constantly eject lava, gases,

ED
ashes etc., are known as active volcanoes. There are about 600

H
active volcanoes in the world eg., Mt. Stromboli and Mt. Etna in

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Italy, St. Helens in USA, Mauna Loa in Hawaiian islands, Pinatubo
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in Philippines etc.
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Dormant Volcanoes: Dormant volcanoes are those which have
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erupted in the past and are likely to erupt again but have remained
inactive for fairly long periods eg., Mt. Vesuvius in Italy, Mt. Fujiyama
in Japan, Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, Mt. Krakatoa in Indonesia.
Extinct Volcanoes: Extinct volcanoes are those which were active
TO

in the remote geological periods. These are not likely to be active once
again eg., Gorongoro in Tanzania, Arthur’s Seat in Scotland.
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O

Facts file
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Super volcanic eruptions of the world

1. Mt. Vesuvius (Italy)
2. Mt. Krakatoa (Indonesia)
3. Mt. Pelee (West Indies)
4. Mt. Fujiyama or Fuji, a volcano worshipped by people of Japan.

Volcanic materials: The materials ejecting out from the volcanoes

are of three types. Solid: Volcanic bombs, cinders, scoria, pumice,
dust, ash. Liquid: Lava. Gases: Sulphur, Hydrogen, Carbon dioxide.

151
 Distribution of Volcanoes: Volcanoes occur in many regions of
the world, including islands, young mountain ranges and plateaus of
the continents. Most important regions are: 1. The Circum-Pacific
Belt or Pacific Ring of Fire: Coastal margins of the Pacific Ocean
consisting of Philippines, Japan, USA, Central America, South America
etc. 2. Mid-Atlantic Belt: Iceland, West Indies 3. Mid-Continental
Belt: Italy, Spain, France, Greece, Turkey etc., 4. Important Islands:
Hawaii, Indonesia.
EARTHQUAKES
Earthquake is a shock or series of shocks or tremors, due to a
sudden movement of crustal rocks generated within the crust or
mantle.

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The point of origin of the earthquake in the earth’s crust is called
the Seismic focus or Hypocentre.

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The point on the earth’s surface vertically above the seismic focus
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is called the Epicentre.
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The scientific study of earthquakes is called Seismology. The
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origin, time, velocity and direction of seismic waves are recorded by

an instrument known as Seismograph.
Causes of the Earthquakes
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Plate Tectonics: The earth’s

crust consists of many major and
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minor plates. These plates are

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not stationary. The plate

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boundaries are dynamic places

and are the primary location of
earthquake activity (Circum-
Actions of Earth quake
Pacific Belt).
Volcanic Eruptions: Volcanic earthquakes are caused by gas
explosions (Krakatoa volcano of Indonesia).
Faulting: A fault consists of a fracture in a rock along with a
great deal of displacement takes place. Earthquakes occur when
movement of plates takes place along a line of fracture (San Andreas
fault of California in USA).
152
 Man made factors: Over interaction of man with nature is also
one of the main causes of the occurrence of many of the earthquakes.
The extraction of minerals, deep underground mining, huge dams
and reservoirs, nuclear tests etc., (Koyna dam in Maharastra, Hoover
dam in USA).
Earthquake Waves
The earthquake or seismic waves originate in the seismic focus
and travel towards the epicentre in ripples or concentric circles. The
three important earthquake waves are:
1. Primary Waves (PW): Primary waves are also known as
longitudinal or compressional waves. These are the fastest earthquake
waves and the first waves to reach the surface. They can pass through

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solid, liquid and gaseous matters.
2. Secondary Waves (SW): Secondary waves are also known as

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transverse or distortional waves. These waves cannot pass through
liquids. They reach the epicentre after the primary waves.
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3. Surface Waves (LW): Surface waves are also called long waves.
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They are the slowest earthquake waves but are responsible for the
highest destruction on the surface of the earth.
The magnitude and intensity of earthquakes is recorded by
using Richter scale.
TO

The Earthquakes are very dangerous and destructive. They cause

large-scale deaths, loss to property, landslides, flash floods, damage
T
O

to bridges, roads, railway lines etc.

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Tsunami: Tsunami is a large sea wave occasionally experienced

along the coasts of Japan and in other regions caused by an underwater
earthquake. In Japanese language ‘Tsunami’ means ‘harbour waves’.

Facts file
1. On 26th Dec, 2004 a Tsunami in the Indian ocean swept the coastal low
lands of Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand etc.
2. On 11th Mar, 2011 a Tsunami in the Pacific ocean caused huge damage in
the eastern coastal regions of Japan (Fukushima, Sendai, Miyagi etc).
3. Some seismic recording centers of India: Gowribidanur, Kodaikanal, Pune,
Hyderabad, Dehradun.

153
Distribution of Earthquake - Prone regions
1. The Circum-Pacific Belt – Regions around the Pacific ocean
(New Zealand, Philippines, Japan, USA, Peru etc.,).
2. The Mediterranean Belt – Regions around the Mediterranean
sea.
3. The Himalayan Belt – The Siwalik region of India.

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Earthquakes and Volcanic Regions
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EXTERNAL FORCES:
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External forces are the natural forces that modify the surface
of the earth. The important forces are temperature, wind, rainfall,
snowfall, river, glacier etc., These forces act on the surface of the
earth and constantly change its features.
TO

Weathering: Weathering is the wearing away or breaking down or

T

gradual disintegration of rocks by agents (Temperature, rainfall, wind

O

etc.) present in the atmosphere. The three types of weathering are:

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1. Mechanical weathering: When the rock is broken and

disintegrated without any chemical alteration, the process is called
Physical weathering or Mechanical weathering. The important
processes of mechanical weathering are Granular disintegration,
Block disintegration and Exfoliation. The agents of mechanical
weathering are temperature, wind, frost etc.
2. Chemical weathering: Chemical weathering is mainly brought
about by the action of substances dissolved in rainwater. This
type of weathering results in changing the composition of minerals

154
 present in the rocks. There are four types of chemical weathering.
They are:
a. Oxidation: In this type of chemical weathering oxygen
dissolved in water reacts with certain minerals, especially
iron, to form oxides.
b. Carbonation: When the rainwater falls on limestone rocks,
the calcium carbonate present in the rocks absorbs carbon
dioxide from rainwater and becomes calcium bicarbonate.
c. Hydration: Hydration is the process by which some minerals
in crystalline form absorb water and become a powdery mass.
Feldspar is a common rock forming crystalline mineral.

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d. Solution: When the rain falls on the surface of the land,
rainwater dissolves soluable minerals present in the rocks.

H
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3. Biological weathering: Living organisms like plants, animals and
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human beings play a role in one way or another in the weathering
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of rocks. This type of weathering includes both physical and

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chemical weathering. (a) Plants: Growth and expansion of roots.

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(b) Animals: Burrowing animals, earthworms, rabbits, rats. (c)

Human beings: Mining, quarrying, construction works.
DENUDATION
TO

Agents of Denudation: Denudation is the action of changing

T

landscape or changing the surface of the earth by various natural

O

agents such as Rivers, Glaciers, Underground water, Wind, Sea waves

N

etc., The work of these natural agents are Erosion, Transportation

and Deposition. These processes produce distinct relief features.
River: A mass of fresh water flowing from its source to mouth
along a definite course is called ‘River’. The river is a most prominent
agent of denudation. The place where a river takes its birth is
called ‘Source’ and ‘Mouth’ is the point where it meets sea or ocean.
‘Tributaries’ are the feeders or small streams which supply water to
river along its course. The point where a tributary joins the main river
is called ‘Confluence’.

155
 Course of the River: The course of a river from its source to
mouth is divided into three stages. These stages are Upper course,
Middle course and Lower course.

ED
H
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BL
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Stages of the river course and associated land forms
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The Upper Course: Vertical erosion is most common due to steep

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slopes leading to deepening of valleys, resulting in the formation of

gorges, canyons, ‘V’ shaped valleys, waterfalls (Angel falls, Niagara
falls, Jog falls).
TO

The Middle Course: In the middle course, the river path has a
moderate slope and velocity is less than that in the upper course.
T

The volume of water increases when many tributaries join the main
O

river. The main work of the river in this stage is transportation of

N

sediments and little deposition. The important landforms in this stage

are Alluvial fans, Meanders.
The Lower Course: In this stage the slope of the river course is
very minimum. The volume of river water is more and deposition is
the main work of the river. The important landforms in this course
are Flood plains, Natural levees, Ox-bow lakes, Deltas (Sundarban
delta, Nile delta).

156
 River

“The work of river is called “Fluvial Cycle”.

Facts File:

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Estuary – Tidal mouth of a river broadening into the sea / ocean.
Delta – A fan shaped, low lying area of deposits at a river mouth.

H
IS
GLACIER : Glaciers are slowly moving, compacted masses of ice and
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snow found in the high mountains and polar regions. The mass of ice
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or snow is pulled down by its weight and due to the force of gravity.
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Types of Glacier: Glaciers are divided into two types a)Continental

glaciers and b)Mountain glaciers.
Continental glaciers: Continental glaciers are extensive ice sheets
TO

found in polar regions eg., Greenland and Antarctica.

Mountain or Alpine or Valley glaciers: The glaciers found in the
T
O

Polar regions regions are called Mountain glaciers.

N

Glacier as an agent of denudation performs the work of erosion,

transportation and deposition.
The erosional work of glaciers
is mainly side cutting. The
landforms resulting by this
are Cirque, Horn, Arete, ‘U’
shaped valleys, Hanging
valleys, Rock steps etc.
The transportation and
the deposition work of glaciers Work of Glacier
157
goes almost together. The important depositional landforms produced
by glaciers are Moraines, Drumlins, Esker, Kames, Outwash plains,
Till plains etc.
‘Moraines’ are the most important landforms of the glaciated
region. Moraines are of four types. a) Lateral moraines: Rock debris
deposited along the sides of the glacial valley. b) Medial moraines:
When two lateral moraines meet, it forms medial moraines. c) Ground
moraines: Rock materials found on the floor or at the bottom of the
glacial valley. d) Terminal moraines: The glacial deposits found at
the end of the glacier.

The work of Glacier is called “glacial cycle.”

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UNDERGROUND WATER

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Underground water is the subsoil water found on account of

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percolation or seepage of water into the ground. The underground
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water which seeps into the ground passes through various layers of
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rocks. The rocks which allow the water to percolate is called ‘pervious’
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or 'porous’ rocks and the rocks which do not allow the water inside
are called ‘impervious’ or ‘non-porous’ rocks. The porous rock beds
which hold large amount of underground water are called aquifers.
The pervious rocks allows and hold water and form springs. A Spring
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is a place where the underground water comes out naturally.

Types of spring:
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1. Perennial spring: It is a spring through which water comes out

N

continuously.
2. Intermittent springs: These are springs through which water
comes out intermittently (not continuous) and they are also called
‘Periodic spring’.
3. Hot springs: Whenever warm or hot water comes out naturally
it is called hot spring or thermal spring. They are usually found
near the volcanic regions.
4. Geyser: Geysers throw a jet of hot water (like a fountain) and
steam into the air at regular or irregular intervals eg., Old Faithful
in Yellowstone National Park of USA.
158
5. Artesian wells : When underground water is stored in a basin
shaped layer between two non-porous rocks, the water cannot
come out naturally. If an artificial hole is made to the porous rock,
the water comes out like a fountain. These are called Artesian
wells. These wells are common in Australia.

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Artesian wells

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Underground water performs
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the work of erosion,

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transportation and deposition.

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The work of underground

water is predominant in
limestone region. The
important landforms
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associated with the

underground water are
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Activity of Under ground water

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N

Lapies, Sinkholes, Limestone

caves, Stalactites, Stalagmites,
Calcite pillar etc.

Facts File : Limestone

caves
1. Akalagavi (Ulavi) caves
of Uttara Kannada in
Karnataka
2. Belum and Bohra caves
of Andra Pradesh
Barchans
159
 Relief features formed by underground water in limestone region is
called ‘Karsttopography’.

WIND
The denudation work of wind is common in the arid or desert
regions. When the winds of high velocity blow over desert areas they
erode, transport and deposit materials to produce different landforms.
The important landforms associated with the erosional work of the
wind are Rock pedestals, Mushroom rock, Inselberg. The depositional
landforms are Sand dunes – Longitudinal sand dunes, Barchans and
Loess deposits.
Barchans are semi-circular or crescent shaped sand deposits

ED
most common in the deserts. Loess is the sand particles found beyond
the borders of deserts (Yellow soil in China).

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Work of wind is called “Aeolian cycle”.
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SEA WAVES : Like all
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other agents, sea waves are

also an important exogenic
agent of denudation. Sea
waves are the regular
undulation of water on
TO

the sea or ocean. The work

T

of sea waves is significant

O

along the sea shore or

N

coasts. The important

landforms associated with
sea waves are Cliff, Sea
cave, Sea stack, Sea arch,
Headland, Sand bars, Sea Waves
Beaches, Lagoons etc.

160
 EXERCISES

I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :

1. The continental crust is also called ________________ .
2. Vast basin shaped volcanic mouth is ____________ .
3. The most destructive earthquake waves are ____________ .
4. Stalactities and Stalagmites are most common in ____________.
5. The Beaches are formed by __________________ work.

II Answer the following questions :

6. Mention the three major layers of the interior of the Earth.

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7. Name the types of volcanoes on the basis of frequency of
eruption.

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8. Mention the important earthquake zones of the world.
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9. What is weathering? Name the three main types of
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weathering.
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10. Name the landforms associated with the work of river.

III. Match the following :

A B
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11. SIMA a) Earthquake

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12. Sandstone b) Yellow soil

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13. Epicentre c) Oceanic crust

N

14. Geyser d) Sedimentary rock

15. Loess e) Underground water

IV Define the following :

16. Aqueous rocks 20. Tsunami
17. ‘Pacific ring of fire’ 21. Continental glacier
18. Mechanical weathering 22. Hot spring
19. Carbonaceous rocks 23. Carbonaceous rocks

161
V Terms to remember :
24. NIFE 27. Mountain glacier
25. Arenaceous and Argillaceous rocks 28. Aeolian cycle
26. Tectonic forces 29. Beaches

VI Activities :
30. Collect the different rocks from your environment.
31. Visit nearest falls and know how they are formed ?



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N

162
 CHAPTER–23
ATMOSPHERE

After studying this chapter you learn :

• The meaning, importance, composition and formation of
atmosphere.
• About the components of atmosphere, temperature, pressure,
winds humidity, clouds and their founctions and effects.
• The differences between atmosphere and climate.

ED
Do you know, how we are protected and helped
by the envelope of air ?

H
IS
M e a n i n g a n d BL
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importance: Atmosphere is a
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thin layer of gases, dust
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particles and water vapour

surrounding the Earth. This
layer of gases forms protective
boundary between the outer
TO

space and the Earth’s surface.

The thickness of the
T

atmosphere is around 1000

O

kms. Atmosphere is very

N

important for all forms of life

on the earth. Different gases
of atmosphere help plants,
animals and human beings.
Atmosphere traps heat and
makes Earth a planet for all
the living organisms.
Composition of
atmosphere: The atmosphere
is a mixture of different gases, Layers of atmosphere

163
dust particles and water vapour. The important gases in the
atmosphere are Nitrogen - 78.08%, Oxygen- 20.94% and the remaining
1% consists of Argon - 0.93%, Carbon dioxide - 0.03%, Ozone -
0.000005% etc. The atmosphere also contains dust particles which
help us in the formation of water droplets. The water vapour in the
atmosphere is the source of clouds and precipitation. The atmosphere
traps heat and energy and has influence on the weather conditions
of a place.
Layers of Atmosphere: The atmosphere may be divided into five
important layers on the basis of its characteristic features. These are:
Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere (Ionosphere)
and Exosphere.
Troposphere : Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere.

ED
It extends upto 18 kms at the equator and 8 kms near the poles.
This layer has all the atmospheric elements such as temperature,

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pressure, winds, clouds, rainfall etc. All weather changes occur in the
BL
troposphere. Temperature and pressure decrease with the increase
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of altitude.
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BE @K

Stratosphere : Stratosphere is the second layer of the

atmosphere. This layer extends upto 50 kms from the surface. It lies
between troposphere and mesosphere. In this layer Ozone is the most
important gas which absorbs ‘ultraviolet rays’ of the sun and protect
all forms of life on the Earth. This layer is free from clouds and other
TO

important weather phenomenon and provides ideal flying conditions

for jet aircrafts.
T
O

Mesosphere : Mesosphere is the third layer in the Earth’s

N

atmosphere. It extends up to 80 kms from the surface and lies above

stratosphere. In this layer temperature decreases with the increase in
altitude. This layer has the coldest temperature in the atmosphere.
Thermosphere : Thermosphere layer lies next to Mesosphere. In
this layer temperature rises drastically. It is also called ‘Ionosphere’
as the gaseous atoms are ionized due to very high temperature. The
ions found in this layer help in reflecting radio waves.
Exosphere : Exosphere is the top most layer of the atmosphere. In
this layer elements of atmosphere are rare and pressure is extremely
low.
164
Elements of Weather
Weather condition of a place is influenced by various elements
such as temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, clouds, rainfall etc.

Atmospheric condition of a place at a given time is called ‘Weather’.

In contrast the average weather condition of an area over a long period of
time is called ‘Climate’.

TEMPERATURE
The Sun is the main source of energy to the Earth which
supplies heat through insolation. Insolation means incoming solar
radiation from the sun to the Earth. Temperature is recorded by an
instrument called ‘thermometer’.

ED
Centigrade and Fahrenheit are the
important thermometers used to

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measure atmospheric temperature.

IS
The important factors that influence
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atmospheric temperature are

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latitude, altitude or height, distance
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from the sea, wind, ocean currents,

relief, clouds, rainfall etc.
Normal lapse rate : It is the
decreasing rate of temperature with
TO

the increase of altitude. The rate Temperature Zones

of decrease is 10 C for every 165
T
O

meters or 6.40 C for every 1000 meters of height (1 km).

N

Inversion of temperature : In some situations temperature also

increase with increasing height. This takes place in mountain valleys
during long winter nights with clear sky, dry air, no wind and snow
covered surface.
Temperature Zones : The distribution of temperature is not uniform
on the Earth’s surface. On the basis of insolation, the globe is divided
into three temperature zones. They are:
Torrid zone : This is the zone of high temperature. This
region is found between 00 or Equator and Tropic of Cancer in

165
the north (23½0 N) and the Equator and Tropic of Capricorn
(23½0 S) in the south. This region receives direct rays of the Sun.
Temperate zone : This is the region where the temperature is
neither very hot nor cold. This region lies between 23½0 N to 66½0
N (Tropic of Cancer to Arctic circle) and 23½0 S to 66½0 S (Tropic of
Capricorn to Antarctic circle).
Frigid zone : It is the coldest region. This zone is found between
66½0 N to 900 N (Arctic circle to North pole) and 66½0 S to 900 S
(Antarctic circle to South pole). The temperature in this zone is very
low due to slanting rays of the sun. In summer temperature is slightly
high and in winter the temperature is low.
Isotherms : Isotherms are lines drawn on the map or globe

ED
connecting places having the same temperature.

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Facts file :

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Places of highest and lowest temperature
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1. Al Aziziya of Libya in Africa has recorded the highest temperature

U

(average +580 C) Whereas Verkhoyansk of Siberia has recorded the lowest

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temperature (average -240 C).

2. In India Ganganagar of Rajasthan recorded the highest temperature
in summer (average +540 C) and Leh of Jammu and Kashmir has recroded
the lowest temperature (average -100 C) in winter.
TO

3. Vostok of Antarctica is considered as the coldest place (average

temperature -890 C) on the Earth.
T
O
N

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Air has weight and it exerts pressure. This is called atmospheric
pressure. Air pressure is measured by an instrument called Barometer.
The unit used to show the pressure is millibar (mb). The average air
pressure of the atmosphere at the sea level is 1013.25 mb. The
atmospheric pressure is affected by many factors such as tempera-
ture, rotation of the Earth, altitude, water vapour etc. Temperature
is the most important factor that influences atmospheric pressure.
The regions which have high temperature record low pressure due
to expansion of air, while the regions of low temperature have high
pressure due to contraction of air. Thus temperature and pressure
166
are inversely related. The atmospheric Pressure decreases with the
increase in altitude. The amount of decrease is about 34 mb per every
300 meters altitude.
Major pressure belts of the Earth
1. The Equatorial low pressure belt
2. North Sub- tropical high pressure belt
3. South Sub-tropical high pressure belt
4. North -Sub- Polar low pressure belt
5. South Sub-polar low pressure belt
6. North Polar high pressure belt
7. South Polar High pressure belt

ED
Equatorial low pressure belt: The equatorial low pressure belt
is a zone of high temperature and low pressure. It lies between 00 to

H
50 North and South of the equator. This region gets direct rays of the

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Sun almost throughout the year. Hence air is always very warm and
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hot. This is a calm region with very little wind. So it is known as

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‘Doldrum’ means ‘belt of calm’ (equatorial calm). This region is also
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called Inter- Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) where the trade winds
converge.
Sub-tropical high pressure belts: Sub-tropical high pressure
belts are found between 300 and 350 north and south of the equator.
TO

There are two sub-tropical high

pressure belts. (a) North sub-
T
O

tropical high pressure belt:

N

This belt is found between 300

to 35 0 north latitudes. This
region is also popularly called
‘Horse latitudes’. (b) South
sub-tropical high pressure belt:
This belt is found between 300 to
350 of south latitudes.
Sub-polar low pressure
belts: Sub-polar low pressure
region is found between 600 to Pressure belts of the world

167
650 north and south of the equator. There are two sub-polar low
pressure belt (a) North sub-polar low pressure belt (600 north to
650 north). (b) South sub-polar low pressure belt (600 south to 650
south). These are stormy especially in winter.
Polar high pressure belts: Polar high pressure belts region
is found between 800 to 900 north and south latitudes in both
hemisphere. These are extremely cold regions with very high pressure
throughout the year.
Isobars: These are imaginary lines drawn on the map or globe
connecting places having the same pressure.
WIND

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Wind is the horizontal movement of the air on the surface of the
Earth. Wind blows on the Earth due to rotation of the Earth and

H
difference in pressure.

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The direction of the wind is shown by an instrument called ‘wind
R TB

vane’ or ‘weather cock’. ‘Anemometer’ is used to measure the speed

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of the wind.
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Anemometer
Wind Vane

Types of wind : Winds are classified into 4 major types. They

are; Planetary winds, Seasonal winds, Local winds, Cyclones and
Anti cyclones.

168
 1.PlanetaryWinds:Planetary
winds are also called ‘Permanent
winds’ or 'Prevailing winds’ or
‘Regular winds’ which blow
more or less in the same
direction through out the year.
These winds play a major role
in climate change, desert
formation, guide navigation
routes, etc. There are three Planetary Winds
types of planetary winds. Trade
winds, Anti-trade winds and Polar winds.
Trade Winds : These winds blow from sub-tropical high pressure

ED
belts to equatorial low pressure region. The trade winds in the northern
hemisphere blow from NE to SW direction (North East trade winds)

H
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and in the southern hemisphere they blow from SE to NW direction
(South East trade winds).
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Westerlies or Anti-trade Winds : These winds blow from
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sub-tropical high pressure belts to sub-polar low pressure belts.

These are from south-west to north-east in northern hemisphere and
north-west to south-east in the southern hemisphere. The westerlies
of southern hemisphere are very strong over the oceans. Hence they
TO

are called ‘Roaring forties’ (400 south latitude), ‘Furious fifties’ (500
south latitude) and ‘Shrieking sixties’ (600 south latitude).
T

Polar winds : These are also called Easterlies. These winds blow
O
N

from polar high pressure belts to sub-polar low pressure belts. They
blow from North East to South West in the northern hemisphere and
South East to North West in the southern hemisphere. These are the
cold dry winds blowing from the polar ice-caps.
2. Seasonal Winds: Seasonal winds are also called periodic
winds. These winds change their direction periodically or seasonally.
The monsoon winds of India are the typical periodic winds. In India
South west monsoon winds blow from SW to NE direction during
June to September and North east monsoon winds blow from NE to
SW direction from late September to middle of December.

169
 3. Local Winds: Periodic winds are the result of variation in
local temperature, pressure, humidity which in turn are attributed
to the formation of air currents, crossing mountain ranges, valleys
and other relief barriers. The important periodic and local winds are
Land breeze, Sea breeze, Mountain breeze (Katabatic winds),Valley
breeze (Anabatic winds) and other few winds are Loo (India), Chinook
or Snow eater (USA), Fohn (Alps region), Mistral (France), Sirocco
(Sahara region), Brick Fielder (Australia), Blizzard (Antarctica) etc.
4. Cyclones and Anti-cyclones: These winds blow due to great
variation in pressure. These are temporary but sometimes dangerous
and destructive.
a. Cyclones: Cyclone is a small low pressure area in the centre
surrounded by high pressure. The winds blow spirally towards the low

ED
pressure area. In the northern hemisphere the direction of cyclonic winds

H
is anti-clockwise or counter clockwise and in the southern hemisphere

IS
it is clockwise. Cyclones are of two types: • Tropical cyclones: These
BL
are found in the tropical region. They are very powerful and disastrous.
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• Temperate cyclones: These are found in the temperate region. They

U

are comparatively less strong and less dangerous.

BE @K

Cyclones are called by different names in different regions. Japan and

China – Typhoon, USA and Mexico – Hurricane, Australia – Willy willes,
India – Cyclone, Russia – Whirlpool. In the last few years Indian coasts
has experienced few disastrous cyclones. Some of them are Bola, Nargis,
TO

Nisha, Aila, Laila, Bijli, Jal etc.

T

b) Anti-Cyclones: An anti-cyclone is a high pressure area in

O
N

the centre with winds blowing outwards, towards the low pressure
areas. In the northern hemisphere the direction of anti-cyclone wind
is clockwise and in the southern hemisphere it is anti-clockwise.
Northem Southern Northem Southern
hemisphere hemisphere hemisphere hemisphere

L.P
L.P

Cyclone Anticyclone

170
HUMIDITY
Humidity is the amount of water vapour or moisture present in the
air. Humidity is measured by using an instrument called Hygrometer
or Psychrometer.
Types: Humidity is expressed in different ways. Important among
them are Absolute humidity, Relative humidity and Specific humid-
ity.
• Absolute humidity: This refers to total amount of water vapour
present in a given volume of air. It does not take temperature into
consideration.
• Relative humidity: Relative humidity is the ratio between the

ED
actual amount of water vapour present in
the air and the amount of water vapour

H
the air can hold at that temperature. It is

IS
expressed in percentage. BL
EP S
R TB

The actual amount of water vapour in the air

U
BE @K

Relative humidity = -----------------------------

---------------- x 100
The maximum amount of water vapour the air
can hold
TO

• Specific humidity: It is the actual amount

T

of water vapour present in a given mass of

O

air.
N

CLOUDS
Cloud is a mass of small water drops or
ice crystals, formed by the condensation of
the water in the atmosphere, usually at a
considerable height above the Earth’s surface.
Types of clouds: Clouds are classified on
the basis of their shapes and heights at which
they occur. The important types of clouds are

171
the Stratus, the Cumulus, the Cirrus and the Nimbus clouds.
• Stratus: Stratus clouds are usually low clouds occurring at less
than 2 km of height. They appear as thin sheets or layers of large
extent. Stratus clouds are associated with fair weather.
• Cumulus: Cumulus clouds are cauliflower-shaped clouds of great
vertical extent. The base of cumulus clouds is nearly horizontal,
while the top has a dome-shaped appearance. These are popularly
called ‘wool packs’. Cumulus clouds are rain-bearing clouds.
• Cirrus: Cirrus clouds are the highest clouds in the atmosphere.
These clouds resemble ‘curls of hair’, have a feathery or fibrous
appearance. They indicate fair weather and often given a brilliant
sunset. They look like patches of cotton fibres floating in the air.

ED
Their popular name is ‘mare’s tail’ or ‘witch’s broom’

H
• Nimbus: Nimbus clouds are rain clouds which occur at low levels.

IS
These clouds have the shape of stratus or cumulus. They are
BL
EP S

dark-grey or black in appearance. They cause heavy rainfall or snowfall.

R TB
U
The Nimbo-stratus are thick, heavy, rain bearing clouds.
BE @K

RAIN FALL
Precipitation in the form of water droplets is called rainfall. The
total amount of rain received on a given area during a given time as
TO

measured by a rain gauge in MM or inches.

Types of Rainfall: Rainfall is of three types. They are Convectional
T
O

rainfall, Orographic rainfall and Cyclonic rainfall.

N

Convectional rainfall: The

rain caused by the process of
convection is called
convectional rainfall. In areas
of high temperature, air rises
up due to heating. This rising
air cools, gets saturated,
condensation takes place and
later rainfall occurs.
Convectional rainfall
Convectional rainfall is very

172
common in the equatorial region and also in the tropical regions in
summer. In the equatorial region, convectional rainfall is called
‘afternoon rain’, as it occurs mostly in the afternoon. It is accompanied
by thunder and lightning.
Orographic rainfall:
Orographic rainfall is also
called ‘Mountain rainfall’ or
‘Relief rainfall’. When
moisture laden air is
obstructed by a mountain
barrier, the air is forced to
rise up. As the air rises
upwards, it cools and gets

ED
Orographic rainfall
saturated. Further cooling
of this air causes

H
IS
condensation resulting in orographic or mountain rainfall. The
BL
windward side of the mountain receives more rainfall, while the
EP S
R TB

leeward side receives less. The leeward side is generally called the
U

‘rain shadow region’ eg., Mangalore is the windward side and Hassan
BE @K

the leeward side or rain shadow region.

Cyclonic rainfall: In a cyclone the air blows spirally inwards.
In the tropical cyclones the air rises upwards in circular movement.
TO

So condensation takes place to cause heavy rainfall. The temperate

cyclonic rain is also called frontal rain. When the warm air mass and
T

the cold air mass meet, the warm air being lighter is forced to rise over
O

the heavier cold air. The warm air after rising, cools and condenses,
N

resulting in rainfall.
Distribution: The distribution of rainfall on the Earth depends on
location and the climatic condition of that region. The most important
heavy rainfall areas in the world are the equatorial region, the eastern
margins of sub-tropical belts, the western margins between 400 and
600 N and S latitudes. Scanty rainfall regions are the polar areas,
the western margins of sub-tropical regions and the tropical and
temperate deserts.

173
Do you know?
1. Mawsynram of Meghalaya in India has recorded 1140 cm of rainfall
per year. It is considered as the wettest or rainiest region on the Earth.
2. Agumbe of Karnataka is called ‘Mawsynram of South India’.
3. Royli of Rajasthan in India receives lowest rainfall : 8 cm per year
4. Nayakanahatti of Chitradurga is considered the driest place in
Karnataka.
5. Atacama desert of Chile is the driest region on the Earth. It has not
received rainfall for the last 200 years.

Weather and Climate

The atmospheric conditions of a smaller area at a particular

ED
time is called weather. For example cloudy, sunny, fine weather, etc.
The scientific study of weather is called ‘Meteorology’. Climate is the

H
IS
average condition of the atmosphere over a long period of time of a
larger area e.g., Equatorial climate, Tropical monsoon climate, Desert
BL
EP S
R TB

climate, Mediterranean climate, Tundra climate etc. The scientific

U

study of climate is called ‘Climatology’.

BE @K

Factors affecting the climate of a place: The factors that

influence the climate of a place or region are Latitude, altitude, winds,
distance from the sea, distribution of land and water bodies, ocean
currents, etc.
TO

Exercises
T
O

I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :

N

1. The two major gases of the atmosphere are ____________ and

______.
2. The lowest layer of the atmosphere is ____________.
3. The average air pressure of the atmosphere at the sea level
is_____.
4. Westerlies is also known as ____________.
5. The scientific study of weather is ____________.

174
II Answer the following questions :
6. What is atmosphere ?
7. Name the important layers of the atmosphere.
8. What is the significance of ozone layer?
9. What is Doldrum? Where is it found?
10. Name the different types of planetary winds.
11. What are local winds? Give any two examples.
12. Mention the different types of clouds.
13. Distinguish between weather and climate.

III Define the following :

ED
14. ionosphere 17. horse latitudes

H
IS
15. normal lapse rate 18. orographic rainfall
BL
EP S
16. torrid zone 19. climatology
R TB
U

IV Terms to remember :
BE @K

20. insolation 23. roaring forties

21. inversion of temperature 24. nimbus
22. anemometer 25. meteorology
TO

V Activities :
T
O

26. Draw the picture of planatary winds.

N

27. Draw a diagram showing different temperature zones on the

basis of latitudes.



175
 CHAPTER–24
HYDROSPHERE

After studying this chapter you learn :

• know the different kinds of water bodies.
• understand the structure of the ocean bed.
• know the ocean currents, their types and conservation of oceans.
• know how to mark oceans, gulf, bay and strait on Indian map.

Water- The source for marine life and maritime climate

ED
Distribution of Water bodies

H
The Earth is popularly called ‘Blue planet’ or ‘Watery planet’

IS
because about 71% of the total area of the earth or 361 million sq.
BL
EP S

km is covered by water. The major water bodies of the world are the
R TB
U
Pacific ocean, the Atlantic ocean, the Indian ocean and the Arctic
BE @K

ocean.
Oceans: Oceans are
deep and large expanse of
water found between the
TO

continents. The Indian ocean

between Asia, Africa and
T

Australia. The Atlantic ocean

O

between North America and

N

Europe and so on.

Sea: A sea is a part of the
ocean extended or projected
far inland. Seas are smaller
compared to oceans, e.g.,
the Arabian sea, the Caspian
sea, the Red sea.
Gulf: Gulf is a part of an
ocean or sea that penetrated into the land. It is smaller than a sea.
The size, shape and depth of a gulf varies from one to another, e.g.,
the Gulf of Mannar, the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Mexico.
176
 Bay: Bays are small semi-circular water bodies partially
surrounded by land. The depth, extent and size of bays vary from
one to another, e.g. the Bay of Bengal, the Bay of Biscay, the Bay of
Fundy, Hudson Bay.
Strait: A strait is a narrow strip of water body joining two large
water bodies, eg., Palk strait, Strait of Gibralter, Bering strait.
Isthmus: Isthmus is a narrow stretch of land mass joining two large
land masses. Isthmus is the most important location for constructing
ocean canals eg., a) Suez canal between the Mediterranean sea and
the Red sea b) Panama canal between the Atlantic ocean and the
Pacific ocean.
RELIEF OF THE OCEAN FLOOR
The sea or ocean floor also has various features like the relief features

ED
of the earth’s surface. The knowledge of relief features of the ocean

H
floor is very necessary to know the importance of ocean. On the ba-

IS
sis of the characteristic features, the ocean floor is divided into four
BL
EP S
major parts. They are : a) The continental shelf b) The continental
R TB

slope c) The deep sea plain d) The ocean deeps

U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Ocean floor
1. Continental Slope : This is the shallow area along the sea coast.
This part is bordered by the sea coast on one side and continental
slope on the other side. The average depth of the continental shelf
is 100 fathoms (1 fathom is equal to 6 ft). The depth of the sea in
this region gradually increase towards the continental slope. The
continental shelf is very important for fishing, aquaculture, navigation
and extraction of minerals.
177
 2. Continental slope: This is the second part of the ocean floor
and it is very steep. It is a link between the continental shelf and
the deep sea plain. Sub-marine canyons are a special feature in this
region.
3. The Deep sea plain: This is the vast plain found at the bottom
of the sea floor. The deep sea plain is also known as ‘abyssal plain’
and it covers the largest area of the ocean floor. In this region Sea
mounts and Guyots are found.
4. The Ocean deep: The ocean deeps are also called ‘Ocean
trenches’. These are the deepest part of the ocean floor, e.g. The
Challenger deep of Mariana trench in the Pacific ocean near Philippine
islands is around 11,033 meters deep and is the deepest point of the
oceans. The other trenches are Tonga trench, Kurile trench in the
Pacific ocean.
Temperature and salinity of the ocean water

ED
Temperature: Sea or ocean water temperature varies according

H
to latitudes and the depth of the ocean floor. The temperature of the

IS
ocean water near the equator is more than that of the temperature
BL
near the Arctic and the Antarctic circles. With the increasing depth the
EP S
R TB

temperature of the ocean water decreases. It is because the sunlight

U
can penetrate into the ocean only up to a depth of 200 meters. Within
BE @K

this depth various marine organisms are found in large numbers.

Salinity: Salinity is the percentage of salts dissolved in the sea or
ocean water. The average salinity of the ocean water is 35 PPT (Parts
per thousand) or 35 grams/1000 grams). The salinity of ocean water
is very high near the tropics and it is very low near the poles. At the
TO

equatorial region the salinity is average due to high evaporation and

precipitation.
T
O

Why is sea water salty?

N

The water flowing from the land to the sea (river) carries many kinds
of salts and deposits them in the sea or ocean. Due to high temperature,
water is evaporated continuously and the salts remain in the sea or ocean.
This continuous process over a long period of time has resulted in the
accumulation of salts in the sea water.

Facts file
Saline water bodies of the world
1. Lake Van (Turkey) - 330/000 ppt
2. Dead Sea (Asia) – 300/000 ppt
3. Lake Sambar (India) – 265/000 ppt
4. Red Sea (Asia and Africa) – 240/000 ppt

178
OCEAN CURRENTS
The ocean water has three types of movements. They are Waves,
Currents and Tides. Ocean currents are the regular movement of
ocean water from one region to another. Ocean currents are of two
types.
Warm currents: These currents originate and flow from the
equatorial regions to sub-polar regions.
Cold currents: These currents originate in the polar regions
and flow towards the equatorial region.
Factors that influence ocean currents are Rotation of the
Earth, Temperature, Wind, Salinity, Shape of the landmasses, etc.
Currents of the Pacific Ocean are:

ED
North Pacific ocean:

H
IS
BL
EP S
Warm currents Cold currents
R TB

North equatorial current Oyashio

U
BE @K

Kuroshio California
South Pacific ocean
TO

Warm currents Cold currents

South equatorial current Peru or Humboldt
T
O

East Australian currents West wind drift.

N

Currents of the Atlantic ocean are:

North Atlantic ocean

Warm currents Cold currents

North equatorial current Labrador
Gulf stream Norwegean
North Atlantic drift Canary

179
 South Atlantic ocean

Warm currents Cold currents

South equatorial current Falkland
Brazilian current Benguela
Current of the Indian ocean:
The north Indian ocean currents change their direction seasonally
following the monsoons. During the south west monsoon the currents
flow in a south west to north east direction and during the north east
monsoon they flow in a north east to south west direction.
The south Indian ocean currents are Mozambique, Madagascar,
Agulhas as warm currents and West Australian as cold current.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Major ocean currents of the world

Facts file : Major fishing grounds
1) Honshu Hokkaido fishing grounds – meeting place of
Kuroshio warm current and Oyashio cold currents(Japan).
2. Grand bank – meeting place of Gulf stream warm current
and Labrador cold currents (New Foundland USA).
3) Dogger bank – North sea region of Europe.

180
 TIDES: types, causes and uses:
Tides are the periodic rise and fall in the sea or ocean level. They
occur due to, gravitational attraction by the moon, gravitational force
by the sun, rotation of the earth and, centrifugal force of the earth.
Types: Tides are of two types. High tide, also known as Flood
tide and Low tide, also known as Ebb tide. On the water bodies of
the earth there are alternate high tides and low tides. Between one
high tide and a low tide the time is 6 hrs, 13 minutes. Between one
high tide and another, the timegap is 12 hrs, 26 minutes. In 24 hrs,
52 minutes there are 2 high tides and 2 low tides.
There are two types of tides on the basis of the positions of the

ED
Moon and the Sun.

H
Spring tide: Spring tides take place when the earth, the moon

IS
and the sun are in the same straight line, eg., New moon and Full
BL
EP S
R TB

moon. When the spring tides take place, high tides are the highest
U

and low tides are the lowest.

BE @K

Neap Tide: Neap tides occur on the first quarter and last quarter
days in the phase of the Moon. During neap tides the sun and the
earth are in the same straight line and moon is in right angle to the
TO

earth. In this type of tides the high tides are not very high and low
tides are not very low.
T
O
N

Spring Tides and Neap Tides

181
Uses : Tides are directly and indirectly useful to mankind in follow-
ing ways.
1. It helps navigation.
2. Helps in the location of ports and harbours.
3. Tides help to keep the harbours clean.
4. They help fishing.
5. They also help to generate energy in the form of tidal energy.
Conservation of Oceans: Conservation of oceans is very
important. Oceans help us in many ways and they are the habitat
of millions of marine organisms. Considering the rate at which the
oceans are being contaminated, they may not remain what they

ED
should be in the future.

H
The following are the important methods of conservation of oceans.

IS
BL
EP S
1. Oil transportation should be done through pipelines.
R TB
U
2. Nuclear waste should not be dumped into the sea or ocean.
BE @K

3. Petro-chemical industries in the coastal regions must avoid

dumping effluents into the sea or ocean.
4. Dumping of any waste near the ports and harbours must be
TO

controlled.
5. Ore deposition and mineral exploitation along the coast must
T
O

be controlled.
N

6. Exploitation and destruction of beaches must be controlled.

EXERCISES
I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :
1. The average depth of the continental shelf is ______________.
2. One fathom is equal to ______________ ft.
3. The deepest place in the Pacific ocean is ________________.
4. The average salinity of the ocean water is________________.
5. __________ tides occur during full moon.
182
II Answer the following questions :
6. What is hydrosphere?
7. Mention the four major parts of the ocean floor.
8. State the difference between ocean currents and tides.
9. Distinguish between spring tide and neap tide.
10. How can we conserve the oceans?

III Match the following :

A B
11. fathom a) deep sea plain
12. oyashio b) eastern coast of USA

ED
13. gulf stream c) cold current

H
IS
14. sea mounts BL d) Indian ocean current
EP S

15. agulhas current e) depth of ocean

R TB
U
BE @K

IV Define the following :

16. continental shelf 19. high tide and Low tide
17. salinity 20. benguela current
TO

18. warm and Cold currents 21. tides

T

V Terms to remember :
O

22. gulf stream 25. kuroshio current

N

23. salinity 26. flood tides

24. warm currents 27. tidal energy

VI Activity :
28. List out the cold and warm currents in Atlantic ocean.



183
 CHAPTER – 25
BIOSPHERE

After studying this chapter you learn :

• The meaning of biosphere and its Importance.
• About the meaning of environment, environmental pollution, types
of pollution and preventive measures.

Do you know, what the Earth has given to us? But what are we
giving back to the earth ?

ED
Meaning : Earth is the only planet which has various forms of

H
IS
life on it. Biosphere is the part of the earth where life exists. The
BL
EP S
biosphere is the fourth component of the earth and it is the totality
R TB

of all living things on earth.

U
BE @K

Ecology: Ecology is the study of the interaction of living organisms

with their physical, chemical and biological environment. In a natural
environment, there is a perfect balance between the various organisms
living together in the biosphere. This is known as ecological balance.
TO

Ecosystem is a community of plants and animals, together with

their immediate environment, including the inanimate part of that
T
O

environment. It is also defined as ‘the total assemblage of components

N

entering into the interactions of a group of organisms’.

Without ecosystem or ecological balance in the biosphere one
cannot imagine the existence of plants, animals and micro organisms
either single or in community. Every organism adjusts itself with its
physical habitat.
Environment: Environment is the surrounding where an
organism, a community or an object exists. It creates favourable
conditions for the existence and development of all living organisms.
The environment is of two types- Natural or geographical and Cultural
or man-made.
184
 Environmental pollution: Environmental pollution is the
unfavourable alteration of our surrounding, wholly or partly by human
action through direct and indirect effects.
Environmental pollution is one of the most terrifying ecological
crisis of today. The factors like over population, industrialization,
urbanization, over exploitation of resources, over utilization of
automobiles, etc. have influenced a change in the living conditions
of plants, animals and human beings.
Pollutants are the substances that cause pollution. Pollutants
are natural and man-made. The man-made pollutants are considered
to be more dangerous and hazardous than natural pollutants. The
pollutants may be visible like smoke, gases, dust, garbage, sewage,
etc., and invisible like bacteria, toxic chemicals mixed with water,

ED
food, soil, etc.

H
Types of Pollution: Environmental pollution are of different

IS
types. On the basis of pollutants and medium of pollution they can
BL
EP S

be classified into the following types: Air pollution, Water pollution,

R TB
U
Soil pollution and Noise pollution.
BE @K

1. Air pollution
According to World Health Organisation (W.H.O)., air pollution
is defined as, ‘Substances put into the air by the activity of mankind
in concentration, sufficient to cause harmful effects to his health,
TO

vegetation and property’. The important sources of air pollutants are,

Natural: Volcanoes, forest fire, cosmic dust, etc. Man-made: Gases
T

from industries, domestic use, automobiles, mining, nuclear power

O

plants, nuclear explosions, etc.

N

The important pollutants are : Carbon dioxide, carbon

monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, chlorofluorocarbons
(CFC), hydrocarbons etc. The important effects are change in weather
and climatic conditions, ozone depletion, greenhouse effect, global
warming, effect on human health, problem with respiratory system,
effect on life of animals and plants.
Measures to control air pollution are : Control of gaseous
pollutants, control of emission from automobiles, planting of more
trees, use of non-conventional energy sources, awareness programme,
legal control, literacy and education etc.
185
2. Water pollution
Water pollution is ‘alteration in physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of water which may have harmful effects on human
and aquatic life’. The important sources of water pollution are Natural:
Soil erosion, landslides, volcanic eruption, decay and decomposition
of plants and animals etc. Man-made: Industrial effluents, urban
waste, domestic waste, agricultural waste, thermal waste, oil spill,
offshore drilling, nuclear waste etc. Water pollution is of different
types: Sea or Ocean water pollution, Ground water pollution, River
water pollution, Lake pollution etc.
The important effects of water pollution are: It spreads water-
borne diseases and epidemics like cholera, typhoid, diarhea, jaundice,
etc, Causes death of aquatic life, affects irrigation water and on

ED
agricultural crops, nature and features of water etc.

H
Measures to control water pollution: Industrial effluents

IS
must be treated; drinking water sources must be kept clean; sewage
BL
EP S
treatment plants, disposal of waste on the water bodies must be
R TB

controlled, etc.
U
BE @K

3. Soil pollution
Soil pollution is ‘decrease in the quality of soils either due to human
sources or natural sources or by both’. It results in the increase of
soil erosion, lack of humus, decrease in soil micro-organisms, plant
TO

nutrients etc. Sources of soil pollution are, industrial and mining

waste, Domestic and urban waste, agricultural waste, nuclear waste
T

etc.
O
N

Effects of soil pollution are: it decreases the fertility of the soil,

converts the region into wasteland, destroys the micro organisms in
the soil etc.
Measures to control soil pollution: Controlled and judicious use
of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides, proper disposal of
industrial and urban waste, proper use of land and crop management,
awareness programme on proper soil utilization and its maintenance
etc.
4. Noise pollution
Noise pollution is ‘any undesirable sound dumped into the
atmosphere leading to health hazards’. The important sources of noise
186
pollution are Natural: Thunder, cyclones, heavy rainfall, hailstorms,
waterfalls, ocean waves etc. Man-made: Industrial noise, automobiles,
air crafts, domestic noise, mining etc.
Effects of noise pollution are: noise pollution causes
temporary or permanent hearing problem, headaches, restlessness,
cardiovascular diseases, Psychological disorder, behavioural changes,
lack of concentration, etc.
Measures to control noise pollution: Industries must be located
away from the residential areas; construction of sound proof walls in
the factories, restricting unnecessary use of sirens, horns and loud
speakers; airports must be located away from the residential zones;
protective instruments the workers in the industries, noise producing
vehicles must be checked etc.

ED
Global warming : The temperature of the earth is increasing
slowly over the years. For the last few years global temperature has

H
IS
increased. This phenomenon is termed as Global warming. The
BL
warming of atmosphere is caused by greenhouse effect and trapping
EP S
R TB

of heat by the atmosphere. The world getting warmer, climatic zones

U

are shifting, glaciers are melting and sea level is rising due to global
BE @K

warming eg., high rate of melting of ice in Himalayas, Arctic and

Antarctic regions.
Greenhouse effect : The energy that the earth receives from the
sun has to be balanced by the radiation emitted from the earth’s
TO

surface. The use of fossil fuels is increasing greenhouse gases in the

atmosphere. Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases trap the
T
O

heat radiated from the earth. Thus increasing of greenhouse gases is

N

causing an increase of temperature. This is called ‘Greenhouse effect’.

Ozone depletion : Ozone is a thin layer of gas found in
stratosphere. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet rays and protects all forms of
life on the earth’s surface. In recent years the use of air conditioners,
refrigerators, sprays and deodorats are destroying the ozone due
to the synthetic chemicals released into the atmosphere, primarily
‘chlorofluorocarbons’ (CFC). The highest ozone depletion in the world
is recorded in the atmosphere over Antarctica. The ozone depletion
has caused the ozone hole. This has to be controlled for the sake of
the people of the present and future generation.
Acid rain : Acid rain contains high amounts of acids particularly
187
sulphuric acid and carbon monoxide. It is caused when the rain drops
pass through the polluted atmosphere. The rainfall with poisonous
acids kill marine organisms. Acid rain is damaging forests, agricultural
crops, old buildings, monuments etc.
Acid rain is also referred to as ‘lake killer’. The ‘Black Triangle’
stretching over Poland, Czeck Republic and South-east Germany is
one of the worst acid rain affected regions in the world.
Bio-Diversity : The variety of flora (plants) and fauna (animals)
in a region is known as biodiversity. Distribution of different kinds of
plant and animal species in a region shows the richness of biodiversity.
The maintenance of biodiversity is very important both for the quality
of environment and also for human survival.
The conservation of ‘Biodiversity’ is very important to save and
protect rare plants and animal species. Providing good environmental

ED
condition for their living is the best means of protection.

H
The earth is the only living planet in our solar system. The way in

IS
which changes, disturbances, hazards are taking place on the earth,
BL
EP S
can lead to the destruction of the quality of life on our earth in the
R TB

near future.
U
BE @K

To ‘Save Earth’ and ‘Mother Planet’ we must educate people,

formulate awareness programmes, utilize resources judiciously, control
pollution awareness through education, symposiums, seminars, skits,
films, summits. These necessary to save our “MOTHER EARTH”.
TO
T
O
N

“Save Earth”, “Save Mother Planet”

188
 EXERCISES
I Answer the following questions :
1. What is Biosphere?
2. Define ecology.
3. Name the different types of environmental pollution.
4. What are the measures to control water pollution?
5. What is Bio-diversity ?
II Define the following :
6. Biosphere
7. Ecological imbalance

ED
8. Global warming

H
9. Greenhouse effect

IS
10. Ozone depletion BL
EP S

11. Acid rain

R TB
U
BE @K

III Terms to remember :

12. Pollution
13. Environmental Day
14. Climate change
TO

15. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)

T

16. Earth Hour and Earth Day

O
N

17. ‘Save Earth’

IV Activity :
18. Collect information on the impact of global warming. Also
enlist the ways of controlling global warming.



189
 ECONOMICS
CHAPTER–26
MEANING AND IMPORTANCE
OF ECONOMICS
After studying this chapter you learn :
• Know the importance of consumers, sellers, producers, service
providers in economics.
• Know the importance of studying economics.
• Be able to define-economic activities, production and factors of

ED
production.

H
Meaning of Economics

IS
BL
EP S

Everyday we make use of a variety of goods and services, and

R TB
U
thereby, satisfy our needs. We eat food, wear clothes, and use different
BE @K

kinds of goods like pens, pencils, bicycles, T.V. and mobiles. We make
use of services of teachers to learn to read and write, and the services
of doctors when we are ill. In the same manner, everybody around us
makes use of goods and services. Such people are called Consumers.
TO

The goods that we use are not available to us free of cost. We have
to pay money for them. The people who obtain the goods from the
T

producers and sell them to the consumers, are called Sellers.

O
N

Farmers grow food grains, fruits and vegetables. The cobbler make
shoes for us. A goldsmith prepares gold ornaments. A tailor stitches
clothes for us. Owners of factories manufacture a variety of goods.
All these people are called Producers.
Many agricultural workers work in the fields. Many people work in
hotels, business and commercial centres, information and technology
companies and various other organisations for wages. These people
are called Labourers.
We make use of buses, trains, boats, ships and aeroplanes to
transport people and goods from one place to another. The electric

190
company supplies electricity to everyone. The telephone company
provides telephone, mobile and internet services. They have to be
given money for such services. The people who provide such services
are called Service Providers.
Observe the situations given above. Consumers pay money and
buy the goods and services they need. Sellers, producers, labourers
and service providers engage in profitable businesses. Thus, all the
activities that man engages in to earn money and to utilize money
are called economic activities. Economics is a subject which studies
the daily economic activities of man.
Indians, from ancient times, have given importance to the study
of man’s economic activities. Detailed information is available in the

ED
Manusmruti about farming, industry, tax, revenue and other economic
issues. Kautilya, who lived during the Mauryan period, wrote a book

H
IS
called Arthashastra. This gives detailed explanation of not only
BL
EP S
political administration but also financial management and general
R TB

economic system.
U
BE @K

The word ‘Economics’ originates from the two Greek root words okos
and nomos. Okos means ‘a house’ and nomos means ‘management’.
Thus the word ‘Economics’ means making good use of the resources in
order to bring happiness and satisfaction to all the members of the fam-
ily. Over the years, the scope of Economics has widened to national and
TO

international levels.
T

The subject matter of Economics has been changing from time to

O

time. The Father of Economics, Adam Smith, who lived in the 18th
N

century, has said, “Economics is the study of Wealth.”

The Importance of the Study of Economics
There is a financial aspect influencing most of the activities of
man. Economics helps us in many ways in our lives. Every citizen
should have knowledge of economics. The points mentioned below
bring out the importance of the study of economics:
• Economics helps us to understand poverty, unemployment,
economic inequality and other related problems that we get
to see around us, and to find solutions for those problems.
191
 • When we attempt to satisfy our unlimited wants through our
limited income, problems of choice crop up. Economics enables
us to find solutions in such situations.
• When producers want to create goods and services, they are
faced with questions like – what to produce? How to produce?
Whom to produce for? At what price to produce? Knowledge
of economics guides them on such occasions.

• Economics identifies the reasons for the rise and fall of prices,
and the results of such fluctuations. It provides ideas to bring
stability in prices.

• Land, water, forests, minerals and other natural resources are

limited in quantity. Economics suggests ways to make use of

ED
these limited resources with care and efficiency, and also pass

H
them on to the next generation.

IS
BL
EP S
In this manner, Economics is very helpful in our daily lives. Thus,
R TB

the study of Economics is not only enlightening but also profitable.

U
BE @K

Study of Economics is not only enlightening but also profitable.

- A.C.Pigou

Economic Activities
TO

We have seen that human wants are unlimited. Goods and services
T
O

have the capacity to satisfy our wants. This quality is called ‘Utility’.
N

For eg - We eat food when we feel hungry. Food has the power to
satisfy our need. We want to drink water when thirsty. Water has the
power to quench our thirst.

Wants are the basis of all economic activites

Many of the goods and services that we use everyday are in

limited supply, and hence are not available free of cost. We have to
pay money to get them. These goods and services are called economic
goods and services. Then how do we get money? We will have to do
some work in order to earn money. Man makes use of his skills and
192
labour to earn money, and satisfies his wants by utilizing that money.
In order to earn money and wealth, and thereby to satisfy his wants,
man engages himself in various activities. These activities are called
economic activities.

The most important objective of economic activities is to satisfy

human wants. In every society, economic activities are bound
by certain rules and traditions. Man’s economic activities can be
classified into four different kinds:
1. Production Activities : Production activities are those that
produce goods and services. For ex: Agriculture, Animal Husbandry,
Fishing, Mining, Forest Development, different kinds of industries,
Transport, Communication etc.

ED
2. Consumption Activities : Goods and services are produced for

H
consumption. Man satisfies his wants by buying goods and services.

IS
All these activities are known as consumption activities.
BL
EP S

3. Exchange Activities : The producers produce goods for the

R TB
U
consumers. There is a marketing system to supply the produced goods
BE @K

to the consumers. In this system, activities of collection of goods,

transportation, selling and buying take place.
4. Distribution Activities : The income that is earned through
the production of goods has to be distributed to the various factors of
TO

production that have enabled the production. This process involves

T

activities undertaken to determine the price of the factors of

O

production. Steps have to be taken to ensure that the income earned

N

is distributed among all factors in a just manner.

Man is not engaged only in economic activities in his daily life.
He engages himself in many activities like social, cultural, political,
educational and religious activities too. Sometimes many activities which
are not economic in nature become economic activities. For ex: when
a teacher gives free tuitions at home to students, it is not an economic
activity. When the same teacher charges fees for giving tuitions, it
becomes an economic activity.

193
 EXERCISES
I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :
1 The word ‘Economics’ originates from the Greek root words
_________ and __________.
2 Kautilya who was in the Mauryan court, wrote the book
____________.
3 The quality of the goods and services which can satisfy man’s
wants is called ___________.
4 The physical and intellectual work that is done in return for
money is called ____________.

II Answer the following in a sentence each :

ED
5 What is Economics?

H
6 Who is identified as the ‘Father of Economics’?

IS
BL
EP S
7 What are Economic Activities?
R TB
U
8 A student buys a pen and writes with it. What kind of eco-
BE @K

nomic activity is this?

III Answer the following in three or four sentences each :

9 What are man’s economic activities?
TO

10 Why do we need to study Economics?

T

11 How has the meaning of Economics changed from time to

O

time?
N

IV Activities :
12 List the economic activities the members of your family are
engaged in.
13 Identify the various economic activities of the people around
you or your village are engaged in.
14 List the goods that you consume everyday.
15 Observe how farmers decide to grow and how do they decide
to grow.

194
 CHAPTER-27
BASIC CONCEPTS OF
ECONOMICS

After studying this chapter you learn :

• Learns about the fundamental concepts in Econimics.
• Inter-Relationship between Demand, supply distribution,
production etc.
• National Economic development.
• Importance of labour and dignity of Labour.

ED
In order to understand economics easily it is necessary to have

H
the knowledge of some technical terms widely used in the subject. Do

IS
these terms are very commonly used in our daily life, in economics
BL
EP S

they have definite meaning and scope. Hence it is necessary to know

R TB
U
some selected concepts in brief.
BE @K

Demand : Demand is not only a want, in addition to want if

there is an attitude to buy and ability to spend money, then only it
becomes demand. Demand is the quantity of economic goods that
can be brought at a fixed price at a given time. Generally when the
TO

price increases, the demand for it decreases.

T

Demand has a great influence in the field of production. When

O

there is an increasing demand, generally production, employment ,

N

income and supply increases. The standard of living of the people

improves. The nation continues to move in the progressive direction.
When the demand decreases generally production, income and supply
also decreases.The standard of living of the people decreases. the
national progress also decreases. It is for this reason that demand is
considered as the index of the Nation’s progress.
Supply : Supply is the quantity of goods and services readily
available for sale in market at a given price. Generally if the price of
the goods and services increases; the flow of quantity of goods and
services to the market also increases. The standard of living improves.
195
The Nation moves in the direction of progress. If the price of the goods
decreases, the flow of quantity of goods and services to the market for
sale also decreases. the production and income also decrease and
the unemployment increases and the standard of living decrease. The
progress of the Nation also decreases but in some situations this law
does not operate and whatever may be the price the supply remains
the same.
Demand and supply are interdependent. The change that takes
place in one, will influence the other immediately and this is indicated
by the price of goods.
Example : When the demand is less, supply is also less and the
price decreases, when the demand increases, supply also increases

ED
and the price also increase. in short, it can be said that the demand
and supply are the two pillars of the economic activities of man.

H
IS
Production : The world production has a broad meaning in
BL
EP S
economics. Production includes production of goods and services.
R TB

though production appears to be the creation of wealth, man cannot

U
BE @K

create anything new. It is possible for him to increase the utility of

the natural wealth available. Hence, we must know that production
means only to create special utility. The goods thus produced must
also have value.
TO

The production function includes activities such as transport,

trade and distribution. The function of production completes only
T

when the goods and services reach the consumer. Many factors
O

like natural wealth, labour, capital and organisation are essential

N

for production. Economists have called these factors as factors of

production. Production is possible only when there is proper co-
ordination among these four factors. It is only for the welfare of the
consumers that crores of people are involved in different ways in
different capacities in the process of production.
Distribution : Distribution is a very important economic activity.
The important function of distribution is to distribute the goods
produced involving the interaction of the factors of production.
The national income distributed among land, labour, capital and
organisation are called rent, wages , interest and profit respectively.
196
This distribution takes place in the rate of the role played by each
factor of production. It should balance the demand and supply without
bringing an obstacle to production. Special importance should not
be given to any factors of production nor should any of them be
neglected. This is necessary to maintain equilibrium in the entire
economic system. Distribution is influenced by many factors such as
production, demand, supply, consumption, price fixation, etc.

Consumption : The use of goods and services to satisfy wants is

called consumption. The goods and services that are consumed may be
good or bad but as long as they satisfy wants they will be consumed.
In modern economics a lot of importance is given to consumption.

There are two types of consumption

ED
1. Goods and services used for production.

H
2. Finished goods used to satisfy wants.

IS
BL
Generally consumption means satisfaction of wants.
EP S
R TB
U
The prosperity of the Nation, the standard of living and
BE @K

employment ratio depend upon the quantity of consumption of the

respective Nation. This is because the economic organisation is there
to satisfy human wants and it ends only after consumption. In order
to consume there must be production and distribution. Production
TO

takes place to satisfy wants. When consumption increases production

and income also increases creating markets for the goods produced
T

and providing full employment opportunities. When consumption

O

decreases-production, income and value decreases and this creates

N

unemployment. So consumption and production have a close

relationship between them. Both of them combined together have a
significant influence on the National income.

Utility : Utility is also one of the key terms among the various
terms widely used in economics, utility is the power of satisfying
wants. It includes all goods and services which satisfy human wants
directly or indirectly. But it cannot be measured. This varies from
person to person. Also for the same person it varies from time to time
and place to place. Attitudes and seasons may also influence utility.

197
 Utility is not satisfaction, but it is the power of giving satisfaction.
Satisfaction is the effect of utility. This means that the goods and
services which have utility gives satisfaction to us. Utility has no
relationship with usage. Generally both these terms are used in the
same sense they do not mean the same. For example taking alcohol
has no use but it has utility.
Economists have classified utility as
1. Principle utility
2. Form utility
3. Time utility and
4. Place utility
All things that can be used in original form are said to have

ED
principal utility example water, fruit, egg etc.

H
IS
Things that are used by giving a definite shape or form to it have
BL
EP S
form utility.
R TB
U
Example: giving the shape of an ideal to the stone by the sculptor,
BE @K

giving the shape of a chair or table to wood by the carpenter, etc.

Things that are stored when they are abundantly available and
used when they are not available, their value increases and then they
are said to process utilitarian value. This is called time utility.
TO

Example : Preparation of mango pickles and used when mangoes

T

are not available by preserving mangoes when they are available.

O
N

Things that are are available in abundance at one place will have
more utility and value when they are transported to their place where
they are not available this is called place utility.
Example : The apples grown abundantly in Shimla or the
oranges grown in Kodagu. Find more value and utility when they are
transported to a place where they are not grown.
Price : The value that is expressed in the form of money is called
price. The money that is to be paid in lieu of goods or services is
called price. When there is great demand for goods and services it is

198
difficult to distribute them among large number of people. Price plays
an important role here. The main function of price is to equate the
demand and supply. When the demand and supply for equator at
the price will remain stable. At this stage there is neither deficit or
surplus of goods and services, but when there is a difference between
demand and supply, price also varies. But in course of time another
price is fixed at two equal the demand and supply again. In this way
demand and supply play an important role in fixing the price.
Profit : Generally speaking the amount that remains after
deducting the expenditure from the income of the production is called
profit.
According to economies the reward that the producer gets for the

ED
services rendered for production is called profit. This is the amount
that remains after giving rent, wages and interest, which help in

H
the process of production. The amount that remains may be less or

IS
more. Sometimes it may not remain at all. The degree of efficiency of
BL
EP S

production is responsible for the profit or less of production.

R TB
U

In the field of economics profit finds great importance, profit is

BE @K

the main source of all the economic activities. As profit increases

economic activity also increases and National progress takes place
rapidly. As profit decreases economic activity decreases and national
progress deteriorates. This creates an economic crisis.
TO

Co-operation : Corporation has a prominent position in

T

economics. Though, this is a type of factory organisation this is

O

considered a way of life. Co-operation is the light which enkindles

N

the neglected, non influential people of limited accomplishments. The

system of co-operation has shown that co-operative effort helps the
common man to get benefits which otherwise reserved only for the
rich and influential. This is free from exploitation.
Co-operation is an extraordinary system where people desire to
come together to work on the basis of equality to protect their economic
interest. The main aim of this is to achieve progress by self help. There
is no scope for competition here. Here all activities are managed by
the members, profit is shared, suitable discount in price is given on
goods bought by the members. There is no place for middle man here.
199
There is no scope for exploitation. The elected directors will look after
the affairs of the institution. Here all are owners and all are workers.

“Each for all all and all for each” is the spirit of cooperation. Here
each shareholder has one vote irrespective of number of shares that
he holds. Besides, there is a limit to acquire the number of shares.
Everyone finds equal opportunities there is no discrimination on the
basis of caste, creed or religion. There is freedom to become a member
at any time and to withdraw membership at any time.

National Income: Nation is also getting income as an individual

this income is called the national income. It is the total income
obtained in a year from all the sources of production. It is difficult
to compute the national income. It is a big problem particularly in

ED
developing countries.

H
The volume of the national income depends upon production.

IS
If the production increases the national income also increases. The
BL
EP S

increase in the national income indicates the progress of the nation

R TB
U
and the standard of living of the people. Increase in the national
BE @K

income is the symbol of economic development. Decrease in national

income shows the economic backwardness of the nation and poor
standard of living of the people. It is because of this reason every
Nation trains to increase its national income.
TO

Per Capita Income: If the national income is divided by the total

T

population of the Nation we get the per capita income. If the national
O

income is more the per capita income is also more (depending on the
N

growth of population) and the standard of living of the people will be

high as a result people lead a contented life.

If the national income decreases per capita income also decreases

(accordingly with the growth of population) under standard of living
will also be low. Poverty and diseases increased and people lead their
life with difficulty. A comparison of the per capita income of different
nations reveals the economic condition of a given Nation and economic
progress of that country.

200
 Importance of Labour: It is the innate quality of man to work
hard to accomplish and to improve the standard of living. This
effort might be physical or mental. Digging, Ploughing and Lifting
or Carrying loads are some of the examples for physical labour. The
work or services of a teacher, scientist, lawyer, technician, IT worker
and clerk are some of the examples of mental labour. The physical
labour requires physical strength, where as mental labour requires
intelligence.
In developing Nations the educated class will be more in number
and they perform their work sincerely with concentration. Weather the
task is physical or mental. There is dignity of labour. The society does
not discriminate and both the class of workers receive equal respect.

ED
Mahatma Gandhi had great trust in the dignity of labour. He
showed this practically to him to speak with the national president

H
is as important as to speak with the workers engaged in unclean

IS
occupations. There should not be any ill feeling of high or low in
BL
EP S

labour.
R TB
U

Many educated people search for the jobs which involve mental
BE @K

labour but there is not enough employment opportunities for all.

Employment opportunities in physical labour are more. One has
to give up the feeling of high and low and must prepare to take up
the job that he gets. Then only he realises the importance of labour.
TO

A feeling of equality develops in them and the building of a Nation

becomes easy.
T
O
N

201
 EXERCISES

I Answer the following :

1. What is demand in economics?
2. What is the influence of demand in the field of production?
3. What is distribution?
4. How can distribution be done effectively?
5. Mention the differences between national income and per
capita income?
6. What is the importance of labour?

ED
II Fill in the blanks with suitable words :

H
7. The production decreases when the demand__________

IS
8. Goods and services used for the satisfaction of wants
BL
EP S

are___________
R TB
U
9. If the national income is divided by the nation’s total population
BE @K

we get_________
10. Workers involved in carrying materials loading and unloading
the cargo are called_________
TO

11. Workers involved in teaching the students, belong to _________

workers.
T
O

III Activities :
N

12. Visit a nearby market and observe how wants vary when the
prices vary.
13. Read the News Papers and notice the daily variations in the
economic field.



202
 CHAPTER-28
BUSINESS STUDIES
MEANING AND IMPORTANCE
After studying this chapter you learn :
• Understand the objectives of business.
• Know the meaning and importance of home trade, foreign trade
and enterepot trade different types of trade.
• Able to discuss the features of production and problem of
cottage and small scale endustries.
• Know about the business ethics.

ED
Business is an important economic activity mainly concerned

H
with production and distribution of goods and services to consumers.

IS
Business has two main objectives:
BL
EP S

1 Economic objectives 2 Social objectives

R TB
U

Economic objectives : We are under the impression that

BE @K

earning profit is the main objective of business. But it is not so,

the sole objective of business includes earning reasonable profit
that is sufficient to enable the business to cover the costs and the
business man to lead a normal comfortable life. Business supplies
TO

goods and services to the consumers and thus creates consumers. It

uses the available resources to produce the goods that are sufficient
T

to consumers. It produces such goods that are required according

O
N

to changes that take place from time to time. It brings changes in

production by adopting new techniques. It also enable the consumers
to know about the changes in products through advertisement.
Social objectives : Business produces and supplies the goods that
are required for the development of a nation. It provides employment
to many and pays them fair wages and salaries and helps them to
improve their standard of living. Business contributes its share the
economic development of a nation by paying rates, taxes and duties.
Business also contributes a fair share for the social welfare of the
nation by starting and running of schools, colleges, hospitals, and
also by maintaining public gardens etc.
203
Trade, Industry and Services
Trade is a part of business. It is mainly concerned with buying and
selling of goods to the consumers. Trade is divided into three types,
they are, 1. Home Trade, 2. Foreign Trade and 3. Entrepot Trade.
1. Home Trade : Trade within the country is called home trade.
It is carried through Retailers and Whole Salers.
Retail Trade : Retailers carry out their trade at places where
consumers live. They buy goods from the whole salers and sell them
to the consumers. They render various services to the consumers.
Some of them are: they are the last connecting link in the distribution
of goods. They supply variety of goods produced by different producers
to the consumers. They store the goods to meet the demand of the

ED
consumers. They take the risk of loss in business or loss of goods. They
grade the goods and supply according to the tastes of the consumers.

H
IS
They provide credit facilities to the consumers, give more
BL
information about the newly available goods in the market and suggest
EP S
R TB

alternative goods for the particular goods that are not available.
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Permanent Shops

204
 Retail trade is carried out in different
ways. The important types are :
a) Permanent shops
b) Itinerant or mobile traders.
Permanent shops : They are opened
at a fixed place and carry out trade.
Itinerant or Mobile Traders : They
do not have a fixed place to carry on their
trade. The important among them are
Hawkers, Peddlers, Street vendors and
Market vendors. Hawker
Hawkers : They carry goods on their

ED
heads, move from “door to door” and sell their goods. They generally

H
sell only one or two type

IS
of goods. e.g. - Vegetables,
BL
EP S
fruits, flowers etc.
R TB
U
Peddlers : They carry
BE @K

their goods on wheeled

carts and sell them to the
consumers at their doors.
They generally sell more
TO

Peddler than one type of goods.

T

Street traders or
O
N

Foot path traders :

They display goods in
busy street corners
or o n p a v e men ts
and sell them to the
consumers.
Market sellers
(shandy sellers) :
Weekly markets take
place at villages or Foot path seller
towns once in a
205
 ED
Market sellers (shandy sellers)

H
week. Different traders take their goods to these markets and sell

IS
them to the consumers. Another speciality of these weekly markets is
BL
EP S

that the surrounding villagers bring the goods which they have grown
R TB
U
or produced and sell them, eg. vegetables, eggs, butter, agricultural
BE @K

implements, blankets etc.., With the money they get, they buy their
requirements. At some places yearly fairs take place and here too the
traders gather and sell the products to the consumers.
Wholesale Trade : Wholesale traders buy goods in large quantity
TO

from producers and sell them to the retailers in small quantities.

Generally, they deal with one or two types of goods. They help the
T
O

retailers in many ways such as supplying goods to the retailers in

N

small quantities. Whenever required, they provide credit facility to

the retailers. They advertise for goods on behalf of the retailers. They
supply market trends to the retailers. They do not keep high margin
of profit. They render some services to the producers such as market
trends, and advertise on behalf of the producers. They also provide
storage facility for goods.
Foreign Trade : The trade between two countries is called foreign
trade. Foreign trade can be classified into three types. They are:
Imports, Exports and Entrepot trade.

206
 Imports refer to a country buying goods from other countries for
its use.
Exports refer to a country selling its goods to other countries for
their use.
Entrepot Trade refers to buying of goods from one country with a
view to sell it to other countries. Singapore and Middle East countries
are the best examples for entrepot trade. Now a days many countries
carry out entrepot trade.
Need for foreign Trade : No country in the world is self sufficient
in all the natural resources. Some countries have plenty of natural
resources. Using the available natural resources they produce more
goods than they require and the excess is exported to other countries.

ED
In the same way some countries have deficit of some natural resources

H
and depend on other countries for their requirement and import them.

IS
Thus there is a great need for foreign trade. The need for foreign trade
BL
EP S
is increasing day by day. It also helps to foster friendship among the
R TB

countries.
U
BE @K

Industries
Industry is an economic activity. It is concerned with production
of goods, extraction of minerals and also providing some services.
Industries may be classified into two main types. They are : Primary
TO

Industries and Secondary Industries.

T

The following chart shows the further classification of Industries.

O
N

Industries

Primary Industries Secondary Industries

Genetic Industries Extractive Industries Manufacturing Industries Construction Industries

Primary Industries
These industries produce goods by using the natural resources.
e.g. - agriculture, fishing dairy farming, mining etc. These industries
are further divided as : genetic industries and extractive industries.

207
 Genetic industries : These industries are engaged in reproduction
of different crops, plants and animals. They help to increase the wealth
of a nation. e.g. - horticulture, dairy farming, poultry farming, etc.
Extractive Industries : They are engaged in extracting different
raw materials and ores from the earth. (It is also called non-renewable
industry) e.g. - Extraction of ores, drilling of oil wells etc.,
Secondary Industries
They are labour oriented industries. They are further divided into
Manufacturing industries and Construction industries.
Manufacturing Industries : These industries are engaged in
converting raw materials or semi finished products into finished

ED
products. They are mainly labour oriented and supply finished
products to consumers, e.g. - Converting iron ore into steel, Sugar

H
out of sugarcane etc.,

IS
BL
EP S
Construction Industries : They are engaged in construction of
R TB

roads, canals, bridges etc. These industries help in the quick

U

development of economic activities like - transport and communication

BE @K

etc.
Cottage and small scale
Industries
TO

Cottage industries
are also called household
T
O

industries. They are

N

carried out by craftsmen in

their own houses with the
help of family members or
apprentices (persons who
like to learn work). They
are mainly concentrated
Cottage Industries
in the villages and produce
goods mainly for the local markets. Carpentry, smithy, carpet weaving,
pottery, blanket making, stone carving etc. are some examples.
Small scale industries These are organized on a small scale in a

208
particular place (sheds). They use electric power and some machines.
They employ labourers and adopt modern techniques. Chemical
industry, manufacture of engineering goods, shoes, bicycles, fans,
radios, sewing machine , soaps, garments are some examples for
small scale industry. The goods are manufactured both for local and
external market.
Services for smooth conduct of business.
For the smooth conduct of business the auxilliaries to trade came
into existence. They are also called aids to trade or services to trade.
There are some hindrance to transport goods from the producers to
the consumers. The important hindrances are hindrance of place,
hindrance of risk of loss, hindrance of time, hindrance of finance,

ED
hindrances of knowledge etc. To over come these hindrances the
following aids to trade have come into being.

H
IS
Hindrance of place- Transportation : To over come the
BL
EP S
hindrance of place the services of transportation are used. Road
R TB

transport, Railways, water transport and air transport are different

U

media. These media help to reach the goods from producers to the
BE @K

traders and from traders to the consumers.

Financial services – Banks : In the distribution of goods from
the producers to the consumers there is the hindrance or problem
TO

of finance. The supply of finance is required at all stages. Money is

required to exchange media. These problems are solved by banks.
T

Banks provide finance to the traders and serve to conduct the business
O

smoothly.
N

Hindrance of Loss - Insurance companies : While moving

goods from the producers to the consumers or while the goods are
stored in warehouses, There is a problem of damage or destruction.
To overcome this hindrance insurance facilities are available. The
insurance companies help business by making goods the loss incurred
by fire or water or that caused by natural calamities and thus help
for the smooth conduct of business.
Hindrance of Time - Storage : The production of goods and
their consumption take place at different times. To supply goods to
consumers when ever they required them, they have to be stored. For
209
this purpose there are warehouses. These warehouses are scientifically
constructed and many warehouses have cold storage facilities also.
Hindrance of Knowledge- Advertisement : While distributing
goods to the consumers, the knowledge about the goods has to be
given to the consumers. Even when new goods are introduced into
the market knowledge about them is also required or knowledge
about alternatives is also to be given to the consumers. For all these
proposes advertising services are very useful.
Business Ethics
We are under the impression that earning profit is the main
objective of business. But it is not so, The objective should be to
include reasonable profit and to enable the business to cover the cost.
Trade and commerce are perhaps the older traditional occupations.

ED
Traders supply goods to the consumers. They supply essential

H
commodities. They are supposed to keep marginal profit to cover

IS
the cost of business. By doing so ethical principles in the business
BL
are followed. But it is unfortunate that greed and profiteering have
EP S
R TB

entered into business. To earn more profits, some anti social practices
U

are followed, and some of them are-adulteration, charging excess or

BE @K

abnormal rates, using false weights and measures, creating artificial

scarcity by hoarding the goods and carrying out black marketing
etc. These are unethical business practices. By such acts people
suffer untold miseries. Such unethical practices should be avoided.
TO

In our country the Government has introduced Public Distribution

System to avoid such practices. (Supplying essential commodities
T

through fair price shops). To maintain the standard of goods and

O

essential commodities the government has opened an institution -

N

Bureau of Indian standards. ISI and AGMARK marks are printed on

goods and commodities to certify their quality etc... Every industrial
product must have a seal on its cover pack, the quantity, the date of
manufacture, date of expiry, Maximum retail price (MRP). It is a legal
mandatory provision. Government has also opened Janatha bazaars,
consumer co-operative societies etc. to supply essential commodities
to the people. Despite these measures, business becomes public
cheating, in the absence of business ethics.
It cannot be imposed forcebly. It should come from within. Every
businessmen should inculcate the principle of public welfare in the
goal of business.
210
 EXERCISES
I Fill in the blanks with appropriate words :
1 The best example for Entrepot trade is ______.
2 Cottage industries are mainly concentrated in ______.
3 The manufacture of chemicals is carried out in ______
industries.
4 The sole objective of business should be earning ______ profit.
5 To safeguard the quality of goods _________ institution has
been started.
II Answer each of the following questions in two to four
sentences :
6 Which are the different types of mobile shops ?

ED
7 Who are wholesalers?

H
8 Name the three types of foreign trade.

IS
9 Mention the important goods produced by cottage and
BL
EP S
small scale industries.
R TB
U
10 Which organizations overcome the hindrance of place
BE @K

and risk ?
11 Mention the antisocial activities of traders to earn more profit.
12 What are the steps taken by the government to overcome the
anti-social practices in business ?
TO

III Answer each of the following questions in eight to ten

sentences :
T

13 What are the economic objectives of business ?

O
N

14 What are the social objectives of business ?

15 Mention the services rendered by retail traders.
16 List out the different retail traders and write two/three
sentences on each of them.
17 Explain briefly the two types of Industries.
18 What is the need of foreign trade to a country ?
IV Activity :
19. Visit weekly market near your place and learn how buying and
selling is carried on there.

211
 CHAPTER-29
EMERGENCE OF DIFFERENT
BUSINESS ORGANISATIONS
After studying this chapter you would :
• Know the types of business organisations.
• Understand the features, advantages and disadvantages of
partnership firms.
• Know about Hindu undivided family business concerns.
• Know the partnership registration procedure.

Today we see different forms of business organizations. They

ED
may be classified into four types. They are:

H
1. Business organizations in the private sector.

IS
2. Business organizations in the public sector.
BL
EP S
R TB

3. Joint sector business organizations.

U
BE @K

4. Public utilities.
In this chapter and the next one we shall learn briefly about
the small scale business organizations and large scale business
organizations that come under Private sector. The small scale business
TO

organizations under private sector are mainly divided into three

types. They are: Sole trading concerns, Partnership firms, and Hindu
T

undivided family firms.

O
N

Sole trading concerns : It is run by a single person. He is the

owner, and the manager. He enjoys all the profits and fully responsible
for losses. He is the sole investor of capital to run the business.
Features : It is one of the oldest and simplest forms of business
organizations. It is owned and managed by a single person. It is easy
to start a business. These concerns are run by the sole traders for
profits. The sole trader uses his own skill and responsible for all the
losses. There are no legal constraints to close or to start the business
concerns. He takes the help of his family members or appoints some
workers to help him in business. Generally they are small in size.
But now a days they run on large scales also.
212
 Advantages of Sole Trading concerns : No legal formalities are
required to commence the business. It can be started by own capital.
No difficulties arise in day to day running of the business. The owner
enjoys all the profits and bears all the losses. They directly come into
contact with the consumers. They render some social services also.
They provide employment to some people. They help in distribution of
wealth. They understand the likes and dislikes of the customers and
supply goods accordingly. They pay taxes to the government. They
are in a position to take quick decisions regarding business. They
maintain business secrets. The owner can implement his creative
ideas in the business to the fullest extent.
Disadvantages of Sole trading concerns : Sole trading concerns
are not free from some disadvantages. They are : Capital is limited

ED
and they cannot expand the business. Since it is run by a single
person the managerial ability is limited, (two heads are always better

H
IS
to take decisions). All the losses are to be borne by a single person.
BL
With the death or insolvency of the sole trader, the trading concerns
EP S
R TB

may have to be closed.

U
BE @K

PARTNERSHIP FIRMS
The limitations of the sole trading concerns lead to the
formation of partnership firms. In these firms two or more
persons join together and carry out the business. Partnership
TO

firms Act was passed in 1932. According to the section 4 of

partnership act the partnership firm is defined as the relation between
T
O

the persons who have agreed to share the profits of a business carried
N

on by all or any of them acting for all. The maximum number of

partners is Ten if they carry out the financial business then, twenty
in case of carrying out general partnership business.
Types of partners : There are several types of partners, but
generally we find: Active or working partners, Sleeping partners,
Nominal partners and Minor partners.
1) Active Partners : They contribute fixed amount of capital, and
share profits and losses in proportion to their capital contribution and
take active part in carrying out the day-to-day affairs of the business.

213
 2) Sleeping Partners : They contribute capital but do not take
active part in day-to-day transactions of the firm. The profits and
losses are shared in proportion to their share of the capital.
3) Nominal Partners : They neither contribute capital nor take
active participation in day to day transactions of the firm. They are
not entitled for any share in profit but they are liable for business
losses.
4) Minor Partners : These partners are those who have not yet
attained the age 18 years. A minor cannot become a partner. But by
mutual agreement of all the partners a minor can be admitted as a
partner. The minor partners are eligible for profits but not eligible
for defaults or losses. When a new partnership is started the minor

ED
cannot he admitted.

H
In addition to these types there are secret partners, limited

IS
partners and partial partners. Partners eligible only for profits.
BL
EP S

Partnership deed : There shall be a deed of partnership. Generally

R TB
U
it is in writing, duly stamped and signed by all the partners. It differs
BE @K

from firm to firm. It contains all the terms and conditions of the firm.
Generally it contains the name of the firm, names and addresses of
partners, the addresses of the firm, nature of business, address of
the branches if any, date of the commencement of business, shares of
TO

capital by each partner, the ratio of sharing profits and losses, duties
of each partner, division of work among partners, the conditions to
T

be followed at the time of admission of a new partner, calculation of

O

goodwill in case of death or retirement of a partner, at the time of

N

admission of a partner or at the time of closing the business, the

procedure to be followed whenever differences arise among the
partners.
Merits of Partnership Firms
1) Easy to form : No legal formalities are required for the formation
of partnership firms. Even the registration of partnership firm is not
compulsory, therefore the partnership firms are started easily.
2) More capital : Partnerships are formed by more than two
persons ,so the capital investment is more.
214
 3) Greater efficiency : There are more than one person as
partners. Division of labour can easily be adopted, so there is better
managerial ability and it increases efficiency.
4) Trust worthiness : The liability of partners is unlimited so it
leads to increase in trust worthiness.
5) Sharing of business loss : All the partners have to share the
profits and losses. The loss is not borne by one but it is shared among
all the partners.
6) Secrecy of business : The partnership firms need not publish
their accounts. Thus there is a scope for maintaining secrets of
business.

ED
7) Simple dissolution : Partnership firms can be dissolved easily.
Any partner can apply for dissolution by giving fourteen days notice

H
or with the consent of all the partners it can be dissolved.

IS
BL
EP S
Demerits of partnership firms :
R TB
U
1. Sometimes the disunity among the partners may hamper
BE @K

business and it leads to disputes.

2. Since the number of partners is limited, the capital investment
is also limited.
TO

3. Liability is unlimited, so it discourages many people to join

as partners.
T
O

4. Reckless and foolish decisions of some partners may lead to

N

heavy setbacks
5. Partnership firms lack stability; the death or insolvency of any
partner may lead to dissolution.
6. It is difficult to transfer the share of partners to others.
7. Owing to lack of control by the government and publishing
of accounts, partnership firms can not gain public support.
8. The secrecy of the business can not be maintained since there
are two or more than two partners.

215
Registration of partnership firms
There is no provision for registration of sole trading concern.
The Indian Partnership Act of 1932 provides for the registration of
partnership firms. But it is not compulsory. It is left to the discretion of
the partners. Registration can be made at any time. For the purpose of
registration a statement in the prescribed form duly filled with correct
particulars must be submitted to the registrar of firms, appointed by
the government along with the prescribed fees. The Registrar checks,
issues a certificate called “Certificate of Registration”.
Advantages of Registration of firms.
1. A Registered firm can file a suit in the court of law against
third party. In case the loan amount is more than Rs. 100/-.

ED
But it is not possible in case of an unregistered firm.

H
2. A Registered firm can file a case against the other partners

IS
against the loans they owe to the firm.
BL
EP S
R TB

3. However third parties can file a case against an unregistered

U
BE @K

firm or against its partners for the recovery of loans.

4. Any partner can file a case against the firm or other partners
for the dissolution of the firm or for the settlement of accounts.
Hindu undivided family business concerns
TO

They are found only in India. They are in accordance with “HINDU
T

LAW”. They are the firms which consist of all the male members of the
O

Hindu family, who are the descendants from a common male ancestor.
N

Only three successive generations of male members namely, father,

sons, grandsons and great grandsons acquire the birth right or hold
on the ancestral property. The eldest or senior most member of the
family manages the business and he is called “KARTA”. The liability
of Karta is unlimited. While the liability of other members is limited
to the extent of their share in the business.

216
 EXERCISES
I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :
1 The concern that is owned and managed by a single person
is called ______ .
2 The Indian Partnership Act was passed in the year ______ to
regulate the affairs of the partnership firms.
3 The Maximum number of partners in a firm which carries out
banking business is ______ .
4 The Head of the Hindu undivided family business is known
as ______ .
5 The only business concern under private business organization
found in India is ______ .

ED
II Answer the following questions in one or two sentences each :

H
6 Which are the small scale business organizations ?

IS
7 How do sole trading concerns help the consumers ?
BL
EP S

8 What are partnership firms ?

R TB
U
9 Who are sleeping dormant partners ?
BE @K

10 How is the dissolution of partnership firm easy ?

III Answer the following questions :
11 Mention any four merits of sole trading concerns.
TO

12 Mention any four limitations of sole trading concerns.

13 How are partnership firms started ? Explain briefly.
T
O

14 Who are the different types of partners ?

N

15 Mention any four merits of partnership firms.

16 Mention any four demerits of partnerships firms.
17 What are the advantages of registering a partnership firm ?
18 Explain briefly about “Hindu undivided family business”.
IV Activity :
19 Collect two advertisements and study them in the context of
your lesson.


217
 CHAPTER–30
LARGE SCALE BUSINESS
ORGANISATIONS

After studying this chapter you would :

• Recognise the importance and salient features of large scale
business organisations.
• Understand the principles, types, merits and demerits of co-
operative societies.
• Understand the formation, structure, merits and demerits of
Joint-Stock companies.

ED
• Analyse the features, merits and demerits of multinational
companies.

H
IS
BL
Sole Trading concerns, Partnership firms and Hindu undivided
EP S
R TB

family business organizations suffer from the problems of inadequate

U

capital stock of managerial skills, lack of continuity and lack of

BE @K

unlimited liability. To overcome these problems large scale business

organizations came into existence. The important large scale business
organization are :
1. Co-operative Societies 2. Joint Stock Companies
TO

3. Multi-National Companies.
T

1. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES
O
N

They are one of the business organisations found all over the
world. They are voluntary organizations started by economically
weaker sections of the society with the motive of organising and
rendering service to its members. The first co-operative society was
started by Robert Owen in the year 1844 at Rochdale in England.
It was a consumer Co-operative society. Generally these societies
are started to achieve the economic progress of the people who
join on the basis of equality. These societies free their members
from economic exploitation. eg. 1) farmers join together and start a
Credit Co-operative Society to avail loans at a lower rate of interest
and free themselves from the clutches of local money lenders.

218
2) Co-operative marketing societies are started by small producers in
order to save themselves from the clutches of the middlemen. They
manage to get due prices for their produce.
Formation of Co-operative societies : In India formation of
Co-operative societies is governed by the provisions of Co-operative
Societies Act of 1912 or the state government. Acts which are in force
in different states.
To form a Co-operative society, there must be a minimum of
members. They must live in the same locality or must belong to same
class or must have engaged themselves. In same occupation and
must have common economic necessity. These members are called
promoters. They prepare an application in prescribed form and submit

ED
it to the Registrar of Co-operative societies of the District where the
society has to be established along with the prescribed fees. The

H
IS
application should contain the following information.
BL
EP S
1. Proposed name of the society
R TB
U
2. Address of the society
BE @K

3. The aims and objectives of the society

4. The area of its operation
5. Particular of share capital proposed to be raised
TO

6. The co-ordination of the members etc., must be written clearly.

These are called Bye -laws of the society and they should be
T
O

submitted to the Registrar of Co-operative societies of the districts.

N

Receipt of the application the Registrar will thoroughly examine the

details and if he is satisfied, will issue a certificate called the Certificate
of Registration. On receipt of the Certificate of Registration, the society
comes into existence.
General features of Co-operative Societies
1. They are voluntary organizations.
2. The membership is open to all adults (above 18 years)
irrespective of caste, religion, creed and gender inequality.
3. There is no upper limit for membership.

219
 4. There is democratic management. All the members attend
the General Body Meeting and each member has one vote
irrespective of share of capital invested (not less than 6.25%)
Profit is distributed inproportion to the share of their capital
equally among all the members.
5. Their status and management are supervised by the
6. One portion of the profit is transfered to general fund.
Types of Co-operative societies
1. Credit Co-operative societies.
2. Marketing Co-operative societies.
3. Producers Co-operative societies.

ED
4. Consumers Co-operative societies.

H
5. Farmers Co-operative societies.

IS
BL
6. House building Co-operative societies.
EP S
R TB
U
7. Co-operative societies for different services such as – supply
BE @K

of drinking water, improvement of education, etc.

Advantages of Co-operative societies : It is easy to form Co-
operative societies. There is no need for heavy capital. There is no
discrimination among the members. All the members have equal
TO

rights and responsibilities. It runs on democratic principle. Each

member has one vote. The liability of the members is limited. They
T
O

help the members to develop habits of thrift (savings). The Co-

N

operative societies are via media arrangements between capitalism

and socialism. The main motto of the Co-operative societies is “One
for all and all for One”
Demerits of Co-operative societies : The societies have limited
capital resource. So large scale business is not possible. It is very
difficult to get suitable staff. There are chances of mismanagement
and misuse of money; corruption and favouritism.
Co-operative Movement in India
The Co-operative Movement was started in India by passing the
220
Co-operative Act in 1904. An act was passed in 1912 and registration
was made compulsory. After independence under Five Year Plans the
Co-operative societies came to prominence. Today we have about eight
lakh Co-operative societies in our country. In Karnataka state the first
Co-operative society was started at ‘Kanaginahala’ in Gadag Taluk
now a District. The Bangalore City Central Co-operative society was
started in 1905. Dharwad district of our state gave more importance
top prominence to Co-operative movement and hence Dharwad district
is called “The cradle of Co-operative movement”.
2. JOINT STOCK COMPANIES
Joint stock companies Act of 1956. regulates the formation,
extension, functioning, and liquidation of Joint stock companies in

ED
India. According to Joint Stock Companies Act of 1956 a Joint stock

H
company is defined as a business organization created by law, having

IS
a separate legal entity with a perpetual succession and a common
BL
EP S
R TB

seal. Heney defines Joint stock companies as “a voluntary organisation

U

of individuals for profit having its capital divided into transferable

BE @K

shares. The ownership of which is the condition of membership”

Types of Joint Stock Companies

1. Chartered company
TO

2. Statutory company
T
O

3. Registered company
N

4. Companies limited by shares

5. Companies limited by guarantee
6. Unlimited companies
7. Public limited companies and private limited companies.
8. Foreign company
9. Holding Company.
10. Undertaken company.

221
Promotion of a Joint stock company
The promotion of a Joint stock company includes different stages.
They are :
1 Promotion / Formation
2 Registration or Incorporation
3 Capital subscription / Collection of share capital.
4 Commencement of business
1. Promotion stage : It is the first stage in the formation of a
Joint stock company. Some persons join together with a view to
start a company. They are called Promoters. They collect all the
information regarding formation, promotion, financial requirement

ED
and others. They prepare necessary documents like Memorandum of

H
Association, Articles of Association and Prospectus for Registration.

IS
They submit these documents to the Registrar of companies for
BL
EP S
Registration. They take necessary steps to pool the share capital
R TB
U
in case of public companies. They follow up the process to obtain
BE @K

Certificate of Incorporation. These promoters work as first directors

to formulate the company.
2. Registration : For public companies, a name has to be chosen.
This name should not be identical to any existing company and
TO

should not have the implication of the patronage of the government

company. The promoters then submit the requisition letter along
T

with the written documents such as Memorandum of Association and

O

Articles of Association to the Registrar along with prescribed stamp

N

duty. The document must be signed by the first seven directors. It

should contain the name of the company, the names of first seven
directors, their addresses, their consent to act as first directors along
with two witnesses. A Chartered Accountant or practising advocate
of supreme court must countersign it stating that all the required
formalities are fulfilled. The Registrar of companies verifies all the
details and documents and after getting convinced, registers in the
Register of corporation of companies and issues the Certificate of
Incorporation.

222
 The important documents required for the formation of a Joint
Stock company are Memorandum of Association and Articles of
Association. In case of public limited companies prospectus is issued
to the public to pool the share capital.
The Memorandum of association contains the aims and objectives
of the company, the different types of shares, the ways of subscription,
etc. The Articles of Association contains the rules and regulations
regarding the administration of the company.
3. Capital subscription stage : After receiving the Certificate
of Incorporation, the directors issue prospectus to the public. With
this the capital subscription to the company starts. A private limited
company can not issue prospectus but in lieu of prospectus a
statement is submitted to the Registrar.

ED
4. Commencement of business : Even after raising the capital,

H
a public limited company, cannot commence business. In order to

IS
commence business it should get a Certificate called “Certificate to
BL
EP S

Commence the business” from Registrar and only after obtaining this
R TB
U
certificate the company can start its business.
BE @K

Merits of Joint Stock Companies

1. The liability of share holders is limited. That means when
company incurs any loss or unable to clear the debts to the
TO

creditors, the liability of share holders is limited to the extent

of their share amount.
T

2. There is no limit for share holders in the public limited

O
N

companies, hence there is a possibility of raising more capital.

3. The shares in public limited companies are freely transferable.
It encourages the public to come forward or invest their money
in companies.
4. A Public Joint Stock company has a perpetual succession. The
death or insolvency of any director or member does not lead
to the dissolution of the company for there is legal protection
for the company.
5. There is a large capital investment and managerial ability; so
it is possible to run large scale business.
223
 6. Large scale production helps for goods to be produced at lower
cost and can be sold competitive prices.
7. The public limited companies provide employment to a large
number of people. Habits of thrift is also encouraged among
the people.
8. The companies contribute to the economic development of a
nation by paying taxes and duties to the government.
9. Administration is carried on by the experts.
10. Joint Stock Companies help a country to earn more foreign
exchange. It adds to the national income.
Demerits of a Joint Stock Companies.
1. The formation of a joint stock company is expensive and it is

ED
required to fulfil many formalities. The process is difficult and
cumbersome.

H
IS
2. The share holders are the real owners of the company. But
BL
EP S
they do not take active part in the affairs of the company.
R TB
U
The Directors only look after the day- to-day affairs. Large
BE @K

number of share holders do not attend the annual general

body meetings.
3. There is no personal contact between the owners and the
workers.
TO

4. Limited liability may lead the directors to take wrong decisions.

5. The powers of the company are vested with only a few people.
T
O

Many a time they act like dictators.

N

6. Many a time these Joint Stock Companies try to control the

government also.

3. MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES (MNC’s)

Multinational companies took their birth as early as by 1860.
It means they became popular after the Second World War. In the
early days U.S.A was the homeland of these companies. Later on a
large number of such companies emerged in European countries
and Japan. Today multinational companies have developed even in
developing countries.
224
 South Korea has a number of multinational companies like
Samsung and Hyundai; Indian companies such as Tatas, Birla,
Infosys, Wipro etc., have become multinational companies.
Meaning and explanation of Multinational companies
A Multinational company owns and manages business in two or
more countries. According to ILO (International Labour Organisation)
report, the essential management of the multinational enterprises lies
in one country and they carry on their business in a number of other
countries e.g. Sony (Japan) Coca-cola (USA), Samsung (S. Korea),
Hindustan lever (U.K), Philips (Holland), Glaxo (U.K), etc.

Features
1. They are large companies. Their assets and transactions are

ED
also of large scale.

H
2. They operate their business at least in six countries.

IS
3. They produce goods even in the countries where they operate
BL
EP S

their business.
R TB
U

4. They have centralised control from head office.

BE @K

5. They have production, marketing and other facilities in several

countries.
6. They play an important role in International Trade.
TO

7. They provide technological facilities in the countries which

come under their preview.
T
O

Advantages for Home country

N

1. They obtain raw materials from host countries at low prices.

2. They may also obtain the technological and administrative
skills from host countries.
3. They export raw materials and finished products to host
countries thus their profit is more.
4. It is possible to earn ample income through profit, royalty and
through administrative agreements with host countries.
5. They create more employment opportunities in the home
country.

225
Advantages for depending or host countries
1. The capital investment increases even in host countries.
2. If the host countries are developing countries, the home country
provides technology and through administrative procedures,
it causes a revolution.
3. The host countries are helped by the increase of exports and
decrease of imports.
4. It is possible to produce high quality products.
5. The important opportunities to increase in host countries,
Research and developments are promoted in host countries.
6. They help the utilisation of internal resources.

ED
Demerits of Multinational companies.

H
Home country gets lion’s share in the profits. They develop

IS
dominance in host countries. The competition in host countries may
BL
EP S
R TB

vanish and monopoly of multinational companies may increase.

U
There are many complaints against these companies that they are not
BE @K

respecting human rights. There is a chance for reduction of natural

resources in host countries. Many a time they follow unscrupulous
methods to avoid paying taxes. The habits of the people change in
host countries. eg - Coca-Cola. They exploit the labour force in host
TO

countries. Many a time they do not transfer technology in a proper

way. They try to interfere in the political affairs of the nation.
T
O

The industrial policy of our government restricted the foreign

N

investment in our country till recent times. But since the economic
liberalization policy of India in 1991, many Multinational companies
have started their operations in India. At the same time, a number of
Indian firms also have become Multinational companies. e.g. WIPRO,
INFOSYS, In India, about 40 MNC are working as of now.
So far we have learnt in brief about Sole trading concerns,
partnerships, Hindu undivided business firms, Co-operative societies
Joint stock companies and Multinational companies which come
under private sector. Besides this, we have. Government undertakings,
Public sector undertakings and Public utilities.

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 Government undertakings : These are owned by the government
for the public purpose. They are controlled and managed by the
government. A Department of government under the control of a
minister run these undertakings. They are started either by Central
Government or by State Government or Local self Government. e.g.
- Mining, Metallurgy, Ship building, Aeronautics, etc.
Public sector undertakings : These are under the control of
public and government. eg - Gujarat Fertilizers, Cochin Refineries etc.
Public utilities : These are also government undertakings but
they are established to provide essential products or services to the
public. They do not intend to earn profits. e.g. - Cooking gas, water,
electricity, railways, posts, telegraphs etc.
Stock Exchanges

ED
The capital of a joint-stock company is divided into small units

H
IS
called shares. The joint stock companies can also raise capital
through issue of debentures. There is a provision to sell and buy
BL
EP S
R TB

these shares and debentures. The share or debenture holders can

U

sell their shares or debentures at any time. For this purpose Stock
BE @K

Exchanges are established. In India the first share market was started
in 1875 at Mumbai and even today, it is one of the prestigious stock
markets in the world. The other stock exchanges are secondary share
markets. Only the shares and debentures of listed out Joint stock
TO

companies can enter into these stock exchanges. Nowadays Kolkata

and Bangalore stock exchanges facilitate to carry out their business
T

through electronic media. All the stock exchanges are controlled by

O
N

a Board called Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI).

EXERCISES

I Fill in the blanks with suitable words :

1 The formation of co-operative societies is regulated as per The

Indian Co-operative Act of _________.
2 The first co-operative society in the world was started by
_________in_________(country).

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 3 The maximum number of members in co-operative societies
is _________.
4 The co-operative societies come into existence after receiving
_________from____________.
5 The First co-operative society was stated in Karnataka
at_________.
6 The first stage of the formation a Joint stock company
is_________.
7 The most important documents required to start Joint
companies are _________and_________.
8 The Multinational companies were first started in_________
(country).

ED
9 The examples of multinational companies with Indian origin

H
are _________and_________.

IS
10 The first share market was started in India at_________.
BL
EP S
R TB

II Answer the following questions :

U
BE @K

11 Give four examples of public utility service companies.

12 Mention any six features or characteristics of co-operative
societies.
13 Mention the different types of co-operative societies.
TO

14 List out the merits and demerits of co-operative societies.

T
O

15 Which are the stages to formulate Joint Stock Companies ?

N

16 Mention the advantages of Joint stock companies.

17 What are the advantages of multinational companies to home
country?
18 What are the important functions of stock exchanges?
III Activity :
19 With the help of your teachers start a co-operative society in
your school.


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