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Harmful algal bloom

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"Red tide" redirects here. For the athletic programs of the University of Alabama,

see Alabama Crimson Tide.

Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) bloom on Lake Erie (United States) in 2009. These kinds of algae
can cause harmful algal blooms.

A harmful algal bloom (HAB) (or excessive algae growth) is an algal

bloom that causes negative impacts to other organisms by production of natural algae-
produced toxins, mechanical damage to other organisms, or by other means. HABs are
sometimes defined as only those algal blooms that produce toxins, and sometimes as
any algal bloom that can result in severely lower oxygen levels in natural waters, killing
organisms in marine or fresh waters.[1] Blooms can last from a few days to many months.
After the bloom dies, the microbes that decompose the dead algae use up more of the
oxygen, generating a "dead zone" which can cause fish die-offs. When these zones
cover a large area for an extended period of time, neither fish nor plants are able to
survive. Harmful algal blooms in marine environments are often called "red tides". [2][3]
It is sometimes unclear what causes specific HABs as their occurrence in some
locations appears to be entirely natural,[4] while in others they appear to be a result of
human activities.[5] In certain locations there are links to particular drivers like nutrients,
but HABs have also been occurring since before humans started to affect the
environment. HABs are induced by eutrophication, which is an overabundance of
nutrients in the water. The two most common nutrients are fixed nitrogen
(nitrates, ammonia, and urea) and phosphate.[6] The excess nutrients are emitted
by agriculture, industrial pollution, excessive fertilizer use in urban/suburban areas, and
associated urban runoff. Higher water temperature and low circulation also contribute.
HABs can cause significant harm to animals, the environment and economies.
They have been increasing in size and frequency worldwide, a fact that many experts
attribute to global climate change. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) predicts more harmful blooms in the Pacific Ocean.[7] Potential
remedies include chemical treatment, additional reservoirs, sensors and monitoring
 2

devices, reducing nutrient runoff, research and management as well as monitoring and
reporting.
Terrestrial runoff, containing fertilizer, sewage and livestock wastes, transports
abundant nutrients to the seawater and stimulates bloom events. Natural causes, such
as river floods or upwelling of nutrients from the sea floor, often following massive
storms, provide nutrients and trigger bloom events as well. Increasing coastal
developments and aquaculture also contribute to the occurrence of coastal HABs. [2]
[3]
 Effects of HABs can worsen locally due to wind driven Langmuir circulation and
their biological effects.

Contents

 1Description and identification

 2Terminology
o 2.1Red tide
 3Types
o 3.1Cyanobacteria
o 3.2Dual-stage life systems of algal species
o 3.3Diatoms and dinoflagellates (in marine coastal areas)
 4List of common HAB genera
 5Causes
o 5.1Nutrients
o 5.2Climate change
o 5.3Causes or contributing factors of coastal HABs
o 5.4Other causes
 6Number and sizes
 7Harmful effects
o 7.1Human health
o 7.2Economic impact
o 7.3Environmental impact
o 7.4Effects on marine ecosystems
 8Potential remedies
o 8.1Reducing nutrient runoff
o 8.2Chemical treatment
o 8.3Additional reservoirs
o 8.4Restoring shellfish populations
o 8.5Improved monitoring
 9Examples
o 9.1Notable occurrences
o 9.2United States
o 9.3Baltic Sea
o 9.4Coastal seas of Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan
 10See also
 11References
 12External links
 3

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Description and identification[edit]

Cyanobacteria algae on the coast of northern Germany

HABs from cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) can appear as a foam, scum, or

mat on or just below the surface of water and can take on various colors depending on
their pigments.[6] Cyanobacteria blooms in freshwater lakes or rivers may appear bright
green, often with surface streaks which looks like floating paint. [8] Cyanobacterial blooms
are a global problem.[9]
Most blooms occur in warm waters with excessive nutrients. [6] The harmful effects
from such blooms is due to the toxins they produce or from using up oxygen in the
water which can lead to fish die-offs.[10] Not all algal blooms produce toxins, however,
with some only discoloring water, producing a smelly odor, or adding a bad taste to the
water. Unfortunately, it is not possible to tell if a bloom is harmful from just appearances,
since sampling and microscopic examination is required. [6] In many cases microscopy is
not sufficient to tell the difference between toxic and non-toxic populations. In these
 5

cases, tools can be employed to measure the toxin level or to determine if the toxin-
production genes are present.[11]

Terminology[edit]
In a narrow definition, harmful algal blooms are only those blooms that release
toxins that affect other species. On the other hand, any algal bloom can cause dead
zones due to low oxygen levels, and could therefore be called "harmful" in that sense.
The usage of the term "harmful algal blooms" in the media and scientific literature is
varied. In a broader definition, all "organisms and events are considered to be HABs if
they negatively impact human health or socioeconomic interests or are detrimental to
aquatic systems".[12] A harmful algal bloom is "a societal concept rather than a scientific
definition".[12]
A similarly broad definition of HABs was adopted by the US Environmental
Protection Agency in 2008 who stated that HABs include "potentially toxic (auxotrophic,
heterotrophic) species and high-biomass producers that can cause hypoxia and anoxia
and indiscriminant mortalities of marine life after reaching dense concentrations,
whether or not toxins are produced".[1]
Red tide[edit]
Harmful algal bloom in coastal areas are also often referred to as "red tides".
 The term "red tide" is derived from blooms of any of several species of dinoflagellate,
[12]

such as Karenia brevis.[13] However, the term is misleading since algal blooms can
widely vary in color, and growth of algae is unrelated to the tides. Not all red tides are
produced by dinoflagellates. The mixotrophic ciliate Mesodinium rubrum produces non-
toxic blooms coloured deep red by chloroplasts it has enslaved from the algae it eats.  [14]

The dinoflagellate labeled above is the microscopic alga Karenia brevis. It is the cause of a HAB event
in the Gulf of Mexico. The algae propel themselves using a longitudinal flagellum (A) and a transverse flagellum
(B). The longitudinal flagellum lies in a groove-like structure called the cingulum (F). The dinoflagellate is
separated into an upper portion called the epitheca (C) where the apical horn resides (E) and a lower portion
called the hypotheca (D).

As a technical term, it is being replaced in favor of more precise terminology,

including the generic term "harmful algal bloom" for harmful species, and "algal bloom"
for benign species.

Types[edit]
 6

There are three main types of phytoplankton which can form into harmful algal
blooms: cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates and diatoms. All three are made up of
microscopic floating organisms which, like plants, can create their own food from
sunlight by means of photosynthesis. That ability makes the majority of them an
essential part of the food web for small fish and other organisms.[15]: 246 
Cyanobacteria[edit]
Harmful algal blooms in freshwater lakes and rivers, or at estuaries, where rivers
flow into the ocean, are caused by cyanobacteria, which are commonly referred to as
"blue-green algae",[16] but are in fact prokaryotic bacteria,[17] as opposed to algae which
are eukaryotes.[18] Some cyanobacteria, including the widespread genus Microsystis, can
produce hazardous cyanotoxins such as microcystins,[19] which are hepatotoxins that
target the liver of mammals.[20] Other types of cyanobacteria can also produce
hepatoxins, as well as neurotoxins, cytotoxins, and endotoxins. [21] Water
purification plants may be unable to remove these toxins, leading to increasingly
common localised advisories against drinking tap water, as happened in Toledo, Ohio in
August 2014.[22]
In August 2021, there were 47 lakes confirmed to have algal blooms in New York
State alone.[23][24] In September 2021, Spokane County’s Environmental Programs issued
a HAB alert for Newman Lake following tests showing potentially harmful toxicity levels
for cyanobacteria,[25] while in the same month record-high levels of microcystins were
reported leading to an extended 'Do Not Drink' advisory for 280 households at Clear
Lake, California's second-largest freshwater lake.[26] Water conditions in Florida,
meanwhile, continue to deteriorate under increasing nutrient inflows, causing severe
HAB events in both freshwater and marine areas.[27]
HABs also cause harm by blocking the sunlight used by plants and algae to
photosynthesise, or by depleting the dissolved oxygen needed by fish and other aquatic
animals, which can lead to fish die-offs. [10] When such oxygen-depleted water covers a
large area for an extended period of time, it can become hypoxic or even anoxic; these
areas are commonly called dead zones. These dead zones can be the result of
numerous different factors ranging from natural phenomenon to deliberate human
intervention, and are not just limited to large bodies of fresh water as found in the great
lakes, but are also prone to bodies of salt water as well. [28]
Dual-stage life systems of algal species[edit]
Many of the species that form harmful algae blooms will undergo a dual-stage life
system. These species will alternate between a benthic resting stage and
a pelagic vegetative state. The benthic resting stage corresponds to when these
species are resting near the ocean floor. In this stage, the species cells are waiting for
optimal conditions so that they can move towards the surface. These species will then
transition from the benthic resting stage into the pelagic vegetative state - where they
are more active and found near the water body surface. In the pelagic vegetative state,
these cells are able to grow and multiply. It is within the pelagic vegetative state that a
bloom is able to occur - as the cells rapidly reproduce and take over the upper regions
of the body of water. The transition between these two life stages can have multiple
 7

effects on the algae bloom (such as rapid termination of the HAB as cells convert from
the pelagic state to the benthic state). Many of the algal species that undergo this dual-
stage life cycle are capable of rapid vertical migration. This migration is required for the
movement from the benthic area of bodies of water to the pelagic zone. These species
require immense amounts of energy as they pass through the
various thermoclines, haloclines, and pycnoclines that are associated with the bodies of
water in which these cells exist.[29]
Diatoms and dinoflagellates (in marine coastal areas)[edit]

A harmful algal bloom event off the coast of San Diego, California

The other types of algae are diatoms and dinoflagellates, found primarily in

marine environments, such as ocean coastlines or bays, where they can also form algal
blooms. Coastal HABs are a natural phenomenon, [30][31] although in many instances,
particularly when they form close to coastlines or in estuaries, it has been shown that
they are exacerbated by human-induced eutrophication and/or climate change.[32][33][34]
[35]
 They can occur when warmer water, salinity, and nutrients reach certain levels, which
then stimulates their growth.[30] Most HAB algae are dinoflagellates.[36] They are visible in
water at a concentration of 1,000 algae cells/ml, while in dense blooms they can
measure over 200,000/ml.[37]
Diatoms produce domoic acid, another neurotoxin, which can cause seizures in
higher vertebrates and birds as it concentrates up the food chain. [38] Domoic acid readily
accumulates in the bodies of shellfish, sardines, and anchovies, which if then eaten
by sea lions, otters, cetaceans, birds or people, can affect the nervous system causing
serious injury or death.[38] In the summer of 2015, the state governments closed
important shellfish fisheries in Washington, Oregon and California because of high
concentrations of domoic acid in shellfish.[39]
In the marine environment, single-celled, microscopic, plant-like organisms
naturally occur in the well-lit surface layer of any body of water. These organisms,
referred to as phytoplankton or microalgae, form the base of the food web upon which
nearly all other marine organisms depend. Of the 5000+ species of marine
phytoplankton that exist worldwide, about 2% are known to be harmful or toxic.
[40]
 Blooms of harmful algae can have large and varied impacts on marine ecosystems,
depending on the species involved, the environment where they are found, and the
mechanism by which they exert negative effects.
 8

List of common HAB genera[edit]

 Gonyaulax
 Karenia
 Gymnodinium
 Dinophysis
 Noctiluca
 Chattonella
 Ceratium
 Amoebophyre
 Alexandrium
 Cochlodinium

Causes[edit]

Harmful algal blooms do not have to be clearly visible. This shows a bloom with high cyanobacteria
toxin levels (over 5 μ/l) yet the bloom is not easy to see. [41]

It is sometimes unclear what causes specific HABs as their occurrence in some

locations appears to be entirely natural,[4] while in others they appear to be a result of
human activities.[5] Furthermore, there are many different species of algae that can form
HABs, each with different environmental requirements for optimal growth. The
frequency and severity of HABs in some parts of the world have been linked to
increased nutrient loading from human activities. In other areas, HABs are a predictable
seasonal occurrence resulting from coastal upwelling, a natural result of the movement
of certain ocean currents.[42]
The growth of marine phytoplankton (both non-toxic and toxic) is generally limited
by the availability of nitrates and phosphates, which can be abundant in coastal
upwelling zones as well as in agricultural run-off. The type of nitrates and phosphates
available in the system are also a factor, since phytoplankton can grow at different rates
depending on the relative abundance of these substances (e.g. ammonia, urea, nitrate
ion).[43]
A variety of other nutrient sources can also play an important role in affecting
algal bloom formation, including iron, silica or carbon. Coastal water pollution produced
 9

by humans (including iron fertilization) and systematic increase in sea water

temperature have also been suggested as possible contributing factors in HABs. [43]
Among the causes of algal blooms are:[44]

 Excess nutrients—phosphorus and nitrates—from fertilizers or sewage that are discharged

to water bodies (also called nutrient pollution)[45][16][46]
 climate change[45]
 thermal pollution from power plants and factories
 low water levels in inland waterways and lakes, which reduces water flow and increases
water temperatures[20][47]
 invasive filter feeders—especially Zebra mussels, Dreissena polymorpha—which
preferentially eat non-toxic algae, competitors to harmful algae[48]
Nutrients[edit]
Further information: Eutrophication

Nutrients enter freshwater or marine environments as surface

runoff from agricultural pollution and urban runoff from fertilized lawns, golf courses and
other landscaped properties; and from sewage treatment plants that lack nutrient control
systems.[49] Additional nutrients are introduced from atmospheric pollution. [50] Coastal
areas worldwide, especially wetlands and estuaries, coral reefs and swamps, are prone
to being overloaded with those nutrients.[50] Most of the large cities along
the Mediterranean Sea, for example, discharge all of their sewage into the sea
untreated.[50] The same is true for most coastal developing countries, while in parts of the
developing world, as much as 70% of wastewater from large cities may re-enter water
systems without being treated.[51]
Residual nutrients in treated wastewater can also accumulate in downstream
source water areas[52] and fuel eutrophication, which leads progressively to a
cyanobacteria-dominated system characterized by seasonal HABS. As more
wastewater treatment infrastructure is built, more treated wastewater is returned to the
natural water system, leading to a significant increase in these residual nutrients.
Residual nutrients combine with nutrients from other sources to increase the
sediment nutrient stockpile that is the driving force behind phase shifts to entrenched
eutrophic conditions.
This contributes to the ongoing degradation of dams, lakes, rivers, and reservoirs
- source water areas that are starting to become known as ecological infrastructure,
[53]
 placing increasing pressure on wastewater treatment works and water purification
plants. Such pressures, in turn, intensify seasonal HABs.
Climate change[edit]
Climate change contributes to warmer waters which makes conditions more
favorable for algae growth in more regions and farther north. [54][45] In general, still, warm,
shallow water, combined with high-nutrient conditions in lakes or rivers, increases the
risk of harmful algal blooms.[47]
 10

Warming of summer surface temperatures of lakes, which rose by 0.34 °C

decade per decade between 1985 and 2009 due to global warming, also will likely
increase algal blooming by 20% over the next century. [55]
The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report published in 2022 found that: "Warming
directly affects thermal water regimes, promoting harmful algal blooms". [56]: 4–39 
Causes or contributing factors of coastal HABs[edit]

Coastal harmful algal bloom event.

HABs contain dense concentrations of organisms and appear as discolored

water, often reddish-brown in color. It is a natural phenomenon, but the exact cause or
combination of factors that result in a HAB event are not necessarily known. [57] However,
three key natural factors are thought to play an important role in a bloom - salinity,
temperature, and wind. HABs cause economic harm, so outbreaks are carefully
monitored. For example, the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation
Commission provides an up-to-date status report on HABs in Florida. [58] The Texas
Parks and Wildlife Department also provides a status report.[59] While no particular cause
of HABs has been found, many different factors can contribute to their presence. These
factors can include water pollution, which originates from sources such as
human sewage and agricultural runoff.[60]
The occurrence of HABs in some locations appears to be entirely natural (algal
blooms are a seasonal occurrence resulting from coastal upwelling, a natural result of
the movement of certain ocean currents)[61][62] while in others they appear to be a result of
increased nutrient pollution from human activities.[63] The growth of marine phytoplankton
is generally limited by the availability of nitrates and phosphates, which can be
abundant in agricultural run-off as well as coastal upwelling zones. Other factors such
as iron-rich dust influx from large desert areas such as the Sahara Desert are thought to
play a major role in causing HAB events. [64] Some algal blooms on the Pacific Coast
have also been linked to occurrences of large-scale climatic oscillations such as El
Niño events.
Other causes[edit]
Other factors such as iron-rich dust influx from large desert areas such as
the Sahara are thought to play a role in causing HABs.[65] Some algal blooms on
the Pacific coast have also been linked to natural occurrences of large-scale climatic
oscillations such as El Niño events. HABs are also linked to heavy rainfall. [66] Although
 11

HABs in the Gulf of Mexico were witnessed in the early 1500s by explorer Cabeza de
Vaca, [67] it is unclear what initiates these blooms and how large a
role anthropogenic and natural factors play in their development.

Number and sizes[edit]

The number of reported harmful algal blooms (cyanobacterial) has been
increasing throughout the world.[68] It is unclear whether the apparent increase in
frequency and severity of HABs in various parts of the world is in fact a real increase or
is due to increased observation effort and advances in species identification technology.
[69][70]

In 2008, the U.S. government prepared a report on the problem, "Harmful Algal
Bloom Management and Response: Assessment and Plan". [71] The report recognized the
seriousness of the problem:
It is widely believed that the frequency and geographic distribution of HABs have
been increasing worldwide. All U.S. coastal states have experienced HABs over the last
decade, and new species have emerged in some locations that were not previously
known to cause problems. HAB frequency is also thought to be increasing in freshwater
systems.[71]
Researchers have reported the growth of HABs in Europe, Africa and Australia.
Those have included blooms on some of the African Great Lakes, such as Lake
Victoria, the second largest freshwater lake in the world. [72] India has been reporting an
increase in the number of blooms each year. [73] In 1977 Hong Kong reported its first
coastal HAB. By 1987 they were getting an average of 35 per year. [74] Additionally, there
have been reports of harmful algal blooms throughout popular Canadian lakes such as
Beaver Lake and Quamichan Lake. These blooms were responsible for the deaths of a
few animals and led to swimming advisories.[75]
Global warming and pollution is causing algal blooms to form in places previously
considered "impossible" or rare for them to exist, such as under the ice sheets in
the Arctic,[76] in Antarctica,[77] the Himalayan Mountains,[78] the Rocky Mountains,[79] and in
the Sierra Nevada Mountains.[80]
In the U.S., every coastal state has had harmful algal blooms over the last
decade and new species have emerged in new locations that were not previously
known to have caused problems. Inland, major rivers have seen an increase in their
size and frequency. In 2015 the Ohio River had a bloom which stretched an
"unprecedented" 650 miles (1,050 km) into adjoining states and tested positive for
toxins, which created drinking water and recreation problems. [81] A portion of
Utah's Jordan River was closed due to toxic algal bloom in 2016. [82]
Off the west coast of South Africa, HABs caused by Alexandrium catanella occur
every spring. These blooms of organisms cause severe disruptions in fisheries of these
waters as the toxins in the phytoplankton cause filter-feeding shellfish in affected waters
to become poisonous for human consumption.[83]

Harmful effects[edit]
 12

Further information: Eutrophication § Effects

As algal blooms grow, they deplete the oxygen in the water and block sunlight
from reaching fish and plants. Such blooms can last from a few days to many months.
[82]
 With less light, plants beneath the bloom can die and fish can starve. Furthermore,
the dense population of a bloom reduces oxygen saturation during the night by
respiration. And when the algae eventually die off, the microbes which decompose the
dead algae use up even more oxygen, which in turn causes more fish to die or leave the
area. When oxygen continues to be depleted by blooms it can lead to hypoxic dead
zones, where neither fish nor plants are able to survive. [84] These dead zones in the case
of the Chesapeake Bay, where they are a normal occurrence, are also suspected of
being a major source of methane.[85]
Scientists have found that HABs were a prominent feature of previous
mass extinction events, including the End-Permian Extinction.[86]
Human health[edit]
Tests have shown some toxins near blooms can be in the air and thereby be
inhaled, which could affect health.[87]
Food[edit]
Eating fish or shellfish from lakes with a bloom nearby is not recommended.
 Potent toxins are accumulated in shellfish that feed on the algae. If the shellfish are
[8]

consumed, various types of poisoning may result. These include amnesic shellfish

poisoning (ASP), diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning,
and paralytic shellfish poisoning.[88]A 2002 study has shown that algal toxins may be the
cause for as many as 60,000 intoxication cases in the world each year. [88]
In 1987 a new illness emerged: amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP). People who
had eaten mussels from Prince Edward Island were found to have ASP. The illness was
caused by domoic acid, produced by a diatom found in the area where the mussels
were cultivated.[89] A 2013 study found that toxic paralytic shellfish poisoning in
the Philippines during HABs has caused at least 120 deaths over a few decades. [90] After
a 2014 HAB incident in Monterey Bay, California, health officials warned people not to
eat certain parts of anchovy, sardines, or crab caught in the bay. [91] In 2015 most
shellfish fisheries in Washington, Oregon and California were shut down because of
high concentrations of toxic domoic acid in shellfish. [39] People have been warned that
inhaling vapors from waves or wind during a HAB event may cause asthma attacks or
lead to other respiratory ailments.[92]
In 2018 agricultural officials in Utah worried that even crops could become
contaminated if irrigated with toxic water, although they admit that they can't measure
contamination accurately because of so many variables in farming. They issued
warnings to residents, however, out of caution.[93]
Drinking water[edit]
 13

Satellite image of Lake Erie during a harmful algal bloom in 2011.

Persons are generally warned not to enter or drink water from algal blooms, or let
their pets swim in the water since many pets have died from algal blooms. [47] In at least
one case, people began getting sick before warnings were issued. [94] There is no
treatment available for animals, including livestock cattle, if they drink from algal blooms
where such toxins are present. Pets are advised to be kept away from algal blooms to
avoid contact.[95]
In some locations visitors have been warned not to even touch the water.
 Boaters have been told that toxins in the water can be inhaled from the spray from
[8]

wind or waves.[16][8] Ocean beaches,[96] lakes[20] and rivers have been closed due to algal

blooms.[82] After a dog died in 2015 from swimming in a bloom in California's Russian
River, officials likewise posted warnings for parts of the river. [97] Boiling the water at
home before drinking does not remove the toxins. [8]
In August 2014 the city of Toledo, Ohio advised its 500,000 residents to not drink
tap water as the high toxin level from an algal bloom in western Lake Erie had affected
their water treatment plant's ability to treat the water to a safe level. [22] The emergency
required using bottled water for all normal uses except showering, which seriously
affected public services and commercial businesses. The bloom returned in 2015 [98] and
was forecast again for the summer of 2016.[99]
In 2004, a bloom in Kisumu Bay, which is the drinking water source for 500,000
people in Kisumu, Kenya, suffered from similar water contamination.[72] In China, water
was cut off to residents in 2007 due to an algal bloom in its third largest lake, which
forced 2 million people to use bottled water.[100][101] A smaller water shut-down in China
affected 15,000 residents two years later at a different location. [102] Australia in 2016 also
had to cut off water to farmers.[103]
Alan Steinman of Grand Valley State University has explained that among the
major causes for the algal blooms in general, and Lake Erie specifically, is because
blue-green algae thrive with high nutrients, along with warm and calm water. Lake Erie
is more prone to blooms because it has a high nutrient level and is shallow, which
causes it to warm up more quickly during the summer.[104]
Symptoms from drinking toxic water can show up within a few hours after
exposure. They can include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, or trigger headaches and
gastrointestinal problems.[20] Although rare, liver toxicity can cause death. [20] Those
 14

symptoms can then lead to dehydration, another major concern. In high concentrations,
the toxins in the algal waters when simply touched can cause skin rashes, irritate the
eyes, nose, mouth or throat.[8] Those with suspected symptoms are told to call a doctor if
symptoms persist or they can't hold down fluids after 24 hours.
In studies at the population level bloom coverage has been significantly related to
the risk of non-alcoholic liver disease death.[105]
Neurological disorders[edit]
Toxic algae blooms are thought to play a role in humans developing
degenerative neurological disorders such as amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis and Parkinson's disease.[106]
Less than one percent of algal blooms produce hazardous toxins, such
as microcystins.[19] Although blue-green or other algae do not usually pose a direct threat
to health, the toxins (poisons) which they produce are considered dangerous to
humans, land animals, sea mammals, birds[82] and fish when the toxins are ingested.
[19]
 The toxins are neurotoxins which destroy nerve tissue which can affect the nervous
system, brain, and liver, and can lead to death. [20]
Effects on humans from harmful algal blooms in marine environments[edit]
Humans are affected by the HAB species by ingesting improperly harvested
shellfish, breathing in aerosolized brevetoxins (i.e. PbTx or Ptychodiscus toxins) and in
some cases skin contact.[107] The brevetoxins bind to voltage-gated sodium channels,
important structures of cell membranes. Binding results in persistent activation of nerve
cells, which interferes with neural transmission leading to health problems. These toxins
are created within the unicellular organism, or as a metabolic product. [108] The two major
types of brevetoxin compounds have similar but distinct backbone structures. PbTx-2 is
the primary intracellular brevetoxin produced by K. brevis blooms. However, over time,
the PbTx-2 brevetoxin can be converted to PbTx-3 through metabolic changes.
[108]
 Researchers found that PbTx-2 has been the primary intracellular brevetoxin that
converts over time into PbTx-3.[109]
In the U.S., the seafood consumed by humans is tested regularly for toxins by
the USDA to ensure safe consumption. Such testing is common in other nations.
However, improper harvesting of shellfish can cause paralytic shellfish poisoning and
neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in humans. [110][111] Some symptoms include drowsiness,
diarrhea, nausea, loss of motor control, tingling, numbing or aching of extremities,
incoherence, and respiratory paralysis. [112] Reports of skin irritation after swimming in the
ocean during a HAB are common.[113]
When the HAB cells rupture, they release extracellular brevetoxins into the
environment. Some of those stay in the ocean, while other particles get aerosolized.
During onshore winds, brevetoxins can become aerosolized by bubble-mediated
transport, causing respiratory irritation, bronchoconstriction, coughing, and wheezing,
among other symptoms.[113]
It is recommended to avoid contact with wind-blown aerosolized toxin. Some
individuals report a decrease in respiratory function after only 1 hour of exposure to a K.
brevis red-tide beach and these symptoms may last for days. [114] People with severe or
 15

persistent respiratory conditions (such as chronic lung disease or asthma) may

experience stronger adverse reactions.
There is no known treatment for conditions caused by exposure to a HAB. In
most cases patients just wait for the toxin to flush itself out of their system, but in severe
cases life support systems may be needed. [115]
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Ocean
Service provides a public conditions report identifying possible respiratory irritation
impacts in areas affected by HABs.[116]
Economic impact[edit]
Recreation and tourism[edit]
The hazards which accompany harmful algal blooms have hindered visitors'
enjoyment of beaches and lakes in places in the U.S. such as Florida, [96] California,
[8]
 Vermont,[117] and Utah.[82] Persons hoping to enjoy their vacations or days off have been
kept away to the detriment of local economies. Lakes and rivers in North
Dakota, Minnesota, Utah, California and Ohio have had signs posted warning about the
potential of health risk.[118]
Similar blooms have become more common in Europe, with France among the
countries reporting them. In the summer of 2009, beaches in northern Brittany became
covered by tonnes of potentially lethal rotting green algae. A horse being ridden along
the beach collapsed and died from fumes given off by the rotting algae. [119]
The economic damage resulting from lost business has become a serious
concern. According to one report in 2016, the four main economic impacts from harmful
algal blooms come from damage to human health, fisheries, tourism and recreation, and
the cost of monitoring and management of area where blooms appear. [120] EPA estimates
that algal blooms impact 65 percent of the country's major estuaries, with an annual
cost of $2.2 billion.[93] In the U.S. there are an estimated 166 coastal dead zones.
[93]
 Because data collection has been more difficult and limited from sources outside the
U.S., most of the estimates as of 2016 have been primarily for the U.S. [120]
In port cities in the Shandong Province of eastern China, residents are no longer
surprised when massive algal blooms arrive each year and inundate beaches. Prior to
the Beijing Olympics in 2008, over 10,000 people worked to clear 20,000 tons of dead
algae from beaches.[121] In 2013 another bloom in China, thought to be its largest ever,
[122]
 covered an area of 7,500 square miles,[121] and was followed by another in 2015 which
blanketed an even greater 13,500 square miles. The blooms in China are thought to be
caused by pollution from untreated agricultural and industrial discharges into rivers
leading to the ocean.[123]
Fisheries industry[edit]
As early as 1976 a short-term, relatively small, dead zone off the coasts of New
York and New Jersey cost commercial and recreational fisheries over $500 million. [124] In
1998 a HAB in Hong Kong killed over $10 million in high-value fish. [74]
 16

In 2009, the economic impact for the state of Washington's coastal counties

dependent on its fishing industry was estimated to be $22 million. [125] In 2016, the U.S.
seafood industry expected future lost revenue could amount to $900 million annually. [120]
NOAA has provided a few cost estimates for various blooms over the past few
years:  $10.3 million in 2011 due to a HAB at Texas oyster landings; $2.4 million lost
[126]

income by tribal commerce from 2015 fishery closures in the pacific northwest; $40
million from Washington state's loss of tourism from the same fishery closure.
Along with damage to businesses, the toll from human sickness results in lost
wages and damaged health. The costs of medical treatment, investigation by health
agencies through water sampling and testing, and the posting of warning signs at
effected locations is also costly.[127]
The closures applied to areas where this algae bloom occurs has a big negative
impact of the fishing industries, add to that the high fish mortality that follows, the
increase in price due to the shortage of fish available and decrease in the demand for
seafood due to the fear of contamination by toxins. [128] This causes a big economic loss
for the industry.
Economic costs are estimated to rise. In June 2015, for instance, the largest
known toxic HAB forced the shutdown of the west coast shellfish industry, the first time
that has ever happened. One Seattle NOAA expert commented, "This is unprecedented
in terms of the extent and magnitude of this harmful algal bloom and the warm water
conditions we're seeing offshore...." [129] The bloom covered a range from Santa Barbara,
California northward to Alaska.[130]
The negative impact on fish can be even more severe when they are confined to
pens, as they are in fish farms. In 2007 a fish farm in British Columbia lost 260 tons of
salmon as a result of blooms,[131] and in 2016 a farm in Chile lost 23 million salmon
after an algal bloom.[132]
Environmental impact[edit]
Dead zones[edit]
The presence of harmful algae bloom’s can lead to hypoxia or anoxia in a body
of water. The depletion of oxygen within a body of water can lead to the creation of
a dead zone. Dead zones occur when a body of water has become unsuitable for
organism survival in that location. HAB’s cause dead zones by consuming oxygen in
these bodies of water - leaving minimal oxygen available to other marine organisms.
When the HAB’s die, their bodies will sink to the bottom of the body of water - as the
decaying of their bodies (through bacteria) is what causes the consumption of oxygen.
Once oxygen levels get so low, the HAB’s have placed the body of water in hypoxia -
and these low oxygen levels will cause marine organisms to seek out better suited
locations for their survival.[133]
Blooms can harm the environment even without producing toxins by depleting
oxygen from the water when growing and while decaying after they die. Blooms can
also block sunlight to organisms living beneath it. A record-breaking number and size of
blooms have formed in the Pacific coast, in Lake Erie, in the Chesapeake Bay and in
the Gulf of Mexico, where a number of dead zones were created as a result. [134] In the
 17

1960s the number of dead zones worldwide was 49; the number rose to over 400 by
2008.[124]
Among the largest dead zones were those in northern Europe’s Baltic Sea and
the Gulf of Mexico, which affects a $2.8 billion U.S. fish industry. [72] Unfortunately, dead
zones rarely recover and usually grow in size.[124] One of the few dead zones to ever
recover was in the Black Sea, which returned to normal fairly quickly after the collapse
of the Soviet Union in the 1990s due to a resulting reduction in fertilizer use. [124]
1:51

The US Coast Guard Cutter Healy ferried scientists to 26 study sites in the Arctic, where blooms
ranged in concentration from high (red) to low (purple).
1:20CC
Researcher David Mayer of Clark University lowers a video camera below the ice to observe a dense
bloom of phytoplankton.
Fish die-offs[edit]
Massive fish die-offs have been caused by HABs.[135] In 2016, 23 million salmon
which were being farmed in Chile died from a toxic algae bloom. [136] To get rid of the
dead fish, the ones fit for consumption were made into fishmeal and the rest were
dumped 60 miles offshore to avoid risks to human health. [136] The economic cost of that
die-off is estimated to have been $800 million. [136] Environmental expert Lester
Brown has written that the farming of salmon and shrimp in offshore ponds concentrates
waste, which contributes to eutrophication and the creation of dead zones.[137]
Other countries have reported similar impacts, with cities such as Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil seeing major fish die-offs from blooms becoming a common occurrence. [138] In
early 2015, Rio collected an estimated 50 tons of dead fish from the lagoon where water
events in the 2016 Olympics were planned to take place. [138]
The Monterey Bay has suffered from harmful algal blooms, most recently in
2015: "Periodic blooms of toxin-producing Pseudo-nitzschia diatoms have been
documented for over 25 years in Monterey Bay and elsewhere along the U.S. west
coast. During large blooms, the toxin accumulates in shellfish and small fish such as
anchovies and sardines that feed on algae, forcing the closure of some fisheries and
poisoning marine mammals and birds that feed on contaminated fish." [139] Similar fish die-
offs from toxic algae or lack of oxygen have been seen in Russia, [140] Colombia,
[141]
 Vietnam,[142] China,[143] Canada,[144] Turkey,[145] Indonesia,[146] and France.[147]
Land animal deaths[edit]
Land animals, including livestock and pets have been affected. Dogs have died
from the toxins after swimming in algal blooms.[148] Warnings have come from
government agencies in the state of Ohio, which noted that many dogs and livestock
deaths resulted from HAB exposure in the U.S. and other countries. They also noted in
a 2003 report that during the previous 30 years, they have seen more frequent and
longer-lasting harmful algal blooms."[149] In 50 countries and 27 states that year there
were reports of human and animal illnesses linked to algal toxins. [149] In Australia, the
 18

department of agriculture warned farmers that the toxins from a HAB had the "potential
to kill large numbers of livestock very quickly." [150]

Whales can be killed by harmful algal blooms

Marine mammals have also been seriously harmed, as over 50 percent of

unusual marine mammal deaths are caused by harmful algal blooms. [151] In 1999, over
65 bottlenose dolphins died during a coastal HAB in Florida.[152] In 2013 a HAB in
southwest Florida killed a record number of Manatee.[153] Whales have also died in large
numbers. During the period from 2005 to 2014, Argentina reported an average 65 baby
whales dying which experts have linked to algal blooms. A whale expert there expects
the whale population to be reduced significantly. [154] In 2003 off Cape Cod in the North
Atlantic, at least 12 humbpack whales died from toxic algae from a HAB. [155] In 2015
Alaska and British Columbia reported many humpback whales had likely died from HAB
toxins, with 30 having washed ashore in Alaska. "Our leading theory at this point is that
the harmful algal bloom has contributed to the deaths," said a NOAA spokesperson. [156][157]
Birds have died after eating dead fish contaminated with toxic algae. Rotting and
decaying fish are eaten by birds such as pelicans, seagulls, cormorants, and possibly
marine or land mammals, which then become poisoned. [135] The nervous systems of
dead birds were examined and had failed from the toxin's effect. [91] On the Oregon and
Washington coast, a thousand scoters, or sea ducks, were also killed in 2009. "This is
huge," said a University professor.[158] As dying or dead birds washed up on the shore,
wildlife agencies went into "an emergency crisis mode." [158]
It has even been suggested that harmful algal blooms are responsible for the
deaths of animals found in fossil troves. [159]
Effects on marine ecosystems[edit]
Harmful algal blooms in marine ecosystems have been observed to cause
adverse effects to a wide variety of aquatic organisms, most notably marine mammals,
sea turtles, seabirds and finfish. The impacts of HAB toxins on these groups can include
harmful changes to their developmental, immunological, neurological, or reproductive
capacities. The most conspicuous effects of HABs on marine wildlife are large-scale
mortality events associated with toxin-producing blooms. For example, a mass mortality
event of 107 bottlenose dolphins occurred along the Florida panhandle in the spring of
2004 due to ingestion of contaminated menhaden with high levels of brevetoxin.
[160]
 Manatee mortalities have also been attributed to brevetoxin but unlike dolphins, the
main toxin vector was endemic seagrass species (Thalassia testudinum) in which high
 19

concentrations of brevetoxins were detected and subsequently found as a main

component of the stomach contents of manatees. [160]
Additional marine mammal species, like the highly endangered North Atlantic
right whale, have been exposed to neurotoxins by preying on highly
contaminated zooplankton.[161] With the summertime habitat of this species overlapping
with seasonal blooms of the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense, and
subsequent copepod grazing, foraging right whales will ingest large concentrations of
these contaminated copepods. Ingestion of such contaminated prey can affect
respiratory capabilities, feeding behavior, and ultimately the reproductive condition of
the population.[161]
Immune system responses have been affected by brevetoxin exposure in
another critically endangered species, the loggerhead sea turtle. Brevetoxin exposure,
from inhalation of aerosolized toxins and ingestion of contaminated prey, can have
clinical signs of increased lethargy and muscle weakness in loggerhead sea turtles
causing these animals to wash ashore in a decreased metabolic state with increases of
immune system responses upon blood analysis.[162]
Examples of common harmful effects of HABs include:

1. the production of neurotoxins which cause mass mortalities in fish, seabirds, sea turtles,
and marine mammals
2. human illness or death from consumption of seafood contaminated by toxic algae[163]
3. mechanical damage to other organisms, such as disruption of epithelial gill tissues in
fish, resulting in asphyxiation
4. oxygen depletion of the water column (hypoxia or anoxia) from cellular respiration and
bacterial degradation

Dead zone in the southern U.S.

Marine life exposure[edit]
HABs occur naturally off coasts all over the world. Marine dinoflagellates produce
ichthyotoxins. Where HABs occur, dead fish wash up on shore for up to two weeks after
a HAB has been through the area. In addition to killing fish, the toxic algae contaminate
shellfish. Some mollusks are not susceptible to the toxin, and store it in their fatty
tissues. By consuming the organisms responsible for HABs, shellfish can accumulate
and retain saxitoxin produced by these organisms. Saxitoxin blocks sodium
channels and ingestion can cause paralysis within 30 minutes.[111]
 20

In addition to directly harming marine animals and vegetation loss, harmful algal
blooms can also lead to ocean acidification, which occurs when the amount of carbon
dioxide in the water is increased to unnatural levels. Ocean acidification slows the
growth of certain species of fish and shellfish, and even prevents shell formation in
certain species of mollusks. These subtle, small changes can add up over time to cause
chain reactions and devastating effects on whole marine ecosystems. [164] Other animals
that eat exposed shellfish are susceptible to the neurotoxin, which may lead to
neurotoxic shellfish poisoning[110] and sometimes even death. Most mollusks and clams
filter feed, which results in higher concentrations of the toxin than just drinking the
water.[165] Scaup, for example, are diving ducks whose diet mainly consists of mollusks.
When scaup eat the filter-feeding shellfish that have accumulated high levels of the
HAB toxin, their population becomes a prime target for poisoning. However, even birds
that do not eat mollusks can be affected by simply eating dead fish on the beach or
drinking the water.[166]
The toxins released by the blooms can kill marine animals including dolphins,
sea turtles, birds, and manatees.[167][168] The Florida Manatee, a subspecies of the West
Indian Manatee, is a species often impacted by red tide blooms. Florida manatees are
often exposed to the poisonous red-tide toxins either by consumption or inhalation.
There are many small barnacles, crustaceans, and other epiphytes that grow on the
blades of seagrass. These tiny creatures filter particles from the water around them and
use these particles as their main food source. During red tide blooms, they also filter the
toxic red tide cells from the water, which then becomes concentrated inside them.
Although these toxins do not harm epiphytes, they are extremely poisonous to marine
creatures who consume (or accidentally consume) the exposed epiphytes, such as
manatees. When manatees unknowingly consume exposed epiphytes while grazing on
sea grass, the toxins are subsequently released from the epiphytes and ingested by the
manatees. In addition to consumption, manatees may also become exposed to air-
borne Brevetoxins released from harmful red-tide cells when passing through algal
blooms.[169] Manatees also have an immunoresponse to HABs and their toxins that can
make them even more susceptible to other stressors. Due to this susceptibility,
manatees can die from either the immediate, or the after effects of the HAB. [170] In
addition to causing manatee mortalities, red-tide exposure also causes severe sublethal
health problems among Florida manatee populations. Studies have shown that red-tide
exposure among free-ranging Florida manatees has been shown to negatively impact
immune functioning by causing increased inflammation, a reduction in lymphocyte
proliferation responses, and oxidative stress. [171] Fish such as Atlantic herring, American
pollock, winter flounder, Atlantic salmon, and cod were dosed orally with these toxins in
an experiment, and within minutes the subjects started to exhibit a loss of equilibrium
and began to swim in an irregular, jerking pattern, followed by paralysis and shallow,
arrhythmic breathing and eventually death, after about an hour. [172] HABs have been
shown to have a negative effect also in the memory functions of sea lions. [173]

Potential remedies[edit]
Further information: eutrophication § Reversal and remediation
 21

Reducing nutrient runoff[edit]

Soil and fertilizer runoff from a farm after heavy rains

Since many algal blooms are caused by a major influx of nutrient-rich runoff into
a water body, programs to treat wastewater, reduce the overuse of fertilizers in
agriculture and reducing the bulk flow of runoff can be effective for reducing severe
algal blooms at river mouths, estuaries, and the ocean directly in front of the river's
mouth.
The nitrates and phosphorus in fertilizers cause algal blooms when they run off
into lakes and rivers after heavy rains. Modifications in farming methods have been
suggested, such as only using fertilizer in a targeted way at the appropriate time exactly
where it can do the most good for crops to reduce potential runoff. [174] A method used
successfully is drip irrigation, which instead of widely dispersing fertilizers on fields, drip-
irrigates plant roots through a network of tubes and emitters, leaving no traces of
fertilizer to be washed away.[175] Drip irrigation also prevents the formation of algal
blooms in reservoirs for drinking water while saving up to 50% of water typically used by
agriculture.[176][177]
There have also been proposals to create buffer zones of foliage and wetlands to
help filter out the phosphorus before it reaches water. [174] Other experts have suggested
using conservation tillage, changing crop rotations, and restoring wetlands. [174] It is
possible for some dead zones to shrink within a year under proper management. [178]
There have been a few success stories in controlling chemicals. After Norway's
lobster fishery collapsed in 1986 due to low oxygen levels, for instance, the government
in neighboring Denmark took action and reduced phosphorus output by 80 percent
which brought oxygen levels closer to normal. [178] Similarly, dead zones in the Black
Sea and along the Danube River recovered after phosphorus applications by farmers
were reduced by 60%.[178]
Nutrients can be permanently removed from wetlands harvesting wetland plants,
reducing nutrient influx into surrounding bodies of water. [179][180] Research is ongoing to
determine the efficacy of floating mats of cattails in removing nutrients from surface
waters too deep to sustain the growth of wetland plants. [181]
In the U.S., surface runoff is the largest source of nutrients added to rivers and
lakes, but is mostly unregulated under the federal Clean Water Act.[182]: 10  [183][184] Locally
developed initiatives to reduce nutrient pollution are underway in various areas of the
country, such as the Great Lakes region and the Chesapeake Bay.[185][186] To help reduce
 22

algal blooms in Lake Erie, the State of Ohio presented a plan in 2016 to reduce
phosphorus runoff.[187]
Chemical treatment[edit]
Although a number of algaecides have been effective in killing algae, they have
been used mostly in small bodies of water. For large algal blooms, however, adding
algaecides such as silver nitrate or copper sulfate can have worse effects, such as
killing fish outright and harming other wildlife. [188] Cyanobacteria can also develop
resistance to copper-containing algaecides, requiring a larger quantity of the chemical to
be effective for HAB management, but introducing a greater risk to other species in the
region.[189] The negative effects can therefore be worse than letting the algae die off
naturally.[188][190]

The left graph shows the efficacy of aluminum chloride modified clay (AC-MC), aluminum sulfide
modified clay (AS-MC), polyaluminum modified clay (PAC-MC) and standard untreated clay in deionized water
for removing Aureococcus anophagefferens, a bloom causing algae. The right graph shows the same clays
tested in seawater.[191]

In 2019, Chippewa Lake in Northeast Ohio became the first lake in the U.S. to
successfully test a new chemical treatment. The chemical formula killed all of the toxic
algae in the lake within a single day. The formula has already been used in China,
South Africa and Israel.[192]
In February 2020, Roodeplaat Dam in Gauteng Province, South Africa was
treated with a new algicide formulation against a severe bloom of Microcystis sp. This
formulation allows the granular product to float and slow-release its active
ingredient, sodium percarbonate, that releases hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), on the water
surface. Consequently, the effective concentrations are limited, vertically, to the surface
of the water; and spatially to areas where cyanobacteria are abundant. This provide the
aquatic organisms a “safe haven” in untreated areas and avoids the adverse effects
associated with the use of standard algicides.[193]
Bioactive compounds isolated from terrestrial and aquatic plants, particularly
seaweeds, have seen results as a more environmentally friendly control for HABs.
Molecules found in seaweeds such as Corallina, Sargassum, and Saccharina
japonica have shown to inhibit some bloom-forming microalgae. In addition to their anti-
microalgal effects, the bioactive molecules found in these seaweeds also have
antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant properties. [189]
Removal of HABs using aluminum-modified clay[edit]
 23

Other chemicals are being tested for their efficacy for removing cyanobacteria
during blooms. Modified clays, such as aluminum chloride modified clay (AC-MC),
aluminum sulfide modified clay (AS-MC) and polyaluminum chloride modified clay
(PAC-MC) have shown positive results in vitro for the removal of Aureococcus by
trapping the microalgae in the sediment of clay, removing it from the top layer of water
where harmful blooms can occur.[191]
Many efforts have been made in an attempt to control HAB’s so that the harm
that they cause can be kept at a minimum. Studies into the use of clay to control HAB’s
have proven that this method may be an effective way to reduce the negative effects
caused by HAB’s. The addition of aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate,
or polyaluminum chloride to clay can modify the clay surface and increase its efficiency
in the removal of HAB’s from a body of water. The addition of aluminum-containing
compounds causes the clay particles to achieve a positive charge, with these particles
then undergoing flocculation with the harmful algae cells. The algae cells then group
together: becoming a sediment instead of a suspension. The process of flocculation will
limit the bloom growth and reduce the impact in which the bloom can have on an area.
[194]

Additional reservoirs[edit]
Other experts have proposed building reservoirs to prevent the movement of
algae downstream. However, that can lead to the growth of algae within the reservoir,
which become sediment traps with a resultant buildup of nutrients. [188] Some researchers
found that intensive blooms in reservoirs were the primary source of toxic algae
observed downstream, but the movement of algae has so far been less studied,
although it is considered a likely cause of algae transport. [190][195]
Restoring shellfish populations[edit]
The decline of filter-feeding shellfish populations, such as oysters, likely
contribute to HAB occurrence.[196] As such, numerous research projects are assessing
the potential of restored shellfish populations to reduce HAB occurrence. [197][198][199]
Improved monitoring[edit]
1:02

Algal blooms forming and breaking up over time

Other remedies include using improved monitoring methods, trying to improve

predictability, and testing new potential methods of controlling HABs. [71] Some countries
surrounding the Baltic Sea, which has the world's largest dead zone, have considered
using massive geoengineering options, such as forcing air into bottom layers to aerate
them.[124]
Mathematical models are useful to predict future algal blooms. [44]
Sensors and monitoring devices[edit]
A growing number of scientists agree that there is an urgent need to protect the
public by being able to forecast harmful algal blooms. [200] One way they hope to do that is
with sophisticated sensors which can help warn about potential blooms. [201] The same
 24

types of sensors can also be used by water treatment facilities to help them prepare for
higher toxic levels.[200][202]
The only sensors now in use are located in the Gulf of Mexico. In 2008 similar
sensors in the Gulf forewarned of an increased level of toxins that led to a shutdown of
shellfish harvesting in Texas along with a recall of mussels, clams, and oysters, possibly
saving many lives. With an increase in the size and frequency of HABs, experts state
the need for significantly more sensors located around the country. [200] The same kinds of
sensors can also be used to detect threats to drinking water from intentional
contamination.[203]
Satellite and remote sensing technologies are growing in importance for
monitoring, tracking, and detecting HABs.[204][205][206] Four U.S. federal agencies—EPA,
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), NOAA, and the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS)—are working on ways to detect and measure cyanobacteria
blooms using satellite data.[207] The data may help develop early-warning indicators of
cyanobacteria blooms by monitoring both local and national coverage. [208] In 2016
automated early-warning monitoring systems were successfully tested, and for the first
time proven to identify the rapid growth of algae and the subsequent depletion of
oxygen in the water.[209]

Examples[edit]
Notable occurrences[edit]
 Lingulodinium polyedrum produces brilliant displays of bioluminescence in warm coastal
waters. Seen in Southern California regularly since at least 1901.[210]
 The largest algal bloom on record was the 1991 Darling River cyanobacterial bloom in
Australia, largely of Anabaena circinalis, between October and December 1991 over 1,000
kilometres (620 mi) of the Barwon and Darling Rivers.[211]
 1530: First alleged case off the Florida Gulf Coast is without foundation.[212] According to
Marine Lab at University of Miami, the first possible Red Tide in Florida was in 1844. Earlier
"signs" were from boats sorting fish on their way to home port dumping trash fish overboard.
Thus "dead fish" reports along the coast were not Red Tide.[213]
 1793: The first recorded case occurring in British Columbia, Canada.[214]
 1840: No deaths of humans have been attributed to Florida red tide, but people may
experience respiratory irritation (coughing, sneezing, and tearing) when the red tide
organism (Karenia brevis) is present along a coast and winds blow its aerosolized toxins.
Swimming is usually safe, but skin irritation and burning is possible in areas of high
concentration of red tide.[215]
 1844: First possible case off the Florida Gulf Coast according to Marine Lab University of
Miami, probably by ships off shore, no known inhabitants of the coast reporting.[213]
 1916: Massive fish kill along SW Florida coast. Noxious air thought to be seismic
underwater explosion releasing chlorine gas.[216]
 1947: Southwest Florida: A massive bloom that lasts close a year almost destroys the
commercial fishing industry and sponge beds. The resulting poisoned surf caused beaches
to need to be evacuated.[217]
 1972: A red tide was caused in New England by a toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium
(Gonyaulax) tamarense. The red tides caused by the dinoflagellate Gonyaulax are serious
 25

because this organism produces saxitoxin and gonyautoxins which accumulate in shellfish
and if ingested may lead to paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) and can lead to death.[218]
 1972 and 1973: Red tides killed two villagers west of Port Moresby. In March 1973 a red
tide invaded Port Moresby Harbour and destroyed a Japanese pearl farm.[219]
 In 1972, a red tide was caused in New England by a toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium
(Gonyaulax) tamarense.[220]
 1976: The first PSP case in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo where 202 victims were reported to
be suffering and 7 deaths.[214][221][222]
 1987: A red algae bloom in Prince Edward Island caused over a million dollars in losses.[223]
 2005: The Canadian red tide was discovered to have come further south than it has in years
prior by the ship (R/V) Oceanus,[224] closing shellfish beds in Maine and Massachusetts and
alerting authorities as far south as Montauk (Long Island, NY) to check their beds.[225] Experts
who discovered the reproductive cysts in the seabed warn of a possible spread to Long
Island in the future, halting the area's fishing and shellfish industry and threatening the
tourist trade, which constitutes a significant portion of the island's economy.
 In 2008 large blooms of the algae Cochlodinium polykrikoid were found along the
Chesapeake Bay and nearby tributaries such as the James River, causing millions of dollars
in damage and numerous beach closures.[66]
 In 2009, Brittany, France experienced recurring macroalgal blooms caused by the high
amount of fertilizer discharging in the sea due to intensive pig farming, causing lethal gas
emissions that have led to one case of human unconsciousness and three animal deaths.[226]
 In 2010, dissolved iron in the ash from the Eyjafjallajökull volcano triggered a plankton
bloom in the North Atlantic.[227]
 2011: Northern California[228]
 2011: Gulf of Mexico[229]
 In 2013, an algal bloom was caused in Qingdao, China, by sea lettuce.[230]
 2013: In January, a red tide occurred again on the West Coast Sea of Sabah in
the Malaysian Borneo.[221][231] Two human fatalities were reported after they
consumed shellfish contaminated with the red tide toxin.[221][222][231]
 2013: In January, a red tide bloom appeared at Sarasota beach – mainly Siesta Key, Florida
causing a fish kill that had a negative impact on tourists, and caused respiratory issues for
beach-goers.[232]
 In 2014, Myrionecta rubra (previously known as Mesodinium rubrum), a ciliate protist that
ingests cryptomonad algae, caused a bloom in southeastern coast of Brazil.[233]
 In 2014, blue green algae caused a bloom in the western basin of Lake Erie, poisoning
the Toledo, Ohio water system connected to 500,000 people.[234]
 2014: In August, massive 'Florida red tide' 90 miles (140 km) long and 60 miles (97 km)
wide.[235]
 2015: June, 12 persons hospitalized in the Philippine province of Bohol for red tide
poisoning.[236]
 2015: August, several beaches in the Netherlands between Katwijk and Scheveningen were
plagued. Government institutions dissuaded swimmers from entering the water.[237]
 2015: September, a red tide bloom occurred in the Gulf of Mexico, affecting Padre Island
National Seashore along North Padre Island and South Padre Island in Texas.[238]
 2017 and 2018: K. brevis red tide algae with warnings not to swim, state of emergency
declared, dead dolphin and manatee, worsened by Caloosahatchee River. Peaked in the
summer of 2018. Toxic harmful algae bloom red tide in Southwest Florida.[239][240][241] A rare
harmful algal bloom along Florida's east coast of Palm Beach County occurred the weekend
of September 30, 2018.[242]
 26

 In 2019, blue-green algae, or Cyanobacteria blooms,[243] were again problematic on Lake

Erie. In early August 2019, satellite images depicted a bloom stretching up to 1,300 square
kilometers, with the epicentre near Toledo, Ohio.[244] The largest Lake Erie bloom to date
occurred in 2015, exceeding the severity index at 10.5 and in 2011 at a 10.[245] A large bloom
does not necessarily mean the cyanobacteria ... will produce toxins", said Michael McKay,
of the University of Windsor. Water quality testing was underway in August.[244][245]
 In 2019, a bloom of Noctiluca algae caused bioluminescent glow off the coast of Chennai,
India. Similar blooms have been reported annually in the northern Arabian Sea since the
early 2000s.[246]
 2021: In July, a large red tide occurred on the Gulf Coast of Florida in and around Tampa
Bay. The event has caused the death of millions of pounds of fish,[247] and led to the National
Weather Service declaring a Beach Hazard.[248]
United States[edit]
In July 2016 Florida declared a state of emergency for four counties as a result of
blooms. They were said to be "destroying" a number of businesses and affecting local
economies, with many needing to shut down entirely. [249] Some beaches were closed,
and hotels and restaurants suffered a drop in business. Tourist sporting activities such
as fishing and boating were also affected. [250][251]
On the U.S. coasts[edit]
The Gulf of Maine frequently experiences blooms of
the dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense, an organism that produces saxitoxin, the
neurotoxin responsible for paralytic shellfish poisoning. The well-known "Florida red
tide" that occurs in the Gulf of Mexico is a HAB caused by Karenia brevis, another
dinoflagellate which produces brevetoxin, the neurotoxin responsible for neurotoxic
shellfish poisoning. California coastal waters also experience seasonal blooms
of Pseudo-nitzschia, a diatom known to produce domoic acid, the neurotoxin
responsible for amnesic shellfish poisoning.

Marine harmful algal bloom in a harbor, Japan

The term red tide is most often used in the US to refer to Karenia brevis blooms
in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, also called the Florida red tide. K. brevis is one of many
different species of the genus Karenia found in the world's oceans. [252]
 27

Major advances have occurred in the study of dinoflagellates and their genomics.
Some include identification of the toxin-producing genes (PKS genes), exploration of
environmental changes (temperature, light/dark, etc.) have on gene expression, as well
as an appreciation of the complexity of the Karenia genome.[252] These blooms have
been documented since the 1800s, and occur almost annually along Florida's coasts. [252]
There was increased research activity of harmful algae blooms (HABs) in the
1980s and 1990s. This was primarily driven by media attention from the discovery of
new HAB organisms and the potential adverse health effects of their exposure to
animals and humans.[253][full citation needed] The Florida red tides have been observed to have
spread as far as the eastern coast of Mexico.[252] The density of these organisms during a
bloom can exceed tens of millions of cells per litre of seawater, and often discolor the
water a deep reddish-brown hue.
Red tide is also sometimes used to describe harmful algal blooms on the
northeast coast of the United States, particularly in the Gulf of Maine. This type of bloom
is caused by another species of dinoflagellate known as Alexandrium fundyense. These
blooms of organisms cause severe disruptions in fisheries of these waters, as the toxins
in these organism cause filter-feeding shellfish in affected waters to become poisonous
for human consumption due to saxitoxin.[254]
The related Alexandrium monilatum is found in subtropical or tropical shallow
seas and estuaries in the western Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of
Mexico, and the eastern Pacific Ocean.
Texas[edit]
Natural water reservoirs in Texas have been threatened by anthropogenic
activities due to large petroleum refineries and oil wells (i.e. emission and wastewater
discharge), massive agricultural activities (i.e. pesticide release) and mining extractions
(i.e. toxic wastewater) as well as natural phenomena involving frequent HAB events. For
the first time in 1985, the state of Texas documented the presence of the P.
parvum (golden alga) bloom along the Pecos River. This phenomenon has affected 33
reservoirs in Texas along major river systems, including the Brazos, Canadian, Rio
Grande, Colorado, and Red River, and has resulted in the death of more than 27 million
fish and caused tens of millions of dollars in damage. [255]
Chesapeake Bay[edit]

An algal bloom on the Sassafras River, a tributary of the Chesapeake Bay

 28

The Chesapeake Bay, the largest estuary in the U.S., has suffered from repeated
large algal blooms for decades due to chemical runoff from multiple sources, [256] including
9 large rivers and 141 smaller streams and creeks in parts of six states. In addition, the
water is quite shallow and only 1% of the waste entering it gets flushed into the ocean. [50]
By weight, 60% of the phosphates entering the bay in 2003 were from sewage
treatment plants, while 60% of its nitrates came from fertilizer runoff, farm animal waste,
and the atmosphere.[50] About 300 million pounds (140 Gg) of nitrates are added to the
bay each year.[257] The population increase in the bay watershed, from 3.7 million people
in 1940 to 18 million in 2015 is also a major factor, [50] as economic growth leads to the
increased use of fertilizers and rising emissions of industrial waste. [258][259]
As of 2015, the six states and the local governments in the Chesapeake
watershed have upgraded their sewage treatment plants to control nutrient discharges.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that sewage treatment
plant improvements in the Chesapeake region between 1985 and 2015 have prevented
the discharge of 900 million pounds (410 Gg) of nutrients, with nitrogen discharges
reduced by 57% and phosphorus by 75%. [260] Agricultural and urban runoff pollution
continue to be major sources of nutrients in the bay, and efforts to manage those
problems are continuing throughout the 64,000 square miles (170,000 km2) watershed.
[261]

Lake Erie[edit]
Recent algae blooms in Lake Erie have been fed primarily by agricultural runoff
and have led to warnings for some people in Canada and Ohio not to drink their water.
[262][263]
 The International Joint Commission has called on United States and Canada to
drastically reduce phosphorus loads into Lake Erie to address the threat. [264][265][266]
Green Bay[edit]
Green Bay has a dead zone caused by phosphorus pollution that appears to be
getting worse.[267]
Okeechobee Waterway[edit]

Harmful algal bloom (cyanobacteria) on Lake Okeechobee in 2016.

 29

Lake Okeechobee is an ideal habitat for cyanobacteria because its shallow,

sunny, and laden with nutrients from Florida's agriculture. [268] The Okeechobee
Waterway connects the lake to the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico through
the St. Lucie River and the Caloosahatchee respectively. This means that harmful algal
blooms are carried down the estuaries as water is released during the wet summer
months. In July 2018 up to 90% of Lake Okeechobee was covered in algae. [269][270] Water
draining from the lake filled the region with a noxious odor and caused respiratory
problems in some humans during the following month. [271] To make matters worse,
harmful red tide blooms are historically common on Florida's coasts during these same
summer months.[272] Cyanobacteria in the rivers die as they reach saltwater but their
nitrogen fixation feeds the red tide on the coast. [272] Areas at the mouth of the estuaries
such as Cape Coral and Port St. Lucie therefore experience the compounded effects of
both types of harmful algal bloom. Cleanup crews hired by authorities in Lee County -
where the Caloosahatchee meets the Gulf of Mexico - removed more than 1700 tons of
dead marine life in August 2018. [273]
Baltic Sea[edit]
In 2020, a large harmful algal bloom closed beaches in Poland and Finland,
brought on by a combination of fertilizer runoff and extreme heat, posing a risk to
flounder and mussel beds.[274][275] This is seen by the Baltic Sea Action Group as a threat
to biodiversity and regional fishing stocks.[276]
Coastal seas of Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan[edit]
Open defecation is common in south Asia, but human waste is an often
overlooked source of nutrient pollution in marine pollution modeling. When nitrogen (N)
and phosphorus (P) contributed by human waste was included in models for
Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan, the estimated N and P inputs to bodies of water
increased one to two orders of magnitude compared to previous models. [46] River export
of nutrients to coastal seas increases coastal eutrophication potential (ICEP). The ICEP
of the Godavari River is three times higher when N and P inputs from human waste are
included.

See also[edit]
 Brevetoxin
 Ciguatera
 Cyanobacterial bloom
 Cyanotoxin
 GEOHAB - an international research programme on the Global Ecology and Oceanography
of Harmful algal blooms
 Milky seas effect – A phenomenon in which disturbed red algae dinoflagellates will make the
water glow blue, at night
 Pfiesteria
 Thin layers (oceanography)
 Water quality
 Water security
 30

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