Magnetic exploration method

Applied Geophysics MSc course

2020

G. PETHŐ
 Magnetic exploration method
Measurements of the magnetic field or its components at different
locations (along profile(s) or on a territory) over an area of
interest with the aim of
-locating magnetic materials with different magnetic properties or
-determining depth to basement consisting of magnetic minerals as
well.

Magnetic measurements are carried out relatively easily and only

few corrections must be applied to them. They are not expensive.
Like the gravitational exploration method, interpretations of
magnetic surveys can not be characterized by good resolution.
Magnetic observations can be obtained on the surface of the earth,
over the surface at different high levels (airborne magnetic
measurements, space magnetometry) and even in boreholes.
 History
•The Chinese are supposed to developed the mariner's compass
some 4500 years ago.
•The Greeks found rocks contaning magnetite in the vicinity of
Magnesia.
•W. Gilbert (1540-1603) showed the Earth's magnetic field liked the
field of a magnet which lying north-south direction. He also
discovered that heating resulted in the loss of induced magnetism.
•The variations of magnetic ores was first used for research by von
Wrede in 1843, he located magnetic ore deposits.
•The first use of magnetic methods was marked by Thalen in 1879.
•Thomson discovered the electron in 1897, the particle which is
fundamental to the understanding of both electricity and
magnetism.
•Until the 1940s, magnetic field measurements were made with a
magnetic balance.
•The fluxgate magnetometer was used during Word War II at first.
•Aeromagnetic measurements began to be made after this war.
•Proton-precession magnetometer was developed in the mid-1950s
(today this magnetometer is the most commonly used instrument).
•Alkali-vapour magnetometers are first used in 1962.
•Airborne gradiometer measurements began in the late of 1960s.
 Magnetic Force
experienced between two magnetic monopoles (magnetic Coulomb-law)

m1 F F m2

attractive m1<0 and m2>0,

 r  0 m1m2
F m1>0 and m2<0 .
4 r 2 repulsive m1<0 and m2<0,
m1>0 and m2>0.
where m1, m2 - strengths of magnetic monopoles [Am],
μ0 = 4π10-7 - absolute permeability of vacuum [Vs/Am],
μr = μ/μ0 - relative permeability of the medium,
μ - absolute permeability of the medium

The force (of attraction or repulsion) between magnetic monopoles

follows an inverse square law like that derived for gravity by Newton.
Magnetic Induction and Potential
m B
V

 r 0 m r 0 m 1Vs 1Weber
B V  1T  
4 r 2 4 r
2
m m2

where B - magnetic induction vector, [B] = Vs/m2 ,

V - magnetic (scalar) potential, [V] = Vs/m .
The relation is between them is B =- grad V
r is the distance between the magnetic monopole (m) and the
observation point
The magnetic induction is the force per unit pole
strength exerted by a magnetic monopole, m.

1gamma  1  109 Tesla  109 T  1nT

 MAGNETIC FIELD OF A MAGNETIC DIPOLE
A magnetic dipole consists of two magnetic monopoles with the same
strengths but with opposite sign. It can be determined as the
superposition of the magnetic fields of magnetic monopoles

 r  0 m1m2
F
4 r 2

The force is attractive everywhere The force is repulsive everywhere

Vectorial superposition
of the two situations near the two monopoles the
magnetic force is large.
 Magnetic dipole moment
 
-m
l
+m M  ml
M - magnetic dipole moment, [M] = Am2.
W. Gilbert (1540-1603) showed the Earth's
magnetic field liked the field of a magnetic
l dipole which lying north-south direction.

The Earth's magnetic field is generated in the fluid of

the outer core by a self-exciting dynamo process.
 Magnetosphere of the Earth

Illustration by K. Endo, Nikkei Science Inc. - Japan

The external magnetic field has an assymetrical form. It is developed by the

solar wind (plasma) interacting with the magnetic field of the Earth. On the
day side where the solar wind collides with the upper atmosphere the shock
front (blow shock) forms. In the magnetosheath the solar wind has been
slowed down and diverted around the Earth. The electrical currents due to
these charged particles produce interplanetary magnetic field which
compresses the geomagnetic field on the day side and stretches it out on the
night side of the Earth. A geomagnetic tail forms on the side opposite to the
Sun. The magnetosheath plasma flows around the magnetopause. The
magnetopause is the layer that shields the Earth environment from the solar
wind.
 Magnetic storms
 The most severe magnetic storm in recent times occurred in
March 1989 and this had a number of serious impacts on
technological systems by generating damaging
geomagnetically induced currents. For example the power
transmission system in Quebec (Canada), was shut down for
over 9 hours. Other effects such as increased corrosion in
pipelines are also likely.
 When a magnetic storm is underway the Earth's atmosphere
expands because of heating, and increases the atmospheric
drag on satellites at altitudes below about 1000 km. The orbit
of the satellite can be changed and sometimes expensive
manoeuvres have to be made to compensate.
 Earth’s magnetic field components

- T: Total field T (X,Y,Z)

- H: Horizontal field component
- Z: Vertical field component
- D: Declination
- I: Inclination

Declination (D) is an angle between (in degrees) the true north

(geographic north) and magnetic north. The declination is positive when
the magnetic north is east of true north.
Inclination (I) is the angle( in degrees) of the magnetic field (T) above
or below horizontal. The inclination is positive when at the point of
observation the total field is pointing downward, into the Earth.
To yield the magnetic field model for the EARTH, it is necessary to have vector
component measurements with good global coverage. At present German CHAMP
satellite is the most suitable magnetic observing system. Ground observatory hourly
mean data, although with poorer spatial coverage, are also available. The observatory
data provide information on the time variations of the geomagnetic field as well.
1gamma  1  109 Tesla  109 T  1nT
1gamma  1  109 Tesla  109 T  1nT
1gamma  1  109 Tesla  109 T  1nT
Isoclinic line connects the points of equal
magnetic inclination on a magnetic map
 Earlier Declination Maps Halley, 1702

The lines with equal declinations are called isogonic lines. The special case of them is the
agonic line which connects points with zero magnetic declination. This is the (isogonic)
line along which the magnetic north is the same as the geographic north.
The declination is positive when the
magnetic north is east of true north.
 Magnetization

Magnetization I is defined as the vectorial sum of magnetic moment per unit volume.

  M 
  M    
I  I 
V
 I i  I r  H  I r
V
The rock can have induced and remanent magmatization. The remanent magnetization
usually develops during the rock formation, the induced one is determined by the
present external magnetizing field and the magnetic susceptibility of the minerals.

external
magnetizing The ratio of the remanent
field
H magnetization and the
induced magnetization is
the Königsberger ratio
Mi  
denoted by Q.

Mr  Ir Ii 1


V I 1

Magnetic susceptibility is the degree of magnetization of a material in response to an applied magnetic field.
 Magnetic Induction

Magnetic induction (in the material of magnetic susceptibility (κ)) is defined as the
vectorial sum of the earth’s magnetic induction and the magnetism induced by the
earth’s magnetic field in the rock.

    
B  0 H  0 M  0 (1   ) H  0 r H

In the earth’s magnetic field rocks exhibit an

external induced magnetic field (B) due to its
magnetizing susceptibility (κ). The greater the magnetic
field
H susceptibility and the inducing magnetizing field
are the higher the magnetic induction is.
Mi
Mr

B

Magnetic susceptibility is the degree of magnetization of a material in response to an applied magnetic field.
Thermo Remanent Magnetization
As a volcanic rock cools, its
temperature decreases past
the Curie Temperature. At
the Curie Temperature, the
rock begins to produce an
induced magnetic field. In
this case, the inducing field
is the actual Earth's
magnetic field. As the
Earth's magnetic field
changes with time, a
significant portion of the
induced field in the rock
does not change but
remains fixed in a direction
and strength reflective of
the Earth's magnetic field at
the time the rock cooled
through its Curie
Temperature.
 Thermo Remanent
Magnetization

The duration of normal field

and that of reversed field can
be determined by radioactive
dating (K-Ar) method.
 Depositional Remanent Magnetization

During settling through still water these (sedimentary) grains are aligned like a
compass needle is oriented by the actual earth’s magnetic field. The reversal from
normal into reversed position takes a relatively „short” time. The DRM is fixed during
diagenesis. It is an oriented deposition of previously magnetized mineral grains. PDRM:
post DRM.
 Dia- and paramagnetism
Diamagnetism is common form of magnetism and it is caused by the alignment of magnetic
moments associated with orbital electrons in the presence of an external magnetic field. For
those elements with no unpaired electrons in their outer electron shells, this is the only possible
type of magnetism. Quartz, calcite and salt are diamagnetic minerals.
The susceptibilities of diamagnetic materials are relatively small and negative, because the
electron spins precess and produce a magnetization opposite to the applied magnetic field.
Paramagnetism This is a form of magnetism associated with elements that have an odd number
of electrons in their outer electron shells. Paramagnetism is associated with the alignment of
electron spin directions in the presence of an external magnetic field. It can only be observed at
relatively low temperatures. The temperature above which paramagnetism is no longer observed
is called the Curie Temperature. The susceptibilities of paramagnetic substances are small and
positive. Paramagnetic minerals are olivine, biotite, amphibole, chlorite.
 Typical Susceptibility Values
Approximate percent of magnetite by volume 0.1% 0.5% 1% 5% 10% 20%

10-5 S.I. Units 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1

Magnetic minerals
Hematite Magnetite

Igneous rocks
Acid Volcanics

Basalts

“S” type Granites “T” type

Gabbros
Andesites
Metamorphic rocks

Metasediments

Metamorphics
Sedimentary rocks
Sediments

10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1

S.I. Units
Adapted from Clark and Emerson, Exploration Geophysics, 1991.
 Ferromagnetism
The three types of ferromagnetism is as follows: pure ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism, and
ferrimagnetism. Common feature of them that there is an almost perfect alignment of electron spin
directions within large portions of the material referred to as Weiss-domains.
Like paramagnetism, ferromagnetism is observed only at temperatures below the Curie
temperature. Although pure ferromagnetic materials have the greatest magnetic susceptibility, in
geophysical point of view ferrimagnetism is the most important among them.

Pure Ferromagnetism - The directions of electron spin alignment within each domain are
almost all parallel to the direction of the external inducing field. Pure ferromagnetic
substances have large positive susceptibilities. Ferrromagnetic minerals do
not exist. Iron, cobalt, and nickel are examples of common ferromagnetic elements.

Antiferromagnetism - The directions of electron alignment within adjacent domains are

opposite and the relative abundance of domains with each spin direction is approximately
equal. The observed magnetic intensity for the material is almost zero. Thus, the
susceptibilities of antiferromagnetic materials are almost zero. Hematite is an
antiferromagnetic material.
 Ferromagnetism
Ferrimagnetism - Like antiferromagnetic materials, adjacent domains produce magnetic
intensities in opposite directions. The intensities associated with domains polarized in a
direction opposite that of the external field, however, are weaker. The observed magnetic
intensity for the entire material is in the direction of the inducing field but is much weaker
than that observed for pure ferromagnetic materials. Thus, the susceptibilities for
ferromagnetic materials are small and positive. The most important magnetic minerals are
ferrimagnetic and include magnetite, titanomagnetite, ilmenite (iron-titanium oxides) and
pyrrhotite (iron sulphides).

Schön 2007
- the Earth's main magnetic field generated in the
conducting fluid outer core;
- the crustal field generated in Earth's crust and
upper mantle;
- the combined disturbance field from -
electrical currents flowing in the upper
atmosphere and magnetosphere, which
induce electrical currents in the sea and
ground

- anomalous magnetic field has to be

determined in course of magnetic exploration


ΔZ magnetic anomaly map in

Hungaryanom

Kiss, ELGI (2010)

 Proton-precession
magnetometer
It measures the total magnetic field. In normal
circumstanses the proton spins are aligned
parallel to the geomagnetic field (a).
Stong magnetic field (F) -oriented at a large
angle to Bt - is applied by sending direct current
into the coil to displace the magnetic moments
of the protons out of the earth’s field (b).
After switching off the presession of proton
spins about the local total magnetic field is
inducing an alternating current. The measured
frequency (f) is proportional to the Bt. ( c).

(accuracy):1nT
 Protonprecession magnetometer

 p Bt
f 
2

P Gyromagnetic
ratio of the
proton is
P
Fluxgate magnetometer
This magnetometer measures the magnetic field
components parallel to the axis of cores. It is
applied to vectorial measurements.
The two bars are wound with a primary coil, but
the direction in which the coil is wrapped around
the bars is reversed. An alternating current (AC) is
passed through the primary coils causing a large,
artificial, time-varying magnetic field in each coil.
This produces induced magnetic fields in the two
cores that have the same strengths but opposite
orientations, at any given time during the current
cycle. In the shortage of external magnetic field,
the resultant output signal of the secondary coil is
zero.
If the cores are in an external magnetic field, the
field will reach saturation in one core at a time
different from the other core. This difference is
sufficient to induce a measurable voltage in a
secondary coil that is proportional to the strength
of the magnetic field in the direction of the cores.
 Magnetic field changes with time
The ionized molecules in the ionosphere
release a great amount of electrons
forming powerful, horizontal, ring-like
electrical currents. These currents are the
sources of external magnetic field and it
can be measured at the Earth’s surface. As
the Earth rotates beneath the ionosphere
the observed field strength fluctuates with
a period of one day. Its measure depends
on the latitude and the state of solar
activity. In case of normal days the diurnal
or daily variation has a tendency like here
(upper figure).
In order to compensate the daily variation
we have to record the magnetic field at a
fixed station and we assume that this
variation is the same on the territory of
interest.
The enhanced solar activity may result in
magnetic storm(s) (see bottom).
 Magnetic Response Depending
on Latitude (on inclination)

In the vicinity of Equator Mid Latitude over the magnetic North Pole
 Magnetic anomaly depends on the
extension of the magnetic body
Magnetic monopole does not exists,
however, some situations can be
approximated with the magnetic field
due to a magnetic monopole.
For example if there is a very deep
conduit of a volcano then we encounter
with the magnetic anomalous field due to
the monopole.
Pole reduction
Reduction-to-pole processing
is applied to remove from the
measured data the distorting
effect of the varying inclination
and azimuth of the
magnetization vector. The
result of this process is the
converting of data to what the
data would have looked like if
the direction of magnetization
had been vertical.
The situation is very similar to
the case as if we had measured
the magnetic field in the vicinity
of magnetic north pole.
This process helps in the
interpretation.
Ore exploration
 Steel casing location with
helicopter-borne measurement
 Vertical gradient measurement

It is an efficient tool to enhance the effect of near-surface magnetic bodies.

CHAMP (CHAllenging Mini-satellite-Payload)
The CHAMP satellite was launched on
July 15, 2000 into an almost circular,
near polar (i = 87°) orbit with an
initial altitude of 454 km (after 5
years it was 250-300km).The design
lifetime of the satellite system was 5
years. The reason for choosing an
almost circular and near-polar orbit is
the advantage of getting a
homogeneous and complete global
coverage. The initial altitude of about
454 km is chosen to guarantee a
multi-year mission duration even
under severe solar activity
conditions, and because 454 km is
the adequate altitude to observe the
Earth's magnetic main field as well.

It contained 3 FLUXGATEMAGNETOMETERand
OVERHAUSER SCALAR MAGNETOMETER as well.
CHAMP magnetic measurements

Vertical magnetic field distribution

over the Earth’surface at the
height of 400km. The magnetic
response can be correlated to
the magnetic minerals in the
lithosphere in general.

Plate boundaries are indicated as

thin, dark green lines, subduction
zones as thick, light green lines.

Maus et.al., 2006

 CHAMP magnetic measurements

Vertical magnetic field distribution over the Earth’surface at 50km elevation. It could be determined
by means of analytical downward-continuation (which is an application of Green’theorem) from the
CHAMP magnetic measurements. Maus et.al, 2006
 Questions
 What kind of corrections are applied to the measured
magnetic data to gain magnetic anomaly map?
 What are the most important minerals in magnetic survey?
 What do you know about proton-precession and fluxe-gate
magnetometers?
 What kind of problems can be solved by magnetic surveys?