1

Yellow fever
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"American Plague" and "Yellow plague" redirect here. For the rock band, see The

American Plague. For the Yellow Plague of Rhos in medieval Wales, see Maelgwn Gwynedd.

For other uses, see Yellow fever (disambiguation).

Yellow fever

Other names Yellow jack, yellow plague,

[1]
 bronze john[2]

A TEM micrograph of yellow fever virus (234,000×

magnification)

Specialty Infectious disease

Symptoms Fever, chills, muscle

pain, headache, yellow skin[3]
 2

Complications Liver failure, bleeding[3]

Usual onset 3–6 days post exposure [3]

Duration 3–4 days[3]

Causes Yellow fever virus spread

by mosquitoes[3]

Diagnostic Blood test[4]

method

Prevention Yellow fever vaccine[3]

Treatment Supportive care[3]

Frequency ~127,000 severe cases (2013)[3]

Deaths ~45,000 (2013)[3]

Yellow fever is a viral disease of typically short duration.[3] In most cases,

symptoms include fever, chills, loss of appetite, nausea, muscle pains – particularly in
the back – and headaches.[3][5] Symptoms typically improve within five days.[3] In about
15% of people, within a day of improving the fever comes back, abdominal pain occurs,
and liver damage begins causing yellow skin.[3][6] If this occurs, the risk of bleeding
and kidney problems is increased.[3][7]
The disease is caused by the yellow fever virus and is spread by the bite of an
infected mosquito.[3][8] It infects only humans, other primates,[9] and several types of
mosquitoes.[3] In cities, it is spread primarily by Aedes aegypti, a type of mosquito found
throughout the tropics and subtropics.[3] The virus is an RNA virus of the
genus Flavivirus.[10][11] The disease may be difficult to tell apart from other illnesses,
especially in the early stages.[3] To confirm a suspected case, blood-sample testing
with polymerase chain reaction is required.[4]
A safe and effective vaccine against yellow fever exists, and some countries
require vaccinations for travelers.[3] Other efforts to prevent infection include reducing the
population of the transmitting mosquitoes.[3] In areas where yellow fever is common,
early diagnosis of cases and immunization of large parts of the population are important
to prevent outbreaks.[3] Once a person is infected, management is symptomatic; no
specific measures are effective against the virus.[3] Death occurs in up to half of those
who get severe disease.[3][12]
 3

In 2013, yellow fever resulted in about 127,050 severe infections and 45,000
deaths worldwide,[3] with nearly 90 percent of these occurring in Africa. [4] Nearly a billion
people live in an area of the world where the disease is common. [3] It is common in
tropical areas of the continents of South America and Africa, [13] but not in Asia.[3][14] Since
the 1980s, the number of cases of yellow fever has been increasing. [3][15] This is believed
to be due to fewer people being immune, more people living in cities, people moving
frequently, and changing climate increasing the habitat for mosquitoes. [3]
The disease originated in Africa and spread to the Americas starting in the 15th
century with the European trafficking of enslaved Africans from sub-Saharan Africa.[1]
[16]
 Since the 17th century, several major outbreaks of the disease have occurred in the
Americas, Africa, and Europe.[1] In the 18th and 19th centuries, yellow fever was
considered one of the most dangerous infectious diseases; numerous epidemics swept
through major cities of the US and in other parts of the world. [1]
In 1927, yellow fever virus was the first human virus to be isolated. [10][17]

Contents

 1Signs and symptoms

o 1.1Complication
 2Cause
o 2.1Transmission
 3Pathogenesis
 4Diagnosis
 5Prevention
o 5.1Vaccination
 5.1.1Compulsory vaccination
o 5.2Vector control
 6Treatment
 7Epidemiology
o 7.1Africa
o 7.2South America
o 7.3Asia
 8History
o 8.1Early history
o 8.2Causes and transmission
o 8.3Current status
 9Research
 10Notes
 11References
 12Further reading
 13External links
 4

Signs and symptoms[edit]

Yellow fever begins after an incubation period of three to six days. [18] Most cases
cause only a mild infection with fever, headache, chills, back pain, fatigue, loss of
appetite, muscle pain, nausea, and vomiting.[19] In these cases, the infection lasts only
three to six days.[20]
But in 15% of cases, people enter a second, toxic phase of the disease
characterized by recurring fever, this time accompanied by jaundice due to liver
damage, as well as abdominal pain.[21] Bleeding in the mouth, nose, the eyes, and
the gastrointestinal tract cause vomit containing blood, hence the Spanish name for
yellow fever, vómito negro ("black vomit").[22] There may also be kidney failure, hiccups,
and delirium.[23][24]
Among those who develop jaundice, the fatality rate is 20 to 50%, while the
overall fatality rate is about 3 to 7.5%.[25] Severe cases may have a mortality greater than
50%.[26]
Surviving the infection provides lifelong immunity,[27] and normally results in no
permanent organ damage.[28][29]
Complication[edit]
Yellow fever can lead to death for 20% to 50% of those who develop severe
disease. Jaundice, fatigue, heart rhythm problems, seizures and internal bleeding may
also appear as complications of yellow fever during recovery time. [30][31]

Cause[edit]

Yellow fever virus

Flavivirus structure and

genome

Virus classification

(unra Virus
 5

nked):

Real Riboviria
m:

Kingd Orthorna
om: virae

Phylu Kitrinoviri
m: cota

Class: Flasuviric
etes

Order Amarillov
: irales

Famil Flavivirid
y: ae

Genu Flavivirus
s:

Speci Yellow
es: fever virus

Yellow fever is caused by yellow fever virus, an enveloped RNA virus 40–

50 nm in width, the type species and namesake of the family Flaviviridae.[10] It was the
first illness shown to be transmissible by filtered human serum and transmitted by
mosquitoes, by American doctor Walter Reed around 1900.[32] The positive-sense,
single-stranded RNA is around 10,862 nucleotides long and has a single open reading
frame encoding a polyprotein.[33]Host proteases cut this polyprotein into three structural
(C, prM, E) and seven nonstructural proteins (NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B,
NS5); the enumeration corresponds to the arrangement of the protein coding genes in
the genome.[34] Minimal yellow fever virus (YFV) 3'UTR region is required for stalling of
the host 5'-3' exonuclease XRN1.[35] The UTR contains PKS3 pseudoknot structure,
which serves as a molecular signal to stall the exonuclease and is the only viral
requirement for subgenomic flavivirus RNA (sfRNA) production. [36] The sfRNAs are a
result of incomplete degradation of the viral genome by the exonuclease and are
 6

important for viral pathogenicity.[37] Yellow fever belongs to the group of hemorrhagic

fevers.[38]
The viruses infect, amongst others, monocytes, macrophages, Schwann cells,
and dendritic cells. They attach to the cell surfaces via specific receptors and are taken
up by an endosomal vesicle.[39] Inside the endosome, the decreased pH induces the
fusion of the endosomal membrane with the virus envelope.[40] The capsid enters
the cytosol, decays, and releases the genome.[41] Receptor binding, as well as
membrane fusion, are catalyzed by the protein E, which changes its conformation at low
pH, causing a rearrangement of the 90 homodimers to 60 homotrimers.[34][42]
After entering the host cell, the viral genome is replicated in the
rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and in the so-called vesicle packets. [43] At first, an
immature form of the virus particle is produced inside the ER, whose M-protein is not
yet cleaved to its mature form, so is denoted as precursor M (prM) and forms a complex
with protein E.[44] The immature particles are processed in the Golgi apparatus by the
host protein furin, which cleaves prM to M.[45] This releases E from the complex, which
can now take its place in the mature, infectious virion.[34]
Transmission[edit]

Aedes aegypti feeding

Adults of the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti: The male is on the left, females are on the right. Only
the female mosquito bites humans to transmit the disease.

Yellow fever virus is mainly transmitted through the bite of the yellow fever
mosquito Aedes aegypti, but other mostly Aedes mosquitoes such as the tiger mosquito
(Aedes albopictus) can also serve as a vector for this virus.[46] Like other arboviruses,
which are transmitted by mosquitoes, yellow fever virus is taken up by a female
mosquito when it ingests the blood of an infected human or another primate. [47] Viruses
reach the stomach of the mosquito, and if the virus concentration is high enough, the
 7

virions can infect epithelial cells and replicate there. From there, they reach
the haemocoel (the blood system of mosquitoes) and from there the salivary glands.
[48]
 When the mosquito next sucks blood, it injects its saliva into the wound, and the virus
reaches the bloodstream of the bitten person.[49] Transovarial transmissionial
and transstadial transmission of yellow fever virus within A. aegypti, that is, the
transmission from a female mosquito to its eggs and then larvae, are indicated. [50] This
infection of vectors without a previous blood meal seems to play a role in single, sudden
breakouts of the disease.[51]
Three epidemiologically different infectious cycles occur [15] in which the virus is
transmitted from mosquitoes to humans or other primates. [52] In the "urban cycle", only
the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti is involved. It is well adapted to urban areas, and
can also transmit other diseases, including Zika fever, dengue fever, and chikungunya.
[53]
 The urban cycle is responsible for the major outbreaks of yellow fever that occur in
Africa. Except for an outbreak in Bolivia in 1999, this urban cycle no longer exists in
South America.[54]
Besides the urban cycle, both in Africa and South America, a sylvatic
cycle (forest or jungle cycle) is present, where Aedes africanus (in Africa) or mosquitoes
of the genus Haemagogus and Sabethes (in South America) serve as vectors.[55] In the
jungle, the mosquitoes infect mainly nonhuman primates; the disease is mostly
asymptomatic in African primates.[49] In South America, the sylvatic cycle is currently the
only way humans can become infected, which explains the low incidence of yellow fever
cases on the continent.[46] People who become infected in the jungle can carry the virus
to urban areas, where A. aegypti acts as a vector. Because of this sylvatic cycle, yellow
fever cannot be eradicated except by eradicating the mosquitoes that serve as vectors.
[15]

In Africa, a third infectious cycle known as "savannah cycle" or intermediate

cycle, occurs between the jungle and urban cycles. [56] Different mosquitoes of the
genus Aedes are involved. In recent years, this has been the most common form of
transmission of yellow fever in Africa. [57]
Concern exists about yellow fever spreading to southeast Asia, where its
vector A. aegypti already occurs.[58]

Pathogenesis[edit]

After transmission from a mosquito, the viruses replicate in the lymph nodes and

infect dendritic cells in particular. From there, they reach the liver and
infect hepatocytes (probably indirectly via Kupffer cells), which leads to eosinophilic
degradation of these cells and to the release of cytokines. Apoptotic masses known
as Councilman bodies appear in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes.[59][60]
Fatality may occur when cytokine storm, shock, and multiple organ failure follow.
[25]
 8

Diagnosis[edit]

Yellow fever is most frequently a clinical diagnosis, based

on symptomatology and travel history. Mild cases of the disease can only be confirmed
virologically.[47] Since mild cases of yellow fever can also contribute significantly to
regional outbreaks, every suspected case of yellow fever (involving symptoms of fever,
pain, nausea, and vomiting 6–10 days after leaving the affected area) is treated
seriously.[47]
If yellow fever is suspected, the virus cannot be confirmed until 6–10 days
following the illness. A direct confirmation can be obtained by reverse transcription
polymerase chain reaction, where the genome of the virus is amplified.[4] Another direct
approach is the isolation of the virus and its growth in cell culture using blood plasma;
this can take 1–4 weeks.[61][62]
Serologically, an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay during the acute phase of
the disease using specific IgM against yellow fever or an increase in
specific IgG titer (compared to an earlier sample) can confirm yellow fever. [63] Together
with clinical symptoms, the detection of IgM or a four-fold increase in IgG titer is
considered sufficient indication for yellow fever. As these tests can cross-react with
other flaviviruses, such as dengue virus, these indirect methods cannot conclusively
prove yellow fever infection.[64]
Liver biopsy can verify inflammation and necrosis of hepatocytes and detect
viral antigens. Because of the bleeding tendency of yellow fever patients, a biopsy is
only advisable post mortem to confirm the cause of death.[65]
In a differential diagnosis, infections with yellow fever must be distinguished from
other feverish illnesses such as malaria. Other viral hemorrhagic fevers, such as Ebola
virus, Lassa virus, Marburg virus, and Junin virus, must be excluded as the cause.[66]

Prevention[edit]

Personal prevention of yellow fever includes vaccination and avoidance of

mosquito bites in areas where yellow fever is endemic. [46] Institutional measures for
prevention of yellow fever include vaccination programmes and measures to control
mosquitoes. Programmes for distribution of mosquito nets for use in homes produce
reductions in cases of both malaria and yellow fever. Use of EPA-registered insect
repellent is recommended when outdoors. Exposure for even a short time is enough for
a potential mosquito bite. Long-sleeved clothing, long pants, and socks are useful for
prevention. The application of larvicides to water-storage containers can help eliminate
potential mosquito breeding sites. EPA-registered insecticide spray decreases the
transmission of yellow fever.[67]

 Use insect repellent when outdoors such as those containing DEET, picaridin, ethyl

butylacetylaminopropionate (IR3535), or oil of lemon eucalyptus on exposed skin.[68]
 Mosquitoes may bite through thin clothing, so spraying clothes with repellent
containing permethrin or another EPA-registered repellent gives extra protection.[69] Clothing
 9

treated with permethrin is commercially available. Mosquito repellents containing permethrin

are not approved for application directly to the skin.[70]
 The peak biting times for many mosquito species are dusk to dawn. However, A. aegypti,
one of the mosquitoes that transmits yellow fever virus, feeds during the daytime.[71] Staying
in accommodations with screened or air-conditioned rooms, particularly during peak biting
times, also reduces the risk of mosquito bites.[71]
Vaccination[edit]

The cover of a certificate that confirms the holder has been vaccinated against yellow fever

Vaccination against yellow fever 10 days before entering this country/territory is required for travellers
coming from...[72]
  All countries
  Risk countries (including airport transfers)[note 1]
  Risk countries (excluding airport transfers)[note 2]
  No requirement (risk country)[note 3]
  No requirement (non-risk country)
Main article: Yellow fever vaccine
Vaccination is recommended for those traveling to affected areas, because non-
native people tend to develop more severe illness when infected. Protection begins by
 10

the 10th day after vaccine administration in 95% of people, [73] and had been reported to
last for at least 10 years. The World Health Organization (WHO) now states that a
single dose of vaccine is sufficient to confer lifelong immunity against yellow fever
disease.[74] The attenuated live vaccine stem 17D was developed in 1937 by Max
Theiler.[73] The WHO recommends routine vaccination for people living in affected areas
between the 9th and 12th month after birth.[4]
Up to one in four people experience fever, aches, and local soreness and
redness at the site of injection.[75] In rare cases (less than one in 200,000 to 300,000),
[73]
 the vaccination can cause yellow fever vaccine-associated viscerotropic disease,
which is fatal in 60% of cases. It is probably due to the genetic morphology of the
immune system. Another possible side effect is an infection of the nervous system,
which occurs in one in 200,000 to 300,000 cases, causing yellow fever vaccine-
associated neurotropic disease, which can lead to meningoencephalitis and is fatal in
less than 5%[73] of cases.[4][25]
The Yellow Fever Initiative, launched by the WHO in 2006, vaccinated more than
105 million people in 14 countries in West Africa.[76] No outbreaks were reported during
2015. The campaign was supported by the GAVI alliance and governmental
organizations in Europe and Africa.[77] According to the WHO, mass vaccination cannot
eliminate yellow fever because of the vast number of infected mosquitoes in urban
areas of the target countries, but it will significantly reduce the number of people
infected.[78]
Demand for yellow fever vaccine has continued to increase due to the growing
number of countries implementing yellow fever vaccination as part of their routine
immunization programmes.[79] Recent upsurges in yellow fever outbreaks in Angola
(2015), the Democratic Republic of Congo (2016), Uganda (2016), and more recently in
Nigeria and Brazil in 2017 have further increased demand, while straining global
vaccine supply.[79][80] Therefore, to vaccinate susceptible populations in preventive mass
immunization campaigns during outbreaks, fractional dosing of the vaccine is being
considered as a dose-sparing strategy to maximize limited vaccine supplies. [79] Fractional
dose yellow fever vaccination refers to administration of a reduced volume of vaccine
dose, which has been reconstituted as per manufacturer recommendations. [79][81] The first
practical use of fractional dose yellow fever vaccination was in response to a large
yellow fever outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in mid-2016. [79]
In March 2017, the WHO launched a vaccination campaign in Brazil with
3.5 million doses from an emergency stockpile.[82] In March 2017 the WHO
recommended vaccination for travellers to certain parts of Brazil. [83] In March 2018, Brazil
shifted its policy and announced it planned to vaccinate all 77.5 million currently
unvaccinated citizens by April 2019.[84]
Compulsory vaccination[edit]
Some countries in Asia are considered to be potentially in danger of yellow fever
epidemics, as both mosquitoes with the capability to transmit yellow fever as well as
susceptible monkeys are present.[85] The disease does not yet occur in Asia. To prevent
introduction of the virus, some countries demand previous vaccination of foreign visitors
who have passed through yellow fever areas. [86] Vaccination has to be proved by a
 11

vaccination certificate, which is valid 10 days after the vaccination and lasts for 10
years. Although the WHO on 17 May 2013 advised that subsequent booster
vaccinations are unnecessary, an older (than 10 years) certificate may not be
acceptable at all border posts in all affected countries. A list of the countries that require
yellow fever vaccination is published by the WHO. [72] If the vaccination cannot be given
for some reason, dispensation may be possible. In this case, an exemption certificate
issued by a WHO-approved vaccination center is required. Although 32 of 44 countries
where yellow fever occurs endemically do have vaccination programmes, in many of
these countries, less than 50% of their population is vaccinated. [4]
Vector control[edit]

Information campaign for prevention of dengue and yellow fever in Paraguay

Control of the yellow fever mosquito A. aegypti is of major importance, especially

because the same mosquito can also transmit dengue fever and chikungunya disease.
[87]
 A. aegypti breeds preferentially in water, for example, in installations by inhabitants of
areas with precarious drinking water supplies, or in domestic refuse, especially tires,
cans, and plastic bottles. These conditions are common in urban areas in developing
countries.[88]
Two main strategies are employed to reduce A. aegypti populations.[89] One
approach is to kill the developing larvae. Measures are taken to reduce the water
accumulations in which the larvae develop. Larvicides are used, along with larvae-
eating fish and copepods, which reduce the number of larvae.[90] For many years,
copepods of the genus Mesocyclops have been used in Vietnam for preventing dengue
fever.[91] This eradicated the mosquito vector in several areas. Similar efforts may prove
effective against yellow fever. Pyriproxyfen is recommended as a chemical larvicide,
mainly because it is safe for humans and effective in small doses. [4]
The second strategy is to reduce populations of the adult yellow fever
mosquito. Lethal ovitraps can reduce Aedes populations, using lesser amounts of
pesticide because it targets the pest directly. [92] Curtains and lids of water tanks can be
sprayed with insecticides, but application inside houses is not recommended by the
WHO.[93] Insecticide-treated mosquito nets are effective, just as they are against
the Anopheles mosquito that carries malaria.[4]

Treatment[edit]

As with other Flavivirus infections, no cure is known for yellow fever.

Hospitalization is advisable and intensive care may be necessary because of rapid
 12

deterioration in some cases. Certain acute treatment methods lack efficacy: passive

immunization after the emergence of symptoms is probably without effect; ribavirin and
other antiviral drugs, as well as treatment with interferons, are ineffective in yellow fever
patients.[25] Symptomatic treatment includes rehydration and pain relief with drugs such
as paracetamol (acetaminophen). Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin).[94] However, aspirin and
other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are often avoided because of an
increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeding due to their anticoagulant effects. [95]

Epidemiology[edit]

Yellow fever is common in tropical and subtropical areas of South America and
Africa.[96] Worldwide, about 600 million people live in endemic areas. The WHO
estimates 200,000 cases of yellow fever worldwide each year. [97] About 15% of people
infected with yellow fever progress to a severe form of the illness, and up to half of
those will die, as there is no cure for yellow fever. [98]
Africa[edit]

Areas with risk of yellow fever in Africa (2017)

An estimated 90% of yellow fever infections occur on the African continent. [4] In
2016, a large outbreak originated in Angola and spread to neighboring countries before
being contained by a massive vaccination campaign. [99] In March and April 2016, 11
imported cases of the Angola genotype in unvaccinated Chinese nationals were
reported in China, the first appearance of the disease in Asia in recorded history. [100][101]
Phylogenetic analysis has identified seven genotypes of yellow fever viruses, and
they are assumed to be differently adapted to humans and to the vector A. aegypti. Five
genotypes (Angola, Central/East Africa, East Africa, West Africa I, and West Africa II)
occur only in Africa. West Africa genotype I is found in Nigeria and the surrounding
region.[102] West Africa genotype I appears to be especially infectious, as it is often
associated with major outbreaks. The three genotypes found outside of Nigeria and
Angola occur in areas where outbreaks are rare. Two outbreaks, in Kenya (1992–1993)
and Sudan (2003 and 2005), involved the East African genotype, which had remained
undetected in the previous 40 years.[103]
South America[edit]
 13

Areas with risk of yellow fever in South America (2018)

In South America, two genotypes have been identified (South American

genotypes I and II).[15] Based on phylogenetic analysis these two genotypes appear to
have originated in West Africa[104] and were first introduced into Brazil.[105] The date of
introduction of the predecessor African genotype which gave rise to the South American
genotypes appears to be 1822 (95% confidence interval 1701 to 1911). [105] The historical
record shows an outbreak of yellow fever occurred in Recife, Brazil, between 1685 and
1690. The disease seems to have disappeared, with the next outbreak occurring in
1849.[106] It was likely introduced with the trafficking of slaves through the slave
trade from Africa. Genotype I has been divided into five subclades, A through E. [107]
In late 2016, a large outbreak began in Minas Gerais state of Brazil that was
characterized as a sylvan or jungle epizootic.[108] It began as an outbreak in brown
howler monkeys,[109] which serve as a sentinel species for yellow fever, that then spread
to men working in the jungle. No cases had been transmitted between humans by
the A. aegypti mosquito, which can sustain urban outbreaks that can spread rapidly. In
April 2017, the sylvan outbreak continued moving toward the Brazilian coast, where
most people were unvaccinated.[83] By the end of May the outbreak appeared to be
declining after more than 3,000 suspected cases, 758 confirmed and 264 deaths
confirmed to be yellow fever.[110] The Health Ministry launched a vaccination campaign
and was concerned about spread during the Carnival season in February and March.
The CDC issued a Level 2 alert (practice enhanced precautions.)[111]
A Bayesian analysis of genotypes I and II has shown that genotype I accounts for
virtually all the current infections in Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela,
 14

and Trinidad and Tobago, while genotype II accounted for all cases in Peru.

[112]
 Genotype I originated in the northern Brazilian region around 1908 (95% highest
posterior density interval [HPD]: 1870–1936). Genotype II originated in Peru in 1920
(95% HPD: 1867–1958).[113] The estimated rate of mutation for both genotypes was
about 5 × 10−4 substitutions/site/year, similar to that of other RNA viruses. [114]
Asia[edit]
The main vector (A. aegypti) also occurs in tropical and subtropical regions of
Asia, the Pacific, and Australia, but yellow fever has never occurred there, until jet travel
introduced 11 cases from the 2016 Angola and DR Congo yellow fever outbreak in
Africa. Proposed explanations include: [115]

 That the strains of the mosquito in the east are less able to transmit yellow fever virus.[116]
 That immunity is present in the populations because of other diseases caused by related
viruses (for example, dengue).[117]
 That the disease was never introduced because the shipping trade was insufficient.
But none is considered satisfactory.[118][119] Another proposal is the absence of a
slave trade to Asia on the scale of that to the Americas. [120] The trans-Atlantic slave
trade probably introduced yellow fever into the Western Hemisphere from Africa. [121]

History[edit]

Main article: History of yellow fever

Early history[edit]
The evolutionary origins of yellow fever most likely lie in Africa, with transmission
of the disease from nonhuman primates to humans.[122][123] The virus is thought to have
originated in East or Central Africa and spread from there to West Africa. As it was
endemic in Africa, local populations had developed some immunity to it. When an
outbreak of yellow fever would occur in an African community where colonists resided,
most Europeans died, while the indigenous Africans usually developed nonlethal
symptoms resembling influenza.[124] This phenomenon, in which certain populations
develop immunity to yellow fever due to prolonged exposure in their childhood, is known
as acquired immunity.[125] The virus, as well as the vector A. aegypti, were probably
transferred to North and South America with the trafficking of slaves from Africa, part of
the Columbian exchange following European exploration and colonization. [126]
The first definitive outbreak of yellow fever in the New World was in 1647 on the
island of Barbados.[127] An outbreak was recorded by Spanish colonists in 1648 in
the Yucatán Peninsula, where the indigenous Mayan people called the
illness xekik ("blood vomit"). In 1685, Brazil suffered its first epidemic in Recife. The first
mention of the disease by the name "yellow fever" occurred in 1744. [128]

 (John Mitchell) (1805) (Mitchell's account of the Yellow Fever in Virginia in 1741–

2) Archived 2017-02-23 at the Wayback Machine, The Philadelphia Medical Museum, 1 (1) :
1–20.
 15

 (John Mitchell) (1814) "Account of the Yellow fever which prevailed in Virginia in the years
1737, 1741, and 1742, in a letter to the late Cadwallader Colden, Esq. of New York, from
the late John Mitchell, M.D.F.R.S. of Virginia," Archived 2017-02-23 at the Wayback
Machine American Medical and Philosophical Register, 4 : 181–215. The term "yellow fever"
appears on p. 186. On p. 188, Mitchell mentions "… the distemper was what is generally
called yellow fever in America". However, on pages 191–192, he states "… I shall consider
the cause of the yellowness which is so remarkable in this distemper, as to have given it the
name of the Yellow Fever."[citation needed]
However, Dr. Mitchell misdiagnosed the disease that he observed and treated,
and the disease was probably Weil's disease or hepatitis. [129] McNeill argues that the
environmental and ecological disruption caused by the introduction of sugar
plantations created the conditions for mosquito and viral reproduction, and subsequent
outbreaks of yellow fever.[130] Deforestation reduced populations of insectivorous birds
and other creatures that fed on mosquitoes and their eggs. [131]

Sugar curing house, 1762: Sugar pots and jars on sugar plantations served as breeding place for
larvae of A. aegypti, the vector of yellow fever.

In Colonial times and during the Napoleonic Wars, the West Indies were known
as a particularly dangerous posting for soldiers due to yellow fever being endemic in the
area.[132] The mortality rate in British garrisons in Jamaica was seven times that of
garrisons in Canada, mostly because of yellow fever and other tropical diseases. [133] Both
English and French forces posted there were seriously affected by the "yellow jack".
[134]
 Wanting to regain control of the lucrative sugar trade in Saint-Domingue (Hispaniola),
and with an eye on regaining France's New World empire, Napoleon sent an army
under the command of his brother-in-law General Charles Leclerc to Saint-Domingue to
seize control after a slave revolt.[135] The historian J. R. McNeill asserts that yellow fever
accounted for about 35,000 to 45,000 casualties of these forces during the fighting.
[136]
 Only one third of the French troops survived for withdrawal and return to France.
Napoleon gave up on the island and his plans for North America, selling the Louisiana
Purchase to the US in 1803. In 1804, Haiti proclaimed its independence as the second
republic in the Western Hemisphere.[137] Considerable debate exists over whether the
number of deaths caused by disease in the Haitian Revolution was exaggerated.[138]
Although yellow fever is most prevalent in tropical-like climates, the northern
United States were not exempted from the fever. The first outbreak in English-speaking
North America occurred in New York City in 1668.[139] English colonists
in Philadelphia and the French in the Mississippi River Valley recorded major outbreaks
in 1669, as well as additional yellow fever epidemics in Philadelphia, Baltimore, and
 16

New York City in the 18th and 19th centuries. The disease traveled
along steamboat routes from New Orleans, causing some 100,000–150,000 deaths in
total.[140] The yellow fever epidemic of 1793 in Philadelphia, which was then the capital of
the United States, resulted in the deaths of several thousand people, more than 9% of
the population.[141] One of these deaths was James Hutchinson, a physician helping to
treat the population of the city. The national government fled the city to Trenton, New
Jersey, including President George Washington.[142]

Headstones of people who died in the yellow fever epidemic of 1878 can be found in New Orleans'
cemeteries

The southern city of New Orleans was plagued with major epidemics during the
19th century, most notably in 1833 and 1853.[143] A major epidemic occurred in both New
Orleans and Shreveport, Louisiana in 1873. Its residents called the disease "yellow
jack". Urban epidemics continued in the United States until 1905, with the last outbreak
affecting New Orleans.[144][15][145]
At least 25 major outbreaks took place in the Americas during the 18th and 19th
centuries, including particularly serious ones in Cartagena, Chile, in 1741; Cuba in 1762
and 1900; Santo Domingo in 1803; and Memphis, Tennessee, in 1878.[146]
In the early nineteenth century, the prevalence of yellow fever in the Caribbean
"led to serious health problems" and alarmed the United States Navy as numerous
deaths and sickness curtailed naval operations and destroyed morale. [147] One episode
began in April 1822 when the frigate USS Macedonian left Boston and became part of
Commodore James Biddle's West India Squadron. Unbeknownst to all, they were about
to embark on a cruise to disaster and their assignment "would prove a cruise through
hell".[148] Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson had assigned the squadron to guard
United States merchant shipping and suppress piracy. [149] During their time on
deployment from 26 May to 3 August 1822, 76 of the Macedonian's officers and men
died, including John Cadle, surgeon USN. Seventy-four of these deaths were attributed
to yellow fever. Biddle reported that another 52 of his crew were on sick-list. In their
report to the secretary of the Navy, Biddle and Surgeon's Mate Charles Chase stated
the cause as "fever". As a consequence of this loss, Biddle noted that his squadron was
forced to return to Norfolk Navy Yard early. Upon arrival, the Macedonian's crew were
provided medical care and quarantined at Craney Island, Virginia. [150][151][152]
 17

A page from Commodore James Biddle's list of the 76 dead (74 of yellow fever) aboard the USS
Macedonian, dated 3 August 1822

In 1853, Cloutierville, Louisiana, had a late-summer outbreak of yellow fever that

quickly killed 68 of the 91 inhabitants. A local doctor concluded that some unspecified
infectious agent had arrived in a package from New Orleans. [153][154] In 1854, 650 residents
of Savannah, Georgia, died from yellow fever.[155] In 1858, St. Matthew's German
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Charleston, South Carolina, had 308 yellow fever
deaths, reducing the congregation by half.[156] A ship carrying persons infected with the
virus arrived in Hampton Roads in southeastern Virginia in June 1855.[157] The disease
spread quickly through the community, eventually killing over 3,000 people, mostly
residents of Norfolk and Portsmouth.[158] In 1873, Shreveport, Louisiana, lost 759 citizens
in an 80-day period to a yellow fever epidemic, with over 400 additional victims
eventually succumbing. The total death toll from August through November was
approximately 1,200.[159][160]
In 1878, about 20,000 people died in a widespread epidemic in the Mississippi
River Valley.[161] That year, Memphis had an unusually large amount of rain, which led to
an increase in the mosquito population. The result was a huge epidemic of yellow fever.
[162]
 The steamship John D. Porter took people fleeing Memphis northward in hopes of
escaping the disease, but passengers were not allowed to disembark due to concerns
of spreading yellow fever. The ship roamed the Mississippi River for the next two
months before unloading her passengers.[163]
Major outbreaks have also occurred in southern Europe. Gibraltar lost many lives
to outbreaks in 1804, 1814, and 1828.[164] Barcelona suffered the loss of several
thousand citizens during an outbreak in 1821. The Duke de Richelieu deployed 30,000
French troops to the border between France and Spain in the Pyrenees Mountains, to
establish a cordon sanitaire in order to prevent the epidemic from spreading from Spain
into France.[165]
 18

Causes and transmission[edit]

Yellow fever in Buenos Aires, 1871

Carlos Finlay

Walter Reed

Ezekiel Stone Wiggins, known as the Ottawa Prophet, proposed that the cause
of a yellow fever epidemic in Jacksonville, Florida, in 1888, was astrological.[166]
The planets were in the same line as the sun and earth and this produced,
besides Cyclones, Earthquakes, etc., a denser atmosphere holding more carbon and
creating microbes. Mars had an uncommonly dense atmosphere, but its inhabitants
 19

were probably protected from the fever by their newly discovered canals, which were
perhaps made to absorb carbon and prevent the disease. [167]
In 1848, Josiah C. Nott suggested that yellow fever was spread by insects such
as moths or mosquitoes, basing his ideas on the pattern of transmission of the disease.
[168]
 Carlos Finlay, a Cuban doctor and scientist, proposed in 1881 that yellow fever might
be transmitted by previously infected mosquitoes rather than by direct contact from
person to person, as had long been believed. [169][170] Since the losses from yellow fever in
the Spanish–American War in the 1890s were extremely high, Army doctors began
research experiments with a team led by Walter Reed, and composed of doctors James
Carroll, Aristides Agramonte, and Jesse William Lazear. They successfully proved
Finlay's "mosquito hypothesis". Yellow fever was the first virus shown to be transmitted
by mosquitoes. The physician William Gorgas applied these insights and eradicated
yellow fever from Havana. He also campaigned against yellow fever during the
construction of the Panama Canal. A previous effort of canal building by the French had
failed in part due to mortality from the high incidence of yellow fever and malaria, which
killed many workers.[15]
Although Reed has received much of the credit in United States history books for
"beating" yellow fever, he had fully credited Finlay with the discovery of the yellow fever
vector, and how it might be controlled. Reed often cited Finlay's papers in his own
articles, and also credited him for the discovery in his personal correspondence. [171] The
acceptance of Finlay's work was one of the most important and far-reaching effects of
the U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission of 1900. [172] Applying methods first suggested
by Finlay, the United States government and Army eradicated yellow fever in Cuba and
later in Panama, allowing completion of the Panama Canal. While Reed built on the
research of Finlay, historian François Delaporte notes that yellow fever research was a
contentious issue. Scientists, including Finlay and Reed, became successful by building
on the work of less prominent scientists, without always giving them the credit they were
due.[173] Reed's research was essential in the fight against yellow fever. He is also
credited for using the first type of medical consent form during his experiments in Cuba,
an attempt to ensure that participants knew they were taking a risk by being part of
testing.[174]
Like Cuba and Panama, Brazil also led a highly successful sanitation campaign
against mosquitoes and yellow fever. Beginning in 1903, the campaign led by Oswaldo
Cruz, then director general of public health, resulted not only in eradicating the disease
but also in reshaping the physical landscape of Brazilian cities such as Rio de Janeiro.
[175]
 During rainy seasons, Rio de Janeiro had regularly suffered floods, as water from the
bay surrounding the city overflowed into Rio's narrow streets. Coupled with the poor
drainage systems found throughout Rio, this created swampy conditions in the city's
neighborhoods. Pools of stagnant water stood year-long in city streets and proved to be
a fertile ground for disease-carrying mosquitoes. Thus, under Cruz's direction, public
health units known as "mosquito inspectors" fiercely worked to combat yellow fever
throughout Rio by spraying, exterminating rats, improving drainage, and destroying
unsanitary housing. Ultimately, the city's sanitation and renovation campaigns reshaped
Rio de Janeiro's neighborhoods. Its poor residents were pushed from city centers to
 20

Rio's suburbs, or to towns found in the outskirts of the city. In later years, Rio's most
impoverished inhabitants would come to reside in favelas.[176]

Max Theiler

During 1920–1923, the Rockefeller Foundation's International Health

Board undertook an expensive and successful yellow fever eradication campaign in
Mexico.[177] The IHB gained the respect of Mexico's federal government because of the
success. The eradication of yellow fever strengthened the relationship between the US
and Mexico, which had not been very good in the years prior. The eradication of yellow
fever was also a major step toward better global health. [178]
In 1927, scientists isolated the yellow fever virus in West Africa.[179] Following this,
two vaccines were developed in the 1930s. Max Theiler led the completion of the
17D yellow fever vaccine in 1937, for which he was subsequently awarded the Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine.[180] That vaccine, 17D, is still in use, although newer
vaccines, based on vero cells, are in development (as of 2018).[4][181][182]
Current status[edit]
Using vector control and strict vaccination programs, the urban cycle of yellow
fever was nearly eradicated from South America.[183] Since 1943, only a single urban
outbreak in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, has occurred. Since the 1980s, however,
the number of yellow fever cases has been increasing again, and A. aegypti has
returned to the urban centers of South America. This is partly due to limitations on
available insecticides, as well as habitat dislocations caused by climate change. It is
also because the vector control program was abandoned. Although no new urban cycle
has yet been established, scientists believe this could happen again at any point. An
outbreak in Paraguay in 2008 was thought to be urban in nature, but this ultimately
proved not to be the case.[4]
In Africa, virus eradication programs have mostly relied upon vaccination.
 These programs have largely been unsuccessful because they were unable to break
[184]

the sylvatic cycle involving wild primates. With few countries establishing regular
 21

vaccination programs, measures to fight yellow fever have been neglected, making the
future spread of the virus more likely.[4]

Research[edit]

In the hamster model of yellow fever, early administration of the

antiviral ribavirin is an effective treatment of many pathological features of the disease.
[185]
 Ribavirin treatment during the first five days after virus infection improved survival
rates, reduced tissue damage in the liver and spleen, prevented
hepatocellular steatosis, and normalised levels of alanine aminotransferase, a liver
damage marker. The mechanism of action of ribavirin in reducing liver pathology
in yellow fever virus infection may be similar to its activity in treatment of hepatitis C, a
related virus.[185] Because ribavirin had failed to improve survival in a virulent rhesus
model of yellow fever infection, it had been previously discounted as a possible therapy.
[186]
 Infection was reduced in mosquitoes with the wMel strain of Wolbachia.[187]
Yellow fever has been researched by several countries as a potential biological
weapon.[188]

Notes[edit]

1. ^ Also required for travellers having transited (more than 12 hours) through a risk country's airport.
2. ^ Not required for travellers having transited through a risk country's airport.
3. ^ The WHO has designated (parts of) Argentina, Brazil and Peru as risk countries, but these countries
do not require incoming travellers to vaccinate against yellow fever.

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Further reading[edit]

Library
resources about
Yellow fever

Resources in your library

Resources in other libraries

 Crosby M (2006).  The American Plague: The Untold Story of Yellow Fever, the Epidemic that Shaped Our
History. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-425-21202-8.
 Espinosa M (2009).  Epidemic Invasions: Yellow Fever and the Limits of Cuban Independence, 1878–
1930. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.  ISBN  978-0-226-21811-3.
 Gessner I (2016). Yellow Fever Years: An Epidemiology of Nineteenth-Century American Literature and
Culture. Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-631-67412-3.
 Harcourt-Smith S (1974). "'Yellow Jack': Caribbean Fever". History Today. 23 (9): 618–624.
 Murphy J (2003). An American Plague: The True and Terrifying Story of the Yellow Fever Epidemic of
1793. New York: Clarion Books. ISBN 978-0-395-77608-7.
 Nuwer DS (2009). Plague Among the Magnolias: The 1878 Yellow Fever Epidemic in Mississippi.
University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-1653-2.